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AP Human Geography:An Adventure in
Thinking Geographically
CLICK
What Is Geography?
On your globe:
•Write your definition of geography
• ID a place you want to learn about
• ID a contemporary geographic issue that interests you
Defining Geography
word coined by Erathosthenes, a Greek scholar•geo = Earth•graphia = writing
so…•geography means “earth writing”
Note! Erathosthenes’ map exists today only as a reconstruction from the 19th Century
Erathosthenes is known as the “Father of Geography”
Geography is BOTH Physical and Human!
Right Here… Right Now
many people have misconceptions about geography and think of the discipline as simply an exercise in memorizing place names
but…
geography exists in global issues such as •population growth
•terrorism
•cultural diffusion
•immigration
CLICK!
Thinking Like A Geographer
ASK “where,” then “why there?”
DIFFERENTIATE between location and distribution
EXPLORE the impacts of globalization on local diversity
CATEGORIZE as physical geography or human geography
BE CURIOUS ABOUT YOUR WORLD!
Spatial Perspective
our geographic framework that looks at
• the locations of specific features
•how and why that feature is where it is
•and how it is spatially related to features in other places
Geography vs History
Geographers… Historians…
ID the location of important places and explain why human activities are located beside one another
ID the dates of important events and explain why human activities follow one another chronologically
Ask WHERE and WHY THERE Ask WHEN and WHY THEN
Recognize that actions at different points on Earth have important cause and effect consequences
Recognize that actions in time have a cause and effect implications
Think spatially Think chronologically
AND…geographers have the advantage of real-time, hands-on exploration and fieldwork!
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts
Key Issue 1:
How Do Geographers Describe Where Things
Are?
How Do You Use Maps in“Everyday” Life?
2 Minute TNT… Turn and Talk
Share, Listen, Ask a Question
SWITCH and REPEAT
Stay on Task!
Watch our ideas EXPLODE!
Geography’s Essential Tools
Maps have purposes:
•as reference tools to find locations, to find one’s way
•as communication tools to show the distribution of human and physical features
THINK ABOUT IT… maps both REPRESENT and CREATE our reality of the world
Early Mapmaking
Oldest KNOWN maps:
7th century BCE plan for the town of Catalhöyök (Turkey)
6th century BCE world map depicting ancient Babylon area surrounded by water with the in the center.
But Wait! There’s More!
Many cartographers think humans have been mapping their locations for much longer!
Are these also maps?
MAPPING OUR WORLD
Cartography
the art and science of making maps, including data compilation, layout, and design… maps as reference tools
cartographers are also concerned with the interpretation of mapped patterns… maps as communication tools
World Geographic Grid
Latitude Longitude
Parallel Meridian
Prime Meridian
International Date Line
Equator
GMT
KNOW
THESE!
Absolute Location
The absolute location of any place can be described by longitude and latitude- meridians and parallels
San Antonio on the Geographic Grid
Latitude:
29° 25' 26" N
Longitude:
98° 29' 35" W
Map
a visual representation of the earth’s surface-
OR
any other observable occurrence- that occurs in the real world
Map Scale
the degree to which a map “zooms in” on the area it is representing
cartographers represent a portion of the earth on every map- scale determines what is seen and unseen
For Example…
1 inch on a map may equal 10 miles in the real world… that scale can be written as 1 inch = 10 miles
scale can also be indicated as a fraction: 1/10 miles or as a ratio 1:10 miles
any way it’s written means1 inch on the map equals 10 miles in the real world
THIS IS THE TRICKY PART!
the more “zoomed in” the map is on an area, the larger is its map scale large-scale maps depict a smaller area
the less “zoomed in” the map is on an area, the smaller is its scalesmall-scale maps depict a larger area
Scale
NOTE!
map scale affects both spatial association and spatial perspective… THINK about scale and what it shows- and doesn’t show!
Scale Differences and Spatial Perspective Maps of Florida
What do you see/not see at different scales?
The effects of scale in maps of Florida. (Scales from 1:10 million to 1:10,000)
Reference Map
shows locations of places and geographic features
Thematic Maptells a “story” about the degree of an attribute, the pattern of its distribution, or its movement
Topographic Map (Isopleth)
isolines- lines on a map depicting areas of same or like values
isolines (contour lines) depict where the same elevation exists
the interval of a contour map shows the difference in elevation between contour lines
Proportional Symbols Map
uses symbols of different sizes to represent data
Dot Map
a dot is used to locate each occurrence of a phenomenon
dots indicate any number of characteristics, for example, one dot for every 100 voters
Military families
in Ohio
Choropleth Mapshows statistical data aggregated over predefined regions, such as counties or states, by coloring or shading these regions
Cartogram
substitutes a thematic variable for land area or distance… the geometry or space of these maps is distorted in order to convey the information
Cool Cartograms
Location Chart
adds text or statistical information to a map
Visualization Map
uses software to create dynamic computer maps (some are 3D or interactive)
Mental Map
also called a cognitive map
maps drawn from memory
MENTAL MAPPING is a key skill in AP HUG! You will never see a labeled map on a test!
the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance, usually from aircraft or satellites
Modern Cartography: GIScience
GIS map
(GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information
GIS uses thematic layers to help geographers identify relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts
GIS Mash-upsCombining Data in New Ways
Satellite Maps
Global Positioning System Maps (GPS)
space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth
works where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
maintained by the U.S. government
is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver
Modern Tools or Paper Maps?
Interested ? Read More…A Career in Cartography
Pass out Article???
MAP PROJECTIONS
The Earth is
ROUND!
The “Orange Peel” Problem
transforming something spherical into something flat is impossible… a 2-D map will never exactly represent a 3D world!
geographers use numerous map projections to produce a variety of maps… for a variety of uses
The Trouble with 2D
All flat maps have some distortion in their representation of:•Shape
•Area
•Distance
•Direction
Types of Projections
equal-area projections: maps that maintain area but distort other properties
conformal projections: maps that maintain shape but distort other properties
azimuthal projections: maps that maintain direction but distort other properties
equidistant projections: maps that maintain distance but distort other properties
Mercator Projection
Characteristics:
•all lines are at 90 degree angles
•simplest to read
•accurate direction
•distorted size, distance, shape
Geography as a political statement… that we should refocus our attention to the tropics, home to large landmasses and many of the world’s poorest countries.
Mercator Projection
useful for navigation because it maintains accurate direction, longitude, and latitude
most accurate in the tropics
(from Cancer to Capricorn)
most distortion at the North and
South Poles- the poles appear
oversized
Mercator… Meet Google!
the Mercator projection has been revived in recent years to meet the needs of digital mapping- for street-level maps, you can’t beat Mercator!
straight lines always represents a consistent direction and a rectangular building will appear as a rectangle
Peters Projection
attempts to retain all the accurate sizes of all the world’s landmasses
distorts the shape of the continents especially near the poles
Robinson Projectionlines of longitude are curved
shapes at the poles are flat and not as distorted
most accurate at the equator
most distortion around the outer edges
Robinson Projection
attempts to balance several possible projection errors
does not maintain completely accurate area, shape, distance, or direction, but it minimizes errors in each
used by National Geographic and many textbooks
Interrupted Projection
seek a compromise by “cutting” Earth’s surface along lines, then depicting each section as a or lobe (orgore.Often lobe boundaries are designed to fall on less important (regarding the map's purpose) areas, like oceans.longer have any meaning.
Polar ProjectionCharacteristics:
•distances and direction are accurate from the center along the longitude lines
•size and shape are accurate at the center of the map
•most accurate at the poles
•most distortion around the outer edges
•used for navigation of air planes (Great Circle Routes)
Types of Map Projections
CLICK TO LEARN MORE!
Why Does Projection Matter?
•Different projections have different uses
•Perception of our world cultural equality
•Think about it… is projection more apparent on small or large-scale maps? WHY?
CLICK TO LEARN MORE!
REMEMBER!
Be aware of projection- what aspects of the map are represented accurately, and which are distorted — and are those choices appropriate to what’s being communicated?
There is no perfect projection, but there aren’t necessarily any bad ones, either — just bad uses of them!
Learn More
•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4wgFSHZXBg&list=PLSfHj8toBl19xfQnz3EcC23PGQ8FR0ywj&index=7
•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AI36MWAH54s&index=4&list=PLnb7trVkQzM_-3aRhQ6q1lG_40i6MM1JZ
Can You…
•Compare key geographers and ID their contributions?
•Explain the tools of modern cartographers?
Looking Critically at Maps
Every cartographer makes choices when making a map… look carefully!
What is included? What is left off? What is distorted?
World Time Zones
The world’s 24 standard time zones are often depicted using the Mercator projection.
CLICK TO LEARN MORE
CLICK TO LEARN MORE!
Time zones are 15° apart
360 ° divided by 15 °= 24
Can You…
•Explain scale and why it matters?
•Explain map projections and ID most commonly used?
•Use the geographic grid to locate places?
•Explain the development and use of time zones?
Key Issue 2:
Why Is Each Place on Earth Unique?
Place: Unique Location of Features
•Toponyms (place names)
•Site
•Situation
ASK…What combination of physical and human features makes this place different?
Place Names - Toponyms
•Longest name in US-comes from the Algonquian language
•Longest name in Europe- means “St. Mary’s Church” in Welsh
Naming San Antonio
CLICK the picture for primary sources that explain how we got our toponym.
A Place By Any Other Name…
Toponyms are often reflect
1. migration history OR indigenous peoples
2. values and aspirations
3. specific events (positive or negative)
or people
4. physical characteristics of the area
5. inaccurate or deceptively description of
physical characteristics
Site: Lower Manhattan Island
Site of lower Manhattan Island, New York City. There have been many changes
to the area over the last 200 years.
Site (physical characteristics) of lower Manhattan Island, New York City. There have been many changes to the area over the last 200 years.
1650
1800
1965
1980
Situation: Singapore
Singapore is situated at a key location for international trade. It has a positive relative location for global economics.
• Cultural landscape• Types of regions• Regional integration of culture• Cultural ecology
Regions: Areas of Unique Characteristics
Regional Studies: The Cultural Landscape
•A unique combination of social relationships and physical processes
•Each region = a distinctive landscape
•People = the most important agents of change to Earth’s surface
Physical Processes
•Climate
•Vegetation
•Soil
•Landforms
These four processes are important for understanding human activities
Regions: A Unique Area
Formal (uniform) regions• all people share a common, predominant
characteristic
Functional (nodal) regions• organized around a single focal point
Vernacular (cultural) regions• exist because people believe it
ASK…
• What distinctive characteristics do these places share?
Formal Regions
Functional Regions
The state of Iowa is an example of a formal region; the areas of influence of
various television stations are examples of functional regions.
Airline Route Networks
Delta Airlines, like many others, has configured its route network in a
“hub and spoke” system.
Vernacular Regions
A number of factors are often used to define the South as a vernacular region,
each of which identifies somewhat different boundaries.
Perceptual Regions: Texas
Election 2008: “Regional” Differences
Be careful! Do not overlook the differences within regions!Presidential election results by county and state illustrate differences within regional voting patterns.
McCainMcCain
ObamaObama
Culture
Origin from the Latin cultus, meaning “to care for”
Two aspects:• what people care about:
beliefs, values, and customs
• what people take care of-earning a living, obtaining food, clothing, and shelter
Spatial Association at Various Scales
Death rates from cancer in the U.S., Maryland, and Baltimore show different patterns that can identify associations with different factors.
Can You…
•ID ways geographers use toponyms to learn more about place??
•Differentiate between site and situation?
•Explain the 3 different types of regions?
•Define culture?
•Explain the uses of regional scale?
Key Issue 3:
Why Are Different Places Similar?
Similarity of Different Places
Scale: From local to global• Globalization of economy• Globalization of culture
Space: Distribution of features• Density• Concentration• Pattern• Cultural Identity in space and thought
Connections between places• Diffusion• Spatial interaction
Globalization of the Economy•global movement of money made easier by improvements in electronic communication
• rise and role of transnational corporations
•corporations identify local assets for suitability
•global investment flows
• local specialization in location of production
Recession of 2008
•1st time there has been a GLOBAL recession
•Resulted from a “burst” of the housing bubble in USA, but affected many other countries
•Crisis spread to other parts of the country as people had less money to spend
Globalization of the Economy
The Denso corporation is headquartered in Japan, but it has regional
headquarters and other facilities in North America and Western Europe.
Globalization of Culture
•elements of culture
• customary beliefs
• social forms
• material traits
Costs and Benefits:Globalization of Culture
• fewer local differences
•enhanced communications and knowledge
•unequal access
•maintenance of local traditions
•greater range of products
Distribution Properties:The Arrangement of Features in Space
The density, concentration, and pattern (of houses in this example) may each
vary in an area or landscape.
three types of distribution:
•density• concentration• pattern
Densitythe frequency with which something occurs
involves 2 measures:
• frequency and land area
Concentrationthe extent of a features spread over an area
dispersed- spread out
clustered- close together
geographers use concentration to show changes in distribution
REMEMBER! Density and concentration are different!
Density and Concentration of Baseball Teams, 1952–2000
The changing distribution of North American baseball teams illustrates
the differences between density and concentration.
Pattern
the geometrical arrangement of features in space
many places use a geometrical or grid system, other are random
A, B, C… 1, 2, 3… That’s How Easy Maps Can Be!
U.S. Land Ordinance of 1785
established townships, sections, and range system•township = 6 sq. miles on each side•north–south lines = principal meridians
•east–west lines = base lines
Township and Range System in the U.S.
Principal meridians and east-west baselines of the township system. Townships in northwest
Mississippi and topographic map of the area.
Cultural Identity
Distribution Across Space
•behavioral geography-emphasizes the importance of understanding the psychological reasons people make decisions
•humanistic geography- emphasizes the different ways that we perceive our environment
The Use and Perception of Space
•gender and ethnicity color the way we see/use space
•different people value space differently
•poststructuralist geography emphasizes the need to understand multiple perspectives regarding space, and concentrate on those people(s) traditionally under-represented in cultures.
The Heart of Geography“A deep respect for the dignity of all cultural groups lies at the heart of geography’s understanding of space.”
Rubenstein, page 25
Diffusion• the movement of people, ideas, and information between places
• regions can possess similarities based upon characteristics that spread from one place to another over time
•hearth-an area where an innovation originates, and is embraced
Two Big Categories of Diffusion
• relocation diffusion
•expansion diffusion ( 3 types)–hierarchical diffusion
–contagious diffusion
–stimulus diffusion
Relocation Diffusion
map shows the distribution of euro coins minted outside France
Relocation Diffusion
international trade has driven relocation diffusion for centuries…
•the silk road
•columbian exchange
•modern transnational corporations
Expansion Diffusionhierarchical- from bigger/more powerful to smaller/less powerful
contagious- rapid and widespread
stimulus- the underlying idea spreads, rather than the exact characteristic or item
AIDS Diffusion in the U.S., 1981–2001
New AIDS cases were concentrated in three nodes in 1981. They spread through
the country in the 1980s, but declined in the original nodes in the late 1990s.
Spatial Interaction
•interdependence exists among places based upon the degree of spatial interaction.
• it is established through the movement of people, ideas, and objects between regions.
Spatial Interaction
• transportation networks
•electronic communications and the “death” of geography?
•distance decay
Space-Time Compression1492–1962
The times required to cross the Atlantic, or orbit the Earth, illustrate how
transport improvements have shrunk the world.
Can You…
•ID ways geographers use toponyms to learn more about place??
•differentiate between site and situation?
•explain the 3 different types of regions?
•define culture?
•explain the uses of regional scale?
Key Issue 4:
Why Are Some Human Actions Not
Sustainable??
Sustainability and Resources
the use of Earth’s natural resources in ways that ensure availability in the future
BLAH
Biosphere
Lithosphere
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Resources are Part of BLAH
Types of Resources
nonrenewable
renewable
alternative/inexhaustible resources
What’s the Difference?
conservation
preservation
sustaianability
3 Pillars of Sustainability
•Environmental- is it good for the PLANET?
•Economic- is it good for business?
Society- do PEOPLE support the action?
What Next?
•some environmental groups believe too much damage has been done.
•others believe that positive environmental decisions can still be made
•key to success- an international approach between developed and undeveloped countries and an equitable approach to the distribution of resources.
Cultural Ecology
the geographic study of human–environment relationships has two perspectives:
• Environmental determinism- the physical environment causes social development
• Possibilism-the physical environment may limit some human activity, but people have the ability to adjust to their physical surroundings
The Verdict Is…
Modern geographers generally reject environmental determinism in favor of possibilism
POSSIBILISM
The NetherlandsBuilding a Sustainable Ecosystem
“God Made the Earth, but the
Dutch made the Netherlands.”
•Polders and dikes have modified the country: polders are farmland, dikes hold back the sea
•The Dutch are returning lands to wetland biomes, reducing use of pesticides/fertilizers, and expanding solar and wind technologies.
The NetherlandsSustainable Ecosystem
Polders and dikes have been used for extensive environmental modification in
the Netherlands.
South FloridaBuilding an Unsustainable Ecosystem
Straightening the Kissimmee River has had many unintended side effects.
•draining of everglades
•levee around lake okeechobee
•growing population
•pollution from commercial farming and ranching
LOCAL GLOBAL
Thinking Geographically
Think and act both global and local!
ALL scales- from local to global- are important depending on the issue!
Can You…
•differentiate between renewable and nonrenewable resources?
•describe the 4 physical spheres that combine to make earth’s environment?
•differentiate between environmental determinism and possibilism?
•id real-life examples of sustainable and non-sustainable human activity?
Quiz Yourself!
Quizlet 1 Quizlet 2
These questions are
from an older edition
of our text- it is not a
perfect match for our
class, but MOST of
the questions will help
you review!
