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AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF ORGANIC
CARDAMOM GROWERS IN IDUKKI
DISTRICT OF KERALA
RESHMA GILLS
DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
NEW DELHI – 110012
2012
An Analytical Study of Organic Cardamom
Growers in Idukki District of Kerala
BY
RESHMA GILLS
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Post-Graduate School,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
2012
Approved by:
…………………….. …..…………………… Dr. Rashmi Singh Dr. Manjeet Singh Nain (Chairperson) (Co-chairperson)
……………………… ………………………...
Dr. V. C. Mathur Dr. Cini Varghese (Member) (Member)
Dr. Rashmi Singh Division of Agricultural Extension
Senior Scientist Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012, India
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “An Analytical Study of Organic Cardamom
Growers in Idukki District of Kerala” submitted to the Faculty of the Post-Graduate
School, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Agricultural Extension,
embodies the results of bona fide research work carried out by Ms. Reshma Gills
under my guidance and supervision, and that no part of this thesis has been submitted
for any other degree or diploma.
It is further certified that any assistance and help availed during the course of
investigation as well as source of information have been duly acknowledged by her.
(Dr. Rashmi Singh)
Chairperson
Advisory committee
Place: New Delhi
Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is with great respect and devotion that I place on record my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to Dr. RASHMI SINGH, Senior Scientist, Division of Agricultural Extension, and
chairperson of my Advisory Committee for her sustained and valuable guidance, constructive
suggestions, unfailing patience, friendly approach, constant support and encouragement during the
conduct of this research work and preparation of the thesis.
I place a deep sense of obligation to Dr. MANJEET SINGH NAIN, Senior Scientist,
Division of Agricultural Extension co-chairman of my Advisory Committee, Dr. J.P.SHARMA Head,
Division of Agricultural Extension, IARI Dr. PREMLATHA SINGH, Professor, Division of
Agricultural Extension, IARI and Dr. K. VIJAYARAGHAVAN, Joint Director (Extension), IARI
for his eminent suggestions, and critical assessment at various stages of my work.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. V. C. MATHUR, Professor, Division of Agricultural Economics,
IARI and Dr. (Mrs.) CINI VARGHESE, Senior Scientist IASRI, members of my Advisory Committee
for their unstinted support, critical comments and valuable suggestions during the preparation of this
manuscript.
It is a great occasion for me to express my deep sentiments, legitimate regards and gratitude
towards, Dr. R. N. Padaria, Dr. B. K. Singh, Dr. R.R.Burman, Dr. Shantanu Dubey, Dr. Kumbhare,
Dr. Monica Wason, Dr. S. B. Vashistha, Dr. J. P. S. Dabas and Dr. V.Sangeetha for providing me the
necessary facilities and encouragement throughout this study. I convey my heartiest thanks to Sri. T.
Dasgupta, Ranaji, Ganeshji, Rampritji, Ramawadhji, Lakhindarji, and Mrs. Kalpana ma’m and Mrs.
Leena ma’m for their help during the entire span of my study.
I take this opportunity to thank my all Teachers, classmates, seniors and juniors for their
support and encouragement. I am extremely thankful to my most loving Lisechi, Shinogi Chechi, Vinu,
Sini, Manju, Shameena, Renu, Sheethal, Neethu, Anshi, Rejulechi, all my friends of IARI and PUMA
for the heartfelt help and timely suggestions which gave me enough mental strength to get through all
mind-numbing circumstances. I am extremely thankful to SREEJITH, ANILETTAN, SREENATH,
all the members of the UNION BANK UDUMBANCHOLA, VARADARAJAN SIR (ICRI) for
their sincere and wholehearted co-operation and assistance during the course of investigation.
I express my special thanks to Mahesh Sir, Manjunath Sir, Ashish Sir, Deepika Chechi, and
Pankaj Sir.
I express my deep love to my APPA, MAMMY, RENJECHI and all Family members and near
and dear ones especially DR. ABDUL KHADER (KAU) without whose moral support and affection
this endeavor would not have been a success.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Indian Council of Agricultural Research for extending
financial and technical support for pursuance of my study and research.
Finally, I bow my head before THE ALMIGHTY whose blessings enabled me to undertake
this venture successfully.
RESHMA GILLS
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
1. INTRODUCTION 1-5
1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Statement of problem 3 1.3 Researchable issues 4 1.4 Objectives 4 1.5 Importance and scope of the study 5 1.6 Limitations of the study 5
2. BACKGROUND 6-18 2.1 Introduction 6 2.2 Organic cultivation: Origin and growth 6 2.3 Organic cardamom cultivation: A transect through Indian
context of organic farming 8
2.4 Development of organic farming in Kerala 10 2.5 Reasons for adoption of organic farming 11 2.6 Cardamom farmers as entrepreneurs 14 2.7 Economic impact 17 2.8 Social impact 18 2.9 Need of organic farming 18
3. GENERAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 19-32
3.1 Introduction 19 3.2 Research design 19 3.3 Locale of the study 19 3.4 Sampling and data collection 21 3.5 Psychological Variables 26 3.6 Measurement of sustainability of organic farming 30 3.7 Measurement of constraints of organic farming 30 3.8 Analysis of structural and technical frame work of the
institutions 30
3.9 Reasons for organic cardamom farming 30 3.10 Economic impact 31 3.11 Statistical tools used 31 4 RESEARCH PAPER
4(1) TECHNOLOGICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN CARDAMOM PRODUCTION WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE ADOPTION OF ORGANIC CULTIVATION
33-42
4(1).1 Introduction 33
4(1).2 Methodology 34
4(1).3 Results and discussions 35
4(1).4 Conclusions 42
4(2) ORGANIC CARDAMOM PRODUCTION IN KERALA: SUPPORTING FACTORS AND CONSTRAINTS 43-57
4(2).1 Introduction 43
4(2).2 Methodology 44
4(2).3 Results and discussions 45
4(2).4 Conclusions 56
4(3) IMPACT OF ORGANIC CARDAMOM PRODUCTION ON SUSTAINABILITY, INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT 58-62
4(3).1 Introduction 58
4(3).2 Methodology 59
4(3).3 Results and discussions 59
4(3).4 Conclusions 62
4(4) INSTITUTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK OF GOVT. AND NGO’S FOR PROMOTING ORGANIC AGRI-ENTERPRISE 63-67
4(4).1 Introduction 63
4(4).2 Methodology 64
4(4).3 Results and discussions 65
4(4).4 Conclusions 67
5. GENERAL DISCUSSION 68-73
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 74-79
ABSTRACT 80
lkj 81 REFERENCES i – viii
APPENDIX I ix –xi
APPENDIX II xii APPENDIX III xiii-xxvi
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title Page
No.
Table 3.4.1.1 Variables and their measurements 22
Table 4(1).3.1 Summary Table of Technology Adoption 36
Table 4(1).3.2.1 Major reasons for adopting organic cultivation as per Friedman’s
test 41
Table 4(2).3.1.1 Distribution of respondents in according to their age 45
Table 4(2).3.1.2 Distribution of respondents according to their educational level 45
Table 4(2).3.1.3 Distribution of respondents according to their occupation 46
Table 4(2).3.1.4 Distribution of respondents according their family size 46
Table 4(2).3.1.5 Distribution of respondents according to their house type 47
Table 4(2).3.1.6 Distribution of respondents according to their land size 47
Table 4(2).3.1.7 Distribution of respondents according to their land size under
organic cardamom cultivation 47
Table 4(2).3.1.8 Distribution of respondents according to their experience in
farming 48
Table 4(2).3.1.9 Distribution of respondents according to their experience in
organic cardamom cultivation 48
Table 4(2).3.1.10 Distribution of respondents according to type of farming 48
Table 4(2).3.1.11 Distribution of respondents according to allied agricultural
activities 49
Table4(2).3.1.11.a Distribution of respondents according to allied agricultural
activities 49
Table 4(2).3.1.12 Distribution of respondents according to Share of agriculture in
household income 49
Table 4(2).3.1.13 Distribution of respondents according to irrigation potential 50
Table4(2).3.1.13.a Distribution of respondents according to irrigation potential 50
Table 4(2).3.1.14 Distribution of respondents according to farming method 50
Table 4(2).3.1.15 Distribution of respondents according to resources for organic
farming 51
Table 4(2).3.1.16 Distribution of respondents according to farming group 51
membership
Table 4(2).3.1.17 Distribution of respondents according to other organizational
membership 51
Table 5(2).3.2.1 Distribution of respondents according to their innovation
proneness 52
Table 4(2).3.2.1a Average innovation proneness as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney
test 52
Table 4(2).3.2.2 Average risk taking ability as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test 52
Table 4(2).3.3.1 Distribution of respondents according to their level of aspiration 53
Table 4(2).3.4.1 Distribution of respondents according to their level of
entrepreneurial competencies 53
Table 4(2).3.5.1 Comparison of different constraints in organic cardamom
production based on mean ranks as per Kruskal-Wallis test 54
Table 4(2).3.5.2 Comparison of different technological constraints in organic
cardamom production based on mean ranks 54
Table 4(2).3.5.3 Comparison of different economic constraints in organic
cardamom production based on mean ranks 55
Table 4(2).3.5.4 Comparison of Different Personal Constraints in Organic
cardamom production based on Mean Ranks 55
Table 4(2).3.5.5 Comparison of different certification related constraints in
organic cardamom production based on mean ranks 56
Table 4(2).3.5.7 Comparison of different ecological constraints in organic
cardamom production based on mean ranks 56
Table 4(3). 3.1.1 Change in the income pattern 60
Table 4(3). 3.1.2 Average income 60
Table 4(3).3.1.2 a Comparison of average income of farmers belong to organic and
inorganic cardamom growers 60
Table 4(3).3.2.1 Change in the employment pattern 61
Table 4(3).3.5.1 Comparison of suitability in cardamom production based on
mean ranks as per Mann-Whitney’s test 62
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Title After
Page No.
Figure 3.1 Map of Kerala state showing selected district 20
Figure 3.2 Map of Idukki district showing selected blocks 20
LIST OF PLATES
No. Title After
Page No.
1 Farmers innovations in the cardamom field 37
2 On farm inputs in cardamom plantations 38
3 Adopted technology by cardamom farmers 40
4 Cardamom plants in experimental plot for organic cultivation in ICRI 65
5 Innovative farmers identified by the organizations 66
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AKST Agricultural Knowledge, Science, and Technology
ANOVA Analysis of variance
APEDA Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority,
CHR Cardamom Hill Reserves
CICR Central Institute of Cotton Research
CRS Cardamom Research Station
HYVs High Yielding Varieties
IAASTD The International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for
Development
ICECD International Centre for Entrepreneurship and Career Development
ICRI Indian Cardamom Research Institute
ICS Internal Control System
INFAM Indian Farmers' Movement
NAB National Accreditation Body
NAPP National Accreditation Policy and Program
NGOs Non- Governmental Organisations
NKAE Neem Kernel Aqueous Extract
NPOP National Program for Organic Production
PDS Peermade Development Society
PEC Personal Entrepreneurial Competence
PGB-1 Panikulangara Green Bold No.1
SOSFC Sahyadri Organic Small Farmers Consortium
UKAS United Kingdom Accreditation Services
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION The majority sees the obstacles; the few see the objectives; history records the successes of the latter, while oblivion is the reward of the former
(ALFRED ARMAND MONTAPERT)
1.1 Introduction
Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy and with sixty seven per cent of its population and
fifty five per cent of the total work force depends on agriculture and allied activities as the source
of their livelihood; agriculture meets the basic needs of India’s growing population. Despite this, it
is facing a number of constraints such as fragmentation of landholding, low productivity and
conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural uses. But, still the agricultural sector is giving a
number of opportunities due to the rising need for quality and value added produce
(Chandrashekar, 2010). In the course of time the predominance of chemical intensive farming has
resulted in a near stagnant level of productivity of many of the economically important crops and
the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has eventually emerged as a potential
source of danger not only to the sustainability of the environment but also to the safe food
requirement of our population.
As a result of loss of agro-ecosystem vitality and productivity, the cost of cultivation has escalated
and this led most of the small and marginal farmers to shift away from raising food crops to cash
crops in order to sustain their economic viability of agriculture. This scenario can be
predominantly observed in states like Kerala, where there is an ideal climate for high value low
volume crops prevails. This situation made it inevitable to think beyond the unsustainable
agricultural practices of the country and slowly, a number of alternative eco-friendly farming
practices have evolved from different parts of the country. While analyzing all the developments
from different parts of the world Organic Agriculture seems to have an edge in the adoption
process among the farming community of India and the success of organic farming is predicted by
the availability of eco-friendly technologies capable to sustain agricultural productivity, increase
export potential and maintain economic viability. Furthermore, organic agriculture can be more
clearly defined compared to sustainable agriculture and takes its reference point in environmental
protection. Moreover, organic agriculture is the most advanced and best developed approach to
environment friendly farming, and certification bodies provide well-defined norms for organic
agriculture in relation to certification.
The famous definition of Codex Alimentaris Commission, a joint body of FAO/WHO (2003) reads
as “Organic agriculture as holistic food production management systems, which promotes and
Introduction
2
enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological
activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs,
taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished
by using, where possible, agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to using
synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system”.
For, instance organic farming is largely not depending up on the external inputs. This minimize the
resource usage of the farming system and limit the nutrient load in the system, which in turn leads
to the less over fertilization and reduces the eutrophication the risk involving nitrogen and
phosphorus (Hass et al.,2001). With the view of promoting organic farming practices to reduce the
burden on the chemical fertilizers, to ensure the effective utilization of resources and to carter
domestic and international growing organic food market, the Government of India has
implemented the National Program for Organic Production (NPOP) and the program involves the
accreditation program for certification bodies, norms for organic production, promotion of organic
farming etc. The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized
by European Commission and Switzerland as equivalent to their country standards.
Under the 11th Five Year Plan (2007-2012), the country targeted the development of five million
hectares of cultivable land into certified organic farmland by promoting a scheme to compensate
farmers for the lower yield of such crops. The reason for emphasis on organic farming was its
positive effects on biodiversity and effective soil management that could go a long way in
mitigating and even reversing the effects of climate change, as also minimizing carbon emissions
(The Hindu, 2010).
The growth in consumer demand for organically produced food and the standardization of organic
farming methods have created a distinguished marketing opportunity for agricultural producers
who obtain organic certification. The success of organic farming is predicted by the availability of
ecofriendly technologies capable to sustain agricultural productivity, increase export potential and
maintain economic viability. Development and adoption of such technologies is more imperative
in cash crops like spices than food crops. Economic viability, environmental sustainability, social
acceptability and food safety and quality are the four major parameters included in most private
and public sector standards.
Among the various organic food products, demand for organically produced spices is growing
rapidly in the developed countries and the products command a premium. India is known as “The
home of spices” and Indian spices are famous all over the world for their high medicinal values.
Among spices cardamom is important in the sense that, it is contributing a large portion in the
global export market. Cardamom is also known as the "Queen of spices”. Cardamom is indigenous
to the southern stretch of evergreen forests of Western Ghats. The crop can be integrated into
secondary forest formations without any ecological damage. Planted under forest cover, it enables
Introduction
3
the conservation and development of a wooded stratum, a guarantee for the subsistence of forest
environmental conditions (ecological diversity, soil structure and fertility, humidity, micro-
climate, etc.). Cardamom appeared to offer sustainable economic guarantees for the farmers, with
a stable demand, and hence a lucrative price level for the farm work, despite the costs of access
(transportation) to a market.Till early seventies India was the main producer and exporter of this
commodity. Now Guatemala has emerged as World’s largest producer, offering stiff competition
to Indian cardamom in the international market.
India is an organic produce exporting country. So, export of organic agricultural produce,
especially which of low volume high price commodities like spices have an impact on India’s
economic future. As per the statistics available with Agricultural and Processed Food Products
Export Development Authority, currently, India ranks 33rd in terms of total land under organic
cultivation and 88th in terms of the ratio of agricultural land under organic crops to total farming
area. The cultivated land under certification is around 2.8 million hectare (2007-08). This includes
1 million hectare under cultivation and the rest is under forest area (APEDA, 2011). Further, while
considering the contribution of these organic products, Kerala is the leading state in the production
of organic spices.
There is a great demand for organically grown cardamom in international market. It is generally
assumed that the option of organic farming is a practice leading to agricultural development.
Cardamom’s reputation as a spice is unmatched, and it has a variety of uses as a flavouring agent
in tea and dishes, processed food, tonics and perfumes and as a therapeutic agent. It is a low
volume, high value commodity in domestic as well as international trade. It is one of the highly
priced and expensive spices and rightly called as the “green gold”. The farmers in Idukki district of
Kerala emerged as a group of agri enterprising agents from the choice they made. Their profits are
substantial when compared to the profits of other farmers who are engaged in non organic
cultivation Reduction in use of chemical fertilizers and increase in use of organic materials will
scale down production costs. Even if there were any slump in yield, better prices to organic
produces would certainly compensate the loss owing to slump in yield. Global demand for
cardamom in the coming years will be increased manifold. Now, people in several countries are
ready to pay good prices for green produces that has no chemical residues. Organic cardamom
would be in great demand in future (Hindu 2010).
1.2 Statement of Problem
As per the report of NABARD (2011), Kerala is the leading producer of cardamom in the country
constituting 78 per cent of the total production from 56 per cent of the area under cardamom in the
country. Among the different districts where cardamom is growing Idukki district leading from the
front both in area (32856 ha out of the total area of 41378 ha) and production (7931 tonnes out of
the total production of 8616 tonnes).
Introduction
4
Many of the NGOs within the state and government accreditation agencies are utilizing the
entrepreneurial abilities for the proper processing and export of the cardamom from Kerala.
Looking in to the high export potential, many of the accreditation agencies (Commodity Boards),
internationally recognized NGOs, are working for organic farming; certification and exporting of
organic spice products active. Evidences show that, small and marginal farmers in Idukki district
of Kerala are practicing spice cultivation especially organic cardamom for the economic stability
and sustainability of farmers’ livelihood in Kerala state.
Compared to the conventional cardamom farmers the organic cardamom farmers of the district are
known as profit reapers with the help of different institutional arrangements. The Idukki model of
organic cardamom cultivation is serving as an example for economic safety and better livelihood
of the farmers. Considering all the above factors the present investigation addressed the following
researchable issues.
1.3 Researchable Issues
1. What are the technological and methodological innovations being practiced by the cardamom
growers?
2. What are the entrepreneurial and socio-psychological factors affecting organic cardamom
production and its processing?
3. What is the major impact of technological, methodological and processual innovations?
4. What are the institutional frameworks of the governmental and non-governmental agencies for
promoting organic cardamom production and their impact?
5. What are the export potential of cardamom and marketing behaviour of growers?
6. What is the socio-economic impact of organic cardamom production among its growers?
7. What are the constraints faced by the cardamom growers at different stages in the adoption of
innovative practices of production, processing and marketing?
8. Are organic cardamom producers having entrepreneurial abilities?
On the basis of the above stated issues specific objectives under study as below.
1.4 Objectives
1. To identify the technological and methodological innovations adopted by organic cardamom
farmers.
2. To characterize the entrepreneurial and socio-psychological attributes of organic cardamom
growers.
3. To assess the impact of techno-entrepreneurial factors in terms of income and employment
enhancement.
4. To examine the institutional and structural frame work of government and non- government
agencies for the promotion of organic agri enterprises.
Introduction
5
1.5 Importance and Scope of the Study
The results of the study provided a reasonable understanding about technological and
methodological innovations adopted by the organic cardamom farmers for their upliftment of
farming practices, reasons behind the organic production and the key issues involved in it. The
study will help to address issues of sustainability, economic viability, certification, and marketing
of organic cardamom produce. This will throw a light to the existing and required institutional
frameworks in the promotion of organic farming, and also help researchers and policy makers to
think beyond the prevailing situation of agriculture.
1.6 Limitations of the Study
The major limitation was with respect to the duration of the study. Some aspects, which require
longitudinal studies and observations that are time dependent, could not be studied as it was a
student research constrained by funds and time. As most of the information they have given is
from their own experience during the various stages of their farming life there may be chances of
human bias. Even if the data was cross checked to minimize the error, it is a fact that the results of
the study may be apt only for the area where the study had been conducted and this should be
considered while generalizing the results to a larger area.
CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND I not only use all the brains that I have, but all that I can borrow
(Woodrow Wilson)
2.1 Introduction
Research may be done alone but it never done in isolation. The production of new knowledge is
fundamentally dependent on past knowledge. Working with the literature is an essential part of the
research process. The review of literature is one of the important aspects in the research process. It
helps the researcher to keep his work going in right and appropriate direction. Hence, an attempt
has been made to review the research studies conducted on organic cultivation, factors behind the
organic farming, socio economic, personal and psychological studies of entrepreneurial behaviour
of farmers have been chronologically arranged here and have been presented in the following
sequences.
2.2 Organic cultivation: Origin and growth
This was the era of Sir Albert Howard, Lord Northbourne, and Lady Eve Balfour—early organic
pioneers who dedicated themselves to research and promotion of organic ideals. Sir Albert
Howard, an agricultural scientist, who served in Great Britain’s Imperial Department of
Agriculture during the early 1900s, is widely recognized as the most influential organic
agriculturalist in the history of the organic movement.
Though organic farming has only risen to public prominence in the last twenty years, the roots of
organic agriculture are in the early twentieth century when it became increasingly apparent that
agriculture as practiced was struggling to feed people adequately and causing considerable damage
to the environment (Conford, 2001). Although traces of an alternative movement in agricultural
production methods reach further back into history, the British organic movement of the 1920s-
1940s was generally recognized as the context for the first pioneers in organic agriculture
(Fromartz, 2006).
It lays dormant for many years, kept alive by a relatively small group of ecologically minded
farmers. Further, several agricultural scientists and rural thinkers began to look towards solutions
to these problems, and they concentrated in understanding the ecology of farms more adequately
and devising ways of keeping agricultural practices in line with these biological limits.
Two schools of thought on organic farming emerged. Rudolf Steiner and his followers understood
the ecological and natural processes and methods and were guided by mystical insights. Based on
acute observation, rigorous management of the land and a range of special preparations that
enhanced land and crops anthropological or biodynamic agriculture gained a small but loyal group
of adherents.
Background 7
Another school of thought on organic farming preferred to gain an understanding of nature and
ecosystem from a base in more conventional science. British agricultural scientist Albert Howard’s
work was more influential. Howard based his work on his experience of working in India, where
he was impressed by the efficiency of traditional peasant farming and sought to empower it
through the observations of Western Science.
In 1939, influenced by Howard’s research and writings, Lady Eve Balfour, an English farmer and
educator, set out to conduct a side-by-side comparison of organic and conventional farming.
Balfour published the findings of her comparison— known as the “Haughley Experiment”—in a
book entitled, The Living Soil and The Haughley Experiment in 1943 and again in 1974. Balfour’s
work helped pave the way for adoption of organic production methods in Europe by providing
farmers with a 10 comparison between organic and conventional farming methods (Conford,
2002).
The concept of organic farming started to popularize along with Albert Howard in 1940 through
his book An Agricultural Testament, the results of his experiments with traditional Indian
agriculture while he was in India as an Economic Botanist at the Imperial Agricultural Institute,
Pusa in the early 90s. With this new concept he had marked the origin of modern organic farming
in the West and known as the father of organic farming. The approach is holistic, rather than
analytic and he emphasized the concept of mixed farming that includes both crop plants and
animals as well as feeding of soil through compost.
In 1942, Rodale published Organic Farming and Gardening 11 magazine, a widely read
publication that promoted and popularized organic production techniques in the United States. In
addition to Organic Farming and Gardening, Rodale also published several books that
campaigned for organic ideals and refuted conventional agriculture’s adoption of synthetic
chemicals (Fromartz, 2006).
One of the outstanding efforts to unravel the negative impact of modern day agricultural practices
was from Rachel Carson. With Silent Spring in 1961, Carson launched the environmental
movement and she could explain the impact of human interference in nature in the fifteenth
chapter (Nature Fights Back) of her book as despite our efforts to control insect populations by
mass application of new chemicals, the insects keep coming back. Insects are genetically adapting
to the chemicals we use - they are becoming resistant, but even worse than that, our chemical
attacks on insects have weakened entire ecosystems, so that the natural enemies of the targeted
insects are destroyed, along with the targets. This creates an ideal environment for the unwanted
insects to re-infest an environment where their unfettered reproduction will not be challenged.
To revitalize agriculture in a sustainable manner there were some recent global efforts as that of
IAASTD (The International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for
Development). This was an international effort initiated by the World Bank, a three-year
Background 8
collaborative effort (2005-2007) of nearly sixty countries that assessed Agricultural Knowledge,
Science, and Technology (AKST) in relation to meeting development and sustainability goals of:
reducing hunger and poverty, improving nutrition, health and rural livelihoods and facilitating
social and environmental sustainability.
Today, Europe and the United States represent the two most mature and largest markets for
organic-labeled products in the world. Although certified organic farmland area and sales of
organic-labeled products have increased worldwide, the United States and European Union
represent 95 percent of the estimated world retail sales of organic food products (Willer and Geier,
2005).
In short, Organic agriculture is one among the broad spectrum of production methods that are
supportive of the environment. Organic production systems are based on specific standards
precisely formulated for food production and aim at achieving agro-ecosystems, which are socially
and ecologically sustainable. It is based on minimizing the use of external inputs through use of
on-farm resources efficiently compared to industrial agriculture. Thus, the use of synthetic
fertilizers and pesticides is avoided (Ramesh et. al., 2005).
Organic agriculture is defined as “a holistic production management whose primary goal is to
optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil, life, plants, animals
and people” (UNCTAD, 2006). Therefore, it aims to utilise and maintain ecosystem services by
improving the natural environment, increased water retention, reduced soil erosion and increased
agro-biodiversity (UN, 2008).
In the beginning of the Green Revolution, a small minority of thinkers and practitioners doubted its
veracity. These minorities were often clustered around the early organic farming movement; they
questioned the reliance on chemical technologies, the seeming simplification of the ecosystem
around farmland and the sidelining of the health giving benefits of food. As this critique became
louder, the problem more pressing and the opportunities for an alternative more apparent, the
organic movement came into prominence (Reed and Holt, 2006).
2.3 Organic cardamom cultivation: A transect through Indian context of organic farming
The seeds of commercial Indian "Organic cotton" cultivation were sown for the first time in
Maharashtra in the early 1990s. Some progressive farmers, distressed by the negative effects of
pesticides for insect suppression in cotton crop, reduced the chemical inputs and increased the use
of organic manure, developed their own techniques to optimize resources in order to develop
sustainable farm.
The pioneers, in this field were from the Yavatmal district of Maharashtra. A team of CICR
(Central Institute of Cotton Research) scientists visited the Yavatmal farms in 1992 crop season to
analyze their package of practices. Similar efforts of promotion of organic farming had been made
Background 9
in many states. Efforts had been made by the NGOs to study organic farming in Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
To study the techno-economic feasibility of organic farming, Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation of Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India constituted a Technical Team. After
visiting various places and interacting with farmers and scientists, the members of the team made
observations as the country at present is not in a position to completely eliminate the use of
chemicals especially fertilizers, the production of agricultural commodity is not only to maintain
but also to increase it substantially to match with the demand of increasing population. However, it
would not be difficult and unrealistic to phase out the use of these chemicals systematically. For
this, on one hand the doses of fertilizers need to be gradually reduced and be balanced by
increasing the use of optimum quantity of organic manure and bio-fertilizers (Modi, 1997).
The individual organic movements got a serious imagery with the launch of National Program for
Organic Production (NPOP) by the Ministry of Commerce in March 2000. The prime aim of the
program was to promote organic farming for export purpose and that have established national
standards for organic products, which could then be sold under the logo ‘India Organic’. To
ensure the implementation of NPOP, the National Accreditation Policy and Program (NAPP) was
formulated, with accreditation regulations announced in May 2001. National Accreditation Body
(NAB) is the sole accreditation body with Agricultural Processed Foods Export Development
Authority (APEDA) as its secretariat.
India’s first ever local Organic Certification Body, INDOCERT (Indian Organic Certification
Agency), was established in March, 2002 with an objective to offer a reliable and affordable
organic inspection and certification services to farmers, processors, input suppliers and traders.
INDOCERT has strong technical collaborations with two well reputed Swiss Organic Agriculture
Institutions: FiBL (Research Institute of Organic Agriculture) and bio.inspecta (Swiss certification
agency). FiBL advices INDOCERT in setting up of an efficient management and administration
and ensure that the certification is established at par with National and International Accreditation
Criteria. INDOCERT is the cooperation partner of bio.inspecta and its official national office in
India. INDOCERT was nationally accredited for organic certification as per Indian National
Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) in October 2002. The capability of an agro-ecosystem
to produce a good crop mostly depends on the soil quality. In fact, various physical, chemical and
biological properties of soils interact in complex ways to determine the potential fitness for
sustainable production of healthy nutritious crops (Soil Science Society of America, 1984)
Agriculture has been at the centre of the sustainability issue for two main reasons: Firstly,
agricultural systems occupy large areas of land - far more land than any other industry with the
possible exception of forestry. Therefore, what occurs within agriculture can often have major
Background 10
environmental effects. Secondly, the product of agriculture is often food, and we all eat.
Agriculture is therefore one of the foundations of human society (Balachandran, 2004).
To improve and maintain soil quality, the best means are alternative agricultural practices such as
crop rotation, recycling crop residues and animal manures, reduced input of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides, and increased use of cover crops and green manure crops, including nitrogen fixing
legumes. All of these help to maintain a high level of soil organic matter that enhances soil tilth,
fertility and productivity while protecting the soil from erosion and nutrient runoff (Papendick and
Parr, 1989, Parr et al., 1983, 1989). However, only through sustainable agricultural practices we
can bring back the health of the soil.
According to Rai (2005), Organic farming systems can deliver agronomic and environmental
benefits both through structural changes and tactical management of farming systems. The benefits
of organic farming are relevant both to developed nations (environmental protection, biodiversity
enhancement, reduced energy use and CO2 emission) and to developing countries like India
(sustainable resource use, increased crop yields without over-reliance on costly external inputs,
environment and biodiversity protection, etc.).
Kanna (2007), reported that Malaiyandi farmers association is a group of 20 women farmers in
Perungalur who have taken up organic vegetable cultivation. They used vermicompost to enrich
the soil fertility and ‘panchagaviya’ to induce the plant growth. The net income from the organic
vegetable cultivation for the group is Rs.4713.00 over a period of 12 months
2.4 Development of organic farming in Kerala
There are a number of studies on different aspects of organic farming like organic manures, natural
pesticides, integrated pest management, integrated nutrient management but organic farming as
systems seems to have left out in the state till the late 90s (Balachandran, 2004). He further added
that the most revealing statement on the agricultural situation in Kerala was given by the Kerala
Land Use Board in 1997 through Kerala State Resource based Perspective Plan 2020 AD. The
report was one of the most precise indications of the state’s sorry state in agricultural affairs and it
strongly recommended the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices at the earliest.
A group of small farmers of Pulpally village of Wayanad district in the beginning of this
millennium year started organic farming. The area was certified by the Bangalore based IMO Pvt.
Ltd. and this was the first recognized step of the state towards an organic movement. After
Wayanad, a small village of Idukki district Karunapuram have attained the status of cent per cent
organic farming village, with all the 4,000 farmers in the village.
While considering the role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in the spread of organic
farming throughout the state, Wayanad and Idukki stand first two positions. The NGO that playing
a major role in Wayanad district is INFAM (Indian Farmers' Movement), an organization backed
by the Catholic Church also helping farmers to export organic farm produce. It runs Organic
Background 11
Wayanad, a project in Wayanad district whose sole aim is to promote organic farming in the
district. The promoter of Vanamoolika (one of the NGO promoting organic farming in Wayanad)
Mr. Chakkochan says the status of certified organic farmers in Wayanad have reached 5673 with
an area of 3983.28 ha by the middle of 2010. This comes nearly 18.74 per cent of the geographical
area of the district.
In Idukki district, Peermade Development Society (PDS) have the hand in organic farming and it
started to promote organic tea production in the district from the year 1998 for export market. With
the help of this NGO the small and marginal tea farmers established a consortium of nearly 1200
members; with a total area of nearly 800 hectares. PDS helped in obtaining a loan from local banks
to build the factory (one-third of the cost was covered by the Donors), which is now owned jointly
by PDS and the farmer consortium and the factory was opened in November 2003. In order to get
access to the international market, PDS arranged for the farmers to be certified by an
internationally accredited agency, Skal International and also obtained a Fair Trade certification
through the Fair Trade Labeling Organization.
As per different study reports, out of the 14 districts of Kerala state, Wayanad and Idukki have
occupied the first two places while accounting the certified organic agriculture area. The two
districts are famous for their export of organic spices and beverages to different European
countries and USA. These two districts are located in the Cardamom Hills of Western Ghats, the
house of various spices and beverage crops. But, Balachandran (2004) reported that Wayanad and
Idukki districts had showed poor representation in the number of organic farmers in the late 90s.
However, may be due to the more involvement of different NGOs, the two districts moved to a
better position in export of organic produce within a short period.
According to Sebastian (2007), the executive director of Indocert, 5,175 farmers in Kerala have
won the certification. While it certified 155 farmers last year, 144 certificates have been issued this
year. He also conveyed that it is the premium price for organic produce that attracts farmers to
organic cultivation. To pursue organic farming, farmers are expected to make an integrated
approach for all farming activities, from seed to the produce - using only manure from organic
sources, bio-fertilizer and bio-pesticides. They should start practicing mixed farming - rearing
livestock for organic manure, as procuring farm yard manure from outside won't be cost effective.
2.5 Reasons for adoption of organic farming
In 2002, The National Food Centre of the Irish Agriculture and Food Development Authority
published a report that summarized organic agriculture in Ireland during the early 2000s. In
addition to providing a description of Irish organic agriculture, the report entitled, “Conversion to
Organic Farming: Case Study Report Ireland,” examined the financial characteristics, operators’
attributes, and operators’ attitudes of 27 Irish farms that at the time of the study were considering
conversion to organic production (Howlett, et al., 2002). The researchers who instigated the study
Background 12
especially analyzed the views of farm operators with regard to their perceptions of the organic
conversion process and their motives for conversion. The two most notable farmer motives for
conversion identified in the case study were producers’ attitudes toward finances and the
environment. When the 27 farmers included in the study were asked about the benefits of organic
farming, their most common responses were, “better prices,” and, “greater income.” Additionally,
environmental concerns about pollution were also frequently cited as motives for conversion.
Besides identifying profitability and environmental motives, the study also identified the
importance of government subsidies and investment considerations in farmers’ conversion.
The importance of regional market characteristics on farmers’ motivations to convert to organic
production were also echoed in Midmore et al., (2001). This comprehensive study from England
analyzed three groups of farmers—certified organic, transitional, and conventional—to determine
each type of farmer’s views regarding organic production and their motivations in choosing their
respective production methods. Results of the study indicated that organic and transitional farmers
mainly made their decisions to convert based on their perceptions of the financial viability of
organic production and concerns for the environment. Additionally, however, many conventional
farmers in the study perceived large financial risks associated with organic conversion due to
unavailability of markets for organic farm products.
Lauwere et al., (2004) identified four different categories of motives for organic conversion among
Dutch farmers. The categories were idealistic, technical, institutional, and economic motives.
According to his study idealistic motives included farmers’ pursuit of a challenge, better personal
or family health, sustainable farming ideology, and relationships with consumers. Technical
motives were cited second most frequently in the study. These included greater cooperation with
nature, less chemical use, and better soil health. Furthermore, institutional motives, such as
farmers’ concern for a positive image and social acceptance, were cited third most frequently
among the Dutch farmers.
In the case of organic production, farmers perceive organic farming as new if they have had
limited experience with organic production practices and/or have never in the past possessed
organic certification. Although many of the practices involved in organic farming— manure
application, crop rotation, and cultural control of insects—are not new to agriculture, organic
farming is an innovation because it represents a complex system change for many conventional
agricultural producers (Padel, 2001).
Increasing concerns about food security in least developed and developing countries will require a
wide range of sustainable agricultural practices (combining some organic and conventional
practices) to fulfill the food demand of a growing population. (Ericksen et al., 2009).
Ananda Kumar (1998) studied the reasons responsible for conversion to organic farming in
Puducherry. The results are classified as follows: Socio-personal reasons: Consideration of soil
Background 13
fertility and physical conditions, concern over families health, success stories regarding organic
farming, availability of FYM and concern over fulfilment of needs of future generation. Socio-
economic reasons: Increasing cost of inputs in conventional farming, increase in net return despite
reductions in yield in organic farming, farmers own decision and intention to reduce expenditure,
eventual yield drops in conventional farming. Socio-psychological reasons: Encouragements and
advice from neighbouring organic farmers.
International Research suggests that those attributes of organic farming most likely to influence
farmers/consumers from most to least important were, a) Health; minimal artificial chemicals
residues in the product and high nutritive value, b) Environment; environment friendly production
and processing, c) Animal welfare, d) Minimal processing, and e) Novelty and fashion. (Locke et
al., 2002).
Panda et al., (2005) revealed the reasons for adopting organic farming as good safety, no nasty
additives (good value addition to agricultural products), avoidance of pesticides, fertilizers,
generally modified crops, concern for animal welfare, concern for the wild life and the
environment. In rainfed systems, organic agriculture has demonstrated to out-perform conventional
agricultural systems under environmental stress conditions. (Stanhill, 1990; Wynen, 1994; Peters,
1994).
The so called organic transition effect, in which a yield decline in the first 1–4 years of transition
to organic agriculture, followed by a yield increase when soils have developed adequate biological
activity (Liebhardt et al., 1989; Peters, 1994; Neera et al., 1999), has not been borne out in some
reviews of yield comparison studies. (Stanhill, 1990; Padel and Lampkin, 1994). Trials conducted
on organic cotton at Nagpur indicated that after the third year, the organic plot, which did not
receive fertilizers and insecticides, produced as much cotton as that cultivated with them.
(Rajendran et al., 2000). The replacement of external inputs by farm-derived resources normally
leads to a reduction in variable input costs under organic management. Expenditure on fertilizers
and sprays is substantially lower than in conventional systems in almost all the cases. (Padel and
Lampkin, 1994; Offermann and Nieberg, 1999).
Studies have shown that the common organic agricultural combination of lower input costs and
favourable price premiums can offset reduced yields and make organic farms equally and often
more profitable than conventional farms. (Hanson et al., 1997; Petersen et al., 1999; Reganold et
al., 2001).
Manjunath (2005) reported that the per acre returns from organic basmati Paddy (Rs.16183.5) was
more compared to inorganic basmati paddy (Rs.15720) though the yield of inorganic basmati
paddy (14.24q/acre) was more than that of organic basmati paddy(11.49q/acre).
Gill (2008) revealed that the crops raised in different cropping systems such as green manure
basmati rice-wheat, turmeric-onion, summer groundnut-garlic and rice-garlic+mentha with organic
Background 14
management systems gave 9.2, 62.2, 14.5 and 12.4 per cent more productivity respectively than
chemical farming.
Organic agriculture offers great potential to develop low cost, low input, locally available eco-
technologies to provide food and fibre (Badgley et al., 2006), without causing damage to human
health and the environment (UN, 2008).
Pest control in organic farming begins by making sensible choices, such as growing crops that are
naturally resistant to diseases and pests, or choosing sowing times that prevent pest and disease
outbreaks. Careful management in both time and space of planting not only prevents pests, but also
increases population of natural predators that can contribute to the control of insects, diseases and
weeds (FAO, 2003).
2.6 Cardamom Farmers as Entrepreneurs
2.6.1 Entrepreneurial Concepts
The word “entrepreneur” appeared in French language long before the emergence of the concept of
entrepreneurial function.
The entrepreneur and his unique risk bearing function was first identified in the early 18th century
by Richard Cantillon, an Irishman living in France, who defined an entrepreneur as person who
buys factor services at certain prices with a view to sell its product at uncertain prices in the future
(Hosalitz,1951). Narayana (1966) was of view that agricultural entrepreneurship is governed by
tradition, and custom instead of personal choice, it is more a way of life rather than a business
proposition. Singh (1970) positively rated successful agricultural entrepreneurs as having
economic progress, liking for the present occupation, preference for agriculture as a profession for
their sons if they so desired, a positive attitude towards modernization and individual farming for
the growth of agriculture in the country in contrast to the traditional and unsuccessful
entrepreneurs.
Vakarnam (1990) while writing the introduction to the book "When the harvesting is in:
Developing rural entrepreneurship" defined a rural entrepreneur as someone who is prepared to
take risks for self better made but is also willing to give of himself for the community by staying in
and creating local wealth. Selvaraj (1993) stressed on behavioural characteristics. According to
him the concept of entrepreneur and entrepreneurship incorporates basic qualities of leadership,
innovativeness, hard work, vision and maximization of profits. Bheemappa (2003) stated that if
one undertakes agriculture in the form of business based on scientific knowledge, latest technology
package, together with proper pre-planning, agriculture turns out to be the most profitable venture.
Further he visualized the scope for entrepreneurship development in allied agriculture activities.
The concept of entrepreneur and entrepreneurship incorporates basic qualities of leadership,
innovation, enterprise, hard work, vision and maximization of profits. All his socioeconomic,
Background 15
organizational and managerial qualities are always directed towards the well being of the society
and the community (Desai, 1997). Entrepreneurship is the process of creating something new with
value by devoting the necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic,
and social risks, and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and
independence (Peters, 1998). Bheemappa (2003) described entrepreneurship as the creative and
innovative response to the environment, which can take place in variety of fields of social
endeavour business, industry, agriculture, education, social work and it is the potent limiting factor
in economic development.
As Masurel (2007) points out, “sustainable entrepreneurship cannot be discussed without
mentioning innovation, because it has much to do with adopting new production technologies”.
Thus, innovation orientation is seen more as a covariate than as an antecedent, in predicting
sustainable entrepreneurship, but in this sense, sustainable entrepreneurship is viewed as an aspect
of innovativeness more generally. Furthermore, our rationale explores the possibility that less
innovative organizations are also less concerned about the environment, and focus only on
profitability, whereas more broadly innovative firms are also interested in providing new ideas that
benefit society more generally. This view is strongly promoted by Nidumolu, Prahalad and
Rangaswami (2009) who state that: “Sustainability = Innovation”.
2.6.2 Entrepreneurial behaviour
Minzberg (1976) stated that entrepreneurial behaviour is characterized by active search,
expansionist outlook and decision-making. Nandapurkar (1982) stated that entrepreneurial
behaviour consists of different components like farm decision making, innovativeness, risk taking
ability, achievement motivation, information seeking, knowledge of the farming, assistance of
management service, co-ordination of farm activities, cosmopoliteness and leadership ability.
Singh (1985) quoted the sociologist’s view that entrepreneurial behaviour is a function of social
structure, which can be influenced by the economic and social incentives inherent in it.
Porchezhian (1991) defined entrepreneurial behaviour as the degree to which a farmer strives to
maximize his profits by making a creative and innovative response to the environment through
diversification of enterprises. Nomeshkumar and Narayanaswamy (2000) defined entrepreneurial
behaviour as a combination of seven components viz., innovativeness, decision making ability,
achievement motivation, information seeking ability, risk taking ability, co-ordinating ability and
leadership ability. Vijaykumar (2001) operationalized entrepreneurial behaviour as the cumulative
outcome of information seeking behaviour, farm decision making, leadership ability, risk taking
ability, innovativeness, achievement motivation and market orientation of farmers. Narmatha et
al., (2002) stated that innovativeness, achievement motivation and risk orientation were the most
important components. And further, decision-making, innovativeness, management orientation,
Background 16
economic motivation, level of aspiration and risk orientation were found to be crucial in
influencing the entrepreneurial behaviour.
2.6.3 Innovativeness
Reddy (1997) revealed that majority (62.00%) of the entrepreneurs had medium innovativeness,
whereas 20 per cent of them had high, followed by low innovativeness (18%). Bhagyalaxmi et al.,
(2003) observed that majority (69.44%) of the entrepreneurs had medium innovativeness, followed
by 15.56 and 15.00 per cent of respondents having high and low innovativeness, respectively.
Nagesha (2005) observed that majority (63.30%) of the vegetable seed producing farmers had
medium innovativeness and equal per cent (18.30) of the respondents falling under low and high
innovativeness category.
2.6.4 Risk orientation
Vijaykumar (2001) indicated that 38.34, 35.00 and 26.66 per cent of entrepreneurs fell under low,
medium and high risk taking ability categories, respectively. Subramanyam (2002) revealed that
75.00 per cent of the trained farmers had medium risk preference, followed by high (13.34%) and
low (11.66%) levels of risk preference. Bhagyalaxmi et al., (2003) revealed that majority of the
entrepreneurs (75.56%) had medium risk orientation, followed by low (15.56%) and high
(13.33%) risk orientation categories. Suresh (2004) indicated that majority of dairy entrepreneurs
had medium level of risk taking ability, followed by low and high level at the rate of 62.02, 24.58
and 13.34 per cent, respectively. Nagesha (2005)concluded that majority (56.7%) of the vegetable
seed producing farmers had medium risk orientation followed by 22.5 and 20.8 per cent of the
respondents having low and high risk orientation, respectively. Pandeti (2005) found that 50.00 per
cent of the SC & ST farmers belong to medium risk taking ability, followed by 28.75 and 21.25
per cent of them belonging to high and low risk taking ability categories, respectively. Ngaesh
(2006) stated that most (85.84%) of the respondents had medium risk orientation followed by
10.00 and 4.16 per cent of the respondents having low and high risk orientation, respectively. Ravi
(2007) reported that majority (40.83%) of the farmers had low risk taking ability followed by high
(35.00%) and medium (24.17%) risk taking ability, respectively.
2.6.5 Information seeking behaviour
Chandrapaul (1998) revealed that 41.60 per cent of the entrepreneurs had low information seeking,
followed by medium (32.50%) and high (25.90%) information seeking categories. Kumar (2001)
observed that 41.66 per cent of the entrepreneurs had low information seeking, followed by
medium (32.50%) and high (25.90%) information seeking categories, respectively. Vijaykumar
(2001) reported that 41.66 per cent of entrepreneurs fell under low information seeking category
followed by 33.34 and 25.00 per cent of entrepreneurs fell under medium and high information
seeking categories, respectively. Suresh (2004) reported that majority of the dairy entrepreneurs
had medium level of information seeking behaviour, followed by high and low level with 68.75,
Background 17
17.08 and 14.17 percent, respectively. Pandeti (2005) found that majority (35.84%) of the farmers
had medium information seeking behaviour followed by low (34.16%) and high (30.00%)
information seeking behaviour categories, respectively.
2.6.6 Planning ability
Choudhary et al., (2006) revealed that 44.00 per cent of trained and 64.00 per cent of untrained
dairy farmers had poor, followed by moderate (42.00% and 32.00%, respectively) and good
(14.00% and 4.00% respectively) planning ability.
2.6.7 Self confidence
Choudhary et al., (2006) found that 49.00 per cent of trained dairy farmers had high self
confidence, followed by medium (43.00%) self-confidence and meagre per cent of trained dairy
farmers (8.00%) was found be in low self confidence. However, 48.00 per cent of untrained dairy
farmers had medium, followed by low (31.00) and high (21.00%) self confidence. “Increasing
agricultural output, and thereby farm income in agrarian nations is a prerequisite to all other forms
of economic and social development,” is the opinion of Sterling (1969). Thakur (1975) in case
study of dairy development impact reported, “Milk production per animal and marketed surplus in
case of cows and buffaloes was higher among weaker sections than among the medium and large
farmers in the experimental villages. This difference was less marked in the control villages. In the
experimental villages the use of improved agricultural inputs and total incomes were also found to
be higher”. Andreou (1979) stated that, it has allowed considerable progress to be made in the
establishment of new irrigation schemes and as a result the productivity and intensity of cropping
has much improved.
2.7 Economic impact
Wilkening (1953) found that high adoption of improved farm practices was associated with high
adoption of housing and home equipment items and of other selected home practices. Singh (1972)
observed that the improved technology had been more effective in increasing employment of
labour. Vyas and Rodenacker (1974) concluded that apart from their impact on agricultural
development, processing units create new employment opportunities in the rural areas and that too
in the “off-season”. This relieves unemployment and under- employment in agriculture and helps
to diversify the rural occupational pattern. Khetwal (1977) concluded in her case or spot study,
“establishment of agro-processing industries to change the cropping pattern in favour or labour
intensive crops has the advantages of creating additional on-going employment in both farming
sectors of the rural areas, thus raising the incomes of cultivators”. Saxena et al., (1978) stated,
“Dairying improved village economy of district Mehsana”. The overall result showed that dairy
farming has increased, cash incomes are generated and capital has been attracted in the area, and
per capita consumption of milk has increased. The numbers of animals, milk production, and
equipment through dairy farming have also increased”.
Background 18
2.8 Social impact
Barnabas (1969) reported that changes occurred in the life of most the villagers. The aspects were
food habits, clothing pattern, family life, material possession, changes in agricultural practices,
education for girls and change in yield levels of crops. Acharya (1963), Dasgupta (1964), Parikh
(1966), Singh (1967), Desai (1969), Chandana (1969), Singh (1969, 1970), Singh (1971), Sisodia
(1971), Saran (1974), Parduman Kumar (1974), Sharma (1975), Deb et al., (1975), Charan (1976)
and Sundara and Deb (1977) reported that the impact of technological change showed overall
increase in output of crops, increase in net farm income, improvement in the level of living,
changes in the social structure, level of education, shifts in occupation from farm to non-farm job,
change in attitudes and values of rural people and increase in contact with urban areas and
extension agencies.
Dinesh (1969) noted, “a network of new ideas have come up which facilitates better
communication providing spatial mobility which is a major variable in the process of reorientation
of the value system. New educational, medical and recreational facilities have sprung up in the
rural areas which were otherwise far away from modernity”. The emergence of township in rural
areas has also changed the outlook of the farmer. The traditional way of thinking in terms of value
ideals etc. have been replaced by a modern way of thinking.
2.9 Need of organic farming
The intensification of the agricultural sector has led to a row of environmental problems (World
Resources Institute, 1998). Terry and Langner (2005) say that organic farming requires very little
inputs and cuts down the use of external inputs, in other words it can also be termed as “low- input
farming” and “from the producers perspective it is economically sound and viable.” (Terry &
Langner, 2005).They terms it as a “sophisticated alternative agricultural system”.
CHAPTER III
GENERAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Research methods and techniques followed in conducting this research investigation are presented
in this chapter. The various aspects included in this chapter have been organized under the
following sub heads:
3.1 Research design
3.2 Locale of the study
3.3 Selection of sample
3.4 Methods of data collection
3.5 Operationalization and measurement of variables
3.6 Statistical tools used in data analysis
3.2 Research design
Research design is the entire process of planning and carrying out research. Kerlinger (1978)
defined “Research design as the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so as to obtain
answers to research questions and to control variance”. The plan is the overall scheme or
programme of research. The ex-post facto research design was used in the present study, as the
manifestations of the variables presumably had already occurred and there was no scope for
manipulation of any variable. According to Kerlinger (1964) an ex-post facto research is a
systematic empirical enquiry in which the researcher does not have direct control over the
variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not
manipulable.
3.3 Locale of the study
The study was conducted in purposively selected Idukki district of Kerala state as intensive spice
cultivations especially, organic cardamom production and certification are taken up by many
agencies in the area and it is known as spice district of Kerala. Kerala is an Indian state located on
the Malabar Coast of south-west India. The state has an area of 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi) and is
bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the
Arabian Sea on the west. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes
74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences humid equatorial tropic climate. Geographically, Kerala can
be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool
mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal
plains). With 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate
influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon. In eastern Kerala, a
General Research Methodology 20
drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only
1,250 mm (49 in.); the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in.)
of precipitation, the highest in the state. Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and
protected in the Western Ghats. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the
state. Three of the world’s Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta, Ashtamudi
lake and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km² of the vast Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve.
A key agricultural staple is rice, with some six hundred varieties grown in Kerala's extensive
paddy fields. Nevertheless, home gardens comprise a significant portion of the agricultural sector.
Related animal husbandry is also important, and is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating
rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalized, and the landless.
Kerala is one of the pioneer states in India that had started efforts towards organic movement at
government level. The state Department of Agriculture started promoting organic farming through
setting up a separate cell for the promotion of sustainable agriculture and organic farming seven
years back in 2002-03. It is also claimed that Kerala has a rich potential for the promotion of
organic farming since the inorganic agriculture in the state is not that severe compared to other
states in the country. Spices have gained attention in organic farming sector along with food crops
as spices constitute an important component of Indias’s agricultural export basket. Export potential
mainly depends on major spices like pepper, cardamom, vanilla and some minor spices.
Cardamom the Queen of all spices has a history as old as human race. It is one of the high priced
spices in the world.
The late 1960’s witnessed the dawn of active and organised cardamom cultivation in Idukki
district in central Kerala. The pioneers of organised cardamom farming were progressive farmers
from the Cumbum and Bodinaykanur regions of TamilNadu. Farmers from central Kerala who
were involved in other farming activities also made their entry into the hills of Idukki and created
settlements all over Idukki region. Geographically known for its Mountainous Hills and Dense
Forests, Idukki is a beautiful and the largest district of Kerala. It is always associated with the
generation of power. The Hydroelectric power projects of Idukki fulfil around 66 per cent of the
State's Power needs. Idukki covers around 12.9 per cent of the area of Kerala and only 3.7 percent
of the population of Kerala. About 97 per cent of the total area of the District is covered by rugged
mountains and forests. Fifty percent of Idukki’s area is covered by Reserved Forests. There is only
a strip of Middle land around 3 per cent in the western part of the district. Low land area is totally
absent in the district. Located in the middle part of Kerala, the District is bound on the East by
Madurai district of Tamil Nadu state while on the west by Ernakulam and Kottayam districts of
Kerala. In the South it is bordered by the Pathanamthitta district, while on the North it is bound by
Trichur and Coimbatore districts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu states respectively. It lies between 9
General Research Methodology 21
degree 15' and 10 degree 21' of north latitude and 76 degree 37' and 77 degree 25' of east
longitudes.
There are eight community development blocks: Devikulam, Adimali, Nedumkandom, Azhutha,
Kattappana, Idukki, Elamdesom and Thodupuzha. There are 51 Panchayaths in the district.
Thodupuzha is the only Municipality and Idukki is the only township in the district. This district
has several protected areas including: Periyar Tiger Reserve in the south, Kurinjimala Sanctuary to
the east, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary to the north east, Eravikulam National Park and Anamudi
Shola National Park to the north, Pampadum Shola National Park to the south and Thattekad Bird
Sanctuary in the west. These protected areas are especially known for several threatened and
endemic species including Tiger, Nilgiri Thar, Grizzled Giant Squirrel, Nilgiri Wood-pigeon,
Elephant, Gaur, and Neelakurinji. Idukki is known for the splendid green mountains, streams and
spices.
3.4 Sampling and data collection:
Idukki district has eight blocks; out of which, three blocks namely, Udumbanchola, Devikulam and
Peermadu are mainly growing organic cardamom. These three blocks were selected purposively.
From each selected block, one village was selected randomly and from each village, 30 organic
cardamom growers and 10 inorganic cardamom growers were selected randomly for the study. For
examining the institutional and structural frame work of government and non government agencies
for the promotion of organic agri-enterprises, 10 officials from each block were selected
purposively for study.
General Research Methodology 22
3.4.1 Variables and their measurement
The appropriate variables for the present study were prepared based on the objectives of the study,
review of literature and discussion with experts. Details of the variables and their measurements
are mentioned in Table 3.4.1.1.
Table 3.4.1.1: Variables and their measurements S.No. VARIABLES MEASUREMENT I. Socio-personal variables 1 Age Chronological age (in years) 2 Educational status No. of years of formal education 3 Family type Schedule developed 4 Family size Number of family members 5 Occupational status Schedule developed 6 Experience in farming Number of years engaged in farming 7 Experience in organic farming Number of years engaged in organic farming 8 Possession of assets Schedule developed II. Socio-economic variables 9 Land size Actual land owned in Hectares 10 Area under organic farming In hectare 11 Assets owned Worth of assets owned in Rupees 12 Water source Schedule developed 13 Type of house Schedule developed 14 Annual income Income in Rupees in a year. 15 Type of farming Schedule developed 16 Allied agricultural activities Schedule developed 17 Share of agriculture in total income Schedule developed 18 Social class Schedule developed 19 Social participation Scale by Trivedi(1963) III. Psycho-personal variables 20 Aspirations Modified test developed by Muthayya (1971) 21 Risk taking willingness Scale developed by Mishra (1979) 22 Innovation proneness Scale developed by Moulik (1965) IV. Facilitative factors / Variables 23 Entrepreneurial competencies PEC scale developed by ICECD, 1988 24 Extent of adoption of organic practices Adoption index developed V. Inhibitive factors / Variables 25 Constraints and Problems Non-parametric tests
3.4.2 Measurement of Socio-economic Variables
1) Age: Age was measured as the number of chronological years completed by the
respondent at the time of investigation.
2) Educational status: This refers to the years of formal education achieved by the respondent.
To measure this variable scoring pattern developed by Trivedi (1963) was adopted with
some modifications in the present study.
General Research Methodology 23
Category Score Illiterate 0 Can read only 1 Can read and sign only 2 Primary school 3 High School 4 Secondary school 5 Graduate 6 Post graduate and above 7
3) Occupational status: Occupational status refers to the major activity of the respondent in
which he or she was involved for most part of the day, and which generates the major part of
family income. For this, an arbitrary scoring system was developed as follows:
Category ScoreFulltime Farmer 1 Farming and services 2 Farming and business 3
4) Family type: This refers to the type of the family to which the respondent belongs to. For this,
an arbitrary scoring system was developed as follows
Category ScoreNuclear Family 1 Joint Family 2 Extended family 3
5) Family size: This refers to the total number of family members of the respondent.
6) Type of house: This refers to the kind of house possessed by the respondent. For that, an
arbitrary scoring system was developed as given below.
Category Score Thatched 1 Tiled 2 Old Concrete 3 Modern Concrete 4
7) Total land size: The extent of land an individual possessed and cultivated is termed as land
holding. The size of land that the respondent possessed was taken as his land holding and total
land size was measured as the total owned land in acres.
8) Area under organic cultivation: The size of land in which the respondent was practicing
organic farming was taken as his area under organic cultivation and that was measured in
acres.
General Research Methodology 24
9) Experience in farming: This refers to the total number of chronological years the respondent
has been engaged in farming.
10) Experience in organic farming: This refers to the total number of years the respondent has
been engaged in organic farming.
11) Type of farming: This refers to the kind of farming methods the respondent was adopted in
his farm and coding is as follows: coding is only for the easy representation.
Category Code Monoculture 1 Crop Rotation 2 Dry land Farming 3 Mixed and Multistoried 4 Mixed Farming 5
12) Crops grown in the farm: This refers to the total number of different crops including
vegetables grown on commercial basis by the respondent. To measure this variable the total
number of crops grown on commercial basis itself was taken as the score.
13) Allied agricultural activities: This refers to the different agricultural related activities that the
respondent was practicing along with the cultivation of different crops. For this, an arbitrary
scoring system was developed as follows:
Category Code Cattle/ Goat/ Piggery/ Rabbit 1 Poultry/Duck 2 Bee Keeping 3 Fish 4 Others 5
For each category the presence (or absence) is recorded by one (or zero)
14) Share of agriculture in total household income: This refers to the contribution of agriculture
and allied sector of the respondent towards his/her family income. For this, an arbitrary coding
system was developed as follows:
Category CodeFrom farming alone 2 Partially from farming 1 Not at all from farming 0
15) Irrigation potential: This refers to the availability of water to irrigate the crop in the farm. To
measure this variable the scoring pattern used by Bonny (1991) was adopted.
Category Score Throughout the year 2 Seasonal 1 Not assured 0
General Research Methodology 25
16) Water source: This refers to the source of water to which the respondent is depending for
meeting the farm and home requirements. For this, an arbitrary coding system was developed
as follows:
Category Code Well 1 Pond/Tank 2 Canal 3 River 4 Bore well 5
17) Farmer’s perception of his farming method: This refers to the attitude of the respondent
about the farming method he/ she has adopted in his/her farm. For this, an arbitrary scoring
system was developed as follows:
Category Score Traditional 1 Modern 2 Partly Organic 3 Fully Organic 4
18) Resources for organic farming: This refers to the source of various inputs that have been
used for organic cultivation. For that, a simple arbitrary coding procedure was developed as
follows:
Category CodeOn-farm resources 1 Off-farm resources 0
19) Farming group membership: This refers to the involvement of the respondent in any farmer
group either as a member or as an office bearer. If the respondent is a member of any farming
group a score ‘1’ was given, else a score ‘0’ was given and if he/she are the office bearer then
score ‘2’was given to measure this variable.
20) Other organization membership: This refers to the involvement of the respondent in any
organization other than the farmer group. If the respondent is a member of any other
organization a score ‘1’ was given, else a score ‘0’ was given and if they are the office bearer
then score ‘3’was given to measure this variable. Organization mainly considered were Co-
operative society, Youth club, Socio-cultural organization, Organic farming associations,
Religious committee. Also provided amble scope for mentioning the other organizations under
the mentioned ‘Others (specify)’ group.
General Research Methodology 26
3.5 Psychological Variables
3.5.1 Aspirations
According to Haller (1968), an aspiration usually refers to a person’s or a group of person’s
orientation towards a goal. A goal can vary in kind and is usually described with reference to a
particular social status or status attributes like occupation, income, education, residence and so on.
High and low level of aspirations is used to indicate relative level of goal specifications.
Aspirations are goal statements concerning future level of achievement. These are reflective of
individual’s concept of future prospects and act as a self motivation force as well. Questions
covering certain areas of individual needs such as education to son and daughter, increase in
income and growth of farm size were developed based on scale developed by Muthayya (1971).
The respondents were asked to indicate their aspiration for their children’s education, income and
growth of the farm in next three years. Increase in income was calculated by subtracting the
present level from the aspired level. The raw scores then were converted into standard scores
following the method given by Muthayya (1971) and Garrett (1966) for each of the three areas of
individual needs. An average of standard scores earned by an individual in these areas of his needs
was taken as his level of aspiration. Scoring procedure has been given in Appendix III.
Quartiles Scores I Up to 45 II 46-49 III 50-54 IV >54
3.5.2 Risk taking willingness
As pointed out by Mehta (1978) the term risk taking willingness in case of entrepreneurs refers to
one’s pro-activity to seek challenge in his activity; challenge here means such tasks in which there
is a reasonable chance of success. Success depends not on chance but on one’s own effort. An
entrepreneur likes to exert and test his own ability. He shows a tendency to take moderate risks and
to seek challenging situation. Setting of a moderately difficult goal leaving aside the very and very
risky goal is an important factor for the success.
In the present investigation ‘Risk taking willingness’ has been studied as an entrepreneurial trait.
Risk taking willingness is conceived here as a concept of taking challenge in a given situation,
where the respondent is not satisfied with the present outcome and he strives for some additional
pay off.
1) Measurement of risk taking willingness
A modified form of choice dilemma procedure has been developed for measuring risk taking
willingness of the respondents in this study. Wallach and Kogan (1959, 1961), Kogan and Wallach
General Research Methodology 27
(1961) and Wallach, Kogan and Bem (1962) also adopted a similar measure of risk taking
willingness. Some attempts to modify it to suit to different situation were also made in some past
studies. Jaiswal (1965) modified this scale by projecting risky situations different from those of
Kogan and Wallach (1965). A similar modification was brought about by Singh (1972) in the scale
developed by Kogan and Wallach (1961) to measure the risk taking willingness of farm
entrepreneurs.
In the present investigation a two dimensional measure was developed to account for the risk
taking willingness of the respondents. These dimensions were,
(1) The various levels of probability of success and
(2) The action preferred (in the situation) by the respondents.
In this case the level of probability of success was made known to the respondents, thus, the
respondents were supposed only to endorse the task with a particular probability of success that he
would like to perform.
2) Probability of risk taking and measurement
Probability of risk Score No risk 1 20 percent risk 2 50 percent risk 3 80 percent risk 4 100 percent risk 5
In case a respondent prefer to take action (yes response) at any level of risk he will get the score
assigned to that level, otherwise (no response) he will get a score of zero. For example, if a
respondent prefers action (‘yes’) at ‘no risk’ level he would get a score of one but he prefers no
action (‘no’) at the same risk level, he would secure a score of zero. Similarly, if the probability of
risk is 100 percent and the respondent prefers to take action (‘yes’) he would score of 5 and in case
prefers not to take action (‘no’) he would secure a score of zero. Thus a respondent in this case can
get a minimum score of zero and maximum of 15, if he prefers to take action in all cases, whatever
may be the probability of success. One’s risk taking willingness score in this case was also
worked out by averaging the total score obtained by him. A final risk taking willingness score for
an individual respondent was worked out by pooling his risk taking willingness score obtained
under the four risk situations and then working out the scores by dividing it by four.
3.5.3 Innovation proneness
Introduction of new technology and its adoption is essential for farming system to obtain higher
profits on a sustained basis. Its adoption indicates innovative behaviour of agripreneurs. A farmer
who views himself to the innovation proneness is likely to obtain higher yield. The self rating
innovation proneness scale (Moulik, 1965) was used to measure the innovation proneness of
farmers. It consisted of three sets of statements. Each set of statements consisted of three short
General Research Methodology 28
statements with weights 3, 2 and 1 indicating innovation proneness in high, medium and low
degree respectively. The forced choice method was followed to overcome the familiar problems of
personal bias and level of objectivity in self evaluation. This method forced the respondent to
choose from a group of statements to measure their innovation level which is one of their
important personality characteristics.
After attaining the most-least like statements from each of three sets of treatments, the scoring was
done by summing up the ratio of weight of most like statements to the least like statements. So, the
maximum possible score is nine. As there were three sets of statements of innovation proneness,
the sum of ratios for these three sets was the respondents self rating score for innovation
proneness. The respondents were classified as low, medium and high categories based on the
procedure of arithmetic mean and standard deviation.
1) Levels of Innovation proneness
Category Score Low (1-3) 0 Medium (3.1-6.0) 1 High (6.1-9.0) 2
3.5.4 Entrepreneurial competencies
Competencies have been defined as underlying characteristics of a person which results in
effective, superior and desirable performance on activity. Competencies are related set of skills,
knowledge and attributes which jointly determine level of performance on a job. Personal
Entrepreneurial Competence (PEC) instrument developed by International Centre for
Entrepreneurship and Career Development (ICECD), Ahmedabad (1988) was used in present
investigation. PEC Instrument measures thirteen entrepreneurial competencies which have been
operationalised as below:
1. Initiative
Does things before being asked of force by events
2. Opportunity seeking
Acts to extend the business into new areas, product or services
Seizes unusual opportunities to start a new business, obtains finances, equipment, land,
workspace or assistance
3. Persistence
Takes action in case of a significant obstacle.
Takes repeated actions or switches to an alternative strategy to meet a challenge or
overcome an obstacle
General Research Methodology 29
Takes personal responsibility for the performance necessary to achieve goals and
objectives
4. Information seeking
Personally seeks information from clients, suppliers and competitors
Does personal research on hoe to provide a product or service
Consultancy experts for business and seeks technical advice
5. Quality
Find ways to do the things better, faster and cheaper
Work meets agreed upon standard qualities
6. Commitment to the work contact
Makes a personal sacrifice or expands extraordinary effort to complete a job
Pitches in with workers or in their place to get a job done
Strives to keep customers satisfied and places long-term good will over short-term gain
7. Demand for efficacy
Acts to do things that meet or exceed standards of excellence
Develops or uses procedure to ensure work is completed on time
8. Systematic planning and monitoring
Plans by breaking large tasks down into time constrained sub tasks
Revises plans in light of feedback on performance or changing circumstances
Keeps financial records and uses them to make business decisions
9. Problem solving
Solves problems by proper strategizing
Thinks of various alternatives and new ways of solving problems
Looks for solution rather than being fatalistic
10. Self confidence
Expresses confidence in own ability to complete a difficult task or meet a challenge
Hopeful of finding ways on the basis of self competence
11. Assertiveness
Asserts in the face, if there is opposition or ambiguity
12. Persuasion
Uses deliberate strategies to influence others
Uses key people as agents to accomplish his or her own objectives
General Research Methodology 30
Uses strategy to persuade others
13. Influence
Exercises indirect control by influencing others
The details of PEC instrument and its scoring key are enclosed in Appendix II.
3.6 Measurement of sustainability of organic farming
The sustainability aspects of various organic farming practices were measured through a tool
which had been undertaken with indicators adapted to local situation. For that an index was
developed that contains a set of twelve items of three dimensions of sustainability viz., Ecological,
Economic and Social. Responses were scored on a 5-point continuum ranging from 0 = ‘Strongly
Disagree’ to 4 = ‘Strongly Agree’ for all statements. The statements for the three dimensions of
sustainability are given in Appendix III.
3.7 Measurement of constraints of organic farming
For the measurement of constraints in the promotion of organic farming five dimensions of
constraints were analyzed through a rating scale developed for the purpose, that contains a set of
twenty three questions on i) Technological constraints, ii) Economic constraints, iii) Personal
constraints, iv) Certification constraints, v) Ecological constraints.
Responses were obtained on a 3-point continuum ranging from 1=Not Severe to 3=Most Severe
for all statements. The statements under each dimension are given in Appendix III.
These constraints were compared using Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA. Each set of constraints
contains sub categories and they were tested by using Friedman’s two way analysis of variance.
3.8 Analysis of structural and technical frame work of the institutions
For collecting the information regarding the structural and technical frame work of the institutions
interview schedules were developed. One schedule was given to the officers and another one
schedule to the farmers, for cross checking the responses. These schedules are given in Appendix
III.
3.9 Reasons for organic cardamom farming
For identifying the reasons for organic cardamom cultivation, identified and screened eight
statements were selected. They were high price of organic produce, chemical free food
production, reduction of environmental pollution, low cost of cultivation, high domestic market for
organic produce, high export market, financial support from the government, encouragement of
group farming and marketing respectively. These statements were given to the farmers for
preference ranking. Most preferred statement was to get rank 1 and least preferred was to get rank
8. For measuring the significant difference Friedman’s test was used. Test statistics is given in
Table 1 in Appendix I.
General Research Methodology 31
3.10 Economic impact
3.10.1 Change in employment
Increase in employment as a result of the organic cardamom cultivation was a significant variable
to assess the impact of the innovation. It was measured as the difference in days of employment
and number of members employed in past and the present as a result of adopting organic
cardamom cultivation. Scoring procedure is given in Appendix III.
3.10.2 Change in income
Increase in income as a result of organic cardamom cultivation was measured as difference in
income of farm families between organic cardamom farmers and the non organic cardamom
farmers. Simple method to record only the change was adopted and scored as per the procedure
given in Appendix III.
3.10.3 Change in saving
Increase in saving as a result of the organic cardamom cultivation was measured as the difference
in savings of farm families between the previous saving and the present saving as per procedures
given in Appendix III.
3.10.4 Change in spending pattern
Increase in family expenditure denotes economic mobility in terms of economic investment and
expenditure of the family. It was measured as the respondent’s perceived change in expenditure
pattern as per procedures given in Appendix III.
3.10.5 Change in possession of assets
Change in possession of assets is an important indicator of impact of organic cardamom
cultivation. It was measured as the difference in value of assets owned at present and before
organic cardamom cultivation or 10 years back for non organic cardamom farmers. Simple method
of recording of the changes in possession of assets was developed as given in Appendix III.
3.11 Statistical tools used
1) Frequency and Percentage: Frequency is the number of occurrences. In statistics the
frequency (fi) of an event i is the number ni of times the event occurred in the experiment or
the study.
Percentage i
ii
f100
f= ×∑
2) Measures of central tendency:
(a) Arithmetic mean: The mean is the value arrived at by dividing the sum of observations by
total number of observations
General Research Methodology 32
Arithmetic Mean = Sum of elements / Number of elements
= a1+a2+a3+.....+an/n
(b) Median: It is a numerical value separating the higher half of a sample from the lower half.
The median of a finite list of numbers can be found by arranging all the observations from
lowest value to highest value and picking the middle one. If there is an even number of
observations, then there is no single middle value; the median is then usually defined to be the
mean of the two middle values.
(c) Mode: The mode is the number that appears most often in a set of numbers.
3) Student’s t-test: It is used to test the null hypothesis that the means of two normally
distributed populations are equal.
4) Wilcoxon-Mann–Whitney’s test: It is a non-parametric statistical test for assessing whether
one of two samples of independent observations tends to have larger values than the other. It is
a non-parametric equivalent of Student’s t-test.
5) Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance: It is a non-parametric method for testing
whether samples originate from the same distribution. It is used for comparing more than two
samples that are independent, or not related. The parametric equivalence of the Kruskal-Wallis
test is the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The factual null hypothesis is that the
populations from which the samples originate have the same median. When the Kruskal-
Wallis test leads to significant results, then at least one of the samples is different from the
other samples. It is an extension of the Mann–Whitney U test to 3 or more groups.
6) Friedman’s test: It is a non-parametric statistical test for testing whether samples originate
from the same distribution. It is used for comparing more than two samples that are related.
When the Friedman’s test leads to significant results, then at least one of the samples is
different from the other samples.
CHAPTER IVRESEARCH PAPER - I
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic
Cultivation
Abstract: In this paper, technological and methodological innovations developed and followed by
the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers had been studied and the reasons for the adoption of
organic cardamom production were identified. The results of the study on different aspects of
extent of adoption in case of organic and inorganic farmers clearly showed that most of the
practicing farmers were innovative in the complete adoption of all the relevant technologies as per
the package of practices. Organic cardamom growers were found to be more innovative in the
adoption of practices like planting material selection based on farmer selection and local selection,
the water and soil conservation technologies, and different ways of plant protection measures that
contribute higher benefit for the overall improvement of their farmland and the income generating
capacity of farmers. Extent of adoption of the various cultivation aspects showed the innovative
nature of the farmers. Their greater concern for the pollution free environment, chemical free
produce, and increased demand for the organic cardamom in the international and the domestic
markets drove them energetically to adopt organic farming practices in cardamom. Concreted
extension efforts are needed for the rapid spread of the eco-friendly available practices and
technologies.
Keywords: Technological and methodological innovations; Extent of adoption; Reasons of
adoption
4(1).1 Introduction
An innovation is an idea, practices, or object perceived as new by an individual or other unit of
adoption (Roger, 2003). Many of the identified innovations in the agricultural field are
technological and methodological in nature. Schumpeter (1960) identified innovation as the critical
dimension of economic change. He argued that economic change revolves around innovation,
entrepreneurial activities and market power. Innovation can take many forms. It does not require
inventing something wholly new; it can simply involve applying an existing idea in a new way or
to a new situation.
Our economy based on agriculture and innovative farmers are very much essential for food
sustenance. India is a growing economic power among the developing nations. But, we are not
able to feed a large portion of our population. Even if we are feeding significant portion of the
population, the chemical free food for the healthy living of the human is not available in sufficient
quantity. If the situation persists for a longer time, the greatest challenge that the nation is going to
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 34
face in the coming years will be to provide safe food for its growing population. In this regard,
organic farming which is a holistic production management system for promoting and enhancing
health of agro-ecosystem, has gained wide recognition as a valid alternative to conventional food
production system to ensure safe food for human consumption (Bhattacharya and Krishna, 2003).
In a state like Kerala, where cash crops are being exported to other nations and contributing a
major portion to the national income, organic production of the spices is very much sensational.
The homestead farming model which is popularly known as ‘Organic by Default’ in the state has
the potential to emerge out as the main source of knowledge to the organic spice cultivation to a
certain extent if farmers can take the advantage of the existing homestead models (John, 2007).
Cardamom, ‘The Queen of Spices’ is now enjoying the status of organic spice in the state. It is
mainly due to the adoption of methodological and technological innovations by the farmers and its
popularization in the state especially in the spice district ‘Idukki’.
A number of factors are associated with the adoption of organic cultivation practices among the
cardamom farming community viz., the willingness to change and operate in diverse ways, the
ability to face challenges, love for land and region, and the ability to overcome obstacles related to
markets and to search of traditions and new information. All these attributes make organic farmers
different from others (Duram, 1999). Organic farmers had better environmental orientation than
inorganic farmers. The organic farmers were treating their farms as a living organism and they
were mostly using locally available inputs in their farming which did not harm the environment
(Jaganathan, 2009).
Cardamom farmers were following the package of practices recommendations of the organic
farming in exact and modified form suited for their farming system, without compromising the
quality standards for marketing. These innovations made success stories in Idukki. Considering all
these facts, this study was planned to analyze the technological and methodological innovation
followed invariably by the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers with special emphasis on
reasons for adopting organic cultivation practices for the sustainable development of the farming
system.
4(1).2 Methodology
Identification of the innovations followed by the cardamom growers is important in the present
context of economic contribution of this particular crop to Indian economy. Innovative farmers of
the study area were following the cultivation practices as per the standards and with slight
modifications.
A survey approach was used to study the innovations and extent of adoption. Ninety farmers who
were actively involved in organic cardamom farming and thirty farmers following inorganic
cardamom cultivation were selected from three blocks of Idukki district and that formed a random
sample of one hundred and twenty respondents. The extent of adoption of the various practices
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 35
were analysed using a continuum from no adoption to modified and adopted. Using this continuum
extent of adoption of the package of practices of each technology was measured and frequency of
different adoption categories was worked out using the frequency analysis.
For the identification of the reasons for organic cultivation, statements were framed for organic
farmers only. Major reasons for the organic cultivation of the cardamom were identified by giving
rank to the selected statements.
A semi-structured schedule that includes all cultivation aspects and eight major factors was
developed for data collection and responses were collected through interview method. The
respondents were asked to rate the adopted practices and rank these eight factors while adopting
the cultivation practices and organic farming based on their view point as well as from their
experience of cardamom cultivation. Those statements based on the ranks, were analysed based on
Friedman’s test. Based on the mean ranks of the Friedman’s test they were grouped using the
multiple comparison technique.
4(1).3 Results and Discussions
In technological and methodological innovations adoption category for the planting material
selection showed that 73.3 per cent of farmers fully adopted the organic farming practices as per
the package of practices. In the case of inorganic farmers, frequency for the full adoption category
was less (56.7 per cent) as compared to organic farmers. Organic cardamom growers were mostly
selecting local selection varieties for full adoption (37.8 per cent). But in the case of inorganic
cardamom growers greater preference was for the improved varieties in full adoption. Some of the
organic cardamom growers were making some modifications in all the planting material while
selecting. Whereas such modifications were absent in the case of the inorganic cardamom growers.
Invariably organic and inorganic cardamom farmers were following sucker method of propagation,
and the planting in field technologies as per the package of practices. Adoption of the weed
management widely varied. Partial adoption was followed in the case of time and number of
weeding. But in case of type of weeding majority (70.0 per cent for organic and 73.3 per cent for
inorganic) were fully adopting the package of practices. Earthing up and thrashing were two
important cultural practices followed in the cardamom plantations. Method of thrashing was fully
adopted (100 per cent) without any modification by the cardamom farmers. For irrigation practices
organic cardamom farmers showed much variation in case of mulching. It varied from no adoption
to complete adoption. Partial adoption category also contributed a minor proportion (15.6 per
cent). In soil and water conservation practices more modifications were found among the organic
cardamom growers (23.3 per cent). Majority of the cardamom growers followed the
recommendations as such. Manuring and shade regulation practices were adopted for the healthy
growth of the cardamom plants. Shade trees were properly pruned and maintained during the entire
cropping year without much deviation from full adopted category. Bee keeping was widely
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 36
adopted by the organic cardamom farmers as a facilitating agent for pollination in cardamom. Only
in the organic condition the proper maintenance of the bee colonies were possible. It is evident
from the Table 4(1).3.1 that inorganic cultivation was not suitable for bee keeping practices. Even
if one may try to do so, poisoning of the colonies would happen and they would not be able to
maintain bee colonies. Plant protection measures were also followed as per the recommendations.
They were trying to incorporate new varieties by local selection and farmer selection which were
tolerant to pest and diseases.
Table 4(1).3.1: Summary table of technology adoption
No adoption
Partial adoption
Full adoption
Modified adoption No Technology
ORG (90)
INORG (30)
ORG (90)
INORG (30)
ORG (90)
INORG (30)
ORG (90)
INORG (30)
I Selection of planting materials
0 (0)
0 (0)
12 (13.3)
13 (43.3)
66 (73.3)
17 (56.7)
12 (13.3)
0 (0)
a Improved variety 68 (75.6)
18 (60.0)
1 (1.1)
4 (13.3)
16 (17.8)
8 (26.7)
5 (5.6)
0 (0)
b Local selection 43 (47.8)
14 (46.7)
8 (8.9)
9 (30.0)
34 (37.8)
7 (23.3)
5 (5.6)
0 (0)
c Farmers selection 69 (76.7)
28 (93.3)
3 (3.3)
0 (0)
16 (17.8)
2 (6.7)
2 (2.2)
0 (0)
II Propagation methods
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (1.1)
0 (0)
89 (98.9)
30 (100.0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
a Seedlings 90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
b Suckers 0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (1.1)
0 (0)
89 (98.9)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
III Planting in field 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
a Land preparation
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
b Spacing 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
c Pit size 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
d Pit preparation 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
e Planting time 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
IV Weed management
27 (30)
8 (26.7)
20 (22.2)
7 (23.3)
20 (22.2)
7 (23.3)
23 (25.6)
8 (26.7)
a No of weeding 0 (0)
0 (0)
67 (74.4)
22 (73.3)
23 (25.6)
8 (26.7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
b Time of weeding 0 (0)
0 (0)
47 (52.2)
15 (50.0)
43 (47.8)
15 (50.0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
c Type of weeding 0 (0)
0 (0)
27 (30.0)
8 (26.7)
63 (70.0)
22 (73.3)
0 (0)
0 (0)
V Trashing 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
4 (4.4)
10 (33.3)
86 (95.6)
20 (66.7)
a Method 0 0 0 0 90 30 0 0
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 37
(0) (0) (0) (0) (100) (100) (0) (0)
b Time 0 (0)
0 (0)
4 4.4
10 (33.3)
86 95.6
20 (66.7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
VI Earthing up 0 (0)
4 (13.3)
0 (0)
2 (6.7)
15 (16.7)
9 (30.0)
75 (83.3)
15 (50.0)
a Method 0 (0)
4 (13.3)
0 (0)
2 (6.7)
90 (100)
24 (80.0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
b Time 0 (0)
4 (13.3)
15 (16.7)
11 (36.7)
75 (83.3)
15 (50.0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
VII Irrigation management
0 (0)
0 (0)
8 (8.9)
2 (6.7)
14 (15.6)
4 (13.3)
68 (68)
24 (80.0)
a Irrigation time 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
b Mulching 8 (8.9)
2 (6.7)
14 (15.6)
4 (13.3)
68 (75.6)
24 (80.0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
VIII Soil and water conservation technology
8 (8.9)
1 (3.3)
25 (27.8)
14 (46.7)
36 (40.0)
8 (26.7)
21 (23.3)
0 (0)
a Water harvesting 48 (53.3)
9 (30.0)
32 (35.6)
13 (43.3)
10 (11.1)
8 (26.7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
b Bunding 0 (0)
1 (3.3)
13 (14.4)
6 (20.0)
43 (47.8)
23 (76.7)
34 (37.8)
0 (0)
IX Manuring 2 (2.2)
0 (0)
4 (4.4)
1 (3.3)
46 (51.1)
7 (23.3)
38 (42.2)
22 (73.3)
a Time 2 (2.2)
0 (0)
19 (21.1)
6 (20.0)
69 (76.7)
24 (80.0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
b Dose 2 (2.2)
0 (0)
35 (38.9)
3 (10.0)
53 (58.9)
27 (90.0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
X Shade regulation 0 (0)
3 (10.0)
22 (24.4)
7 (7)
68 (75.6)
20 (66.7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
XI Bee keeping 0 (0)
20 (66.7)
34 (37.8)
10 (33.3)
34 (37.8)
0 (0)
56 (62.2)
0 (0)
a No of colonies 0 (0)
20 (66.7)
5 (5.6)
10 (33.3)
85 (94.4)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
b Maintenance 6 (6.7)
30 (100)
26 (28.9)
0 (0)
58 (64.4)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
XII Harvesting and processing
0 (0)
0 (0)
57 (63.3)
25 (83.3)
33 (36.7)
5 (16.7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
a Time of harvest 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
b Post harvest operations
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1. Washing 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
2. Drying 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
3. Cleaning 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
4. Polishing 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
5. Sorting 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
6. Grading 0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
90 (100)
30 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 38
7. Packing 57 (63.3)
25 (83.3)
33 (36.7)
5 (16.7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
ORG=Number of organic farmers; INORG= Number of inorganic farmers Values in parenthesis indicate percentage
4(1).3.1 Identified technological and methodological innovations
Innovation 1
Idukki is Kerala’s largest district and is usually called as spice village of the world. Mr. Sebastian
Joseph was a marginal farmer and had studied only up to fourth standard. But his determination
and willpower saw him through. Sebastian Joseph with the help of his son Rejimon Joseph
developed a new cardamom variety ‘Njallani’ by selecting good berries and cross pollinating
these. This variety could be multiplied by clonal propagation method. Presently a vast area under
cardamom cultivation is covered by this variety.
Sebastian Joseph observed variation in the shapes of the cardamom. He selected the good berries
and cross pollinated them. For this purpose he selected four cardamom plants and put bee hives in
their midst. He then covered the plants with mosquito net. He marked the flowers that produced
the berries. These berries were pure clones. Next, the clones which bore more and bigger berries
were selected. Capsule was double the size of the common Mysore variety. He called his selection
‘Njallani’ after the ancestral name. It was observed that a ‘Njallani’ variety has 120-160 capsules
compared to 30-35 in the ordinary variety. Instead of planting seedlings that take two to three
years to bear fruit, he began to plant shoots and was able to shorten the yield span to two years
compromising neither on quality nor on quantity of the yield. In his quest to constantly upgrade the
cardamom variety, this industrious farmer recently developed another cardamom variety which is
yet to be named and which he says can even be grown in the plains and not just hilly terrains.
Innovation 2
Cardamom farmers are facing the threat of soaring labour cost. Non-availability of sufficient
labour is indeed a threat to cardamom cultivation in Cardamom Hill Reserves (CHR) of Idukki.
The cardamom growers who came out with the Njallani variety of cardamom that transformed
spices cultivation in Idukki has now reported success with three innovative types of planting
methods that require less labour cost and provide more yield to the growers. The single sucker
planting method, channel planting methods and pit less planting method introduced by them had
found great acceptance among farmers. Instead of six suckers in traditional planting method, single
sucker planting method was used where one sucker is planted in a pit. Before 1987, the average
cardamom production was below 3300 MT. But by the arrival of Njallani gold variety, farmers
started adopting the 'single sucker' method which led to production rising to 13500 MT in Idukki
alone (GOI, 2009). The new planting techniques therefore have come as a boon to the cardamom
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 39
farmers of Idukki. In the traditional planting method, the labour cost would be rupees 2, 10,000 per
hectare while in single sucker planting method it would be reduced to rupees 60,000.
Innovation 3
First hand knowledge about cardamom cultivation to many of us is obtained by a reading on
Mayne’s (1951) observation on cardamom plantation from North Kanara to Tinnelveli during
September to November 1940. His emphasis was “to maintain the cardamom agro-ecosystem by
developing the soil through mulches and organic matter as well as adequate shade for sustaining
yield”. This concept was witnessed in Mr. Paulose’s plot in Idukki. In his plot the soil is covered
with thick mulch throughout the garden. Under that mulch, one can see the friable block soil akin
to compost. In that plot the ‘Azhukal’ symptom (Phytophthora, Pythium,Rhizactonia rot or the
capsule and clump rot) were not seen. Thrips affected capsules and borer damage symptom on
shoot and panicle were less than one percentage.
In that field panicles were long with healthy flower bud, facilitating the colonization of the honey
bees. Tall shade trees maintained there resulted in good aeration of canopy. It resulted in the
growth of the secondary tillers as second tire shade above the panicle thus creating a good micro
climate with about three to five degree centigrade temperature less inside the plantation than
outside. This helped to reduce the multiplication of major pests. Resurgence of the minor pest and
white fly were not reported in Paulose’s garden.
This field witnessed reduced cost of cultivation than who had taken up intensive agriculture. It was
told that yield level in the garden rose to a higher level year after year. The farmer never disturbs
the soil; do not spread the soil around the clump. He regulated the shade only in dry months (Dec-
Jan) and spread cut tree branches on the ground. So the major share of the cost of cultivation was
only on harvest.
Innovation 4
Possessing a scientific bent of mind and curious nature, Mr. Joy spent most of his time
experimenting in the field so as to substantially increase the production and income from his farm.
He used to grow and experiment with arecanut and coconut crops. But he realized the profitability
of the cardamom. So he decided to concentrate on it. The new cardamom variety developed by him
named Panikulangara Green Bold No.1 (PGB-1) retains its green colour and size even after drying
and yields 6-8 kg of capsules per plant. Earlier, the farmer cultivated traditional Mysore, Malabar,
and Vazukka varieties of cardamom. He noted two plants from Vazukka variety bearing thick long
leaves, and vigorous growth. He separated two clones each from two plants and planted them in
his kitchen for further observation. After that he separated about 12 clones and obtained 70 plants
by clonal propagation. From those he developed another 1,000 plants. He noticed increased and
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 40
uniform production of tillers in them. The variety can be cultivated under drought conditions and is
less prone to pest attack, according to the farmer.
Productive tillers in (PGB-1) are comparatively higher than Mysore and Malabar varieties. As
capsules of innovator's variety were bolder than Mysore and Malabar varieties, farmers growing
this variety (Panikulangara Green Bold No.1) had a chance to generate more profit. Mr. Joy started
commercializing the variety from the year 2000 and so far has sold more than a lakh of seedlings
to farmers in Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. It is less prone to thrips, borers, and azukal
disease and can be grown without much care. The crop requires less shade and bears 110-120
numbers of tillers. The yield per plant is 6-8 kg of capsules that retain an attractive green colour
even after drying. Lack of adequate irrigation facilities poses a major constraint for cardamom
cultivation in Idukki district. But (PGB-1) grows well under rainfed condition and hence is suitable
to be grown in the areas where there is a lack of irrigation facilities.
Innovation 5
It is to be noted that the major constraints in organic cardamom cultivation had been pest and
disease management. Many farmers lost heavily either owing low to yield due to thrips scab on
capsules or lack of premium price for the produce. We have experienced that the best results on
farming come from farmers and on many occasions the determination of the farmer contributes to
the feat. This is what had actually happened in the case of a determined organic farming activist,
Mr. Raju Joseph who carried with him a big passion for cardamom cultivation. He realized that
only traditional varieties of cardamom viz., Malabar cultivar would be suitable for organic
farming. In 2006, he established a germplasm of Malabar cardamom cultivar, which had various
level of tolerance to thrips attack. Management of the thrips with the botanicals and bio agents
could not yield encouraging result for Mr. Raju. The effort in culling out less susceptible Malabar
cardamom cultivar to thrips damage helped in developing technology in organic cardamom
production. It was observed that only 0 - 5 per cent thrips scab on the capsule and there was a
higher yield of 400-500 grams per plant per harvest obtained with the new selected Malabar
cultivar.
Innovation 6
One of the big cardamom farmers in the study area had a controlled atmospheric packing
instrument for the packing of the processed cardamom. Using that cardamom was packed in 5
kilogram packet under controlled oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration. This packed
cardamom had a shelf life of more than five years. The farmer was directly exporting the packed
materials to Arabian countries.
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 41
4(1).3.2 Reasons for organic farming
Friedman’s nonparametric test was used to identify the significance of differences among the
various reasons for adopting organic cultivation. The result was found to be significant and is
given in Table 1 in Appendix-I. It was further subjected to multiple comparison procedures to
identify homogeneous groups of reasons. According to farmers’ opinion, the preferred reason for
adopting organic farming were that it produces a pollution free environment followed by high
demand for the organic produce in the domestic market, production of chemical free food and high
price of organic produce. These statements were found to be on par. As per Table 4(1).3.2.1, it
was also very evident that the organic cardamom farmers considered the government financial
support as the least important factor for the adoption of organic cultivation in cardamom farming.
Table 4(1).3.2.1: Major reasons for adopting organic cultivation as per Friedman’s test
No Reasons for adopting organic cultivation N Mean Rank
Homogenous Groups**
1 Organic farming reduces the environmental pollution 90 3.47 A 2 Increasing domestic market for organic produce 90 3.33 A B 3 Organic farming produces chemical free food 90 2.56 A B 4 High price of organic produce 90 6.23 A B 5 High demand of organic produce in the export market 90 3.29 B C 6 Organic farming enables group farming and
marketing 90 4.38 C
7 Organic farming lowers the cost of cultivation 90 8.00 D
8 Financial support from government through the Kerala state organic farming policy
90 4.75 E
**Mean ranks having same letters are not significantly different
However, the increasing awareness about the chemical free and safe food for a better living, and
the willingness of consumers to spend more on organic cardamom have raised the demand of
organic spice even in the domestic markets and lured farmers to adopt organic production of
cardamom. In addition, high demand for organic produce in international market was also another
major factor that lured them to shift to organic cardamom cultivation through group efforts of
farming and marketing and exporting abroad.
The results of the study on different aspects of extent of adoption in case of organic and inorganic
farmers clearly showed that most of the practicing farmers were innovative in the complete
adoption of all the relevant technologies as per the package of practices. Organic cardamom
growers were more innovative in the adoption of practices like planting material selection based on
the farmer selection and local selection, the water and soil conservation technologies, and different
way of plant protection measures contributed more benefit to the overall improvement of their
farmland and the income generating capacity of the farmers. But some of the farmers were found
Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 42
not so innovative. This might be due to the lack of sufficient resources to meet the complete
requirement in the farm.
Kerala, being the major organic spice exporter of the nation, had enjoyed an assured demand for its
producing in the export market. Market value of the organic cardamom, awareness about the
importance of pollution free environment for the sustainable development of the ecosystem,
chemical free produce needed for the healthy living, the group farming method adopted by
different small farmers’ groups and promoted by non-government organizations, the central
government and state government institutions promoting the organic cardamom production and
certification also encouraged the adoption of organic cultivation of the cardamom. The group
marketing through these groups and the electronic auction of the produce persuaded a number of
farmers to join hands in the organic cardamom production in the state.
4(1).4 Conclusion
Technological and methodological innovation developed and followed by the organic and
inorganic cardamom farmers have wide acceptability among others also. The “Njallani” variety
and single sucker planting method were found more acceptable by the cardamom farmers. This is
because of the cost effective nature and the agro ecosystem suitability of the innovations. Extent of
adoption of the various cultivation aspects shows the innovative nature of the farmers. Their
greater concern for the pollution free environment, chemical free produce, and increased demand
for the organic cardamom in the international and the domestic markets drove them energetically
to adopt organic farming practices in cardamom. Concreted extension efforts are needed for the
rapid spread of the eco-friendly available practices and technologies among cardamom farmers.
RESEARCH PAPER - II
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and
Constraints
Abstract: The present study was conducted to compare and identify the factors influencing
organic and inorganic cardamom production and also to identify major constraints in the
production of organic cardamom. The study revealed that the level of competency among farmers
was not the same, since some farmers are lagging behind the others in utilization of their minimum
resources, farming practices, marketing etc. The data collected revealed that most of the organic
and inorganic cardamom farmers did not differ in the case of age category, education background,
living standards, experience in farming, and aspiration level. But in case of risk taking ability and
entrepreneurial competencies the organic cardamom farmers and the inorganic cardamom farmers
did differ significantly. Other than the personal and social differences, some external factors were
identified as major constraints for the organic cardamom production. Mainly those were related to
the certification and marketing aspects. The initial yield loss along with lack of grading and
marketing opportunities and stringent certification procedures were the major constraints faced by
organic farmers.
Keywords: Socio-Psychological Factors, Entrepreneurial Competency, Constraints
4(2).1 Introduction
The farmers are key persons for promoting economic growth and technological change in any
developing country like India in which more than 65 per cent of the population depends on
agriculture for meeting their day to day needs. The development of entrepreneurial qualities among
the farmers is directly related to the socio-economic development of the society. In this context, it
was felt necessary to determine the level of entrepreneurial competencies and socio-psycho factors
among the farmers. Farmers in their farming situations are facing some day to day problems, long
term problems and various constraints. This is partially controlled by their managerial ability in
their ventures known as entrepreneurial competencies. In the case of cardamom which is high
fertilizer responsive and high value crops, organic way of cultivation needs some strong support
from personal level as well as institutional level. Among farmers innovativeness, achievement
motivation and risk orientation were the most important components. Further, the components like
decision making, innovativeness, management orientation, economic motivation, level of
aspiration and risk orientation were found to be crucial in influencing the successful selection of
eco friendly, sustainable component in farming (Narmatha et al. 2002). Challenging nature of the
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 44
organic cardamom cultivation in the high demanded and high priced situation, due to its initial
yield lose and long gestation period of establishment needs the facilitating factors like
entrepreneurial competencies and some socio- psychological conditions.
At the same time, there are some external factors which hinder the growth and income of the
enterprise which are also known as constraints. The study of Gabriel (1994) revealed that the
single biggest constraint to the development of organic agriculture is that most people in all
sections of our society, including farmers, scientists, researchers, extension officers and politicians
strongly believe that organic agriculture is not a feasible option to improve food security. Paul
(2006) stressed the major constraints coming in the way of adopting organic farming as the bias
towards chemical farming, inappropriate use of local varieties, high cost of certification, bias in
incentives, lack of research and extension support, poor marketing, lack of awareness among
farmers and consumers. The thorough knowledge of these constraints would give some sort of
experience to overcome the problem in future. Even though these could not be eliminated fully, it
can be reduced to below threshold level. These critical factors also vary from farmer to farmer and
among different ventures. But studying the nature of factors and their applications might be
applicable to all organically growing crops.
4(2).2 Methodology
The study was conducted in Idukki district of Kerala, in which the cardamom is growing as export
value crop. Three blocks were purposively selected and 90 farmers were randomly selected from
the three blocks for studying the socio –psychological variables and entrepreneurial competencies
of the organic cardamom growers. For making a valuable conclusion, 30 inorganic cardamom
farmers also selected as control group. Frequency analysis was used to categorize the farmers
based on their socio-psychological factors. Thirteen entrepreneurial competencies like initiative,
opportunity seeking, persistence, information seeking quality, commitment to the work contact,
demand for efficiency, systematic planning and monitoring, problem solving, self confidence,
assertiveness, persuasion, influence, feedback usage, knowledge level, were measured by PEC
scale developed by ICECD (1988). Those all characters are compared using Mann-Whitney Test.
Further, all the identified constraints were categorized into five groups. Those were personal,
ecological, technological, economical and constraints related to certification. The respondents
were given these constraints to rate them on a three point continuum from most severe, severe and
not severe. The farmers’ response scores were converted into ranks for one-way analysis of
variance using a non-parametric test, Kruskal-Wallis Test to ascertain the most important
constraints as perceived by organic farmer respondents. In each major category of those constrains
related sub statements were there. Those were again prioritized using Friedman’s non-parametric
test.
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 45
4(2).3 Results and Discussion
4(2).3.1 Personal Factors
1. Age
The data collected from respondents were analyzed and revealed that most of the organic
cardamom farmers (63.3 per cent) and inorganic cardamom farmers (80.0 per cent) (Table
4(2).3.1.1) belonged to middle age group. Elderly farmers contributed only 22.2 per cent and 13.3
per cent to the sample respectively by the organic and inorganic farmers. Only 14.4 per cent of the
selected organic cardamom farmers and 6.5 per cent of inorganic cardamom farmers were in the
young group.
Table 4(2).3.1.1: Distribution of respondents in according to their age Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Young, below 35 13 14.4 2 6.7 Middle aged, 35 to 59 57 63.3 24 80.0 Old, above 59 20 22.2 4 13.3
2. Education
Most of the farmers were found to have education up to high school level. Education provides
them with skills like innovativeness and having updated information. Only 23.3 per cent of the
inorganic farmers and 20.0 per cent of the organic farmers were under the high school education.
About 24.4 per cent of the organic and 33.3 per cent of the inorganic farmers were secondary
school educated. But only 3.3 per cent of the organic farmers were post graduated while compared
to inorganic farmers, who contributed 10 per cent to the total sample.
Table 4(2).3.1.2: Distribution of respondents according to their educational level Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Illiterate 1 1.1 0 0 Can read only 0 0 0 0 Can read and sign only 4 4.4 1 3.3 Primary school 13 14.4 6 20.0 High school 29 32.2 6 20.0 Secondary school 22 24.4 10 33.3 Graduate 18 20.0 4 13.3 Post graduate and above 3 3.3 3 10.0
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 46
3. Occupation
It is very clear from the Table 4(2).3.1.3 that invariably major portion of the organic and inorganic
cardamom farmers were fulltime farmers due to the high remunerative nature of the cardamom
plantations. About 75.6 per cent of the organic and 76.7 per cent of the inorganic farmers in the
sample taken were present in this category. There was not much difference in the occupation
category of the farmers.
Table 4(2).3.1.3: Distribution of respondents according to their occupation Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Fulltime farmer 68 75.6 23 76.7 Farming and services 16 17.8 5 16.7 Farming and business 6 6.7 2 6.7
4. Family type
Based on the number of the family members, families were categorized. It was observed that
majority of the farmers of organic cardamom farmers (97.8 per cent) and inorganic cardamom
farmers (90 per cent) belonged to the nuclear family. 2.2 per cent of respondents in organic
farmers and 10 per cent of the inorganic farmers were having joint family. There was no any
extended family type.
Table 4(2).3.1.4: Distribution of respondents according their family size Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Nuclear family 88 97.8 27 90.0 Joint family 2 2.2 3 10.0 Extended family 0 0 0 0
5. Type of house
Majority of the respondents had old concrete house. It had the percentage 70.0 per cent and 66.7
per cent respectively for the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers. Rest of the large majority
had modern concrete houses. Only a very small percentage of the respondent had tiled houses. It
was observed as 7.8 per cent and 3.3 per cent respectively for the organic and inorganic cardamom
farmers.
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 47
Table 4(2).3.1.5: Distribution of respondents according to their house type Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Thatched 0 0 0 0 Tiled 7 7.8 1 3.3 Old concrete 63 70.0 20 66.7 Modern concrete 20 22.2 9 30.0
6. Land size category
There observed a wide difference between the organic and inorganic cardamom growers in the
land size category. More than half of the organic growers had land area greater than 3 acres (52.2
per cent). But majority of the inorganic cardamom farmers had land area less than 1 acre (43.3 per
cent). Farmers with 1acre to 2 acre, land holding distributed as 22.2 per cent and 33.3 per cent
along the organic and inorganic cardamom growers respectively.
Table 4(2).3.1.6: Distribution of respondents according to their land size Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Less than 1 acre 11 12.2 13 43.3 1 acre to 2 acre 20 22.2 10 33.3 2 acre to 3 acre 12 13.3 6 20.0
more than 3 acre 47 52.2 1 3.3
7. Land under organic cultivation
About 50 per cent of the organic cardamom growers came under the category of the farmers with
more than 3 acre, of land under organic cultivation. Next higher group of the farmers had land area
of 1 acre to 2 acre under the organic cultivation. It emphasized the importance of the large size-
land for the technological innovations.
Table 4(2).3.1.7: Distribution of respondents according to their land size under organic cardamom cultivation
Category Frequency PercentLess than 1 acre 11 12.2 1 acre to 2 acre 20 22.2 2 acre to 3 acre 14 15.5 more than 3 acre 45 50
8. Experience categories
Cardamom farmers’ invariably organic and inorganic background had more than 15 years of
experience in the field. About 82.2 per cent of the organic farmers and 80.0 per cent of the
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 48
inorganic farmers belonged to this category. 10 to 15 year experience category contained 13.3 per
cent of the organic cardamom farmers and 16.7 per cent of the inorganic farmers respectively.
Table 4(2).3.1.8: Distribution of respondents according to their experience in farming Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Less than 5 years 1 1.1 0 0 5-10 years 3 3.3 1 3.3 10 - 15 years 12 13.3 5 16.7 More than 15 years 74 82.2 24 80.0
9. Organic farming experience category
From this Table 4(2).3.1.9, it is clear that more than half (52.2 per cent) of the respondents had 5 to
10 years experience and only 27.8 per cent of the sample had 10 to 15 years of experience in
organic cardamom farming.
Table 4(2).3.1.9: Distribution of respondents according to their experience in organic cardamom cultivation
Category Frequency PercentLess than 5 years 10 11.1 5-10 years 47 52.2 10 - 15 years 25 27.8 More than 15 years 8 8.9
10. Type of farming
Main type of farming in study area was mixed and multistoried. About 56.7 per cent of the organic
cardamom growers and 63.3 per cent of the inorganic farmers present in the study area were
following this category of cultivation. Next higher proportion was for monoculture i.e. 27.8 per
cent in organic farmer category and 20.0 per cent in inorganic category. Dry land farming was not
present in the study area due to the abundance of water.
Table 4(2).3.1.10: Distribution of respondents according to type of farming Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Monoculture 25 27.8 6 20.0 Crop Rotation 1 1.1 1 3.3 Dry land Farming 0 0 0 0 Mixed and Multistoried 51 56.7 19 63.3 Mixed Farming 13 14.4 4 13.3
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 49
11. Allied agricultural activities total
About 63.3 per cent of the organic farmers and 53.3 per cent of the inorganic farmers had engaged
in the allied agricultural activities.
Table 4(2).3.1.11: Distribution of respondents according to allied agricultural activities Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent No 57 63.3 16 53.3 Yes 33 36.7 14 46.7
Many of the farmers had cattle as a life supporting allied agricultural activity in the study area.
About 23.3 per cent of the organic farmers and 26.7 per cent of the inorganic farmers had cattle
rearing. Next main allied agricultural activity in the study area was poultry.
Table 4(2).3.1.11a: Distribution of respondents according to allied agricultural activities Organic cardamom farmers Inorganic cardamom farmers Category Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Cattle 21 23.3 8 26.7 Goat 1 1.1 0 0 Piggery 1 1.1 0 0 Rabbit 1 1.1 0 0 Poultry 17 18.9 7 23.3 Duck 0 0 0 0 Fish 1 1.1 0 0
12. Share of agriculture in household income
Majority of the farmers had farming as major source of income. 75.6 per cent of the organic
cardamom farmers and 76.7 per cent of the inorganic cardamom farmers fully depended on the
farming as their income source. About 24.4 per cent and 233.3 per cent of the organic and
inorganic farmers had partial dependence on farming for their income.
Table 4(2).3.1.12: Distribution of respondents according to Share of agriculture in household income
Organic cardamom farmers Inorganic cardamom farmersCategory
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Not at all from farming 0 0 0 0 Partially from farming 22 24.4 7 23.3 From farming alone 68 75.6 23 76.7 Total 90 100.0 30 100.0
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 50
13. Irrigation potential
Respondents from the study area had irrigation potential either from their own pounds or from the
rivers or from the canal. About 86.7 per cent of organic cardamom farmers and 76.7 per cent of the
inorganic cardamom farmers had irrigation source through out the year for meeting their water
requirement.
Table 4(2).3.1.13: Distribution of respondents according to irrigation potential Organic cardamom farmers Inorganic cardamom farmersCategory
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Not assured 0 0 0 0 Seasonal 12 13.3 7 23.3 Throughout the year 78 86.7 23 76.7 Total 90 100.0 30 100.0
Major irrigation source for the farmers in the study area was river. 74.4 per cent of the organic and
76.7 per cent of the inorganic cardamom farmers in that area depended on the river water as their
irrigation source. Next best used irrigation source for the organic cardamom farmers was pond and
for inorganic farmers it was tank. No one in study area depended on bore well for irrigation.
Table 4(2).3.1.13a: Distribution of respondents according to irrigation sources Organic cardamom farmers Inorganic cardamom farmers Category Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Well 72 80.0 16 53.3 Pond 5 5.6 0 0 Tank 2 2.2 2 2.2 Canal 1 1.1 0 0 River 67 74.4 23 76.7 Bore well 0 0 0 0
14. Farmer's perception of his farming method
Farmers’ perception about their farming practices varied among the organic and inorganic
cardamom farmers. About 88.9 per cent of the organic farmers were having the perception that
they had been practicing full adoption of the organic practices for last 10-15 years. Some of them
were following partially organic way of cultivation. In the case of the inorganic farmers, 53.3 per
cent of them were following the modern cultivation practices and 46.7 per cent of them followed
the traditional cultivation practices.
Table 4(2).3.1.14: Distribution of respondents according to farming method Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Traditional 0 0 14 46.7 Modern 0 0 16 53.3 Partly Organic 10 11.1 0 0 Fully Organic 80 88.9 0 0
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 51
15. Resources for Organic farming
Majority of the organic cardamom farmers depended on on-farm and off-farm resources for
meeting their requirement. But none of the inorganic cardamom farmers was depended on the on-
farm resources for cardamom cultivation.
Table 4(2).3.1.15: Distribution of respondents according to resources for organic farming Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent On-farm resources 80 88.9 0 0 Off-farm resources 81 90.0 30 100
16. Farming group membership
From the Table 4(2).3.1.16, it is clear that most of the organic cardamom farmers (76.7 per cent)
were members of different farming groups. But 23.3 per cent of the farmers did not have any type
of membership in any farming groups. In the case of inorganic farmers 56.7 per cent of the farmers
had membership in farming groups, 43.3 per cent of them had no any group membership.
Table 4(2).3.1.16: Distribution of respondents according to farming group membership
Organic cardamom farmersN=90
Inorganic cardamom farmers N=30
Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent No 21 23.3 13 43.3 Yes 69 76.7 17 56.7
17. Other organizational membership
In organic cardamom farmers, only a small percentage (37.8 per cent) had other organizational
membership, 62.2 per cent of them had no any other organizational membership. In case of
inorganic farmers also the same pattern of membership was found. About 63.3 per cent of them
were non members and 36.7 per cent had membership in other organizations.
Table 4(2).3.1.17: Distribution of respondents according to other organizational membership Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent No 56 62.2 19 63.3 Yes 34 37.8 11 36.7
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 52
4(2).3.2 Psychological factors
1. Innovation proneness
Most of the organic cardamom farmers and inorganic cardamom farmers were in the medium,
innovation potential category. Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s nonparametric test was used to identify
the significance of difference between organic and inorganic farmers in the case of the innovation
proneness. The result indicates that, there was not much difference in the case of the innovation
proneness between the control and the experimental groups and the value of test statistic and its
significance is given in Table 2 in Appendix I.
Table 4(2).3.2.1: Distribution of respondents according to their innovation proneness Organic cardamom farmers
N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers
N=30 Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Low (1-3) 0 0 5 16.7 Medium (3.1-6.0) 75 83.3 23 76.7 High (6.1-9.0) 15 16.7 2 6.7
Table 4(2).3.2.1a: Average innovation proneness as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test
Mean Rank Category Organic cardamom farmers
(N=90) Inorganic cardamom farmers
(N=30) Innovation Proneness 60.48a 58.57a
Mean rank with same superscript in each category is not significantly different
2. Risk taking ability
Risk taking ability of the organic and inorganic cardamom growers differed significantly. From the
Table 4(2).3.2.2 it is clear that mean rank for the risk taking ability of the organic cardamom
growers (70.85) was much more than that of the inorganic cardamom growers (27.80). But the
innovation proneness of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers did not differ significantly
as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s nonparametric test the value of test statistic and its significance
is given in Table 2 in Appendix-I.
Table 4(2).3.2.2: Average risk taking ability as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test Mean Rank
Category Organic cardamom farmers (N=90)
Inorganic cardamom farmers (N=30)
Risk taking ability 70.85a 27.80b Mean rank with same superscript in each category is not significantly different
4(2).3.3. Aspiration level
Based on the median value obtained from the response of the organic and inorganic cardamom
growers, quartiles were calculated. From the Table 4(2).3.3.1, it is clear that majority of the
organic cardamom farmers (74.7 per cent) were processing high level of aspiration, in terms of
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 53
increasing the organic farming area and more input oriented work. But the major portion of the
inorganic cardamom farmers (46.7 per cent) was coming under the medium level category.
Table 4(2).3.3.1: Distribution of respondents according to their level of aspiration Organic farmers Inorganic farmers Quartiles
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent I(16-20) 0 0 16 53.3 II (21-25) 10 11.1 14 46.7 III (26-30) 67 74.4 0 0 IV(31-35) 13 14.4 0 0 Total 90 100.0 30 100.0
4(2).3.4 Entrepreneurial competencies
Based on the PEC scale the thirteen entrepreneurial competencies were measured separately for
organic and inorganic farmers and compared using Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney Test. The mean
score obtained from the Table 4(2).3.4.1 shows that except for initiative and the persuasion organic
cardamom growers differed significantly from the inorganic cardamom farmers. They were having
a greater mean rank for all other observed characteristics. Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s
nonparametric test the value of test statistic and its significance is given in Table 3 in Appendix I.
Table 4(2).3.4.1: Distribution of respondents according to their level of entrepreneurial competencies
Mean rank Components Organic cardamom farmers
(N=90) Inorganic cardamom farmers
(N=30) 1. Initiative 62.01a 55.97a 2. Sees and act upon opportunities 67.90a 38.30b 3. Persistence 71.67a 27.00b 4. Information seeking 70.32a 31.03b 5. Concern for high quality work 73.53a 21.40b 6. Commitment to work 68.36a 36.92b 7. Sense of efficiency 66.59a 42.23b 8. Systematic planning 67.98a 38.07b 9. Problem solving 72.11a 25.67b 10. Self confidence 71.16a 28.53b 11. Assertiveness 70.17a 31.50b 12. Persuasion 64.48a 48.55a 13. Use of influence strategy 71.38a 27.87b
Mean rank with same superscript in each category is not significantly different
4(2).3.5 Constraints
Five sets of different constraints were enlisted and farmer’s response on their severity was asked.
These constraints were compared using Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA and the value of test
statistic and its level of significance are given in Table 4 in Appendix I. As the computed p-value
is less than the significant level at one per cent (p < 0.01) it can be inferred that the level of
influence of different constraints to the production of organic cardamom was different according to
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 54
farmers’ perception. To explore it further, multiple comparisons procedure was adopted to identify
the major constraints. The Table 4(2).3.5.1 given below shows the mean of rank corresponding to
each of the statements and also the grouping letter.
Table 4(2).3.5.1: Comparison of different constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks as per Kruskal-Wallis test
Constraints Frequency Mean rank Homogeneous Groups Personal 90 136.47 A Economical 90 157.69 A Technological 90 225.21 B Ecological 90 277.74 C Certification 90 330.37 D
From this Table 4(2).3.5.1, it is clear that the mean rank corresponding to the certification
constraint was more and hence it was the major constraint to the organic cardamom production.
Least affecting constraint was the personal and economic constraints. Technological and
ecological constraints were moderately severe in farmers’ perception. Further analysis of the each
category of the constraints was done using the Friedman’s test. From the test result it is clear that
each component in each category varied in farmers’ perception. Test statistic value and its
significance are given in Table 4 in Appendix I.
i) Technological constraints
Table 4(2).3.5.2: Comparison of different technological constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups
1. Lack of a reliable package of practices for organic farming 90 1.339 A
2. Shortage of disease free seeds and planting materials 90 2.611 B
3. Lack of timely information related to organic farming technologies 90 2.656 B
4. Non availability of enough organic inputs 90 3.394 C
From the Table 4(2).3.5.2, it is well evident that major technological constraint was the non
availability of the enough organic inputs for the large scale application in the cardamom fields.
Least important thing was the lack of availability of the package of practices. It is clear that
farmers were well known with the organic cultivation practices for the cardamom production.
Shortage of the disease free planting materials and lack of timely information were rated moderate
severity constraint. Test statistic value and its significance are given in Table 5 in Appendix I.
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 55
ii) Economic constraints
Table 4(2).3.5.3: Comparison of different economic constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups
1. The debate still going in the society about the need for the promotion of organic farming 90 2.283 A
2. Less profit acquired because of produced quality not up to the mark as specified by certification agency
90 2.528 A
3. Lack of proper community movement for the promotion of organic farming 90 2.550 A
4. Initial low price for the produce 90 4.328 B 5. Inadequate financial support to the new organic
farmers from govt. 90 4.778 B
6. Higher cost for the establishment of manure source 90 4.944 B
7. Initial yield loss 90 6.589 C
Most important economic constraint identified was the initial yield loss. It was quite prominent
than other factors. Initial low price for the produce, inadequate financial support to the new
organic farmers from govt. and higher cost for the establishment of manure source were identified
as moderate sever constraints. They were considering as on par. The debate about the organic
farming, hesitation among the neighbour farmers and lack of the proper community movement are
nested together and identified as least important constraints. Test statistic value and its significance
are given in Table 6 in Appendix I.
iii) Personal constraints
Table 4(2).3.5.4: Comparison of Different Personal Constraints in Organic cardamom production based on Mean Ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups
1. Lack of awareness about organic farming 90 1.539 A 2. The belief that ‘It is better to follow
conventional farming today and let tomorrow take care of it’ 90 2.022 A
3. Fear of profit loss due to low yield in the initial period 90 2.956 B
4. Shortage of owned resources 90 3.483 C
Most important constraint among personal constraints was shortage of the owned resources with
the mean rank 3.483. From the above sited Table 4(2).3.5.4, it is evident that shortage of owned
resources was very dominant than any other constraints. Analysis table shows that the cardamom
farmers were well known about the organic farming practices. So, it got the least mean rank. Test
statistic value and its significance are given in Table 7 in Appendix I.
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 56
iv) Certification related constraints
Table 4(2).3.5.5: Comparison of different certification related constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups
1. Lack of proper certifying agencies in the nearby place 90 1.450 A
2. The stringent standards and rules of the certification process 90 2.528 B
3. The need of a long period for the certification process 90 2.961 B C
4. Higher cost involved in the certification process 90 3.061 C
Nested observation of the higher cost involved in the certification process and a long gestation
period before the certification were considered as the most important constraints in the
certification procedure of the organic cardamom cultivation practices. Lowest mean value was for
the lack of the proper certification agency in that area. It indicates that study area is having ample
number of the properly registered certification agency for organic cardamom production. Test
statistic value and its significance are given in Table 8 in Appendix I.
v) Ecological constraints
Table 4(2).3.5.7: Comparison of different ecological constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups
1. Loss of ecosystem viability to maintain a good crop 90 1.978 A
2. Higher Pest and disease problems 90 2.394 A B 3. Requirement of long period to get
positive responses from the ecosystem 90 2.789 B
4. Inability to reconstruct the destroyed links of various ecosystem functions 90 2.839 B
Major constraint in the ecological constraint category was inability to reconstruct the destroyed
links of various ecosystem functions. This reason was on par with requirement of long period to
get positive responses from the ecosystem and higher pest and disease problems. But the statement
loss of ecosystem viability to maintain a good crop was ranked least. Test statistic value and its
significance are given in Table 9 in Appendix I.
4(2).5 Conclusion
In the success of any innovative farmer, social factors and psychological factors play a big role.
The data collected from respondents were analyzed and revealed that most of the organic and
inorganic cardamom farmers belonged to middle age group, had education up to high school
level, better living conditions, farming as the main source of income for living, and had more than
15 years of experience in the farming field. Aspiration level of the organic and inorganic farmers
Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 57
was not differing significantly. But risk taking ability and entrepreneurial competencies of the
organic cardamom farmers were much more than that of the inorganic cardamom farmers.
Identification of those factors is important for the overall development of the nation in economic
and man power terms. From the results of analysis for different constraints coming in the way of
the organic farming movement it was obvious that all the enlisted constraints were important in
one way or other way. However, still those related to the certification and marketing aspects had a
major role in creating obstacles to promotion of organic farming and its spread in the state. At the
outset, the initial yield loss along with lack of grading and marketing opportunities and stringent
certification procedures were the major constraints faced by organic farmers.
58
RESEARCH PAPER - III
Impact of Organic Cardamom Production on Sustainability, Income and Employment
Abstract: This study was conducted in the Idukki district of Kerala. Being the spice garden of the
state, Idukki contributes large amount to the export oriented spices. Organic cardamom is one of
the high value low volume spice and contributing to the economic and employment generation in
the area. Addressing these impact dimensions of the organic cardamom production have an
important input for policy dialogue that can foster private sector development and create
sustainable income generating measures for developing country farmers. The study identified that
along with the ecological sustainability of the organic cultivation practices, farmers were more
oriented to the economic and social sustainability of the organic way of cardamom production.
Keywords: Economic impact, Employment generation, Sustainability
4(3).1 Introduction
Every kind of agriculture has an impact on the environment and man. It is this belief of the organic
farming community that organic farming minimizes the chemical inputs thereby reduces damage
to health and the environment and also minimizes the cost of cultivation. It is a more sustainable
method of farming than conventional techniques and biodiversity is promoted by a large way.
Along with positive environmental impact, consumers’ demand for organic products is increasing.
Organic certification for agricultural products is increasingly promoted in many developing
countries. The shift from conventional to organic production might be an opportunity for small and
medium farmers to harvest higher returns from their investments by enabling access to developed
countries’ premium markets. Organic farming utilizes natural fertility and human labour more than
manufactured inputs to produce value. This means that organic farms create more jobs per farm
than the state average, and organic farmers turns up with a higher margin of value to local
economies than farms that rely on purchased inputs. According to Laura Paine (2009), even though
a small down ward movement in the production in the initial years, organic farms generate about
70 per cent more income per acre than their non-organic counterparts. Organic farming is more
than the sum of a list of all-natural ingredients, they work with the living system’s native to their
farms to create food and revenue and contribute to the sustainable development of agro-eco-
system.
A farming system unit is treated as an agro-ecosystem when the impact of farming helps it to attain
the resemblance of a forest ecosystem in species diversity and its multiplicity (Palaniyappan and
Annadurai, 2007). In the case of the cardamom cultivation, the natural habitat itself is forest. Yet,
Impact of Organic Cardamom Production on Sustainability, Income and Employment 59
to ensure an optimum productivity of an agro-ecosystem in the long run, it is important to keep its
vitality by adopting the sustainable agricultural practices. However, the success of organic
agriculture depends on the efficiency of agronomic management practices adopted to stimulate and
augment the underlying productivity. National Research Council outlined the ultimate goal of
sustainable agriculture is to develop farming systems that are productive and profitable, conserve
the natural resource base, protect the environment, and enhance health and safety over the long run
(NRC, 1989).
4(3).2 Methodology
The study was conducted in the Idukki district of Kerala, where the forest hills are known as
cardamom hills. To find out the impact of the organic farming, ninety organic cardamom farmers
and thirty inorganic cardamom farmers were randomly selected. Income and employment
generation capacity of the organic cardamom farming were assessed by collecting the information
on annual income, number of employment days, changes in the spending pattern and changes in
the saving pattern. Income data was analysed using the t-test, to find the difference among the
organic and inorganic farming strata. For the assessment of the sustainability of the organic
farming practices, identified factors were grouped in to three major groups, namely ecological
sustainability, economic sustainability and social sustainability. Each sub categories of the major
categories were ranked using a five point continuum. Wlcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s test was used to
test the significance of difference in the sustainability preference of the organic and inorganic
cardamom farmers.
4(3).3 Results and Discussions
4(3).3.1 Increase in the income of the organic cardamom farmers
Table 4(3).3.1.1 presents the result of increase in annual income due to the organic cultivation of
cardamom. More than one third of the cardamom farmers (38.9 per cent) reported that there was an
increase in income in the range of rupees 1-2 lakhs due to the organic cultivation. It may be due to
the increased demand of the organically produced cardamom and export demand due to the
organic certification of the cardamom. According to farmers even if there was a low returns in
terms of yield in the initial years, the yield and income stabilizes after a time laps. In case of
inorganic cardamom farmers major portion was coming under the low income category. 73.3 per
cent of the respondents were present in the less than one lakhs earning group. Only a small fraction
of the organic cardamom farmers (13.3 per cent) were present in the low income earning group.
26.7 per cent of the organic cardamom farmers were able to earn rupees 2-5 lakhs rupees per year,
whereas only a micro fraction of the inorganic farmers were in this group. It is evident from the
Table 4(3).3.1.1 that 21.1 per cent of the organic cardamom farmers were able to earn more than 5
Impact of Organic Cardamom Production on Sustainability, Income and Employment 60
lakhs rupees per year, whereas none of the inorganic cardamom farmers earned more than 5 lakhs
rupees.
Table 4(3). 3.1.1: Change in the income pattern Organic cardamom farmers (N=90) Inorganic cardamom farmers (N=30)Category
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent < 1 lakhs 12 13.3 22 73.3 1-2 lakh 35 38.9 7 23.3 2-5 lakh 24 26.7 1 3.3 > 5 lakh 19 21.1 0 0
From the data it is evident that there was a significant difference between the income of the
organic and inorganic cardamom farmers. Data in the Table 4(3).3.1.2 represents the average
income of farmers in each of the group. From this it is clear that mean for the organic cardamom
farmers income was larger than the inorganic cardamom farmers.
Table 4(3). 3.1.2: Average income
Group N Mean Std. Error Mean Organic cardamom farmers 90 918170 132363 Inorganic cardamom farmers 30 198730 30048
This difference in income was tested using t-test to know the statistical significance of the
difference. From Table 4(3).3.1.2, it is evident that there was significant difference in the average
income of organic farmers as compared to inorganic farmers, which indicated the higher income
generating capacity of the organic cardamom farmers.
Table 4(3).3.1.2 a: Comparison of average income of farmers belongs to organic and inorganic cardamom growers
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Prob. t df Prob. Equal variances assumed 9.817 0.002 3.12 118 0.002 Equal variances not assumed 5.30 98 0.000
6.3.2 Change in the employment pattern
Organic cultivation is using on farm resources and man power for the production of the products in
very economic and efficient manner. It requires the whole season practices for the economic and
prosperous production of the farm out puts. It will leads to the increase in the employment
generation in any area. From Table 4(3).3.2.1, it is clear that more than half of the organic
cardamom farmers were fully employed throughout the season, and 36.7 per cent of the total
organic cardamom growers were getting more than 100 days of employment in a year. But in the
case of the inorganic cardamom farmers only negligible portion was getting employment year (3.3
per cent). Only 16.7 per cent of the farmers were employed more than 100 days of employment per
Impact of Organic Cardamom Production on Sustainability, Income and Employment 61
year. Majority of the inorganic farmers were coming under the group with less than 100 days of
employment per year. But very less proportion of the organic cardamom grower were under the
category with 100 days employment (5.6 per cent) and less than 100 days of employment in a year
(4.4 per cent). It is clear from the Table 4(3).3.2.1 that organic cardamom cultivation was having a
significant impact on the employment generation due to the labour intensive farm yard manure
applications, weeding, cultural practices and water harvesting and soil conservation practices like
bunding, trenching and mulching.
Table 4(3).3.2.1: Change in the employment pattern Organic cardamom farmers (N=90) Inorganic cardamom farmers (N=30)Category Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
<100 days 4 4.4 14 46.7 100 days 5 5.6 10 33.3 >100 Days 33 36.7 5 16.7 fully employed 49 54.4 1 3.3
4(3).3.3 Change in spending pattern
Almost all the respondents irrespective of organic and inorganic cardamom farmers had changed
spending pattern due to various factors like urbanization, appreciation of land values and increase
in income. Aspiration was more in farmers than before and they were spending more money for
life supporting and luxurious items. Desire to give education to the children was identified as the
most prioritized desire among the farmers and for that disregarding their earning capability they
were ready to spend any amount of money.
4(3).3.4 Changes in the saving pattern
Many of the farmers were saving the money in the form of land and luxury material. It acted as
some social status indicator in the study area. People with more amounts of assets were considered
as social stars in the study area.
4(3).3.5 Sustainability of the organic farming practices.
Sustainability is indicating the economical, ecological and social dimensions of growth and
balanced establishment. Most important sustainability dimension identified by the farmers was the
societal stability and status. Economic sustainability was also played an important role in the
everyday living by adoption of the organic farming practices. It helped the farmers to accumulate
the working capital, improve the income from the farm and reduced dependence on the external
inputs for the farm. Organic farming sustainability was extremely different and prominent than
inorganic cultivation practices.
Impact of Organic Cardamom Production on Sustainability, Income and Employment 62
Table 4(3).3.5.1: Comparison of sustainability in cardamom production based on mean ranks as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s test
Mean Rank Category Organic farmers
( N=90) Inorganic farmers
(N=30) Total sustainability 72.94a 23.18b
1. Ecological sustainability 63.63a 51.10a 2. Economic sustainability 68.51a 36.48b 3. Social sustainability 74.12a 19.63b
Mean rank with same superscript in each category is not significantly different
Ranks obtained from the responses of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers were analysed
using Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitey’s test. From the Table 4(3).3.5.1 of the mean rank, it is clear that
organic cardamom cultivation was more sustainable than inorganic cultivation. Identified
components of the total sustainability were ecological sustainability, economic sustainability and
social sustainability. Statements in different set of sustainability are given in Appendix III. Test
result showed that they were significantly different in both the groups. Even though they differed
in economical, social and ecological components, based on the perception of farmers, the
ecological sustainability difference was marginal only. Test statistic value and its significance are
given in Table 10 in Appendix I.
4(3).4 Conclusion
Impact dimensions of the organic cardamom production is an important input for policy making
and to foster private sector development and create sustainable income generating measures for
farmers of developing country. The farmers following the organic cultivation were earning a
desirable margin of the profit by the marketing of the certified brand of the organic cardamom.
There was not much difference in the living pattern of the organic and inorganic cardamom
farmers, but the difficulty in meeting life supporting essentials was less in the case of the organic
cardamom farmers, due to the large profit. Employment generation in terms of the number of days
was more in the case of organic cardamom growers. Though organic farming can enhance the
ecological sustainability of an agro-ecosystem, to ensure economic and social sustainability
scientists and policy makers should be vigilant while advising the technology to the farmers.
RESEARCH PAPER - IV
Institutional and Structural Framework of Govt. and NGO’s for Promoting Organic Agri-Enterprise
Abstract: Kerala was emerged as leading producer of and exporter of organic cardamom. The
promotional aspect of various institutions, government organizations and non- governmental
organizations has played an important role in establishment of these agri enterprises. This study
was with the objective of identifying the institutional and structural frame work of the various
organizations for the promotional role with special emphasis on organic cardamom growers in the
Idukki district of Kerala. It was found that governmental, non-governmental and certifying and
exporting institutions are playing an important promotional role in the organic cardamom
production and marketing. Group cardamom farming approach followed by the various
organizations revealed the importance of the group approach for getting organic certification in an
easy way and promotion of organic concept in wide range in a locality.
Keywords: Institutional and structural frame work
4(4).1 Introduction
Alternative innovative institutions are called upon to meet emerging challenges of enhancing
income and reducing poverty especially in the under invested rain fed region. Until the end of the
eighteenth century, farming techniques were developed gradually and steadily over centuries with
few qualitative leaps. The rise of agricultural science has induced dramatic change in these aspects.
In order to achieve development, modern research results had to be transferred to the traditional
farmers, and extension seems to be the appropriate means to do so. According to UNDP (1991)
improved technology is a package of inputs and practices that usually comes from many sources.
In the case of organic farming identification and selection of the superior variety, plant protection
practices and many other processing related techniques are coming from nongovernmental sector
and farmers field itself. In the case of spice like cardamom, the need of this type of supporting
institutions is well evident.
If international markets are to be the target, farmers with small holdings who depend on the same
piece of land for food and income, will never be able to afford it, as it is beyond their scale of
operation. Hence, to begin with the untapped domestic market with focus on supplying healthy and
quality measured products at affordable prices hold some promises (Balamatti, 2007) for a better
sustainable development. Organic farming can be defined as an approach to agriculture where the
aim is to create integrated, humane, environmentally and economically sustainable agricultural
Institutional and Structural Framework of Govt. and NGO’s for Promoting Organic Agri-Enterprise
64
production systems. The objective of sustainability lies at the heart of organic farming, with the
term used in the widest sense, and is one of the major factors determining the acceptability or
otherwise of specific production practices. However, to promote any sustainable agricultural
technology package either in research or in farmers’ field, an effective institutional framework is
an indispensable factor.
The institutional framework for a sustainable agriculture development covers a spectrum of formal
bodies, organizations, networks and arrangements that are involved in its policymaking or
implementation of activities. An ideal institutional framework enhances the integration of the three
pillars (ecological, social and economic) of sustainable development. Institutional factor is very
important, because, as mentioned by Tschirley (1997) Human and institutional capacity to manage
the development process through participatory and transparent approaches is fundamental to
sustainable agriculture.
Cardamom is an export oriented crop, needs the proper evaluation and recommendation in the area
of production, processing and certification in terms of quality and standards. Apart from the
government institutions many other nongovernment organizations, certification agency and
farmers groups are working in a harmonious way in the spice garden of Kerala.
In this context, the study was aimed at studying the existing organizational networks and
institutional mechanisms for the promotion of organic cardamom production in Idukki district of
Kerala.
4(4).2 Methodology
This study was conducted in the Idukki - spice district of Kerala. It is well known for the organic
cardamom from its cardamom hills. It is very important to enlist the various institutional
mechanisms in terms of its structure and function, which are there to promote the cultivation and
certification of the organic cardamom. For the analysis of the structural frame work and
functioning, three groups of institutions were selected; Government institution (Indian cardamom
research institute of Spices Board and Cardamom research station of Kerala Agricultural
University) Non-Government institution(PDS- Pirumedu Development Society) and certifying and
exporting institutions (INDOCERT).
Interview method was followed for the collection of data. For that a semi structured schedule was
prepared and statements were made on three groups of institutions: government, non-governmental
organizations, certifying / exporting agencies. Data were collected from secondary sources also for
getting an explicit understanding about the issue.
Institutional and Structural Framework of Govt. and NGO’s for Promoting Organic Agri-Enterprise
65
4(4).3 Result and Discussion
As a result of a comprehensive study of various formal and informal institutions engaged with the
promotion of organic cardamom production it was identified that there were mainly three
categories of institutional networks that could make a positive impact in the same. The
components of the existing institutional network are as follow
1. Government organizations
2. Non-Governmental organization
3. Certifying and exporting organisation
4(4).3.1 Institutional and structural frame work of the different organizations
4(4).3.1.1 Government organizations
a. Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI)
The Spices Board (the erstwhile Cardamom Board), at Myladumpara in the Idukki district of
Kerala to carry out basic and applied research on all aspects of small and large cardamom was
constituted under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, as an apex body
for promoting Indian spices and spice products world-wide. Its mandate is mainly for the overall
development of cardamom, and export promotion of the 52 scheduled spices. Each Research
Station is headed by a Deputy Director (Research), and the overall research coordination in ICRI
(Indian Cardamom Research Institute) rests with the Directorate of Research located at the Main
Station in Myladumpara. Various divisions for conducting the research in the cardamom
production are Crop Improvement Division, Agronomy and Soil Science Division, Plant Pathology
Division, Entomology Division, Post-harvest Technology Division and Transfer of Technology
Division.
The divisions were working hormonally for the promotion of the organic cardamom production.
Various plant protection bio pesticides were standardised by the ICRI with the result of basic
research in the experimental station and trail research in farmers’ field. An important example is
the Neem Kernel Aqueous Extract (NKAE). They are keeping the demonstration plots on organic
cardamom production. ICRI standardised the package of practices for organic cardamom
production, especially for the agro climatic conditions of Kerala.
In the field approach, single farmer approach was found effective by the ICRI. Field work group
team is identifying the progressive and innovative organic cardamom farmers from the various part
of the Idukki, and helps in standardising and adopting the innovations. This team identified and
standardised one farmer selection Malabar type cardamom variety for the organic cardamom
Institutional and Structural Framework of Govt. and NGO’s for Promoting Organic Agri-Enterprise
66
cultivation. It is resistant against the thrips attack. It is helping for the collaboration of the farmer
with various exporting agencies like RAMCO Estate (Spice India, 2011).
b. Cardamom Research Station (CRS)
This research station is under the Kerala Agricultural University. They are acting as a facilitating
agent for the promotion of the organic cardamom production. This institute standardised the
package of practice of organic cardamom production. Group farming approach is followed by
CRS. Research also station is involved in the production of various technologies.
4(4).3.1.2 Non-Governmental organization
a. Peermade Development Society (PDS)
Peermade Development Society (PDS) is registered as a nongovernmental organization, aims at
the sustainable development through developing various indigenous, community based and people
participatory developmental programmes. It acts as a supporting, knowledge disseminating centre
for the organic production in various crops, especially in organic cardamom production. Group
farming approach is followed by the PDS for the production of organic cardamom. Produce from
the farmers whoever in the identified organic farmers groups were collected and certified as per
the requirements.
PDS Organic cardamom have been certified as per ISO 22000:2005 Food Safety Management
System by Bureau Veritas, Certification (India) Pvt. Ltd. The FLO-CERT GmbH Certification for
Development has certified PDS Organic Spices to trade in Fair Trade products. The certification is
accredited by UKAS (United Kingdom Accreditation Services). This quality certification will
place PDS better among the suppliers as the buyers prefer to buy only from reliable suppliers who
have established efficient food safety management systems. It guarantees farmers are paid a fair-
trade minimum price for their products and premium for improving their standard of living.
For meeting the needs of marginal farmers and women for processing their farm produce, the
centre has started agricultural processing centres by installing the proven technologies of farmers.
These centres are operating in Idukki district and will cater to the needs of those processing spice
crops with main emphasis on the cardamom. The whole centre is managed by the women’s self-
help groups.
The centre will mediate with innovators and ensure the supply of their product. The technologies,
varieties and services from innovators are identified and disseminated by PDS. Cardamom Verities
Njallani, White flowered cardamom, Wonder Cardamom. Cardamom Polishing Machine & Driers
are some of the innovation identified and disseminated by PDS.
Institutional and Structural Framework of Govt. and NGO’s for Promoting Organic Agri-Enterprise
67
Producer group PDS Organic Spices promoted a NGO termed as Sahyadri Organic Small Farmers
Consortium (SOSFC). It will help the farmers to obtain the premium price for the produces.
4(4).3.1.3 Certifying and exporting institution
a. INDOCERT
Organic certifying agencies as well as agencies, engaged with the export of organic cardamom to
international markets, were also playing a major role in the wide acceptability of the organic
cardamom cultivation among farmers. The major identified certifying agency of the Kerala state
was INDOCERT by almost all of the exporter farmers as they were offering reliable and
affordable inspection and certification services in the state.
INDOCERT is a nationally and internationally operating, certification body established in India. It
is accredited by National Accreditation Body (NAB), Government of India, as per National
Program for Organic Production (NPOP). In the field of organic farming, INDOCERT also
functions as a platform for training, awareness creation, information dissemination and networking
among farmers.
It will provide the organic certification to individual farmers and farmers groups. INDOCERT
offers inspection and certification services to small holder groups with Internal Control System
(ICS) as per NSOP, USDA NOP and rules .Group certification can be applied for groups of small
farmers, which are covered by an Internal Control System (ICS), usually cultivating the same
crops, using the same inputs and production practices and marketing their products under the same
label or marketing system. This group certification is followed in the organic cardamom
production units, for the brand making and marketing.
4(4).4 Conclusion
It is obvious that the different institutions have good access to each corner of the social system and
play a major role in promoting organic cardamom production in the district. Non-governmental
institutions play an important role in the organic cultivation promotion, by giving a well accessible
form of information, making a platform of organic certification and reducing the drudgery of
getting the individual organic certification by group certification approach. Export promotions of
organic cardamom, making brands with special identifiable standards are done by the organic
cardamom farming support institutions.
CHAPTER V
GENERAL DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction
India has golden history of ancient agriculture and has the credit of contributing ancient agriculture
practices to other parts of the world over years. This has lead to a number of changes at various
production levels of agriculture from sowing to harvest. “Krishito naasti dhurbhikhsam” (famine
vanishes through farming) thus said the Vedas. Since ages, agriculture has been the life of the
Indian people, meeting the main basic need of food, clothing and shelter. In order to meet the food
needs of the alarmingly growing population, “Green Revolution” came as an answer. Green
revolution in India has witnessed a jump in agricultural production with the introduction of high
yielding varieties (HYVs) of various crops and by following intensive cultivation practices with
the use of fertilizers, pesticides and other inputs. The side-effects of the modern agricultural
chemicals and machines raised serious questions about the overall benefits of the new
technologies. Chemical fertilisers and pesticides polluted our air and water. Agricultural
chemicals, including hormones and antibiotics left residues in food that may cause cancer or
genetic damage. This serious situation called the need of the organic cultivation, especially in the
plantation crops like cardamom, where large quantities of the chemicals were dumped for greater
returns.
Organic agriculture is now practised in almost all countries of the world, and its share of
agricultural land and farms is growing. The total organically managed area is more than 22 million
hectares worldwide. In addition, the area of certified “wild harvested plants” is at least a further
10.7million hectare, according to various certification bodies. The market for organic products is
growing, not only in Europe and North America, but also in many other countries, including many
developing countries including India. In June 2001, the Government of India announced the
National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP), which aims to promote sustainable
production, environmental conservation, reduction in the use and import of agrochemicals, the
promotion of export and rural development.
In the last 10-15 years, many farmers in Kerala other than those who continued the traditional
methods have taken up organic farming quite earnestly. Those who reverted from modern
intensive agriculture of many years to organic farming practices had to face many immediate
problems. Sudden withdrawal of the external inputs led to steep fall in yield. The high yielding
varieties of seeds had to be replaced by indigenous ones. The gap of 30 - 40 years created a
vacuum in the knowledge of traditional agricultural practices. The prevalence of modern
agriculture in majority of the cultivable areas makes it difficult to maintain organic purity in the
soil and atmosphere. While it has been proven beyond doubt that the organically grown food is
General Discussion 69
much better in quality, it remains to be established that, in terms of total productivity and
economic viability, organic farming can be compared with modern intensive agriculture.
Organic farming is more than a new venue for export earnings; it is part of our Indian culture
specially that values conservation of nature and life on earth as the ultimate philosophy. Efforts
made by Fukuoka (1978) of Japan to develop Natural Farming Principles by his experiments on
his farm over a number of years need special mention here. Similarly such efforts have been made
by a number of farmers in different parts of the country to develop alternative farming methods of
their own in their farm. Experiments and success of such farmers is unique and numbers of such
farmers are only a few. In this regard the study entitled “An Analytical Study of Organic
Cardamom Growers in Idukki District of Kerala” was an attempt to reveal the organic cultivation
practices followed in the high export earning crop of cardamom and the various technological and
methodological innovations by the farmer in the study area. It was able to show that reasons of the
organic cultivation of cardamom crop and how the farmers perceived it as sustainable in terms of
economic, ecological and social parameters.
5.2 Extent of adoption of technological and methodological practices by the cardamom
farmers
As farming encompasses a set of technologies related to the agronomic, pest and nutrient
management aspects, the extent of adoption of each group of technologies deserve importance to
measure the level of adoption among the practicing farmers .Assessment of the extent of adoption
of the practices revealed that farmers were categorized as: no adoption, partial adoption, full
adoption and modified adoption. Majority of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers were
following the full package of practices for the cultivation of the cardamom. But the custom-made
versions of the practices were most frequently found only among the organic cardamom farmers.
Large forms of the modifications were found in the planting material selection practices. The study
showed that farmers in the study area showed more faith on in the local selection and farmer’s
selection of the planting materials. Modifications in the water harvesting and soil conservation
practices were more often found among the organic cardamom farmers. But the case of the bee
keeping practices, full adoption was found among the organic cardamom farmers and it acted as a
facilitating agent for the pollination of the cardamom plants. It was not possible in the inorganic
cardamom plantations, due to the poisoning by the plant protection chemicals.
5.3 Technological and methodological innovations followed by the cardamom farmers
Many innovations related to farming practices and technologies are coming from farmers’ field
itself. It is by their keenness in farming practices and observation power. A variety of cardamom
called ‘Njallani’, which had 120-160 capsules compared to 30-35 capsules of the ordinary variety
developed by a farmer from his collection of the large number of the cardamom germplasm.
Another high yielding farmer selection variety known as Panikulangara Green Bold No. 1 (PGB-
General Discussion 70
1), which retained its green colour and size even after drying and yield of 6-8 kg capsule per plant
identified and developed by a farmer from his cardamom plantation. It was suitable for the low
irrigated area, less prone to the pest attack and had bold capsule than other variety and helped the
farmers to earn more profit. Identification of Malabar variety of cardamom which was tolerant to
thrips attack (0-5 per cent) and yield dry capsule of about 400-500 grams per plant per harvest.
A progressive farmer developed a planting method known as ‘Single sucker planting method of
cardamom’, which reduced the planting cost from rupees 2,10,000 to rupees 60, 000. Earlier the
farmers were using the six sucker planting method which was labour intensive and more time
consuming. By the arrival of the single sucker planting method economic benefit of the farmers
were increased. No disturbance to the soil and the earth for keeping the soil more responsive in the
natural way was practiced in many part of the world. A progressive farmer in Idukki was following
the ‘zero soil disturbance’ – covering the soil with thick mulch, regulating the shade in the
plantation there by reducing the damage caused by thrips. By the change in the micro climate the
pest and disease causing organism did not be able to survive and not able to make any damage on
the cardamom plants and capsules. Adoption of one modern technology pertaining to packing was
also adopted in the study area. Packing of the cardamom in a controlled atmospheric condition
(low oxygen and carbon dioxide) – packed cardamom is having a shelf life of 5 years and direct
export of cardamom by that farmer.
5.4 Reasons for organic cultivation of cardamom
With the increase in population, options before us would be not only to stabilize agricultural
production but to increase it further in sustainable manner. The scientists have realized that the
‘Green Revolution’ with high input use has reached a plateau and is now sustained with
diminishing returns of falling dividends. Also due to the ill effect of the chemicals we applied in
the soil destroyed its natural supporting capacity. Now people were realizing the importance of the
need for conservation of the natural eco-system and the land for the sustainable development of the
nation.
The analysis of the major reasons for organic cultivation of the cardamom revealed that the
cardamom farmers were more convinced about the need for conservation of the natural eco-system
and the forest eco-system for the production of sustainable cardamom plantations. However, the
increasing awareness about the chemical free and safe food for a better living, and the willingness
of consumers to spend more for the organic food has raised the demand of organic food even in the
domestic markets and lured farmers to adopt organic production of cardamom. In addition, high
demand for organic produce in international market was also another major factor that lured them
to shift to organic farming through group efforts of farming, marketing and exporting abroad.
General Discussion 71
5.5 Supporting factors for the organic cardamom production
As initial yield lose and long gestation period of establishment is associated with the organic
cardamom cultivation, it needs the facilitating factors like entrepreneurial competencies and some
socio- psychological conditions for the successful implementations of the same. From the study
various socio-psychological factors were identified, which were contributing the successful
adoption of the organic cultivation in the cardamom. Farmers came under the study area showed
much difference in various factors, which were identified as the important element in practicing
the organic cultivation of the cardamom. The data collected from respondents revealed that most
of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers belonged to middle age group, had education up to
high school level, better living conditions, farming as the main source of income for living, and
had more than 15 years of experience in the farming field.
But the dependence on the on-farm resources and off-farm resources showed difference among the
organic and inorganic farmers. Inorganic farmers fully depended on the off farm resources for
meeting the fertilizer needs in their farm. Organic cardamom cultivator depended mainly on the
off farm resources for meeting the deficit of the fertilizers faced by them.
The aspiration level of the organic and inorganic farmers was not differing significantly. But risk
taking ability and entrepreneurial competencies of the organic cardamom farmers were found to be
much more than that of the inorganic cardamom farmers. Identification of these factors was
important for the overall development of the nation in economic and man power terms.
5.6 Constraints in the organic cultivation of the cardamom
Many obstacles and hurdles were present in the organic cardamom production. Five major streams
of the constraints were identified in the study locality. In this study it was found that certification
related constraint was the most severe form of constraint faced by the organic cardamom farmers.
Farmers perceived personal constraints as the least important constraint faced by them. Non
availability of enough technological options for organic inputs was the most serious issue in the
farmer’s field in terms of the technological constraint. Even though technology for the production
of the organic manure is present, the need for the large quantity of the organic fertilizer was not
satisfied with these available technologies. In the case of the organic cardamom farmers who
converted their conventional farms in to organic farms, faced initial yield lose due to the
conversion. This was identified as the major economic constraint faced by the farmers in the study
area. Even if they were getting enough returns in the following years, the gap faced by the farmers
in the initial period contributed to economic loses. In the case of organic certification a higher
amount has to be paid for getting the certification by the certifying agency. Even if the farmers
were following the group farming approach in the organic cardamom production the certification
procedure need much amount of investment. Even though farmers were facing these constraints
General Discussion 72
they were convinced with the importance of organic cultivation in terms of ecological, economic
and social sustainability following the recommended practices.
5.7 Impact of the organic cardamom production on sustainability, income and
employment
There was considerable improvement in employment, income, increased assets possession, saving
and kind of housing conditions of the farmers after adopting organic cardamom cultivation and
exports. This may be due to enhanced earnings and profits made by them from organic cardamom
cultivation. But in the case of the economic impact it was very clear that in the organic cardamom
cultivation the economic gain for the farmers were elevated than the inorganic cardamom growers.
Organic cardamom cultivation was offering more employment opportunities in the study area.
Many of the organic cardamom farmers were getting full year employment due to the high labour
intensive cultivation practices followed in the organic cardamom cultivation. But in the case of the
spending pattern and the saving patterns there was not much difference among the organic and
inorganic cardamom farmers. The difficulty in meeting the essentials of life supporting factors is
less in the case of the organic cardamom farmers, due to the large profit when compared to the
inorganic cardamom farmers.
The whole concept of sustainable agriculture is based on the integration of the three main goals –
environmental health, economic profitability, and social equity. To keep the agro-ecosystem
sustainable for a long time, the farming technologies being adopted in it should be compatible with
the system without generating any harmful effects. It was also clear from the results of economic
sustainability that there was an increase in the net income from the farm as a result of shifting to
organic farming and so most of the organic farmers could accumulate working capital also. It
helped the farmers to accumulate the working capital, improve the income from the farm and most
importantly the less dependence on the external inputs to the farm for the farming practices. It is a
reasonable factor in the adoption of the organic way of cultivation by the cardamom farmers.
Organic farming sustainability is extremely different and prominent than inorganic cultivation
practices.
5.8 Institutional and structural frame work for promoting the organic cardamom
cultivation
India probably has the most well developed conventional agricultural extension service in the
world. Organic agriculture needs to be linked up in one way or the other with the existing support
services. Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI), had various divisions for the basic and
applied research in cardamom crop. In the field they were following the single farmer approach for
the organic cardamom production. The faculty members were identifying the farmers whoever had
the potential for the organic cultivation and had given training and facilities for the betterment of
the organic production. They had demonstration plots for the organic cardamom cultivation.
General Discussion 73
Cardamom Research Station (CRS), under the Kerala Agricultural University had developed the
package of practices recommendation for the organic cardamom production. This research institute
was following the group farming approach for the promotion of the organic cardamom production.
Peermade Development Society (PDS) is registered as a nongovernmental organization, aims at
the sustainable development through developing various indigenous, community based and people
participatory developmental programmes. It was the most potential promoting agency in the case
of the organic cardamom production. The agency was following the group farming approach along
with the individual farmer approach. For meeting the needs of marginal farmers and women for
processing their farm produce, the centre has started agricultural processing centers by installing
the proven technologies of farmers. The whole centre is managed by the women’s self-help
groups. Producer group PDS Organic Spices promoted a NGO termed as Sahyadri Organic Small
Farmers Consortium (SOSFC). It helps the farmers to obtain the premium price for their produces.
There by this agency was following the group approach for the cultivation and the market
promotion of the organic cardamom.
INDOCERT is a private certification body operating nationally and internationally, established in
India. It is accredited by National Accreditation Body (NAB), Government of India, as per
National Program for Organic Production (NPOP). In the field of organic farming, INDOCERT
also functions as a platform for training, awareness creation, information dissemination and
networking among farmers. It was providing the organic certification to individual farmers and
farmers groups. Group certification can be applied for groups of small farmers, which are covered
by an Internal Control System (ICS). Group certification was followed in the organic cardamom
production units, for the brand making and marketing. The organization worked for the promotion
of the organically certified spices especially in the case of organic cardamom.
For the promotion of organic cultivation many agencies were working in India, like government
agencies, non government agencies and certifying and export promoting agencies. India is the
country with the densest population of NGOs in the world. Many have started the promotion of
sustainable agriculture or organic agriculture as a basis. From the study it was clear that in the
study area many agencies were working for the promotion of the organic cardamom cultivation.
Organic certification is necessary to prove the produce is organic in nature. Certification is the
only way to distinguish between organic and inorganic cardamom. Hence, field inspection and
group certification procedures followed by the certification agencies play an important role in the
quality control of spice produce.
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Working for the earth is not a way to get rich; it is a way to be rich
(PAUL HAWKEN)
6.1 Introduction
Agriculture forms the basis of economic policies and is the ultimate driver of national economic
growth and poverty alleviation in many developing countries including India. Organic farming is
an alternative farming method for the production of the pollution free, healthy produces. Organic
farming has now been tagged not only for minimizing externalities but also for its cost
effectiveness. The increasing demand for organic produce especially in the case of the high profit
earning produce like spices has created new export opportunities and many developing countries
have started to tap lucrative export markets for organic produce. Indian organic farming industry is
almost entirely export oriented. The majority of farmers in India had opted this practice motivated
by attractive market and price margins.
Diverse agricultural systems had evolved in Kerala, as diverse as its landscapes. But in the last few
decades, traditional agriculture was rejected in favour of the modern, intensive kind. This had a
negative impact not only on agriculture but also on the economy, environment, culture and social
life of the people. Decreasing share of agriculture in the total domestic production and individual
earnings from agriculture, diminishing importance of agriculture as a source of livelihood,
fragmentation of land, pollution due to chemical pesticides and fertilizers, etc. are some of the
major problems faced by agriculture in Kerala. The farmers in Kerala were convinced that the only
way is to return to the traditional sustainable ways of cultivation without harming the ecosystem.
Thus organic farming, a system with the broad principle of ‘live and let live’, came up which was
recognized nationally and internationally. This was more evident among the farmers of the high
fertilizer responsive and high value spice crop cardamom. In this context, the present study was
formulated to investigate the various dimensions related to organic cardamom production in the
ecological, economic and sociological perspectives with the overall objective of identification of
the technological and methodological innovations in the cardamom production with special
emphasis on the organic cultivation and the impact of the organic cultivation among the farmers
on income and employment generation. The specific objectives of the study are given below.
6.2 Specific Objectives
1. To identify the technological and methodological innovations adopted by organic cardamom
farmers.
2. To characterize the entrepreneurial and socio-psychological attributes of organic cardamom
growers.
Summary and Conclusions 75
3. To assess the impact of techno-entrepreneurial factors in terms of income and employment
enhancement.
4. To examine the institutional and structural frame work of government and non- government
agencies for the promotion of organic agri enterprises.
6.3 Research Methodology
The ex-post facto research design was used in the present study. The study was conducted in
purposively selected Idukki district of Kerala state as intensive spice cultivations especially,
organic cardamom production and certification was taken up by many agencies in the area and
Idukki being the spice bowel of Kerala. From the district three blocks namely, Udumbanchola,
Devikulam and Peermadu were purposively selected for the study since they are known as the
cardamom belt in the district. From each selected block, one village was selected randomly and
from each village, 30 organic Cardamom growers and 10 inorganic Cardamom growers were
selected randomly for the study. For examining the institutional and structural frame work of
government and non government agencies for the promotion of organic agri enterprises, 10
officials from each block were selected purposively for study. Survey approach was followed for
the data collection method. Data collected was analyzed with the help of various statistical
methods in SPSS package.
6.4 Major findings
6.4.1 The technological and methodological innovations adopted by organic cardamom
farmers
Extent of adoption of each technological and methodological practice among organic and
inorganic cardamom growers was found out in percentages and categorized. (No adoption, Partial
adoption, Full adoption, Modified adoption). Technological And Methodological Innovations
Identified were
1. Development of farmer selected variety of cardamom -‘Njallani’, which had 120-160
capsules compared to 30-35 capsules in the ordinary variety.
2. Development of farmer selected variety of cardamom – Panikulangara Green Bold No. 1
(PGB-1), which retained its green colour and size even after drying and yield 6-8 kg of
capsule per plant
3. Identification of Malabar variety of cardamom which was tolerant to thrips attack (0-5 per
cent) and yield dry capsule of about 400-500 grams per plant per harvest.
4. Single sucker planting method of cardamom, which reduced the planting cost from rupees
2,10,000 to rupees 60, 000
5. Zero soil disturbance – covering the soil with thick mulch, regulating the shade in the
plantation there by reducing the damage caused by thrips
Summary and Conclusions 76
6. Packing of the cardamom in a controlled atmospheric condition (low oxygen and carbon
dioxide) – packed cardamom is having shelf life of 5 years and direct export of cardamom
by that farmer.
6.4.2 Reasons for organic farming:
According to farmers’ opinion, most preferred reason for adopting organic cardamom farming
were production of a pollution free environment followed by high demand for the organic produce
in the domestic market, production of chemical free food and high price of organic produce. The
organic cardamom farmers considered government financial support as the least important factor
for the adoption of organic cultivation in cardamom farming.
6.4.3 The entrepreneurial and socio-psychological attributes of organic cardamom growers
Various socio-psychological factors identified and studied.
o A wide difference between the organic and inorganic cardamom growers was observed in
the land size category. More than half of the organic growers had land area greater than 3
acre (52.2 per cent). But majority of the inorganic cardamom farmers had land area less than
1 acre (43.3 per cent)
o Majority of the organic cardamom farmers depended on on-farm and off-farm resources for
meeting their requirement. But none of the inorganic cardamom farmers were dependent on
the on-farm resources
o Most of the organic cardamom farmers (76.7 per cent) were members of different farming
groups. In the case of inorganic farmers 56.7 per cent of the farmers had membership in
farming groups
o Most of the organic cardamom farmers and inorganic cardamom farmers were in the
medium, innovation potential category
o Risk taking ability of the organic and inorganic cardamom grower differed significantly. The
mean rank for risk taking ability of the organic cardamom growers (70.85) was much more
than that of inorganic cardamom growers (27.80)
o Based on the median value obtained from the response of the organic and inorganic
cardamom growers, quartiles were calculated. Majority of the organic cardamom farmers
(74.7 per cent) were processing high level of aspiration, in terms of increasing the organic
farming area and more input oriented work. But major portion of the inorganic cardamom
farmers (46.7 per cent) were coming under the medium level category
o The mean score showed that except for initiative and the persuasion organic cardamom
growers differed significantly from the inorganic cardamom farmers
o Six sets of different constraints were enlisted and farmer’s response on their severity was
asked. The mean rank corresponding to the certification was more and hence it was rated to
Summary and Conclusions 77
the major constraint to organic cardamom production. Least affecting constraints were
personal and economic constraints
6.4.4 The impact of techno-entrepreneurial factors in terms of income and employment
enhancement
o More than one third of the cardamom farmers (38.9 per cent) reported that there was an
increase of the income in the range of 1-2 lakhs due to organic cultivation. 73.3 per cent of
inorganic cardamom respondent were present in the less than one lakhs earning group
o This difference in income was tested using t-test to know the statistical significance of the
difference. From the significant test result it is evident that there was significant difference
in the average income of organic farmers as compared to inorganic farmers. That indicated
the higher income generating capacity of the organic cardamom farmers
o More than half of the organic cardamom farmers were fully employed throughout the
season. It was contributing to 54.4 per cent of the total sample selected. 36.7 per cent of the
total organic cardamom growers were getting more than 100 days of employment in a year
o Almost all the respondents irrespective of organic and inorganic cardamom farmers told that
their spending pattern had been changed due to various factors like urbanization,
appreciation of land values and increase in income
o Many of the farmers were saving the money in the form of land and luxury material
o Most important sustainability dimension identified by the farmers was the component which
was contributing to societal stability and status. Economic sustainability was also found out
to be playing an important role in the everyday living by adoption of the organic farming
practices
6.4.5 The institutional and structural frame work of government and non- government
agencies for the promotion of organic cardamom production
Three major categories of the agencies were identified in the study area. They were governmental
organizations, non-governmental organizations and certifying and exporting organizations.
6.4.5.1 Government organizations
a. Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI)
o The Spices Board (the erstwhile Cardamom Board), was constituted under the Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, Government of India
o Station is headed by a Deputy Director (Research). Various divisions for conducting
research on cardamom production are Crop Improvement Division, Agronomy and Soil
Science Division, Plant Pathology Division, Entomology Division, Post-harvest Technology
Division and Transfer of Technology Division
Summary and Conclusions 78
o In the field approach, single farmer approach was found effective by the ICRI. Field work
group team identifies the progressive and innovative organic cardamom farmers from
various parts of the Idukki, and help in standardizing and adopting the innovations
b. Cardamom Research Station (CRS)
o The research station is under the Kerala Agricultural University
o They are acting as a facilitating agent for the promotion of the organic cardamom production
o The institute standardised the package of practice on organic cardamom production
o Group farming approach is followed by CRS
6.4.5.2 Non-Governmental organization
a. Peermade Development Society (PDS)
o Aims at sustainable development through developing various indigenous, community based
and people participatory developmental programmes
o Group farming approach is followed by the PDS for the production of organic cardamom
o Produce from the identified organic farmer groups was collected and certified as per the
requirements
o PDS Organic cardamom have been certified as per ISO 22000:2005
o The FLO-CERT GmbH Certification for Development has certified PDS Organic Spices to
trade in Fair Trade products. The certification is accredited by UKAS (United Kingdom
Accreditation Services)
o For meeting the needs of marginal farmers and women for processing their farm produce,
the centre has started agricultural processing centers by installing the proven technologies of
farmers. The whole centre is managed by women’s self-help groups
o Producer group PDS Organic Spices promotes an NGO termed as Sahyadri Organic Small
Farmers Consortium (SOSFC). It helps the farmers to obtain the premium price for the
produce
b. Certifying and exporting institution
INDOCERT
o INDOCERT is an internationally operating, certification body established in India. It is
accredited by the National Accreditation Body (NAB), Government of India, as per
National Program for Organic Production (NPOP)
o In the field of organic farming, INDOCERT also functions as a platform for training,
awareness creation, information dissemination and networking among farmers
o It provides the organic certification to individual farmers and farmers groups. Group
certification can be applied for groups of small farmers, who are covered by an internal
control system (ics). Group certification is followed in the organic cardamom production
units, for the brand making and marketing
Summary and Conclusions 79
6.5 Implications of the study
Based on the most important findings of this study, the following are some implied meanings
for policy planners and researchers.
o There is a need to promote organic cultivation of cardamom among farmers so as to enable
them to enhance their earning in an ecologically sustainable manner. But social and
economic sustainability is also required to be considered before recommending this to
farmers
o Innovative technological and methodological practices of organic cardamom farmers which
have increased the yield may be popularized for adoption by other farmers as well
o Conviction about organic farming as a better alternative for sustainable development need to
be generated among farmers
o Certification procedures need to be simplified and some incentives to bear initial yield
losses must be provided to the organic cardamom growers
o Though there are many institutions and agencies working towards promotion of organic
cardamom cultivation a synergetic approach need to be adopted
An Analytical Study of Organic Cardamom Growers in Idukki District of Kerala
ABSTRACT
The approach and outlook towards agriculture and marketing of food has seen a quantum change worldwide over the last few decades. Intensive cultivation practices and commercialization of agriculture have resulted into increased environmental concerns. Organic farming is increasingly being accepted as an option addressing these concerns. The present study aimed to analyse the organic cardamom production in Idukki district of Kerala. The key issues in this study were the extent of adoption of the recommended package of practices of the cardamom cultivation, identification of the technological and methodological innovations by the cardamom farmers, reasons for the adoption of the organic cultivation in cardamom, various supporting factors and the constraints faced by the farmers, impact of the organic cultivation in terms of economic and employment generation and the institutional and the structural frame work of the agencies for the promotion of organic cardamom cultivation.
Technological and methodological innovation developed and followed by the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers like the Njallani variety, single sucker planting method and the zero soil disturbances having wide acceptability among others also. Their greater concern for the pollution free environment, chemical free produce, and increased demand for the organic cardamom in the international and the domestic markets drive them energetically to adopt organic farming practices in cardamom.
The study revealed that most of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers belonged to middle age group, had education up to high school level, better living conditions, farming as the main source of income for living, and had more than 15 years of experience in the farming field. Aspiration level of the organic and inorganic farmers was not differing significantly. But risk taking ability and entrepreneurial competencies of the organic cardamom farmers were much more than that of the inorganic cardamom farmers. Constraints related to certification and marketing aspects had a major role in creating obstacles to promotion of organic farming and its spread in the state.
The organic cardamom production in Kerala is an identifiable example of the positive impact giving factor in the farming sector. The farmers who are following the organic cultivation were earning a desirable margin of the profit by the marketing of the certified brand of the organic cardamom. Employment generation in terms of the number of days employed by the farmers was more in the case of organic cardamom growers. Though organic cardamom cultivation can enhance the ecological sustainability of an agro-ecosystem, scientists and policy makers should be vigilant while advising the technology to the rural poor farmers, because organic farming practices need to ensure economic and social sustainability too among all categories of farmers since those factors were considered as important by them.
Governmental and Non-governmental institutions play an important role in the organic cultivation promotion, by giving a well accessible form of information, making a platform of group organic certification instead of individual organic certification. Export promotion of organic cardamom, making brands with special identifiable standards is done by the organic cardamom farming supportive institutions.
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APPENDIX I
Table 1: Reasons for organic farming Friedman's test:
Q (Observed value) 345.340 Q (Critical value) 14.067
DF 7 p-value (Two-tailed) < 0.0001
Table 2: Risk taking and innovation proneness
Risk Inno_Proness Mann-Whitney U 369.000 1292.000
Wilcoxon W 834.000 1757.000 Z -6.025 -.274
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .784
Table 3: Entrepreneurial competencies
Initiative Sees and act
upon opportunities
Persistence Information seeking
Concern for high quality
work Mann-Whitney U 1214.000 684.000 345.000 466.000 177.000
Wilcoxon W 1679.000 1149.000 810.000 931.000 642.000 Z -.841 -4.098 -6.152 -5.401 -7.169
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .400 .000 .000 .000 .000
Commitment to work
Sense of efficiency
Systematic planning
Problem solving
Self confidence
Mann-Whitney U 642.500 802.000 677.000 305.000 391.000 Wilcoxon W 1107.500 1267.000 1142.000 770.000 856.000
Z -4.361 -3.360 -4.139 -6.382 -5.858 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001 .000 .000 .000
Assertiveness Persuasion Use of
influence strategy
Mann-Whitney U 480.000 991.500 371.000 Wilcoxon W 945.000 1456.500 836.000
Z -5.445 -2.237 -5.993 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .025 .000
x
Table 4: Constraints Kruskal-Wallis test:
K (Observed value) 160.453 K (Critical value) 9.488
DF 4 p-value (Two-tailed) < 0.0001
Table 5: Technological constraint
Friedman's test: Q (Observed value) 142.141 Q (Critical value) 7.815
DF 3 p-value (Two-tailed) < 0.0001
Table 6: Economic constraint
Friedman's test: Q (Observed value) 371.009 Q (Critical value) 12.592
DF 6 p-value (Two-tailed) < 0.0001
Table 7: Personal
Friedman's test: Q (Observed value) 161.294 Q (Critical value) 7.815
DF 3 p-value (Two-tailed) < 0.0001
Table 8: Certification related
Friedman's test: Q (Observed value) 120.447 Q (Critical value) 7.815
DF 3 p-value (Two-tailed) < 0.0001
Table 9: Ecological constraint Friedman's test:
Q (Observed value) 41.039 Q (Critical value) 7.815
DF 3 p-value (Two-tailed) < 0.0001
xi
Table 10: Sustainability
Sustainability
Ecological Sustainability
Economical Sustainability
Social Sustainability
Mann-Whitney U 230.500 1068.000 629.500 124.000 Wilcoxon W 695.500 1533.000 1094.500 589.000
Z -6.820 -1.750 -4.458 -7.546 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .080 .000 .000
APPENDIX II Entrepreneurial Competencies
SCORING SHEET FOR SELF RATING QUESTIONNAIRE
Instructions :
1. Enter the rating from the completed questionnaire on the line above the item number in
parentheses Notice that the items numbers in each column are consecutive: item number 2 is
below item number 1 and so forth.
2. Do the addition and subtraction indicated in each row to compute each competency score.
3. Add all competency scores to compute the total score.
Ratings of Statements Score Competency + + + - + 6 = (1) (15) (29) (43) (57) Initiative
- + - + + 6 = (2) (16) (30) (44) (58) Sees & acts on opportunities
+ + - + + 6 = (3) (17) (31) (45) (59) Persistence
+ - + + + 6 = (4) (18) (32) (46) (60) Information seeking
+ - + + + 6 = (5) (19) (33) (47) (61) Concern for high quality of work
+ + + - + 6 = (6) (20) (34) (48) (62) Commitment to work
- + + + + 6 = (7) (21) (35) (49) (63) Efficiency Orientation
+ + - + + 6 = (8) (22) (36) (50) (64) Systematic Planning
+ - + + + 6 = (9) (23) (37) (51) (65) Problem Solving
- + + + + 6 = (10) (24) (38) (52) (66) Self Confidence
+ - + + + 6 = (11) (25) (39) (53) (67) Assertiveness
+ + + - + 6 = (12) (26) (40) (54) (68) Persuasion
- + + + + 6 = (13) (27) (41) (55) (69) Use of Influence Strategies
- - - + +18 = (14) (28) (42) (56) (70) Correction Factor
APPENDIX III DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
NEW DELHI 110012
1) Name of the farmer: …………………………………………………….
2) Age: …………
3) Village: …………………………………………………….
4) District: ………………………………..
5) Educational Status: i) Illiterate ii) Can read only iii) Can read and sign only
iv)Primary school v) High School vi) Secondary school
vii) graduate viii) post graduate and above
6) Occupational Status: i) full time farming ii) Farming + service iii) Farming + Business
7) Family Type: i) Nuclear Family ii) Joint Family iii) extended family
8) Family Size: …………….
9) Type of House: i) Thatched ii) Tiled iii) old Concrete vi) modern concrete
10) Total Land Size: ……………..... i) irrigated…………….ii) unirrigated
11) Area under Organic Cultivation: i) Owned: ………….. ii) Leased in: …………
12) Year of Organic Certification: ……………..
13) Experience in i) Farming: ………… ii) Organic Farming: ………………
14) Type of Farming: i) Monoculture ii) Crop Rotation iii) Dry land Farming iv)
Mixed and Multistoried Cropping v) Mixed Farming
15) Allied Agricultural Activities: i) Cattle/ Goat/ Piggery/ Rabbit
ii) Poultry/ Duck iii) Bee Keeping iv) Fish v) Others
16) Annual income (Rs)…………..
17) Share of Agriculture in Total Household Income
i) Fully Depend on Farming ii) Farming + Non-agriculture
18) Irrigation Potential: i) Throughout the year ii) Only during Seasons
iii) Un-assured & Irregular
19) Water Source: i) Well ii) Pond/Tank
iii) Canal iv) River v) Bore well
20) Farmer’s Perception of his Farming Method:
i) Traditional ii) Modern iii) Partly Organic iv) Fully Organic
21) Major technological innovations in organic cardamom farming
Extent of adoption No Technology for organic farming in cardamom No
adoption Partially adopted
Fully adopted
Modified & adopted
Since when
Source of information
Reasons for adoption
1 Selection of planting materials a) Improved variety
Appendix III xiv
b) Local selection c) Farmers selection
2 Propagation methods a) Seedlings b) Suckers
3 If seedlings –nursery preparation a) Land preparation b) Selection of seed c) Extraction of
seed
d) Seed treatment e) Sowing
1.Time 2.Method
f) Secondary nursery preparation
1.Planting g) Poly bag nursery
1.Preparation of poly bag
2.Time of planting
3.Planting method
4 Planting in field a) Land preparation b) Spacing c) Pit size d) Pit preparation e) Planting time
5 Weed management a) No of weeding b) Time of weeding c) Type of weeding
6 Trashing a) Method b) Time
7 Earthing up a) Time b) Method c) No of earthing up
8 Irrigation management a) Irrigation time b) Mulching
9 Soil and water conservation technology a) Type
Water harvesting Bunding
10 Manuring a) Time b) Dose c) Type
11 Shade regulation a) Shade trees b) Practices
12 Bee keeping a) No of colonies b) Maintenance
13 Plant protection-pest
Appendix III xv
a) Pest…………. b) Control measures c) Method of
application
d) Time Pest…………. Control measures Method of application
Time Pest…………. Control measures Method of application
Time 14 Plant protection-pathogen
a) Diseases b) Control measures c) Method of
application
d) Time Diseases Control measures Method of application
Time 15 Harvesting and processing
a) Time of harvest b) Post harvest
operations
1.washing 2.drying 3.cleaning 4.polishing 5.sorting 6.grading 7.packing 16 If any bio control agents
a) Name b) Time of
application
c) Method of application
17 If any bio pesticides a) Name b) Time of
application
c) Method of application
18 Bio fertilizers a) Name b) Time of
application
c) Method of application
1.seed treatment 2.seedling
treatment
3.soil application 19 Botanicals
a) Name
Appendix III xvi
b) Preparation c) Application
22)*Modification details…………………………………………………………
Technology:
1)……………………………..
2)…………………………….
3)……………………………….
23)**Innovations developed by own
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
24) Sustainability of Organic Farming Technologies
Response Statements Strongly
agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
disagree 1. Protects and recharges the farm resources
2. Increases the system biodiversity 3. Low negative impact on environment
Ecol
ogic
al
Sust
aina
bilit
y
4. Chemical free environment 5. Improve net income from the farm 6. Enable to accumulate working capital
7. Low dependence on external inputs reduces cost of cultivation
Econ
omic
Su
stai
nabi
lity
8. Help farmers to become self sufficient with minimal risk in long run
9. Rural poor involved in the approach 10. Indigenous knowledge recognized within the approach
11. Equitable access to assets
Soci
al
Sust
aina
bilit
y
12. Technology safer to human and animals
Appendix III xvii
26) Why did you opt for the organic cardamom production? Give reasons………
Sl.No Particulars Rank
1. High price of organic produce
2. Organic farming produces chemical free food
3. Organic farming reduces the environmental pollution
4. Organic farming lowers the cost of cultivation
5. Increasing domestic market for organic produce
6. High demand of organic produce in the export market
7. Financial support from government through the Kerala state organic farming policy
8. Organic farming enables group farming and marketing
27) Social class ….. put tick mark against suitable one
Category Tick mark
Lower class Lower middle class Middle class Upper middle class Elite class
28) Social participation
Are you a member / office bearer in any of the following organization?
- If yes, please specify the organization and role.
Sl.No Organization Member Office bearer
1. Panchayat
2. Co-operative society
3. Youth club
4. Farmer’s organizations
5. Socio-cultural organization
6 Organic farming associations
6. Religious committee
7. Others (specify)
29) Aspiration
All of us want to have many things in life. Some get what they want, some keep trying for it and a few fail
to get it but still people keep on aspiring for what they don’t have now as they expect to have it in future. Hence
are a few questions regarding some of the areas with which you may be mostly concerned.
Appendix III xviii
Do not bother about whether you are really going to make it or not, but still you may certainly expect
certain of these events to happen in the near future. Please be frank about your answer and your sincere opinion
will be appreciated.
a) All of us want to provide education to our children. But each of us may differ with regard to the extent
of education that we would expect our children to have. The level of education is primary, middle,
high school, college, technical and professional. What would be the level of education you expect?
1. Your sons to have……………..
2. Your daughters to have…………….
b) Each one of us has some earnings as a result of our work either monthly or yearly to sustain us through
our life. We also try to improve our income by various means. Compared with previous years, what
would be the increase in annual income (in Rs.), you expect to get in the next
1. One year…..
2. Two years……
3. Three years……..
c) You must be thought of expanding the area under organic cardamom cultivation. How much do you
want your area to expand in…..?
Percent increase expected
1. One year…..
2. Two years……
d) Three years……. What would be the household asset(s) you expected to possess in next three years?
Value in Rs/
1. One year…..
2. Two years……
3. Three years…….
30) Innovation proneness
I shall read three statements at a time. Please hear carefully and indicate one statement which is Most like you,
and one statement which is Least like you
No Statement Most like statement Least like statement 1 a) I try to keep myself up- to
date with information on new technologies. But it does not mean that I try out all the new one in own farm
Appendix III xix
b) I feel very restless till I try out the new practices c) Many of the people talk about the new practices, but who knows it is good/better?
2 a) I heard lots of new farm practices and I tried most of them in my farm b) I usually wait to see the result in the neighbours’ field before I try that one c) Some how I believe that the practices followed by me is better
3 a) I am cautious about trying of the new practices b) I don’t feel any need of changing the current practices c) Usually the new technologies are not too much successful, if it promise the success then I am willing to follow that one
31) Risk taking ability
1. One farmer has done pepper farming in 15 acres of land. The pepper prices are good. In this farming
he has earned much money. But if the prices crash, farmer will not be able to recover his costs or
investment. In the next year if the market price may fall. For the following possibilities, in how much
of land he should he grow pepper?
(a) If there is a hope for fall of the market prices, then, he should grow pepper in……..acres.
(b) If there is a hope for fall of the market prices at a rate of 25 Rs. out of 100Rs, then, he should
grow pepper in……..acres
(c) If there is a hope for fall of the market prices at a rate of 25 Rs. out of 100Rs, then, he should
grow pepper in……..acres
(d) If there is a hope for fall of the market prices at a rate of > 50 Rs. out of 100Rs, then, he should
grow pepper in……..acres
2. Hari is a middle class farmer. This year the rubber yield is very good. Since there is no appropriate
drying facility at his home, he is selling all his rubber at fairly low prices. But if he can dry it properly
it is possible to get better price. Hari had now 100 kg of rubber per month. He wants to put them in the
drying room.
For which he had to pay rent for the drying and storage room. After 3-4 months, if the price
increases, then he can earn much money as profit. If the prices fall down, then he has to incur a heavy loss
in addition to paying rent for the drying and storage room.
If the price increases, according to the following hopes, what would you suggest, Hari to put how many kg
of rubber in the storage room?
Appendix III xx
(a) If there is a hope for increase in price is high then, he should put in……..kg of rubber in storage
room.
(b) If there is a hope for increase in price is 25 Rs out of 100 Rs then, he should put in……..kg of
rubber in storage room.
(c) If there is a hope for increase in price is 50 Rs out of 100 Rs then, he should put in……..kg of
rubber in storage room.
3. If there is a hope for increase in price is >50 Rs out of 100 Rs then, he should put in……..kg of rubber
in storage room. Government started a new scheme for providing farmers with an irrigation pump set
on loan on easy installment. It has been noticed that a few pumps issued by the government were found
to be very bad. If the pumps, turns out to be good, there is definitely a chance for the farmer to get
much more profit after repaying the loan. But if the pumps, turns to be bad and under repair, then the
farmer has to use his money from his home to repay the loan. In such cases, the whole affair turns out
to be a loss making proposition, resulting in heavy loss to the farmer.
Suppose, there are already 10 pumps installed in your village, from among them,
1. If all the pumps are good(10), then would you like to take the loan for the pump
set?...........................Yes/No
2. If 5 pumps are good out of the 10, then would you like to take the loan for the pump
set?...........................Yes/No
3. If 2 pumps are good out of the 10, then would you like to take the loan for the pump
set?...........................Yes/No
4. If all the pumps are bad (10), then would you like to take the loan for the pump
set?...........................Yes/No
4. Rahul got an offer of a job from which he can earn Rs.4000/-per month. But from among his friends, a
business man suggested that Rahul should start a new business, for which no investment is required. If the
business runs well he can earn Rs.10000/-per month. If the business does not run well, then he may not earn
anything. In addition he may loss the job of Rs.4000/-per month. What should Rahul do?
1. If the chance of failure of the business is 20 paise in rupee, should he take the
business?....................................Yes/No
2. If the chance of failure of the business is 40 paise in rupee, should he take the
business?....................................Yes/No
3. If the chance of failure of the business is 60 paise in rupee, should he take the
business?....................................Yes/No
If the chance of failure of the business is >60 paise in rupee, should he take the
business?....................................Yes/No
Entrepreneurial competencies
Please answer the following questions
Appendix III xxi
Instruction:
1. This questionnaire consists of 70 brief statements. Read each statement and find out how well it suits
for you. Be honest about yourself. Take this as an opportunity to find out yourself.
2. Select one of the numbers below to indicate how will the statements fits for you
(5)Very good
(4)Good
(3)Somewhat
(2)Very little
(1)Not at all
Please answer the following questions
1. I look for the things that used to be done
2. I like challenges and new opportunities
3. When faced with the difficult problems, I spend a lot of time to try to find a solution
4. When starting a new task of project, I gather a great deal of information
5. It bothers me, when things are not done very well
6. I put much effort to my work
7. I find ways to do things faster
8. I plan a large project by breaking it in to small task
9. I think of unusual solutions to my problems
10. I feel confident that I will succeed at whatever I try to do
11. I tell others when they have not performed as expected
12. I got others to support my recommendations
13. I develop strategies to influence others
14. No matter who I am talking to, I am a good listener
15. Do things that need to be done before being asked by others
16. I prefer the activities that I know well and with which I am comfortable
17. I try several times to get people to do what I would like them to do
18. I seek the advice of the people who know a lot about the problems or task I am working
on
19. It is important to me to do a high quality job
20. I work long hours and make the personal scarifies to complete the job on time
21. I am not good at using my time well
22. I think about the advantages and the disadvantages of different ways of accomplishing
the job
Appendix III xxii
23. I think of many new ideas
24. I change my mind if others strongly disagree with me
25. If am angry or upset with any person I tell that person
26. I convince others of my ideas
27. I do not spend much time thinking about how to influence others
28. I feel resentful when I do not get my ways
29. I do things before it is clear that they must be done
30. I notice the opportunities to do new things
31. When something get in the way of what I am trying to do, I keep on trying to accomplish
what I want
32. I take action without seeing information
33. My own work is better that of the other people I work with
34. I do whatever it take to complete a job
35. It bother me when my time is wasted
36. I try to think of all the problems, I may encounter and plan what to do if each problem
occurs
37. Once I have selected an approach to solve a problem, I do not change that approach
38. When trying something difficult or challenging, I feel confident that I will succeed
39. It is difficult for me to order the people to do the things
40. I get others to see how I will be able to accomplish what I set out to go
41. I get important people to help me to accomplish my goals
42. I past I have had failure
43. I take actions before it is clear that I must
44. I try things that are very new and different from what I have done before
45. When I faced with major difficulty, I quickly go on to other things
46. When working for a project for someone, I ask many questions to sure about and
understand what that person want
47. When something I have been working on is satisfactory, I do not spend extra time to
make it better
48. When I am doing a job for someone, I make a special effort to make sure that, person is
satisfied with my work
49. I find the ways to do the things in less cost
50. I deal with the problems as they arise, rather than spend time to anticipate them
51. I think of many ways to solve the problems
52. I do things that are risky
53. When I disagree with others, I let them know
54. I am very persuasive with others
55. In order to reach my goals, I think of solutions that benefit everyone involved in that
problem
56. There have been occasions when I look advantages of someone
57. I wait for directions from others before taking action
58. I take the advantage of opportunities that arise
Appendix III xxiii
59. I try several ways to overcome things that get in the way of reaching my goals
60. I go to several different sources to get information to help with the task or project
61. I want the company I own to be the best of its type
62. I do not let my work interfere with my family or personal life
63. I get the most I can out of the money I have to accomplish a project or task
64. I take a logical and systematic approach to activities
65. If one approach to a problem does not work, I think of another approach
66. I stick with my decisions even if others disagree strongly with me
67. I tell the people what they have to do, even if they do not want to do it
68. I cannot get people who have strong opinions or ideas to change their mind
69. I get to know people who may be able to help me to reach my goals
70. When I do not know something, I do not mind admitting it
32) Economic Impact
a) Income generation
1. Increase in cardamom production (in Rupees)/ha
2. Increase in income from export (in Rupees).
b) Employment generation
1. Increase in number of days (per family) employed
2. Increase in number of working members (per family) employed
3. Increase in per capita employment (man days/ man hours)
Changes in employment
(A) No. of members employed: At present…………Before 10 years……….
Employment <100 days 100 days >100 days Fully employed No. of days of employment
At present
No. of days of employmeduring recession
At present
2) Changes in saving
How much is your yearly saving?
At present………………… (Rs) Before 10 years…………….. (Rs)
3) Changes in spending pattern
Statements No If yes, then how much? Way of spending
Do you think there is any change
in your spending pattern?
4) Changes in the material procession
Statements No If yes, then what kind? Cost of material
Do you think there is any change in
your material possession?
Appendix III xxiv
5) Changes in the expenditure pattern
Statements No If yes, then how much? Way of expenditure
Do you think there is any change
in your expenditure pattern?
6) Changes in the investment pattern
Statements No If yes, then what kind? Pattern of investment
Do you think there is any change in
your investment pattern?
33) Major constraints to the adoption of organic farming in cardamom
Rating Particulars Most
Severe Severe Not Severe
1. Lack of timely information related to organic farming technologies
2. Non availability of enough organic inputs 3. Lack of a reliable package of practices for organic farming
Tech
nolo
gic
Con
stra
ints
4. Shortage of disease free seeds and planting materials 5. Initial Yield Loss 6. Inadequate financial support to the new organic farmers
from govt.
7. Higher Cost for the Establishment of Manure Source 8. Initial Low Price for the Produce 9. Hesitation from neighboring farmers to follow organic
practices making the produce of relatively less quality
10. The debate still going in the society about the need for the promotion of organic farming
Econ
omic
Con
stra
ints
11. Lack of proper community movement for the promotion of organic farming
Appendix III xxv
12. Lack of awareness about organic farming 13. Shortage of owned resources 14. Fear of profit loss due to low yield in the initial period
Pers
onal
C
onst
rain
ts
15. The belief that ‘It is better to follow conventional farming today and let tomorrow take care of it’
16. Higher cost involved in the certification process 17. The need of a long period for the certification process 18. Lack of proper certifying agencies in the nearby place 19. The stringent standards and rules of the certification process 20. Lack of reliable market information & distribution channels 21. Lack awareness about grading & different grades
Con
stra
ints
rel
ated
to
certi
ficat
ion
22. Difficulty in selection and development of target markets 23. Higher Pest and disease problems 24. Requirement of long period to get positive responses from
the ecosystem
25. Loss of ecosystem viability to maintain a good crop
Ecol
ogic
al
Con
stra
ints
26. Inability to reconstruct the destroyed links of various ecosystem functions
To examine the institutional and structural frame work of government and non- government agencies for
the promotion of organic agri-enterprises
1. Open ended questions for officials
1) Personal characteristics
a) Name
b) Age
c) Organization or institution working for
d) Experience: No of years……..
2) Organizational characteristics
a) Resources
b) Facilities available at the institution
c) Number of villages served
d) Ongoing activities and services
3) What are the reasons for the beginning of this institution?
4) From where you are getting financial supports?
5) How many stakeholders you are having?
a. If any, who are they?
6) What is the mode of action?
a.In organizational level
b.Among the farmers
7) What is the structural frame work of the institution?
Appendix III xxvi
8) How the certification procedure being practiced?
a) If having any collaborating agency, which are they?(year)
b) What are the major standards followed by them in certification procedure?
c) How you are selecting farmers for certification?
d) Is any constrains faced during the selection procedure?
e) What is the response of the farmers about your certification procedure?
9) Is any technology developed by this institution for supporting the organic production of cardamom?
a. If any, what are they?
b. How it developed?
c. Cost of development?
d. Whether got any other institutional support?
e. Whether any farmers are involved in development of the technology?
f. How they involved in the developing process?
g. Whether these technologies are being adopted by other farmers or institutions?
h. If they adopting what are the benefits obtained by them?
i. What are the approaches followed in marketing of these products?
j. Individual/group/any other NGOs
10) What is the extension approach followed by the institution?
a. Individual approach
b. Group approach
11) What is the export potential of the organic cardamom in your previous years experience?
2) Interview schedule for the farmers for knowing about the institutional frame work
1. Personal characters
a) Name
b) Age
c) Membership in any organization/if any specify
d) Why you joined that organization?
2. What are the different organizations actively participating the organic cardamom production?
3. Did you get any financial support from that organization?
4. What is the mode of action of organization in that region?
a) Group approach
b) Individual approach
5. What are the major practices they are suggesting for the organic production?
6. Is they developed any technology for cardamom production and processing?
Appendix III xxvii
If any, what are they…………
What is the main feature of that developed technology?
7. How they help you in the certification process?
8. Is any increase in the export potential due to their contact?
If it so,
How it helped in the increasing the export potential?
To what extent the export potential increased?