An action research bibliography (PDF) - …158.132.155.107/posh97/private/research/bibliography/action... · research and action science compared: ... Carr, Wilfred and Kemmis, Stephen

An action researchbibliography

An annotated bibliography on actionresearch,including qualitative research andprogramevaluation

This is a resource file which supports the regularpublic program "areol" (action research and evaluationon line) offered twice a year beginning inmid-February and mid-July. For details email BobDick [email protected] or [email protected]

This includes relevant literature up to and including1993. For more recent books published in the past fewyears click here

Go to: a b c d e f g j k l m n o p r s v w z

Action research bibliography

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Altrichter, Herbert (1990) Do we need an alternative methodologyfor doing alternative research? In Ortrun Zuber-Skerritt, ed.,Action research for change and development. Brisbane: Centre forthe Advancement of Learning and Teaching, Griffith University.

Argues that the differences between traditional and alternativeresearch have been overestimated The process of validating anystudy is iteself a second research study and subject to challenges toits validity

Anders, D.J. (1966) Action research. In S. Kemmis and R. McTaggart, eds., The action research reader, third ed [pp 317-321]. Victoria: Deakin University.

A brief overview

Antaki, Charles, ed. (1988) Analysing everyday explanation: acasebook of methods. Newbury Park: Sage.

Many qualitative techniques depend upon some form of discourseanalysis (the analysis of written or spoken language). This bookdiscusses some of the methods.

Argyris, Chris (1980) Inner contradictions of rigorous research. New York: Academic Press.

Some of the features of traditional empirical research are taken forgranted, and their disadvantages not recognised. Argyris argues,here and elsewhere, that traditional research has its own threats torigour.

Argyris, Chris (1983) Action science and intervention. Journal ofApplied Behavioural Science, 19, 115-140.

Argyris, Chris, and Schon, Donald A. (1989) Participative actionresearch and action science compared: a commentary. AmericanBehavioural Scientist, 32, 612-623.



Most social research, including most action research, the authorsargue, is fundamentally flawed because the researcher cannotguarantee the validity of the information provided. The unspokenrules which govern social interaction prevent some issues beingdiscussed. Action science, by creating a more open relationshipbetween researcher and researched, and by surfacing andconfronting the rules, enables valid data to be collected.

Argyris, Chris; Putnam, Robert and Smith, Diana McLain (1985)Action science: concepts, methods and skills for research andintervention, San Francisco, Ca.: Jossey-Bass.

Offers a methodology for researching social systems in ways whichgain more valid data while treating those researched as mature andresponsible adults. In effect it is equivalent to a form ofparticipative action research, with particular attention given togenerating more valid information.

Argyris, Chris, and Schon, Donald A. (1996) Organizationallearning II: Theory, method and practice. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

In some respects this is a revision of their 1978 bookOrganizational learning, which related their work on interpersonalinteraction more deliberately to organisational dynamics. Inaddition, I think it integrates some of their earlier work. I've alsoheard reports that many people find it more readable than much ofArgyris.

Armstrong, J. Scott (1985) Long-range forecasting: from crystalball to computer, second edition. New York: Wiley

A readable and informative overview of group processes andtechniques, most of which can be used for purposes in addition toforecasting. Summarises the research on many of the techniques. Apart from that, it is worth getting for the annotated bibliography.

Bawden, Richard (1990) Towards action research systems. In O. Zuber-Skerrit, ed., Action research for change and development. Brisbane: Centre for Advancement in Learning and Teaching,



Griffith University. [21-51]

A well-illustrated account of some of the models Bawden uses inhis extensive practice of action research. Readable, and with depth.

Beer, Michael; and Walton, Anna Elise (1987) Organisationchange and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 38,339-367.

An account of the difficulties of researching social systems, thisespecially questions the use of causal rather than systems models,the sacrifice of relevance for precision, the ignoring of theenvironmental context, and the tendency to ignore the needs ofusers. "Change is not brought about by following a grand plan butby continually readjusting directions and goals".

Bellenger, Danny, Bernhardt, Kenneth L., and Goldstucker, Jac L. (1976) Qualitative research in marketing. Chicago: AmericanMarketing Association.

Many marketing research techniques can be pressed into service foraction research generally.

Berg, Bruce L. (1988) Qualitative research methods for the socialsciences. Hemel Hempstead, England: Allyn & Bacon.

Brewer, John & Hunter, Albert (1989) Multimethod research: asynthesis of styles. Newbury Park: Sage.

The purpose of multimethod research is to increase the rigour ofresearch. It is assumed that some of the systematic biasses ofdifferent methods cancel each other out.

Brown, A. and Heller, F. (1981) Usefulness of group feedbackanalysis as a research method: its application to a questionnairestudy. Human Relations, 34, 141-156.

Group feedback analysis is in effect a small-group method forsurvey feedback. It therefore lends itself to research which



achieves change through working directly with small groups; butcan be used with several such groups to allow results to be collatedover larger numbers. Heller is the person who devised groupfeedback analysis, and has written in several papers on its use forcombined research and intervention.

Brown, L. David (1993) Social change through collectivereflection with Asian nongovernmental development organisations. Human Relations, 46(2), 249-293.

Brown identifies two action research traditions. The "Southern"tradition focusses on empowering disenfranchised groups. The"Northern" uses a problem solving approach in organisationalchange. His paper reports the use of a mixed approach in workingwith NGOs. He gives attention to values and ideology,participation, and joint enquiry.

Bryant, Fred B.; Edwards, John; Tindale, R. Scott; Posavac, EmilJ.; Heath, Linda; Henderson, Eaaron; and Suarez-Balcazar,Yolanda, eds. (1992) Methodological issues in applied socialpsychology. New York: Plenum.

A collection of papers on methods, methodologies and issues insocial research. Qualitative and quantitative methods areaddressed, and current developments receive attention.

Cameron, Deborah; Frazer, Elizabeth; Harvey, Penelope; Rampton, M.B.H.; and Richardson, Kay (1992) Researchinglanguage: issues of power and method. London: Routledge.

This book, written from a number of different disciplinaryperspectives, focusses on the relationship between researcher andresearched. It discusses some of the ways in which the usual powerdifference can be minimised, with particular attention to theresearching of language and the language of research.

Campbell, Donald T. and Stanley, Julian C. (1966) Experimentaland quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: RandMcNally.



The positivist bible for field research and an important contributionto the practical literature on methodology. Positivist research isseen as the ideal. Research designs which fall short of trueexperiments are subject to various threats to validity which must beaddressed in one way or another. The approach may sellqualitative research short, but many of the issues require addressingin one way or another.

Carey, Martha Ann and Smith, Mickey W. (1992) Enhancement ofvalidity through qualitative approaches: incorporating the patient'sperspective. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 15(1),107-114.

Qualitative and participative methods are used to refine a reseachprogram into HIV. A number of participative methods aredescribed. The authors conclude that the participative methodswere of value in designing the program.

Carr, Wilfred and Kemmis, Stephen (1986) Becoming critical: education knowledge and action research. London: Falmer Press. [Available from Deakin UP]

A strongly-put case for a particular approach to research, usingparticipative action research methods. The form of action researchadvocated is cyclic, is done by those researched, and incorporatesthe philosophy of the Frankfurt school. The cycle used is: plan,act, observe, reflect. Valuable.

Centre for the Study of Evaluation, UCLA (1987) Programevaluation kit, 2nd edition. Newbury Park: Sage.

Contents: v.1 Evaluator's handbook. - v.2 How to focus anevaluation. - v.3 How to design a program evaluation. v.4 How touse qualitative methods in evaluation. - v.5 How to assess programimplementation. - v.6. How to measure attitudes. - v.7 How tomeasure performance and use tests. - v.8 How to analyze data. -v.9 How to communicate evaluation findings

Chalmers, Alan F. (1982) What is this thing called science?: anassessment of the nature and status of science and its methods, 2nd



edition. St. Lucia, Qld.: University of Queensland Press.

A critical but understanding discussion of current views in thephilosophy of science. This is a readable account from an authorwho has the capacity to review sympathetically the work of peoplewith whom he disagrees. He argues against a single scientificmethod, but claims that there are some best practices whichnevertheless allow a scientific method to be defended or criticised. There is a readable summary of the important views ofphilosophers Lakatos and Feyerabend.

Chalmers, Alan Francis (1990) Science and its fabrication. MiltonKeynes: Open University Press.

An expansion and clarification of the arguments he put forward inChalmers (1982). He restates his position that any particularscientific methodology is to be evaluated against the aims of thatform of science. His argument is mainly about the physicalsciences but appears to allow extension to the social sciences.

Chamala, Shankariah, and Mortiss, Peter D. (1990) Workingtogether for landcare: group management skills and strategies,Brisbane: Australian Academic Press.

With a strong emphasis on group processes and their facilitation,this is a practical account of methods relevant to landcare andelsewhere.

Anything by Robert Chambers is likely to be relevant, either hisearlier work on Rapid Rural Appraisal or the later "Farmer first"approach:

Chambers, Robert (1981) Rapid rural appraisal: rationale andrepertoire. Public Administration and Development, 1, 95-106.

Rapid rural appraisal is a participative and qualitative diagnostictechnique used frequently in rural settings, especially agriculturalextension.

Chambers, R., Pacey, A., and Thrupp, L.A., eds. (1989) Farmer



first: farmer innovation and agricultural research. London. Intermediate Technology Publications.

A further development of Chambers' earlier work, practical,participative, and with applications beyond its primary markets ofagricultural extension and rural development.

Checkland, Peter (1981) Systems thinking, systems practice. Chichester: Wiley.

An important book on a methodology for analysing and interveningin social systems. Systems concepts are used qualitatively tounderstand a social system, devise more effective ways ofachieving its outcomes, and planning improvement. The first halfof the book presents one of the most closely argued defenses ofaction research as a legitimate research paradigm.

Checkland, Peter (1992) From framework through experience tolearning: the essential nature of action research. In C.S. Bruceand A.M. Russell, Transforming tomorrow today (2nd WorldCongr. on Action Learning). Brisbane: Action Learning ActionResearch & Process Management Assn

In this conference paper Checkland identifies soft systemsmethodology as action research. He criticises most action researchfor lacking an adequate, well argued methodological framework.

Checkland, Peter and Scholes, Jim (1990) Soft systemsmethodology in action. Chichester: Wiley.

An account, liberally illustrated with specific examples, of softsystems methodology.

Chisholm, Rupert F., and Elden Max (1993) Features of emergingaction research. Human Relations, 46(2), 275-298.

A follow-up to Elden and Chisholm (1993). In summing up theconclusions drawn from articles in a special issue of HumanRelations, the authors identify five main dimensions to actionresearch: 1: system level of client system; 2: degree of



organisation of research setting; 3: degree of openness of researchprocess; 4: goals and purpose of research; 5: role of researchers.

Clark, Alf W., ed. (1976) Experimenting with organisational life: the action research approach, New York: Plenum.

Papers on action research in organisations.

Clark, Peter A. (1972) Action research and organisational change,London: Harper and Row.

This useful book includes, among other things, a discussion ofdifferent consulting styles and their advantages and disadvantages.

Cook, Thomas D. and Campbell, Donald T. (1979)Quasi-experimentation: design and analysis issues for fieldsettings, Chicago, Ill.: Rand McNally.

Ways of improving the rigour of field research when "trueexperiments" can not be conducted. Written from an experimentalperspective, but nonetheless useful in some respects.

Cook, Thomas D. and Shadish, W.R. (1986) Program evaluation: the worldly science. Annual Review of Psychology, 37, 193-232)

A review of current issues in evaluation, and an acknowledgmentthat dealing with a complex and demanding reality has required theabandonment of positivist and reductionist approaches.

Cornelius, Helena, and Faire, Shoshana (1989) Everyone can win: how to resolve conflict. Brookvale, NSW: Simon and Schuster.

It is worth reading this book for the material on "Mappingconflicts" alone. The integrated and systematic approach toconflict management described here is that of the ConflictResolution Network. One of the most easily learned, and easilytaught, packages on conflict management. Included here becauseconflict management techniques can be used as qualitative researchtechniques when participants hold very different views.



Coulthard, Malcolm (1985) An introduction to discourse analysis,new edition. London: Longman

An account of ways of analysing qualitative data in the form oflanguage.

Crabtree, Benjamin F. and Miller, William L., eds. (1992) Doingqualitative research. Newbury Park: Sage.

The papers in this book cover the stages of the research processusing qualitative methods, including some case studies. Althoughthe emphasis is on medical research (especially primary healthcare), it provides a convenient and readable overview of qualitativeresearch methods.

Craig, Dorothy (1978) Hip pocket guide to planning andevaluation. San Diego: University Associates.

Intended for the lay reader, this is a clear exposition of achange-oriented approach to evaluation. Don't be put off by its age-- it's good. In workbook format, it is readable and systematicenough to follow in step-by-step fashion if necessary. You can useit as a general introduction to evaluation for practitioners. The "hippocket" of the title must refer to the price, as it certainly doesn't fitin my hip (or overcoat) pocket.

Cronbach, Lee J.; Ambron, Sueann R.; Dornbusch, Sanford M.; Hess, Robert D.; Hornik, Robert C.; Phillips, D.C.; Walker,Decker F.; and Weiner, Stephen S. (1980) Toward reform ofprogram evaluation: aims, methods and institutionalarrangements. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

A wide-ranging account of current issues in program evaluation.

Davies, Lynda and Ledington, Paul (1991) Information in action: soft systems methodology. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan.

How to apply Checkland's soft systems methodology in practice,



written by people who did their doctoral research underCheckland. In my view it is to some extent easier to follow andmore practical than Checkland's own writing.

Delbecq, A.L., Van de Ven, A.H. and Gustafson, D.H. (1986)Group techniques for program planning. Middleton, Wis.: Greenbriar.

Detailed descriptions of nominal group technique, which collectsinformation from each person in turn in a group, and delphi, a mailtechnique for pooling data from a number of experts.

Dick, Bob (1990) Convergent interviewing, version 3. Brisbane: Interchange.

An interviewing method which uses structured process,unstructured content, and a procedure for increasing the rigour ofqualitative information.

Dick, Bob (1990) Rigour without numbers: the potential ofdialectical processes as qualitative research tools. Brisbane: Interchange.

On the use of processes for data collection and interpretation withinan action research framework. The monograph argues thatqualitative research methods need not surrender rigour, if carefullydesigned.

Elden, Max, and Chisholm, Rupert F. (1993) Emerging varieties ofaction research: introduction to the special issue. HumanRelations, 46(2), 121-142)

This article forms the introduction to a special issue of the journalHuman Relations devoted to action research. The main conclusionreached is that the viability of current action research derives fromits variety of design and application. See that companion article(the conclusion to the same issue) by Chisholm and Elden (1993).

Elliott, John (1991) Action research for educational change. Milton



Keynes: Open University Press.

Action research in educational settings.

Ely, Margot; with Margaret Anzul, Teri Friedman, Diane Garner,and Ann McCormack Steinmetz (1991) Doing qualitative research: circles within circles. London: Falmer Press.

A warm, personal account by a number of people of their approachto a number of forms of qualitative research.

Englestad, Per H., and Gustavsen, Bjorn (1993) Swedish networkdevelopment for implementing national work reform strategy. Human Relations, 46(2), 219-248.

Describes an action research project in which networks were set upto create change in more than 100 organisations.

Fay, Brian (1987) Critical social science: liberation and its limits. Cambridge: Polity Press.

A series of methodologies have been informed by the philosophy ofHabermas and the Frankfurt school of philosophy, includingKemmis' critical action research and Jackson's critical systemsthinking. In this account Fay sets out the nature of critical theory. This is a more reasoned account than Fay's earlier work, which wassomewhat evangelical.

Fielding, Nigel G. and Fielding, Jane L. (1986) Linking data: Thearticulation of qualitative and quantitative methods in socialresearch. Beverly Hills, Ca.: Sage.

A well-argued and practical account of how to build triangulationinto data collection in social research. Four forms of triangulationare discussed: different data sets (different times or samples),researchers, theories and methods.

Flood, Robert L., and Jackson, Michael C. (1991) Creativeproblem solving: total systems intervention. Chichester: Wiley.



Flood and Jackson are systems theorists with an interest inorganisational applications. This book describes a particular formof systems approach known as total systems intervention or TSI. Itcan be regarded as a form of systems-based action research whichalso builds on the theories of the German "critical theorists".

Fonow, Mary M. and Cook, Judith A. (1991) Beyondmethodology: feminist scholarship as lived research. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

A collection of papers on the philosophies and methodologies offeminist research. Readable, and raises some key issues forconsideration in all research.

Fransella, Fay, and Bannister, Don (1977) A manual for repertorygrid technique. London: Academic Press.

A theory and method for applying personal construct theory andrepertory grid in research. Included here because it has wonacceptance in academic psychology despite being counter-culturalin important respects. It is ideographic (focusses on the individual,and on individual differences) rather than nomothetic (focussing onwhat are presumed to be general truths).

Fransella, Fay, and Thomas, Laurie F., eds. (1988) Experimentingwith personal construct psychology. Proceedings of the sixthinternational congress held at Churchill College, Cambridge,England, Aug. 5-9, 1985. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

French, Wendell, and Bell, Cecil H. (1990) Organisationdevelopment: behavioural science interventions for organisationalimprovement, fourth edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Probably the bible on organisation development. Included herebecause it is set firmly within an action research framework. Itgives a good mix of history, theory and practice.

Frost, Peter J. and Stablein, Ralph E., eds. (1992) Doing



exemplary research. Newbury Park: Sage.

Papers, and commentaries on those paper, which discuss socialresearch from a number of perspectives. Most of the papers revealthe art and the passion, as well as the science.

Glaser, Barney G. and Strauss, Anselm L. (1967) The discoveryof grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. Chicago.: Aldine

An important and seminal work on grounded theories (which relatemore directly to practice and to the complexities of reality) andtheir use in qualitative research.

Goodall, H.L. Jr. (1984) The status of communication studies inorganisational contexts: one rhetorician's lament after a year-longodyssey. Communication Quarterly, 32(2), 133-147.

"Traditional research methods ...tend to encourage simplistic,reductionist assumptions and explanations ... usually at theexpense of more complex interpretive possibilities" [p135]

Greene, Jennifer, and McClintock, Charles (1985) Triangulation inevaluation: design and analysis issues. Evaluation Review, 9(5),523-545.

Triangulation is the use of multiple research methodssimultaneously to increase rigour. This paper reports a programevaluation which uses both qualitative interview data andquantitative questionnaire data. It demonstrates the advantages ofusing both.

Greenwood, Davydd J., Whyte, William Foote, and Harkavy, Ira(1993) Participatory action research as a process and as a goal. Human Relations, 46(2), 175-192.

The authors describe the characteristics and strengths ofparticipatory action research, and consider three case studies: Mondragon, Xerox, and West Philadelphia. One of a number ofarticles in a special issue of Human Relations on action research.



Grundy, Shirley (1982) Three modes of action research. Curriculum Perspectives, 2(3), 23-24.

The three forms Shirley Grundy describes are technical (aresearch-centred approach), practical (similar to processconsultancy), and emancipatory (which removes the distinctionbetween researcher and participant).

Guba, Egon G. and Lincoln, Yvonna S. (1989) Fourth generationevaluation. Newbury Park, Ca.: Sage

A detailed description and justification for an approach toevaluation which is very similar to some forms of participatoryaction research in its general style.

Guba, Egon G., ed. (1990) The paradigm dialog. Newbury Park: Sage.

Although it is not apparent in much undergraduate psychologyteaching, the positivist research paradigm is being challenged by avariety of other approaches, including in the hard sciences whichacademic psychology often tries to emulate. This book of readingsidentifies some of the alternatives and addresses some of theissues. The writers are, generally, anti-positivist in theirapproaches.

Gummesson, Evert (1991) Qualitative methods in managementresearch. Newbury Park: Sage.

A wide-ranging examination of qualitative research, its philosophyand practice, with reference to management research.

Jackson, Michael C. (1991) Systems methodology for themanagement sciences. New York: Plenum.

Presents and critiques a number of systems-based interventionmethods: systems theory, soft systems methodology, cybernetics,critical systems, operational research, and creative problem solving.



Jick, T.D. (1979) Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: triangulation in action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24,602-611.

An important paper on the virtues of combining several researchmethods within a single study to increase rigour.

Kemmis, Stephen; and McTaggart, Robin, eds. (1988) The actionresearch planner, third edition. Victoria: Deakin University.

Stephen Kemmis and Robin McTaggart teach action research toeducators at Deakin University. Their approach is participative andcritical. They are also probably one of the important reasons whicheducation is one of the more active disciplines in the use of actionresearch in Australia.

Kirk, Jerome and Miller, Marc L. (1986) Reliability and validity inqualitative research. Beverly Hills, Ca.: Sage.

A discussion of the issues of reliability and validity as they apply inqualitative research. Advances the argument that qualitativeresearch often achieves greater validity (especially ecologicalvalidity) at the cost of reduced reliability. A highly recommendedoverview of rigour in qualitative research methods.

Krater, Joan; Zeni, Jane; Cason, Nancy; and Webster GrovesAction Research Team (1994) Mirror images: teaching writing inblack and white. New York: Heinemann.

Kress, George (1988) Marketing research (third edition). Prentice-Hall, London.

This book describes various techniques used in marketing researchto collect and analyse data. Many of the techniques can be used forother qualitative research purposes.

Kuhn, T.S. (1970) The structure of scientific revolutions, 2nd



edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

A seminal work. Scientific method proceeds by way of"paradigms", sets of beliefs about science which hold sway for awhile, and then are swept away by a subsequent paradigm.

Lakatos, Imre; and Musgrave, A., eds. (1972) Criticism and thegrowth of knowledge, London: Cambridge University Press.

Scientific ideologies consist of a foundation, which will bedefended vigorously, and peripheral beliefs which can be changedin the light of disconfirming evidence. The foundation beliefs areoften not testable.

Lave, Charles A., and March, James G. (1975) An introduction tomodels in the social sciences. New York: Harper & Row.

If you are interested in marrying conceptual and empirical analysis,this book is worth reading.

Lawler, Edward E., III; Mohrman, A.M. Jr.; Mohrman, S.A.; Ledford, G.E. Jr.; and Cummings, T.G., eds. (1985) Doingresearch that is useful for theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Some of the leading qualitative researchers in North Americaidentify the issues and compare notes on their experience. Underlying many of the papers is a concern that many of theresearch methods that are required in the field have still to establishtheir legitimacy in the eyes of mainstream research.

Ledford, Gerald E., Jr., and Mohrman, Susan Albers (1993)Self-design for high involvement: a large-scale organisationalchange. Human Relations, 46(2), 143-173.

This article reports a large-scale long-term action research projectfocussed on organisational learning in a large multi-siteorganisation.



Levin, Morten (1993) Creating networks for rural economicdevelopment in Norway. Human Relations, 46(2), 193-218.

Action research applied to regional economic development inNorway.

Lewin, Kurt (1946) Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2, 34-46.

Kurt Lewin is the person often credited with the development ofaction research as a participative, cyclic research approach directedtowards both research and action.

Lofland, John and Lofland, Lyn H. (1984) Analysing socialsettings: a guide to qualitative observation and analysis, 2ndedition. Wadsworth, Belmont, Ca.

Probably the most widely known and used introductory text onqualitative research approaches using participant observation.

Manning, Kathleen (1992) A rationale for using qualitativeresearch in student affairs. Journal of College StudentDevelopment, 33(2), 132-136.

Qualitative methods are used to research student affairs. The paperdiscusses reasons for using qualitative methods, and addressessome issues of concern. It concludes that qualitative researchmethodology reflects and parallels the complexity and richness ofthe field studied.

Marshall, Catherine, and Rossman, Gretchen B. (1989) Designingqualitative research. Newbury Park: Sage.

An introductory overview, sufficiently detailed for use as a guideduring the design of research.

McCracken, Grant (1988) The long interview. Newbury Park: Sage.



In depth interviewing is a common initial data-collection techniquein qualitative research, and in field research and interventiongenerally. This discusses how, and also relates it to issues inqualitative research generally. It is worth reading both for itsdiscussion of the long interview, and for the overview it provides ofkey issues in qualitative research.

McTaggart, Robin (1991) Action research: a short modern history. Geelong, Vic: Deakin University.

This is more a history of action research in education, which isMcTaggart's field, than a more general history of action research. It provides history and critical analysis from a critical actionresearch perspective. It does so in a way which surfaces andexamines some of the issues facing non-mainstream research, andsome of the issues which action research addresses.

Miles, Matthew B. and A. Michael Huberman (1984) Qualitativedata analysis: a sourcebook of new methods. Newbury Park: Sage.

A convenient handbook which gathers together in one place anumber of methods for qualitative data analysis. The descriptionsare detailed and practical.

Morgan, David L. (1988) Focus groups as qualitative research. Newbury Park: Sage.

Focus groups (= focussed group interviews) are a regular tool formarket research. They are one of a series of techniques which canbegin in open-ended fashion and the become more focussed as theyprogress. They can be used for qualitative research generally, asthis practical account demonstrates. In some respects they combinesome of the advantages of interviewing in focussing the discussion,while collecting information in a social situation rather than froman individual informant.

Noblit, George W. and Hare, R. Dwight (1988)Meta-ethnography: synthesizing qualitative studies. NewburyPark: Sage.



Describes a number of ways in which different qualitative studiescan be combined or contrasted, thus providing what amounts to asort of qualitative meta-analysis. Material on building theories outof ethnographic data, and developing criteria for evaluating studies,is included.

Oja, Sharon Nodie and Smulyan, Lisa (1989) Collaborative actionresearch: a developmental approach. London: Falmer Press.

Deals with methods and techniques for collaboration in actionresearch. It provides more attention to ways of involvingstakeholders than many books in the field.

Patching, David (1990) Practical soft systems analysis. London: Pitman.

Written more from a practitioner than academic viewpoint, this is astep-by-step account of each of the 7 stages of Checkland's model,and some hints which appear to be based on experience in thefield. Some other systems models are also described. If you weregoing to carry out a soft systems analysis without knowing muchabout it, this would provide you with an easy-to-follow guide.

Patton, Michael Q. (1990) Qualitative evaluation and researchmethods, second edition. Newbury Park, Ca.: Sage.

An entertaining and practical account of qualitative researchmethods in general, and qualitative evaluation in particular. Although somewhat polemical in tone, the book neverthelesspresents a compelling defence of the use of qualitative data in somecircumstances. (The previous edition was called Qualitativeevaluation.)

Phillips, Denis C. (1987) Philosophy, science, and social inquiry: contemporary methodological controversies in social science andrelated applied fields of research. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Taking into account the work of recent leading philosophers, thisbook canvasses the issues which are being addressed when thescientific status of social research is debated. The views of



Feyerabend and Lakatos are considered, as well as Winch, Kuhnand Popper.

Phillips, Denis C. (1992) The social scientist's bestiary: a guide tofabled threats to, and defences of, naturalistic social science. Oxford: Pergamon.

A critical and carefully argued examination of hermeneutics,qualitative research, and other current isms in science. A balancedexamination, mostly readable and almost always interesting, from awriter who on balance is somewhat conservative in his views.

Phillips, Derek L. (1971) Knowledge from what?: theories andmethods in social research. Chicago: Rand McNally.

A critique, sometimes savage, of the methods typically used insocial research, including surveys and interviews.

Reason, Peter, ed. (1988) Human inquiry in action: developmentsin new paradigm research. Newbury Park: Sage.

Papers on a variety of collaborative research methods. Betweenthem they identify the issues, discuss some of the problems, andprovide examples of participative research.

Richardson, Laurel (1990) Writing strategies: reaching diverseaudiences. Newbury Park: Sage.

How to write up qualitative reports.

Robinson, Viviane (1993) Problem-based methodology: researchfor the improvement of practice. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Robinson's variation of Argyris' action science is here applied withunderstanding to school development. Later chapters explain herchoice of action science to guide her intervention. Clear andreadable, and in some respects a clearer exposition of some ofArgyris' processes then he himself provides.



Rutman, L. (ed.) (1984) Evaluation research methods: a basicguide, second edition. Beverly Hills: Sage.

A collection of papers on evaluation methods.

Sackman, Harold (1975) Delphi critique: expert opinion,forecasting and group process. Lexington, Mass.: Heath

A brief, well-documented, highly-critical review of a groupdecision making method which has promise for qualitativeresearch. This book also had the unfortunate effect that it killedDelphi as a method for decades. It is only now that Delphi isbeginning to be used once again.

Schein, Edgar H. (1988) Process consultation: its role inorganisation development, Volume 1, Second edition, Reading,Mass.: Addison-Wesley.

A highly recommended account of the process-consultationapproach to change, this clear and readable account integrates a lotof complex material in understandable and applicable form. Itaddresses the dimensions of action research -- those to do withproducing action -- that are often neglected in the action researchliterature itself.

Scholtes, Peter R. and other contributors (1988) The teamhandbook: how to use teams to improve quality. Madison, Wis.: Joiner Associates, PO Box 5445, Madison WI 53705-0445)

A very team- and people-oriented account, also very readable, oftechniques for total quality management or TQM. One of the bestbooks of its kind, it has wider application. Included because TQMhas many similarities to action research in its cyclic approach,empirical focus, and the use of continuous improvement as acentral theme.

Schon, Donald A. (1983) The reflective practitioner: howprofessionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.



Reflection as a key to learning. See next entry. Included becausecritical reflection is a crucial component of most formulations ofaction research.

Schon, Donald A. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner: towards a new design for teaching and learning in the professions,San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

How do practitioners best learn? Through reflection, Schon argueson the basis of much experience. This is valuable reading for anyprofessional, or anyone involved in educating other professionals. Its readability is a bonus.

Scriven, Michael (1991) Evaluation thesaurus, fourth edition. Newbury Park: Sage.

If you want to know just about anything about evaluation you canprobably find it somewhere here. It is written encyclopedia style,with a long series of alphabetical entries. It contains introductoryand more advanced material, and much of it is interesting andreadable despite the format.

Sechrest, Lee and Figueredo, A.J. (1993) Program evaluation. InL.W. Porter and M.R. Rosenzweig, eds., Annual Review ofPsychology, vol 44. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews Inc. [645-674]

This review of program evaluation attributes many of the currentchanges in evaluation methodology to the pressures of socialchange. It lists five fundamental issues in program evaluation: how programs develop; how researchers learn about socialscience; how programs can be valued; how social scienceknowledge is used; and the practice of evaluation.

Senge, Peter M. (1990) The fifth discipline: the art and practice ofthe learning organisation. New York: Doubleday.

A beautiful application of systems concepts to explain why socialsystems are so hard to change and why they develop their peculiardynamics. Uses systems concepts to develop an explanation oforganisational dynamics based on nests of self-fulfilling



prophecies. Organisational in orientation, but with widerapplication.

Shadish, William R., Jr., Cook, Thomas D., and Leviton, Laura C. (1991) Foundations of program evaluation: theories of practice. Newbury Park: Sage.

Within a broader discussion this book presents the views of someof the key theorists in the field of program evaluation. Included areMichael Scriven, Donald Campbell, Carol Weiss, Joseph Wholey,Robert Stake, Lee Cronbach, and Peter Rossi.

Shaffir, William B. and Stebbins, Robert A. (1991) Experiencingfieldwork: an inside view of qualitative research. Newbury Park: Sage.

A collection of papers, mostly interesting and information, onfieldwork. They are grouped under the four phases of getting in,learning the ropes, maintaining relationships, and leaving andstaying in touch. In most instances the assumption seems to be thatethnographic methods will be used: that is, that writing-up occursafter the data collection is over. Allowing for that, it is a practicalcollection which does not overlook the importance of therelationships formed.

Stainback, Susan, and Stainback, William (1988) Understandingand conducting qualitative research. Reston, Va.: Council forExceptional Children.

An introduction to qualitative research, fairly systematic in itsapproach.

Steckler, Allan, et. al (1992) Toward integrating qualitative andquantitative methods: an introduction. Health EducationQuarterly, 19(1), 1-8.

Compares qualitative and quantitative approaches, identifies theirstrengths, and discusses several ways of integrating them.



Steier, Frederick, ed. (1991) Research and reflexivity. London: Sage

There is a body of opinion in social research that knowledge is asocial construction. Researchers therefore are partners with theirinformants in discovering what they discover. It follows, then, thatthe researcher and her/his research process require investigation aspart of the study. This collection of papers explores reflexivity,mostly from a practical and methodological viewpoint.

Stewart, Valerie and Stewart, Andrew, with Fonda, Nickie (1981)Business applications of repertory grid. London: McGraw-Hill.

A description of applications of personal construct theory andrepertory grid methodology in corporate settings.

Stone, Eugene F. (1986) Research methods in industrial andorganisational psychology: selected issues and trends. In C.L. Cooper and I.T. Robertson, International review of industrial andorganisational psychology 1986. New York: Wiley.

A strong advocate of quantitative and experimental approaches toresearch in industrial and organisational psychology. Included toprovide a glimpse of the views of those who are inimical to actionresearch.

Strauss, Anselm (1987) Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

How to analyse and interpret qualitative data.

Strauss, Anselm, and Corbin, Juliet (1990) Basics of qualitativeresearch: grounded theory procedures and techniques. NewburyPark: Sage.

This books presents a reasonably detailed description of a particularapproach to data collection. It particularly emphasisesinterpretation and theory building. Grounded theory is theoryclosely related to field data: without using their particular method,you may find that the issues you discuss have relevance to your



own research.

Susman, G., and Evered, R. (1978) An assessment of the scientificmerit of action research. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23(4),582-603.

Argues for the legitimacy of action research as science by locatingits philosophical bases in praxis (e.g. Habermas), hermeneutics(i.e. alternating between whole and parts in a dialectic process),existentialism (choice and values as part of action), processphilosophies, and phenomenology (subjective experience as thebasis of knowledge).

Van Maanen, John, ed. (1983) Qualitative methodology. BeverlyHills, Ca.: Sage.

A collection of papers, updated from a special edition ofAdministrative Science Quarterly, on different aspects andapplications of qualitative methods. Almost all are readable; somepresent a carefully-argued case for using their particular form ofqualitative methodologies. Van Maanen's final epilogue is wellworth reading.

Van Maanen, John; Manning, Peter K.; and Miller, Marc L. (1986-) Qualitative research methods series. Newbury Park: Sage.

This is an extremely valuable series of monographs on qualitativeresearch. Those that I have read combine attention to practicabilitywith theoretical soundness and readability. For example, seeFielding and Fielding (1986), Kirk and Miller (1986), McCracken(1988), Richardson (1990), Weller and Romney (1988), andWolcott (1990).

Wadsworth, Yoland (1984) Do it yourself social research. Melbourne: Victorian Council of Social Service and MelbourneFamily Care Association.

An easy-to-read account written primarily for lay researchers.



Wadsworth, Yoland (1991) Everyday evaluation on the run. Melbourne: Action Research Issues Assn. Inc.

A very practical account which says a lot in few pages.

Walker, Robert, ed. (1985) Applied qualitative research. Gower,Aldershot.

As well as presenting some general principles of qualitativeresearch, this collection of papers describes some particulartechniques. Those addressed include depth interviews, groupinterviews, participant observation, and projective techniques inmarket research. There is a final paper on evaluation qualitativeresearch.

Watson, Richard B. (1992) The nature and construction ofconceptual models in soft systems methodology. In C.S. Bruceand A.M. Russell, Transforming tomorrow today (2nd WorldCongr. on Action Learning). Brisbane: ALARPMA. [423-426]

Soft systems methodology requires developing an ideal model toachieve the same functions that the studied systems intends toachieve. This is, in my view, the least robust stage in Checklandsprocess. This paper offers some guidelines on how to go about it.

Weller, Susan C. & Romney, A. Kimball (1988) Systematic datacollection. Newbury Park: Sage.

This document sits on the border between qualitative andquantitative research. That is, it is directed primarily to techniqueswhich can be used to collect qualitative data and then categoriseand interpret it, typically as frequencies.

Whyte, William Foote (1991) Participatory action research. Newbury Park: Sage.

A collections of papers, some of them case studies, of researchconducted using participatory action research. A complete sectiondeals with research in agriculture.



Whyte, William Foote (1991) Social theory for action: howindividuals and organisations learn to change. Newbury Park: Sage.

An account of an action research approach to the management ofchange, from one of the leading writers in the field. The emphasisis on participative action research in agricultural and organisationalsettings, using methods which integrate theory and practice.

Winter, Richard (1989) Learning from experience: principles andpractice in action research. London: Falmer Press.

Discusses the principles of action research, and then presents someexamples to illustrate the approach. The main focus is oneducational research, but the issues addresses have wider relevance.

Wolcott, Harry F. (1990) Writing up qualitative research. Newbury Park: Sage.

This is a well-crafted account of how to go about writing upqualitative research reports, including theses. It is full of practicalhints and encouragement while recognising that good writing isusually the result of careful rewriting and rewriting and rewriting. Much good research is spoiled by being poorly written: this offerssome ways of doing justice to the research.

Zuber-Skerritt, Ortrun, ed. (1991) Action research for change anddevelopment. Aldershot: Gower.

_____

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