An ‘all-seeing flying eye’: V-2 rockets and the promises of Earthphotography

Ryan Edgington*

In 1950 National Geographic published one of the first large-scale images of the cur-vature of the Earth. Clyde T. Holliday of the Applied Physics Laboratory at JohnsHopkins University constructed the mosaic, which was taken from a camera affixed toa V-2 rocket launched from White Sands Proving Ground, New Mexico. Hollidaycrafted the image as a bellwether for two contradictory yet inextricable ideas: thepromise of Earth photography in making life easier for everyday peoples and the mili-tarization of space. Examining one pre-1960 rocket-based Earth image this essay offersa reassessment of Earth photographs as only environmentalist texts.

In October 1950, the popular magazine National Geographic published an amazing imageof the American West (Figure 1).1 Rather than accompaniment to an article on the intrica-cies of American Indian art or the awe inspiring landscape of a national park, the black andwhite image instead offered an approximately 800,000 square mile vista of a vast part ofthe region.2 The photograph captured an area from Mexico and the Gulf of California farto the southwest and Wyoming deep into the north. Looking through scattered wispy highclouds and building thunderstorms viewers could cast a gaze upon Arizona, Utah, and partsof Nevada and California. The distance to the horizon was 720 miles.3

Although most of the West was visible, the image centered on New Mexico (theresult of the camera shooting at an oblique angle) where viewers could see the SanMateo Mountains, Mount Taylor, the Rio Grande River, and the town of Lordsburg.4 Thepicture does not immediately reveal the intricacies of the desert landscape. The image’sauthor therefore added a series of numbered markers to orient the view for readers.

Shot in July 1948 and titled ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up,’ the imageexists as one of a handful of pre-NASA photos that offered a large-scale geographic viewof the Earth.5 Yet unlike earlier attempts, it was not taken from a balloon or a kite.6

Instead, engineer Clyde T. Holliday of the Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) at JohnsHopkins University assembled the view, which was obtained from a camera installedinside a V-2 rocket launched from White Sands Proving Ground, New Mexico. Hollidayalso authored an accompanying story titled ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 miles up’ (despitethe article’s title, it included no images showing the Earth from that distance).

Rather than a treatment on how the public perceived ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60Miles Up,’ this essay explores the production of the little studied Earth image and howHolliday framed its presentation and meaning at the dawn of the Cold War. The imagehe manufactured was not mere reporting, but a crafted and coded creation, and thus

⁄Ryan Edgington is visiting assistant professor, Environmental Studies Department, MacalesterCollege. Email: ryanhist@gmail.com

History and TechnologyVol. 28, No. 3, September 2012, 363–371

ISSN 0734-1512 print/ISSN 1477-2620 online� 2012 Taylor & Francishttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2012.722796http://www.tandfonline.com

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offers insight into how scientists and mass-circulation publications such as National Geo-graphic presented Earth images as visual tools useful to both the military and the public.

‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ allows a rethinking of the orderly historyof Earth photography dominated by Earthrise, shot in 1968 by the Apollo 8 crew as theytook pictures of the lunar surface for research purposes, or Blue Marble, captured in1972 by the crew of Apollo 17 and reoriented before NASA distributed it to public audi-ences.7 The explicit role of Earth images in redefining the intersections between science,society, and the environment would come only in the 1960s as environmentalists appro-priated the more polished photos of the Earth taken by NASA astronauts. Holliday simi-larly crafted ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up,’ but with a very different intent.He was no novice photographer having utilized photography to track missiles anddocument artillery fuze bursts aimed at airplanes during World War II.8

Holliday also clearly understood the social value of photography as a medium. HisNational Geographic article offered two overlapping yet differing understandings on Earthphotography to its viewers (in 1950 the magazine had a circulation of over 1.8 million).9 Itcombined improved human relationships with atmospheric environments (namely throughrocket-based meteorology) and, through his use of a wide optical perspective, the possibil-ity of using such an image to make a military map. Though some Earth images might bringon new imaginations of environment and society, as the geographer Denis E. Cosgrovesuggests, they may also ‘induce desires of ordering and controlling the object of vision.’10

In the same spirit, the photograph’s structure and content reflect the role of early rocketphotography in contributing to the militarization of the skies.

Historians have noted elsewhere that Earth images, namely Earth Rise and BlueMarble, were first and foremost scientific texts.11 To understand why Holliday compre-hended the image in they way that he did, it is important to recognize how changing pho-tographic technologies at the start of the Cold War were tied to the US development ofmilitary rockets, including the launch and testing of captured German V-2s. The manufac-ture of the V-2 in the USA was essentially a military endeavor.12 Scientists and engineersutilized the photography to observe the operation of V-2 rockets in flight.13 Holliday andothers involved in the photography programs, including scientist Thor Bergstralh of theNaval Research Laboratory (NRL), only later sought to use Earth images for monitoringmeteorology or in reconnaissance.14 The military and the scientific teams involved in therocket program at White Sands first expected the images to improve the V-2. Thereforein illuminating the photo for his audience, Holliday could only hint at the promise ofEarth photography for benefits other than perfecting a weapon.

Even as ecosystem ecology as discipline came into its own in the years just afterWorld War II, the public did not yet associate rocket technology and a space-based per-spective with measuring environmental change on a global scale.15 When in 1966 theenvironmentalist and future appropriate technology guru Stewart Brand (who openlyrejected the technophobia of many environmentalists) asked ‘why haven’t we seen a pho-tograph of the whole Earth yet?,’ environmentalists concerned about the decline of Earthecosystems could look in hindsight at the promise and problems of post-1940 rocketry indevising the how the technology would shape the message of the environmental move-ment.16 In contrast, readers of Holliday’s essay would come to know Earth imagesthrough a dialectic crafted out of his work with a new weapon at White Sands.

In other words, in the pre-1960 context, the hundreds of Earth images captured fromrockets cannot be readily taken as environmental texts. Blue Marble and Earth Rise wereonly two of hundreds of pictures taken of the Earth, spanning in time from firstunmanned rocket flights into the upper atmosphere to later human missions in to space.17

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When Holliday began his work no environmental ideal similar to Brand’s existed. Insteadhe crafted the image and imbued it with meaning through the lens of the early-Cold War,when ‘big science’ came into its own as an arm of peacetime military mobilization andparadoxically a source of technological utopianism.18

Led by former Nazi engineer Wernher Von Braun, the American V-2 rocket programhad its roots at White Sands Proving Ground in south-central New Mexico.19 The V-2, inits early iterations, was a massive machine, measuring 46 feet in length and weighed upto 9,200 pounds without a warhead.20 Holliday and his colleagues had affixed the cam-eras inside the body of the V-2, as well as other missiles, as a means of better under-standing the behavior of a rocket in flight.21

Created in early 1946, the V-2 Upper Atmosphere Panel (or simply the V-2 Panel)made up of scientists and engineers from several universities, research laboratories, andprivate companies, included the capture of Earth images as an ancillary product of theprogram. Holliday with the APL and Bergstralh of the NRL played a pivotal role inexperimenting with early Earth images.22 On March 7, 1947 Bergstralh received creditfor an image of 200,000 square miles of Mexico and the American West that was namedLife magazine’s ‘picture of the week.’23

However, the 1948 image in Holliday’s National Geographic story was the clearest ofthe early attempts to capture the Earth from the upper atmosphere. The photograph, whichacts as the centerpiece of the story, did not include the original title, the date it was taken,or its ties to the V-2 Panel. But through the 17-page story, which included several imagesof scientists tinkering with rockets, measuring craters, and other shots of the Earth at loweraltitudes, readers were offered insight into the value of Earth photography for scientists,the military, and the public.

The camera used for ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ was experimental.Exposure times ran at a shutter speed of 1/500 of a second with an aperture of f:5.6. Thecamera operated continuously until the film was exhausted. Eastman Aerographic blackand white infrared film shot through an 89a filter proved the most successful filter-filmparing for capturing clear shots. Color film was tried, but after 30,000 feet proved unsuc-cessful in shooting images through the haze of the upper atmosphere. The cameras oftenreturned to Earth broken, but a heavy steel cassette protected the film. Importantly,because the early V-2’s were not fully guided and their trajectory not totally controlled,the images captured by the cameras were at the mercy of the rocket’s uncertain path.24

The experimental yet confident quality of Holliday’s National Geographic imagespeaks to notions of scientific progress and utopianism at the dawn of the Cold War. Theatom was central to that promise. In the 1950s, scientists promoted the potential fornuclear powered cars and airplanes, cancer-curing drugs, agricultural antidotes, andweather patterns made predictable by the atom. Enumerated in President Dwight Eisen-hower’s 1953 ‘atoms for peace’ speech before the United Nations, nuclear energy’speaceful applications offered a counter-narrative to the anxieties of nuclear obliteration.25

But more generally the emergence of ‘big science’ during and after World War II andbased in large research parks and university labs pledged a transformation of life for thebetter through chemistry, biology, and physics. Artists, architects, and even scientistssought to visualize this potential society through drawings, blueprints, and photography.26

Holliday framed ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ in part to fit that narrative.Holliday constructed the photograph with only eight panels selected from nearly 200images.27 With an obvious nod to American westward expansion, the mosaic faces westtoward the Pacific Ocean. The composite image taken above New Mexico offers a subtlestatement on the post-1940 transformation of the coastal and western U.S. into a ‘gun

366 R. Edgington

belt.’28 Holliday made sure to direct the viewers gaze upon the Earth at the western hori-zon instead of out to space and was careful to mark directions south, west, and north.

Demonstrated by the distorted scale that resulted from the camera’s oblique angle (thebackground of the photo is on a much smaller scale than the foreground), the structure ofthe panorama reveals the limitations of the rocket-bound camera that could not, on itsown, capture a total view in a single image.29 Holliday had to step in and create a com-plete image by piecing it together; it was an image constructed to reflect both his ownnotions of the Earth and to convey to the reader the everyday value of rocket-based Earthphotography. His intent, in part, harks back to the production of cyclorama paintings andpanoramic photographs (often of cities or warscapes) that gained popularity in the mid-19th century.30 The approach is also reminiscent of landscape artist Albert Bierstadt, whoemployed artistic license in his paintings both to conjure awe in the viewer and also as ameasure to promote the values of western environments as divine, and ultimately nationalplaces.31 Not unlike Bierstadt’s work, readers of Holliday’s photograph could take notenot only of the triumphant human mastery of the West, but also its ties to the cosmos.

The image, in short, conveyed the ‘technological sublime’ (to use David Nye’sphrase), promoting the idea of scientific and technical progress to readers.32 A more natu-ral birds-eye view was no longer necessary in the age of rocketry. While scientists couldnot yet control the high clouds and clusters of storms in the panorama, such phenomenamight be made more predictable. Flipping between written word and the photographitself, Holliday’s readers learned that the U.S. Weather Bureau (the precursor to theNational Weather Service) could benefit ‘if guided missiles carrying cameras could besent out criss-cross over the entire continent of North America every day, photographingin a few hours all the cloud banks, storm fronts, and overcasts, weather forecasts couldbe made more accurately than now.’33 In ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up,’viewers journeyed above the clouds watching storms form and dissipate with a new senseof mastery over nature. Photography would make life easier for meteorologists and byproxy everyday Americans who needed the most accurate weather forecast.

Much like the American space program a decade later, Holliday’s panacea to thevagaries of weather and climate appear to mask the reality that V-2 rockets were ulti-mately created as weapons.34 A second glance at the image reveals a parallel perspective:of military control over the environment, a capability revealed in Holliday’s article. Blackand white infrared film significantly alters the representation of subject matter. This pro-cess follows what the cultural theorist Paul Virilio called the ‘splitting of viewpoint’ or‘the sharing of perception of the environment between the animate (the living subject)and the inanimate (the object, the seeing machine).’35 In the image the ground and foli-age have become a bright white (almost melding with clouds) while rivers and mountain-tops glow a deep black. The grand mosaic conveys an alien scene that readers may nothave noticed at first glance. The military had used the film-type first developed by Kodakto differentiate flora from camouflage during World War II.36 Holliday had constructed animage to show the viewer things down there as they are, but ironically he ends up alsooffering the viewer something that could not be seen without the aid of technology (inthis case an infrared planet with the potential to reveal enemies trying to hide).

With that in mind, there remained the series of small numbered dots that speckled theimage to guide the reader to notable markers in the photographs and make the alienfamiliar. A corresponding legend helped readers to find the mountains, rivers, states, andtowns in the picture. But the markers were indicative of another purpose: the use of suchphotography to identify possible targets of Cold War adversaries. ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye ViewFrom 60 Miles Up’ can be seen as a military map wherein the American West was a

History and Technology 367

proving ground for rocket-based surveillance. Holliday directed audiences to see its mili-tary values: ‘Cameras mounted on guided missiles might be shot out over enemy territoryand brought back with a photographic record of troop concentrations, fortifications, andairfields.’37 Published about one year after the Soviet Union tested its first nuclearweapon, ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ was not merely a benign statementabout innovation, but also the military competition to establish scientific and technologi-cal control of space and Earth. In turn, the image raised the possibility that the AmericanWest, too, could be a region of targets in the Cold War struggle.

Simply put, ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ was an experiment in recon-noitering people and places from the upper atmosphere. In 1949, US Secretary ofDefense, James Forrestal, paid lip service to an Earth satellite vehicle as future militarytool.38 It remained only a theoretical possibility at the time. Thus Holliday’s intense focuson the planet rather than the things ‘out there’ better captured by ground-based tele-scopes.39 The image is carefully laid out with the author and his team mapping the majorsites in the foreground. The plotted sites again orient the image, but they now can beread as directional orientation aids that would make images from future unmannedmilitary satellite vehicles useful for reconnaissance.

In Holliday’s words the mosaic puts the viewer in the place of an ‘all-seeing flyingeye.’40 Reminiscent of the English legal scholar and philosopher Jeremy Bentham’s plansfor eighteenth century English prisons, ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ sug-gests a space based Panopticon.41 As the historian–philosopher Michel Foucault notes,‘The Panopticon functions as a kind of laboratory of power. Thanks to its mechanisms ofobservation, it gains in efficiency and in the ability to penetrate into men’s behavior.’42

Although not identical to the state of confinement found in Bentham’s prison, Holliday’sinterpretation of his effort as an ‘all-seeing flying eye’ reproduces the concept of the Pan-opticon’s efficiency and power. The clouds obscure some locations, and thus suggest theimpediments in using rocket-based images for military purposes. Yet the ability of theviewer, guided by the author’s cues, to connect the dots on New Mexico’s landscapelessens that limitation. Here ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ conveys theaspirations of US state and military power.

In other words, for Holliday the technology of early Earth photography offered poten-tial solutions for national security planners who hoped to establish their own version ofcontrol over the Earth’s environments. Holliday explicitly saw the capability for evenmore precise reconnaissance in his image. Television ‘could send back a running reportof what the camera “saw” as it flew.’43 Once the process of using color film wasperfected, ‘camouflage would hide little from such an all-seeing flying eye if the pictureswere taken in color, for the varying wave lengths of light recorded by color film pene-trate almost any kind of artificial concealment.’44 Such an ‘eye,’ too, could map weatherpatterns, facilitating the military’s capability to operate over the entire Earth – a statementof mastery over terrestrial and sublunary environments.

‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ did not create the same splash as itsfamous kin, but it holds its own importance in exploring the relationships among science,technology, and the environment. Holliday consciously produced a panorama thatemployed the era’s belief in ‘big science’ as a hopeful development for humanity. At thesame time, it had profound utility for the military at the dawn of the Cold War. Themosaic took viewers on a rocket-driven ride that promised better times on terra firma,but via a technology that in Holliday’s words was ‘built to spread death.’45 As Americanscontinue to wrestle with the social value of military-produced technologies in the post-9/

368 R. Edgington

11 era of big surveillance, ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ exposes the deephistorical roots and tangle of meanings embedded in ‘all seeing’ imagery.

AcknowledgmentsThe author would like to thank Jennifer Tucker, Martin Collins, Colin Edgington, Nick Pino, ErikLoomis, Neil Prendergast, Neil Maher, and two anonymous readers.

Notes1. Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 511–28; The Applied Physics Laboratory

(APL) at Johns Hopkins University, which played a central role in early earth photography,first distributed ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ in a souvenir pamphlet titled‘Columbus was right!’ See Poole, Earthrise, 58–9.

2. The APL explained that the image was approximately 800,000 square miles. NationalGeographic published the number of 1 million square miles. I have used the more conserva-tive number. See the image itself and Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 524.

3. Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 524.4. Ibid.5. Other clear images include a north to south image shot from an Aerobee Rocket that accom-

panied ‘V-2 Rocket-Eye View From 60 Miles Up’ in the National Geographic article. See‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 524–25. See also Hubert and Berg, ‘A Rocket Portraitof a Tropical Storm,’ 121.

6. People had attempted to shoot the Earth from kites, balloons, and by other means prior to theV-2 Shots. See Poole, Earthrise, 57–8, 60; DeVorkin, Science with a Vengeance, 3.

7. Other historians have offered a similar approach to rethinking the history of earth photographyand its ties to environmentalism. Maher, ‘On Shooting the Moon,’ 526–31; Poole, Earthrise;Kirk, Counterculture Green.

8. DeVorkin, Science with a Vengeance, 144–45.9. Bryan, The National Geographic Society, 261.10. Cosgrove, Apollo’s Eye, 5.11. See Poole, Earthrise; see Maher, ‘On Shooting the Moon.’12. See DeVorkin, Science with a Vengeance.13. Ibid., 144.14. DeVorkin, Science with a Vengeance, 144–45.15. On ecosystem ecology, see Kingsland, The Evolution of American Ecology, ch. 7.16. Kirk, Counterculture Green, 34–5, 40–1.17. See Poole, Earthrise.18. Galison and Hevly, Big Science, 1–17.19. DeVorkin, Science with a Vengeance, ch. 7.20. Information Office, White Sands Missile Range, Fact Sheet: ‘V-2 Story,’ June 1972, Doc.

97.007.003, White Sands Missile Range Museum and Archives.21. Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 528.22. The APL and the NRL were participants in the much more complex alliance of military, pri-

vate, and university based scientific groups known collectively as the V-2 Panel (later knownas the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Panel). See Newell, Beyond the Atmosphere: Early Years ofSpace Science, 34, 36, 39–40; Ley, Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel, 254; DeVorkin,Science with a Vengeance, ch. 6.

23. Robert Poole, Earthrise, 60–1; ‘Picture of the Week,’ 34, 35; Bergstralh’s photos were firstpublished in Bergstralh, Photography From the V-2 Rocket at Altitudes Ranging Up To 160Kilometers, Doc. 04.072.002, White Sands Missile Range Museum and Archives.

24. Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 528.25. On the promise of nuclear energy at the dawn of the Cold War, see Boyer, By the Bombs

Early Light, 107–30.26. See generally Galison and Hevly, Big Science.27. Poole, Earthrise, 61.28. The American West was the center of US nuclear research, weapons development and storage,

and waste disposal. The region was also home to numerous military bases, missile silos, mili-

History and Technology 369

tary think tanks, and research laboratories. See Markusen et al., The Rise of the Gunbelt;Hevly and Findlay, The Atomic West.

29. Holliday,’Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 524.30. On panoramic photography in the nineteenth century USA, see ‘A Brief History of Panoramic

Photography,’ Library of Congress, accessed May 25, 2012, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/panoramic_photo/pnhist1.html. An example of the construction of a cyclorama canbe found in Boardman and Porch, The Battle of Gettysburg Cyclorama.

31. On Bierstadt and other western painters, see Boime, The Magisterial Gaze.32. Nye, American Technological Sublime, see especially the introduction and ch. 9.33. Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 512. By the mid-1950s scientists were using

rockets to follow weather patterns. See Hubert and Berg, ‘A Rocket Portrait of a TropicalStorm.’

34. Nye, American Technological Sublime, 255–56.35. Virilio, The Vision Machine, 59–60.36. Aerial photography was used extensively during World War II. See Maslowski, Armed with

Cameras; Colton, ‘How We Fight With Photographs,’ 257–80; Kodak had developed severalversions of black and white infrared film prior to World War II and had created false-colorinfrared film during the war. The military used both. See Monmonier, Spying with Maps,43–45; Lindgren, Land Use Planning and Remote Sensing, 18, 21; Rice, Digital InfraredPhotography, 16.

37. Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 512.38. Waldemar Kaempffert, ‘Rocket Outpost in Space, Like a Little Moon, Is Being Studied by

the Armed Forces,’ The New York Times, January 2, 1949, sec. E, p. 9; ‘Scientists Workingon “Space Ship,” Forrestal Report Gives Hint of Satellite Program,’ Reading Eagle (Reading,PA), February 16, 1949, p. 14; ‘Scientists Plan “Space Ship” Capable of 10,000 M.P.H.,’Spokane Daily Chronicle (Spokane, WA), February 16, 1949, p. 11; ‘Rocket Soars 250 Miles,Nearly Becomes Satellite,’ The Pittsburgh Press, February 26, 1949, p. 1.

39. On the post-1960 desire to shoot the Earth rather than things out there, see Maher, ‘On Shootingthe Moon,’ 526–31. On the abilities of post-World War II telescope, see Zirker, An Acre ofGlass, especially chapter two on the Hale Telescope and Palomar Observatory.

40. Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 512.41. On Bentham and the Panopticon, see Foucault, Discipline & Punish, 195–230.42. Foucault, Discipline & Punish, 204.43. Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 512.44. Ibid.45. Holliday, ‘Seeing the Earth from 80 Miles Up,’ 513.

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