An Initial Study on Habitat Conservation of Asian Elephant, China

8/10/2019 An Initial Study on Habitat Conservation of Asian Elephant, China

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Short note

An initial study on habitat conservation of Asian elephant(Elephas maximus), with a focus on human elephant

conflict in Simao, China

Li Zhang*, Ning Wang

Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Institute of Ecology, Beijing Normal University,

Beijing 100875, PR China

Received 8 January 2002; received in revised form 10 October 2002; accepted 16 October 2002

Abstract

The impact of the Asian elephant, Elephas maximus, on the rural agricultural economy in the Simao region of Yunnan province,

China, was assessed from 1996 to 2000. Elephants were responsible for large-scale crop and property damage, which caused serious

humanelephant conflicts in the region. Attempts were made to reduce the conflicts, by building man-made salt ponds in the forest,

digging trenches to protect farmland, as well as governmental compensation. An integrated community development and elephant

habitat conservation project is in practice in Simao. It is focused to support rural development of the economy and to promote

social tolerance to damage caused by elephants. The community-based conservation efforts played an important role in efforts to

solve the humanelephant conflicts.

# 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Asian elephant; Wildlife conflicts; Community participation; Integrated conversation

1. Introduction

Human pressures on elephants caused by poaching

and conflict for resources, and efforts to modify the

effects of elephants on vegetation and crops, are widely

reported throughout Africa and Asia (Sukumar and

Gadgil, 1988; Sukumar, 1991; Kangwana, 1995; Ekobo,

1997; OConnell-Rodwell et al., 2000). Peopleelephant

conflict refers to a range of direct and indirect negative

interaction between people and elephants which poten-

tially harm both. The most publicized are crop damage

by elephants and injury or death to people (Ngure, 1995;

Lahm, 1996; Ekobo, 1997). The ultimate challenge to

conservationists now appears to be reduction of the eco-

nomic impact on humans while living with elephants

and, at the same time, conserving viable populations of

elephants (Kangwana, 1995; Hoare, 1995; Ville, 1995).

The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is distributed

in India, Sri Lanka, Bengal, Burma, Thailand, Laos,

Vietnam, Kampuchea, Malaysia and China. It mainly

inhabits tropical rainforests, monsoon forests, gullies,

and wooded valleys. It is estimated that the total popu-

lation of Asian elephants is about 34,47053,720 (San-

tiapillai and Jackson, 1990).

Asian elephants occur in some fragmented evergreen

forests and seasonal rain forests in the extreme southern

part of Yunnan province in China. According to sur-

veys in the 1970s, there were about 150, including 101 in

Xishuang Banna Reserve (Research group 1, Institute

of Zoology of Yunnan, 1976). At present, the wild

population is about 200250 (Wang, 1998). The main

threats to their survival are: (1) habitat alteration and

reduction, caused by increased human activities. Many

of the original forests were cut massively for commercial

profits before the logging ban promulgated in 1998.

Most of the gullies and valleys were reclaimed to plant

rubber trees or other crops since the 1970s; and (2) ille-

gal hunting. Seventeen wild elephants were poached

between 1979 and 1983. The last report of poaching was

of another 16 wild elephants killed in Xishuang Banna

in 1994 (Zhang, 1999).

Simao lies in southwest Yunnan province and to the

north of Xishuang Banna nature reserve. Ye Xiang

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P I I : S 0 0 0 6 - 3 2 0 7 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 3 3 5 - X

Biological Conservation 112 (2003) 453459

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* Corresponding author.

E-mail address: [email protected](L. Zhang).
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/biocon/a4.3dmailto:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.elsevier.com/locate/biocon/a4.3dhttp://www.sciencedirect.com/http://www.sciencedirect.com/http://www.sciencedirect.com/


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Shan, a mountain area in Simao, was once known as

Wild Elephant Mountain, because it was home to so

many elephants. Changes in climate, growth of the

human population and hunting finally forced them out

but now, after an absence of more than 16 years, the

elephants are back (Zhang, 2000). Since 1992, there

have been wild elephants in groups or alone in Simao,and incidences of elephants injuring people, destroying

houses and feeding on the villagers crops have been

reported frequently since then. With the increased ele-

phant densities over the past 8 years, expanding agri-

cultural areas threaten to worsen the elephant/human

conflict. Locals use drum beating, noise of engines, fire,

lamplight and even deep ditches to discourage elephants

from entering their farmlands and villages. These are

typical methods in other countries with elephant pro-

blems (Sukumar and Gadgil, 1988; Ngure, 1995;

OConnell-Rodwell et al., 2000). Asian elephants in

Simao, like African elephants in Caprivi (OConnell-

Rodwell et al., 2000), become aggressive toward humanbeings.

2. Methods

We used the participatory rural appraisal (PRA),

rapid rural appraisal (RRA) tools and interviews to do

the research in Simao area. PRA and RRA are stressed,

to encourage local peoples participation, which is now

widely advocated and documented as a philosophy and

mode in development and conservation (Chambers,

1994).For collecting basic information on habitat and other

related parameters of elephants in Simao, we followed

standard data sheets prepared in advance in consulta-

tion with Dr. Vivek Menon of Wildlife Trust of India

and Dr. Surendra Verma of Asian Elephant Conserva-

tion and Research Centre, Bangalore, India. For habitat

survey we made transects through the elephant habitat

and collected data on vegetation type, food species,

habitat disturbances, population status, frequency of

elephant sightings and other wildlife sightings reported

from the area. For human/elephant conflict we inter-

viewed villagers in and around the elephant habitat. All

transect locations and villages have been recordedthrough GPS. Group meetings were also organized in

the villages and with the local forest officials to get

comprehensive information regarding the elephants and

conflict status. Meeting with the forest officials was

important for making future management strategies to

deal with Asian elephants in the area.

Data were also collected by means of a questionnaire

pertaining to sources of income, agricultural practices,

and problems with crop destruction by elephants and

the locals unprompted methods of deterrence. The data

of crop damage collected included details of ownership,

location and situation, crops grown, actual damage to

each crop, period of damage and frequency of damage

from six key communities that were located in or near

the main habitat of a five-elephant herd in Simao during

the years 19962000.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Asian elephants and their habitat in Simao

The Asian elephant is a protected species in China.

Historically, Asian elephants once lived in the Yellow

River area. Due to climate changes, human population

increases and many other reasons, the number of Asian

elephants in China gradually declined. To ensure the

existence of the elephant in China, successful efforts

have to be made to protect the species and its only

habitat in China. The population has been estimated at

less than 300, but very few studies have been done ofthis population of Asian elephants in China. There is

very poor information regarding the movements and

habitat uses of this population. A group of a few ele-

phants has been re-recorded in the Simao country since

1992 after a gap of about 16 years. Based on this study,

the number of elephants in Simao varies from single

individuals to 24. This group of Asian elephants in

Simao country is responsible for large-scale crop and

property damage in nearby villages.

Based on our field study, a group of five female ele-

phants, three adults and two juveniles, has settled down

in Simao County, mainly in Nanping and CuiyunTownship, since 1996. The Simao Forestry Bureau and

our local elephant population-monitoring team marked

out the roaming area of wild elephants in Simao. The

areas covered 653.4 km2, including 17 communities with

88 villages. Another two groups of elephants wandered

across the border of Simao and Xishuang Banna. The

number of these two groups is 19, but due to the low

frequency of appearance and much less damage, they

did not attract peoples attention very much. They may

settle in Simao for its favourable natural conditions,

and they might be a potential problem for local

communities.

Most of the time wild elephants stayed away fromvillages where people lived. Based on the farming

calendars, village maps and other PRA tools, we found

that elephants were mostly roaming around the farm-

land, fruit tree and bamboo fields, for they preferred

bamboo, banana, rice, corn etc. The main habitat the

five elephant herd frequently used in Simao was 9.73

km2. The habitat includes three core areas as the forag-

ing sites nearby Simao city, and the elephants use them

circularly during the year (Table 1).

Altogether, 50 tracks have been made through the

forested area of the elephant bearing areas of Simao

454 L. Zhang, N. Wang / Biological Conservation 112 (2003) 453459


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country. Almost all habitat areas are more or less dis-

turbed and fragmented. As reported by villagers in

Banana valley, one of the main elephant bearing areas,

before 1984 very little area was used for crops. With the

increasing human population, people began to clear

more areas for crops. The result was degradation and

fragmentation of the habitat, which has caused more

intensive crop and property damage in one area close to

the hills. The habitat is evergreen and in most cases,

disturbed. Average DBH (diameter at breast height) oftrees is not more than 30 cm in most areas. In evergreen

forest very few elephant food plants exist and very few

species of plants have been identified as elephant food in

the area (only 19 species of plants were found by our

field team as elephant food in the wild in Simao). Most

of the hill slopes, which face villages, have been heavily

degraded and used for cultivating crops such as pine-

apple, banana, coffee, citrus and others. Lower level

slopes, with a good water supply are used for paddy

cultivation. In the hills tree felling seems to be common

in almost all elephant bearing areas. On higher altitude

hills pine is dominant, but most of the pine trees areused for the collection of pine wood oil, and the trees

are susceptible to windfall in a strong wind. Elephants

regularly use the natural depressions and streams

between the hills as their routes between valleys and

hills.

3.2. The communities in the habitat of Asian elephant, in

Simao

In 1958, the Chinese government started its census

register system. The census has shown that farmers

lives are tied to their land on which they depend for a

living. Damage to crops would have a great impact on

their life (Table 2). Most of the farmers still use original

farming methods. County and townships are the lowest

administration levels in China, and the community offi-

ces act as middleman between the government and

farmers. They receive the claims, compute the damages

and provide the compensation to farmers.

3.3. The damage caused by elephants and local farmers

attitude towards wild elephant

The elephants in Simao have accidentally killed three

people, and one farmer has been injured, since 1999.

Although deaths are very rare, they scare people and

intensify humanelephant conflict.

In all villages, wheat, rice and corn are the main

affected crops in open fields, and maize and banana are

the most affected crops on hill slopes. As it seems that

there is less natural food in the evergreen forest elephant

areas, wheat and rice seem to be the preferred food

when these crops are available. Villagers grow bananas

on side hills and use it as food for livestock throughoutthe year. Domestic pigs mainly depend upon these

banana trees. Villagers complained that all banana

fields are affected by the elephants depredation (Fig. 1).

Statistics from Simao Fauna & Flora Management

Committee showed that, by end of 1999, 29.3 ha rice,

16.3 ha corn, 8.9 ha bamboo, 18.2 ha banana, 9.1 ha

peanuts and beans, 4.7 ha pineapple and 8.5 ha litchi

were destroyed by elephant. Total economic losses

2,600,000 yuan RMB (or US$314,600) between 1996

and 1999 (Fig. 2).

In many mountainous villages where elephant

encroachment most often happens, the living standard

Table 1

The information of three core areas in the main habitat used by elephants in Simao

Location BoE Manxieba Lanniba

Area (km2) 3.65 2.79 3.29

Human population in the area (per km2) 194.0 71.7 64.1

Average during of stay in the area (days/month) 6.0 4.5 6.0

Average time between two visits (days) 10.0 17.0 11.5Habitat carrying capacity (days/km2) 1.6 1.6 1.8

Table 2

The rural economic data of six key communities in the study area (by the end of 2000)

Community Family

(N)

Population

(N)

Area of

farmland (ha)

Annual income

(US$ per family)

Damage claims caused by elephants

(% of annual income)

Shitoushan 25 109 7.9 141.7 28

Xiaohaizi 45 201 56.0 113.0 34

Guo maishan 65 271 22.9 66.8 32

Shangzhai 53 223 28.3 157.3 45

Dong zhai 31 131 12.5 143.5 41

Hejia zhai 82 335 52.8 160.6 48

L. Zhang, N. Wang / Biological Conservation 112 (2003) 453459 455


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is still extremely low (see Table 2). These indigenous

people have depended on the wildlife for their livelihoodfor generations. They resent the fact that the Simao

government has banned hunting and are unhappy with

the efforts to protect wildlife that could cause bodily

injury and crop damage. Although most of them have

traditionally looked upon the elephant as good luck for

generations, many locals mentioned that the elephants

are of no use to us. If the government wants to protect

elephants, please put the animals into the zoo. In one

interview, some people even said: If nobody can solved

the problem for us, we will kill the elephants, and villa-

gers can take turns to serve the penalty.

3.4. Methods used to solve the problem by local people

3.4.1. Sound

In southern India people use a loudspeaker broad-

casting special noise to drive away wild elephants, and

this method is efficient (Sukumar, 1986). The noise was

also the first thing to come to the farmers mind. When

elephants come, they start the engine of a tractor or 30

40 people get together and begin shouting at the ele-

phant. And at first this worked quite well, but soon ele-

phants found out there was no real danger and have

become more audacious. This method may also make

the elephants enraged. Some villagers told us that an

angry elephant had broken a tractor in the Manxiebacommunity.

3.4.2. Light and fires

Light is one of the most common methods used to

scare away elephants in India. In the Dong zhai and

Shang zhai communities, farmers lit lamps all around

the village throughout the night when animals came.

But elephants see through the tricks in a very short

time.

3.4.3. Trenches

Only one farmer in Nanping Township took action to

protect his own bamboo field by building trenches. Hehired some people to dig a 2 m 2 m trench around his

bamboo field. The farmer told us that he couldnt think

of anything else to do to protect his land, and he wasnt

sure if the trenches could work. Originally he wanted to

collaborate with his neighbour, but his neighbour didnt

have enough money to invest in the project.

Trenching is labour-intensive. Malaysian elephants

have been known to step over the 2.3 m trenches. Fur-

thermore, in humid areas they use their body weight to

make the walls of the trench collapse rendering it non-

functional (Blair & Noor, 1980).

Fig. 1. Major affected crops in elephant bearing areas of Simao country.

Fig. 2. Cost of crop raiding by elephants from 1996 to 2000 representing data from six key communities in Nanping township that incurred

damages.



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3.4.4. Man-made salt pond

Two man-made concrete salt ponds (2.5 m1.5 m

each) were built in two valleys of the Manxieba and

Lanniba area, two of the three core habitats of the ele-

phants in Simao and far away from villages. One ton of

salt was put into each pond. Several reports showed that

elephants frequently visited the villages to search forsalt. They chew salt bags, quilts and even hollowware.

Our field team observed that the five-elephant herd was

found the salt pond at Lanniba one and half months

after villagers finished the job. There was no report

about elephants entering the village after that.

3.5. Measures that have been taken to improve

elephants habitat by the government

The Simao government and forestry bureau

announced a 3-year hunting ban on 1 March 1991. They

had announced another 5-year hunting ban in 1996 and

2001. More than 20,000 civil used hunting rifles wereconfiscated by the Simao government in 1998. At the

same time, the forestry bureau made strenuous efforts to

promote the use of methane gas for fuel purposes. That

made fire wood usage drop from 710 m3 to 1 m3 of

each household per year. In 1996, the reforestry pro-

gram started. The Simao peoples congress had issued a

Management Regulations of 178 square-kilometer

Forest around Simao area and a series of measures

have been taken in recent years to improve the natural

habitat conservation for elephants in the Simao region.

3.6. Compensation

No. 67 Document from the Yunnan provincial gov-

ernment (1998) pertained to Regulations of Compen-

sation for Peoples Life and Property Damaged by

Wildlife. It made it clear that the compensation should

be given to farmers whose property had been damaged

by elephants, and that the compensation is provided by

local governments. The Simao Forestry Bureau has

20,000 yuan (or US$2420) especially for the compensa-

tion each year, but only Nanping Townships economic

losses had reached 650,000 yuan (or US$78,650) per

year. The compensation given to the farmers covered

less than one tenth of the damage caused by elephants inmany villages in Simao.

3.7. Can integrated elephant habitat conservation and

rural community development projects reduce human

elephant conflict in Simao?

A pilot elephant habitat conservation and local com-

munity development project named living with the

elephant was supported by The International Fund for

Animal Welfare (IFAW) and the Forestry Department

of Yunnan Province. The project is divided into three

parts: a community development fund, environment

education program and elephant habitat preservation.

The micro credit fund was introduced to eight

selected villages from five key communities as a pilot

project area. By providing US$100 as an agricultural

grant to each family involved in the project, IFAW

encourages local farmers to actively seek alternativefarming and to reduce agricultural activities in the for-

est. According to the fund, local families joined Cor-

poration Fund groups voluntarily; each group

including at least five families. The members of each

group elected their own director, accountant and cashier

to manage the fund. All group members worked out a

Management Regulation of Corporation Fund toge-

ther with the project staff. During the process of build-

ing the groups, every group set up its unique

environment protection measures such as, dont

deforest, dont hunt wild animals and participate

in the community planning to reforest etc. Meanwhile,

IFAW promised that if group members obey the prin-ciples and management regulations of the fund, they

could use the fund indefinitely. If any member in the

group violated the regulations, hurts elephants or

deforests, the project office had the power to withdraw

the fund or dissolve the group. By the end of July 2000,

330,600 yuan RMB (US$40,000) had been provided to

the micro credit fund by IFAW. Over 400 families, 98

percent of the families in the pilot area, had joined

Corporation Fund groups voluntarily.

Environmental education components of the project,

which was being conducted in eight villages, include

farming techniques, human safety awareness, animalprotection and habitat conservation. Habitat preserva-

tion programs in the area have resulted in identifying

elephant food patterns, designing a new protected area

in Simao and building ecological corridors between

Simao and nearby Xishuang Banna national park.

During a recent project evaluation, IFAW and its part-

ner in project implementation, the Simao Forestry

Bureau, were gratified to find that the rate of return plus

interest for the micro-credit loans has been 100%. Many

families have successfully shifted to alternative farming

to ease the pressure on the forest. The farmers attitudes

toward wildlife habitat conservation have also changed

from being on the verge of hate killing to attemptingto coexist with elephants. It was indicated that all of

these were good measures to enhance farmers tolerance

to the damages caused by elephants.

4. Conclusion

In Asia, field studies on the ecology of elephants and

their crop raiding have been conducted for years (Suku-

mar, 1989, 1990; Ishwaran, 1993). How to restrict wildlife

habitat fragmentation by human activities and reduce



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the cost of damage caused by elephants became a key

challenge, but traditional methods of deterring elephants

have failed or are disputed in many countries (Blair and

Noor, 1981; Santiapillai and Suprahman, 1985; Suku-

mar, 1991; Lahiri-Choudhury, 1991). In many African

countries, there has been established a system of

returning benefits from wildlife resources to ruralcommunities within CBNRMS (community based nat-

ural resource management schemes), which were

designed to help motivate people in rural areas to pro-

tect wildlife resources outside protected areas and to

discourage poaching inside protected areas (Lewis et

al., 1990; Brown and Jones, 1994; OConnell-Rodwell

et al., 2000).

In order to ensure the continued existence of Asian

elephants in China, it is important to identify and

understand their habitat structure, continuity of the

habitat, availability of food, movement patterns of the

herds, herd structures and most importantly, the atti-

tudes of people from nearby villages toward this species.The last point is very important because of the growing

human/elephant conflict in many areas. This threatens

to erode local support for conservation in areas where

human life and property are at high risk of destruction

by wild elephants. The escalating and fierce competition

between Asias growing human population and ele-

phants will inevitably increase unless the problem is

assessed and dealt with systematically.

Though the group of elephants in Simao is small, the

conservation program for this group is justified because

the elephant is a key species in the forest. It is now a

globally endangered species and this species is now athigh risk of extinction in the very near future because of

the continuous destruction of habitat and large scale

poaching for ivory (Ville, 1995; Kangwana, 1995;

Menon and Kumar, 1998). Simao has been an elephant

habitat area for centuries and after a long gap the ele-

phant has reappeared in this area. In order to protect

the species, disturbances to the habitat should be mini-

mized by adjustment in agricultural practices. Manage-

ment authorities should earmark some areas for

elephant conservation, even though they may be good

agricultural areas. Some other areas may have to be

chosen for agricultural use where chances of elephant

visits are less. When one area is developed and managedfor elephant conservation work it is automatically

managed for biodiversity conservation as the elephant is

a keystone species. IFAWs present method for living

with the elephant has to be further explored, with a

little adjustment to adapt to prevailing conditions, and

this can be achieved through a proper study, as well as

gathering knowledge and experiences on management

practices at the local level. All possible efforts should be

made to protect this species in this area and manage-

ment authorities should enact a comprehensive man-

agement plan for the conservation of the elephant in the

Simao area, with the goal of minimizing the conflict

between humans and elephants.

Acknowledgements

This project was funded by the Asian elephant con-servation and community development program of

International Fund for Animal Welfare (#040-

600022017). We are grateful to Dr. Rathin Barman,

Bing Hao, Yu Du, Yi Lin, Yigong Cao, Xingbo Zhang

and Heping Wang for the data collection and fieldwork.

We thank Ying Yan, Grace GeGabriel, Vivek Menon,

Caitlin OConnell-Rodwell, Chun Li, Yaqiong Chen

and Yaqiao Zhao for their comments and suggestions,

and Scott Gabriel for reviewing the manuscript.

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Documents

An Initial Study on Habitat Conservation of Asian Elephant, China