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AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Maya Hills PGYIII LSU Pediatric Residency

AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

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Page 1: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE

Maya HillsPGY‐III

LSU Pediatric Residency

Page 2: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Objectives• Review the diagnostic criteria of childhood interstitial lung disease. 

• Discuss the extensive classification system of chILD syndrome.• Establish knowledge of diagnostic workup and management of childhood interstitial lung disease.

• Expound on the need for further research of chILD syndrome.   

Page 3: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Case PresentationChief Complaint: Abnormal CT findings

4 year old male with chronic ITP with hepatosplenomegaly x 3 months.

Workup included bone marrow biopsy and CT abdomen to evaluate organomegaly and noted to have abnormal lung findings. 

Page 4: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Review of Systems• No recent fevers. • Nasal congestion and rhinorrhea x 2‐3 days.• Persistent productive cough since birth.  • No rashes.• Easy bruising.• Normal activity/energy level. 

Page 5: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Past Medical History• Chronic ITP • Frequent Infections

• URI/Sinusitis• Recurrent Otitis Media• History of Herpes Zoster (shingles) infection

• History of poor weight gain in infancy• Poor response to immunizations (Hepatitis B, Pneumococcal)

Page 6: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Additional HistoryBirth History: Born at full‐term via repeat Cesarean section, no prenatal or postnatal complications, no NICU stay

Past Surgical History: PE tube placement

Family History: Noncontributory, no reported history of immunodeficiencies, autoimmune diseases, or respiratory illnesses. 

Page 7: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Additional HistoryMedications: Ferrous Sulfate 

Allergies: Augmentin

Immunizations: Up to date. Repeated Hepatitis B series, received Pneumovax on day of admission. 

Social History: Lives with parents and 9 year old brother. No recent travel. No known TB or environmental agent exposures. 

Page 8: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Physical ExaminationT 98.5 P 118 R 20 BP 100/63 Wt 17.6 kg (30%ile) Ht 103 cm (5%ile)General: well‐appearing, NADHEENT:  NC/AT, TMs normal, oropharynx nonerythematous, tonsils 2+ without exudates, no oral lesionsCVS: RRR, normal S1/S2, no murmurs, pulses 2+ and equalResp:  good and equal WOB, scant fine crackles heard in bilateral bases R>LAbdomen: soft, nontender, full, active bowel sounds, palpable liver edge 3‐4 cm below costal margin, splenomegaly  with spleen edge palpated at umbilicusLymph: mobile 1‐2 cm nontender right posterior nontender lymph node, no cervical, axillary, or inguinal lymphadenopathy Skin: small bruises to left shin, no rashes or lesions 

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IgG 355IgA <7.8

IgM 34.5IgE <3.6 

Laboratory Findings11.5

5.63

35.7

95

S39 B6 L33 M13 E3 AL6

MCV 70.3 

ESR 5CRP <0.3LDH 256

CMV negativeEBV negative

ANA panel negativeViral Panel negative

Subpopulations: CD19 114CD20 104CD4 1230CD8 940NK 240

Page 10: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,
Page 11: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

April 2015 June 2015

Page 12: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,
Page 13: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Assessment

4 year old M with chronic ITP and frequent infections with bilateral pulmonary nodules 

suggestive of interstitial lung disease, hepatosplenomegaly, and 

hypogammaglobulinemia consistent with common variable immunodeficiency. 

Page 14: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

CHILDHOOD INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE(chILD SYNDROME)

Page 15: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Childhood Interstitial Lung Disease • Group of rare heterogeneous diseases that cause disruption of pulmonary interstitium and impaired gas exchange 

• Also referred to as diffuse lung disease • High morbidity and mortality• Diagnosis of exclusion

Kim Young Jee et al. “Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19th Edition, 2011,. 

Page 16: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Childhood Interstitial Lung Disease • Estimated prevalence of 3.6 cases per 1 million • Most cases are diagnosed in infancy in the first year of life

• Slightly more common in males than females

Hime, Neil et al. “Childhood Interstitial Lung Disease: A Systematic Review.” Pediatric Pulmonology, 2015. 

Page 17: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Pathophysiology• Multi‐Hit Hypotheses

• Predisposition of altered repair of lung epithelium• Improper alveolar repair and apoptosis mechanisms• Diffuse fibroblast proliferation causing worsening lung function 

• Extensive angiogenesis contributes to altered repair of damaged tissue 

• Alveolar thickening and decreased gas exchange

Dylag, Ivana et al. “Poor Weight Gain, Cough, Shortness of Breath, and Chest Pain in an 11‐year‐old Boy” Pediatrics in Review 

Page 18: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Clinical Presentation‐History• Precipitating Factors 

• Exposure to mold/birds• Severe lower respiratory infection• Prematurity • Feeding difficulties • Hemoptysis• Rash/Joint Complaints

• Family history• Other infants with severe respiratory disorders• Systemic disorders 

Page 19: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

chILD Diagnostic Criteria1. Respiratory Symptoms

• Chronic Cough• Difficulty breathing• Exercise intolerance

2. Respiratory Signs• Tachypnea• Retractions• Adventitious Sounds • Digital Clubbing 

3. Impaired Gas Exchange 4. Diffuse abnormalities on chest radiography/CT scan

Page 20: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Clinical Presentation 

• Unexplained respiratory failure• Severe respiratory disease course out of proportion to cause 

• Continuous symptoms• Cyanosis• Prominent S2 on cardiac examination

Page 21: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

A Class of Its Own • Vastly different from adult ILD• Lung injury occurs during the process of lung growth and differentiation. 

• Limited knowledge of disease process• Varied presentation• Lack of controlled clinical trials

Page 22: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

A Class of Its Own

Adult DiagnoseschILD Diagnoses

LungGrowthDisorders

PIGNEHI

Both

LIPBOOPGenetic 

UIPAIPIPF

Page 23: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Kurland, Geoffrey et al. “An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guidelines: Classificaton, Evaluation, and Management of Childhood Interstitial Lung Disease in Infancy.” American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, 2013.

Page 24: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

chILD Classification

1. Disorders Diagnosed in Infancy <2 years of age

2. Disorders Diagnosed Beyond Infancy (2‐18 years of age)

3. Histopathologic Diagnoses

Deutsch, Gail et al. “Diffuse Lung Disease in Young Children: Application of a Novel Classification Scheme” American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine

Page 25: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

chILD Classification

Diagnosed In Infancy <2 years

Diagnosed In Infancy <2 years

Abnormal Lung Growth/Development

Abnormal Lung Growth/Development Unspecified EtiologyUnspecified Etiology Surfactant DysfunctionSurfactant Dysfunction

Page 26: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

<2Y: Abnormal Lung Growth/Development• Diffuse Developmental Disorders 

• Alveolar Capillary Dysplasia with misalignment of the pulmonary veins (ACD‐MPV)• Typically with cardiac, GI, and renal malformations• Mutation of FOXF1 gene on chromosome 16

• Acinar dysplasia• Congenital Alveolar Dysplasia

Page 27: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

<2Y: Abnormal Lung Growth/Development

• Lung Growth Disorders• Bronchopulmonary dysplasia• Chronic lung disease • Early postnatal injury• Chromosomal abnormalities• Congenital Heart Disease• Pulmonary hypoplasia

Page 28: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

<2Y: Undefined Etiology• Pulmonary Interstitial Glycogenosis (P.I.G.)• Only occur only in young infants• Only diagnosed with biopsy

• Neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia of infancy (NEHI)• Presents in the first months to first year of life 

• Symptoms tend to improve with time 

Page 29: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

<2Y: Genetic Surfactant  Disorders• Autosomal Recessive 

• SFTPB• ABCA3

• Autosomal Dominant • SFTPC• NKX2.1

• Associated with hypothyroidism 

Page 30: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

chILD Classification

Diagnosed at 2‐18 years

Diagnosed at 2‐18 years

Immuno‐competentImmuno‐competent

Systemic DisordersSystemic Disorders

Masquerading Disorders

Masquerading Disorders

Immuno‐compromisedImmuno‐

compromised

Page 31: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

2‐18Y‐ Immunocompetent

• Infectious/Postinfectious Syndromes

• Aspiration Syndromes 

• Bronchiolitis Obliterans

• Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis 

Page 32: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

2‐18Y‐ Systemic • Cystic Fibrosis

• Connective Tissue Disorders

• Sarcoidoisis

• Malignancy 

• Storage Diseases

Page 33: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

2‐18Y‐Masqueraders• Vasculopathies

• Lymphatic Disorders

• Congestive changes related to cardiac dysfunction

Page 34: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

2‐18Y‐ Immunocompromised

• Malignancy

• Opportunistic Infections

• Transplantation/Rejection Syndromes

• Immunodeficiencies

Page 35: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Primary Immunodeficiencies and Pulmonary Complications

• May present as upper airway disease or lower respiratory tract disease 

• Lower respiratory tract infections are more specific for primary immunodeficiency

• Noninfectious causes: interstitial lung diseases, bronchiectasis, and benign lymphoproliferation of the bronchioles

Jesenak, Milos. “Pulmonary Manifestations of primary immunodeficiency disorders in children,” Frontiers in Pediatrics, 2014. 

Page 36: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

CVID • Most frequently occurring symptomatic primary immunodeficiency

• Pathophysiology• Immune dysfunction of B and T lymphocytes and dendritic cells • Inability of B cells to differentiate into plasma cells capable of secreting all immunoglobulin types

• Diagnosis• Low levels of IgG, IgA, and/or IgM• Presence of B cells• Poor or absent response to immunizations 

• Typically diagnosed later in life  

Page 37: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

CVID and ILD• Up to 73% develop pulmonary complications 

• Recurrent respiratory tract infections• Interstitial Lung Disease • Chronic bronchitis• Bronchiectasis• Obstructive/Restrictive Lung Disease • Unusual atypical or opportunistic infections 

• Worse pulmonary prognosis compared to other primary immunodeficiencies 

Aghamohammadi, A et al. “Comparison of pulmonary disease in common variable immunodeficiency and X‐linked agammaglobulinemia.” Respirology.

Page 38: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Workup for Suspected chILD • Exclude common causes of chronic respiratory symptoms

• Chest Radiography• Thin‐Cut High resolution CT Scan • Pulmonary Function Testing  • Tissue analysis via bronchoalveolar lavage or biopsy

Soares, Jennifer et al. “Childhood Interstitial Lung Diseases: An 18‐Year Retrospective Analysis.” Pediatrics, 2013.

Page 39: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

CT Scan Findings 

• Findings may reduce need for biopsy

• Features of chILD• Septal thickening• Ground glass opacification• Geographic hyperlucency• Lung cysts/nodules

Schneebaum, Nira. “Use and Yield of Chest Computer Tomography in the Diagnostic Evaluation ofPediatric Lung Disease.” Pediatrics, 2009.

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Pulmonary Function Testing • Generally restrictive lung physiology

• Some  with obstructive physiology• Bronchiolitis obliterans• Hypersensitivity pneumonitis

Page 41: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Histopathologic Patterns of chILD• Histopathologic classification can be useful to link to certain causes of interstitial lung disease • Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiencies

• Pulmonary Alveolar proteinosis‐‐>genetic disorders of surfactant dysfunction, autoimmune diseases

• Organizing pneumoniabronchiolitis obliterans• Several cases have no recognized cause and not associated with systemic disease 

Rice, Alexandra. “Diffuse Lung Disease in Infancy and Childhood: expandng the chILD evaluation” Histopathology, 2013

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Workup for Suspected chILD • Echocardiogram to evaluate for pulmonary hypertension• Genetic evaluationNewborn

Childhood

RDS/PPHN Other anomalies?

No ABCA3SFTPB

Yes FOXF1

Hypothyroid, abnormal tone or movements?

Yes NKX2‐1

chILDSyndrome

SurfactantDysfunction or Unknown?

YesSFTPCABCA3

negative

negative

Page 43: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Management• Corticosteroids • Hydroxychloroquine• Other immunosuppressive agents such as cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine, methotrexate 

• Supportive management • Lung transplantation for severe or rapidly progressive disease 

Page 44: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Long Term Outcomes• 5 year mortality rate approximately 60%• Poor prognostic indicators

• Pulmonary hypertension• Failure to Thrive• Severe fibrosis 

Score Symptoms

1 Asymptomatic

2 Symptomatic, normal room air oxygen saturation

3 Symptomatic, abnormal oxygen saturation with sleep or exercise

4  Symptomatic, abnormal resting room air oxygen saturation

5 Symptomatic with pulmonary hypertension

Page 45: AN INCIDENTAL FINDING OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE Hills' Grand... · Kim Young Jee et al. th“Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19 Edition, 2011,. Kurland,

Future of chILD Research• Modifications to broad classification system of chILD syndrome

• Further studies to ascertain true prevalence of chILD as well as long term morbidity/mortality

• Standarized management of chILD syndrome

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Back to Our Patient• Patient admitted for extensive workup • Infectious Disease, Allergy/Immunology, Pulmonology services consulted 

• Underwent bronchoscopy, which was negative• Infectious Workup negative

• HIV, Legionella, PCP, Aspergillus, AFB, Viral, Bacterial, Fungal Cultures

• Started on monthly IVIG infusions for CVID

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Back to Our Patient• Readmitted for open lung biopsy • Pathology findings significant for lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia 

• Further workup is pending  

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ReferencesAghamohammadi, A et al. “Comparison of pulmonary disease in common variable immunodeficiency and X‐linked agammaglobulinemia.” Respirology, 15, 289‐295, 2010

Deutsch, Gail et al. “Diffuse Lung Disease in Young Children: Application of a Novel Classification Scheme” American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, Vol 176, pp 1120‐1128, 2007

Dylag, Ivana et al. “Poor Weight Gain, Cough, Shortness of Breath, and Chest Pain in an 11‐year‐old Boy” Pediatrics in Review 2015;36;219‐221

Hime, Neil et al. “Childhood Interstitial Lung Disease: A Systematic Review.” Pediatric Pulmonology, 2015. 

Hogan, Mary. “Common Variable Immunodeficiency in Children.” UpToDate, 2014. 

Jesenak, Milos. “Pulmonary Manifestations of primary immunodeficiency disorders in children,” Frontiers in Pediatrics, Vol 2, Art 17, 2014. 

Kim Young Jee et al. “Interstitial Lung Diseases” Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19th Edition, 2011,. 

Kurland, Geoffrey et al. “An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guidelines: Classificaton, Evaluation, and Management of Childhood Interstitial Lung Disease in Infancy.” American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, Vol 188, Issue 3, pp 376‐394, 2013.

Rice, Alexandra. “Diffuse Lung Disease in Infancy and Childhood: expandng the chILD evaluation” Histopathology, 63, 2013, 743‐755

Schneebaum, Nira. “Use and Yield of Chest Computer Tomography in the Diagnostic Evaluation of Pediatric Lung Disease.” Pediatrics, 2009;124;472.

Soares, Jennifer et al. “Childhood Interstitial Lung Diseases: An 18‐Year Retrospective Analysis.” Pediatrics, 2013;132;684

Young, Lisa. “Approach to the Infant and Child with Interstitial Lung Disease” UpToDate, 2014. 

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