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Aminoglycoside Antibiotics Aminoglikosida Antibiotik

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Page 1: Aminoglycoside Antibiotics Aminoglikosida Antibiotik

AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTICS Aminoglikosida ANTIBIOTIK PHARMACOKINETIC PROPERTIES Farmakokinetik PROPERTI

Absorption: Aminoglycoside are poorly absorbed from the GI tract. Penyerapan: aminoglikosida yang buruk diserap dari saluran pencernaan. Absorption by im route is rapid and complete, however in critically ill patients im absorption can vary considerably. Penyerapan dengan rute im sangat cepat dan lengkap, namun dalam penyerapan im kritis pasien sakit dapat sangat bervariasi. Peak serum concentrations of aminoglycosides are reached within 30-120 minut e s after im injection. Puncak konsentrasi serum aminoglikosida yang dicapai dalam 30-120 s e Minut setelah injeksi im.   Therapeutic or toxic concentrations may be obtained by ip route. Terapi atau konsentrasi beracun dapat diperoleh dengan ip route.   The aminoglycosides are usually Para aminoglikosida biasanya   administered by parenteral routes: 30-60 minutes intravenous infusion or intramuscular injection. dikelola melalui rute parenteral: 30-60 menit infus intravena atau injeksi intramuskular.

Distribution: Aminoglycosides are polar drugs and their distribution is mainly restricted to extracellular fluids. Distribusi: Aminoglikosida adalah obat kutub dan distribusi mereka terutama terbatas pada cairan ekstraselular. Protein binding of these antibiotics is less than 10%. Protein ini mengikat antibiotik kurang dari 10%. Aminoglycosides distribute well in synovial, peritoneal, ascitic and pleural fluids. Aminoglikosida mendistribusikan baik di, peritoneal, asites dan cairan pleura sinovial. High concentrations of aminoglycosides are obtained in renal tissue especially in renal cortex. Konsentrasi tinggi dari aminoglikosida diperoleh dalam jaringan ginjal terutama di korteks ginjal. Penetration of these drugs is poor in eye and central nervous system. Penetrasi obat ini adalah miskin di mata dan sistem saraf pusat. Concentrations of aminoglycosides in biliar and bronchial secretions are variable. Konsentrasi aminoglikosida dan sekresi bronkial biliar adalah variabel.

The distribution volume of aminoglycosides aproximate s to the extracellular fluid (20-25% of body weight). Volume distribusi aminoglikosida s aproximate ke cairan ekstraselular (20-25% dari berat tubuh). Modifications of the distribution coefficient of aminoglycosides occur in some kind of patients as those suffering from gram negative sepsis, dehydrated, febrile, critically ill, h e matological, burn ed patients, etc. . Modifikasi distribusi koefisien aminoglikosida terjadi pada beberapa jenis pasien sebagai mereka yang menderita sepsis gram negatif, dehidrasi, demam, sakit kritis, e h matological, membakar pasien ed, dll.

Elimination: Aminoglycosides are primarily excreted unchanged through the kidney by glomerular filtration. Eliminasi: Aminoglikosida berubah terutama diekskresikan melalui ginjal oleh filtrasi glomerular. The 80-90% of the administered dose is excreted in the urine resulting in high urinary concentrations. The 80-90% dari dosis diekskresikan dalam urin sehingga konsentrasi urin tinggi. A small amount of aminoglycoside is

Page 2: Aminoglycoside Antibiotics Aminoglikosida Antibiotik

excreted by bile. Sejumlah kecil aminoglikosida diekskresikan oleh empedu. Serum half-life in patients with normal renal function is about 2-3 hours. Serum setengah-hidup pada pasien dengan fungsi ginjal normal adalah sekitar 2-3 jam. Linear correlations are obtained between the clearance or the elimination constant korelasi linier diperoleh antara clearance atau penghapusan konstan   of aminoglycoside and creatinine clearance of the patient. dari aminoglikosida dan pembersihan kreatinin pasien.

ADVERSE EFFECTS DAMPAK MERUGIKAN

Nephrotoxicity: A wide variation in the incidence. Nefrotoksisitas: Sebuah variasi luas dalam kejadian tersebut. Usually reversible. Biasanya reversibel. Increase in serum creatinine and BUN. Peningkatan kreatinin serum dan BUN.

Otoxicity: Cochlear and vestibular. Otoxicity: koklea dan vestibular. Bilateral and permanent. Bilateral dan permanen.

Neuromuscular blockade: Low incidence. Blokade neuromuskuler: Rendah kejadian. Enhanced by concomitant administration of neuromuscular blocking drugs and Ditingkatkan dengan pemberian obat seiring dan blocking neuromuskular   anesthetics, patients with hypocalcemia or miastenia gravis or when the ip or rapid iv injection are used. anestesi, pasien dengan atau miastenia gravis hypocalcemia atau ketika ip atau injeksi iv cepat digunakan.

Other adverse effects: Hypersensitivity reactions, superinfection, CNS effects and GI disturbances. Lain efek samping: Reaksi hipersensitivitas, superinfeksi, SSP efek dan gangguan GI.

RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH TOXICITY OF AMINOGLYCOSIDES FAKTOR RISIKO YANG BERHUBUNGAN DENGAN RACUN aminoglikosida

Related to characteristics of the patient. Terkait dengan karakteristik pasien.

- Older patients. - Lebih lama pasien. - Previous renal disfunction - Gangguan fungsi ginjal Sebelumnya - Previous treatment with aminoglycosides - Previous pengobatan dengan aminoglikosida - Liver disease. - Hati penyakit. - Hypotension, shock, hypovolemia . - Hipotensi, syok, hipovolemia.

Related to the administration of the antibiotic. Terkait dengan administrasi antibiotik.

- Higher daily doses. - Tinggi dosis harian. - Prolonged treatment. - Lama perawatan. - Short dosage intervals. - Dosis interval pendek.

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Development of the treatment Pengembangan pengobatan

- Higher - Tinggi   Cmax and Cmin Cmax dan Cmin - Co-administration with other nephrotoxic drugs. - Co-administrasi dengan obat nefrotoksik lainnya.       

THERAPEUTIC RANGE TERAPEUTIK RANGE

CONVENTIONAL DOSAGE SCHEDULE DOSIS KONVENSIONAL JADWAL

                                               Gentamicin Gentamisin              Tobramycin Tobramycin        Amikacin Amikasin __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Peak (µg/ml) Puncak (mg / ml) Serious infection Serius infeksi                                6-8 6-8                          6-8 6-8 20-25 20-25 Life-threatening infection Infeksi yang mengancam nyawa                   8-10 8-10 8-10 8-10                 25-30 25-30 Trough (µg/ml) Melalui (mg / ml) Serious infection Serius infeksi                             0,5-1,5 0,5-1,5                    0,5-1,5 0,5-1,5                 1-4 1-4 Life-threatening infection Infeksi yang mengancam nyawa                   1-<2 1 - <2 1-<2 1 - <2                   4-8 4-8 Table.- Serum concentrations associated with Tabel .- Serum konsentrasi yang terkait dengan   therapeutic efficiency of aminoglycosides. efisiensi terapi aminoglikosida.                              NEPHROTOXICITY Nefrotoksisitas                         OTOTOXICITY Ototoxicity                             Cmax Cmax                Cmin Cmin                        Cmax Cmax Cmin Cmin                            (µg/ml) (Mg / ml)             (µg/ml) (Mg / ml)                      (µg/ml) (Mg / ml)              (µg/ml) (Mg / ml) Amikacin Amikasin              > 32-34 > 32-34               > 10 > 10                       > 32-34 > 32-34                > 10 > 10 Tobramycin Tobramycin          > 10-12 > 10-12                > 2 > 2                        > 10-12 > 10-12                 > 2 > 2 Gentamicin Gentamisin           > 10-12 > 10-12                > 2 > 2                            > 8 > 8                     > 4 > 4 Table.- Serum concentrations associated with aminoglycoside toxicity. Tabel .- Serum konsentrasi dikaitkan dengan toksisitas aminoglikosida. PHYSIOPATOLOGICAL AND CLINICAL SITUATIONS WHERE AMINOGLYCOSIDE PHARMACOKINETICS PHYSIOPATOLOGICAL DAN SITUASI KLINIS MANA aminoglikosida farmakokinetika   IS ALTERED. IS DIUBAH. PHYSIOLOGICAL SITUATIONS FISIOLOGIS SITUASI

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- -      Age: neonates, pediatric and older patients Umur: neonatus, pediatrik dan lebih tua pasien

- -      Weight: obesity Berat: obesitas - -      Low degree of hydratation Rendahnya tingkat hidratasi - -      Hematocrit alterations Perubahan hematokrit - -      Pregnancy Kehamilan PATHOLOGICAL SITUATIONS Patologis SITUASI - -      Renal impairment Ginjal penurunan - -      Fever and neutropenia Demam dan neutropenia - -      Cystic fibrosis Cystic fibrosis - -      Ascites Asites - -      Neoplastic patients Neoplastik pasien - -      Critically ill patients Pasien sakit kritis - -      Burned patients Terbakar pasien CLINICAL SITUATIONS SITUASI KLINIS - -      Drug interactions: Beta-lactam antibiotics Interaksi obat: antibiotik Beta-

laktam - -      Hemodialysis Hemodialisis - -      Peritoneal dialysis Peritoneal dialysis - -      Parentheral nutrition Parentheral gizi - -      Major surgery Mayor operasi

SAMPLING TIMES SAMPLING KALI

With the purpose to characterize the basic pharmacokinetic parameters of the aminoglycoside Dengan tujuan untuk mengkarakterisasi parameter farmakokinetik dasar aminoglikosida yang   in each patient, setiap pasien,   a series from two to three blood samples (usually peak and trough) serangkaian dari dua hingga tiga sampel darah (biasanya puncak dan palung)   should be obtained at the beginning harus diperoleh di awal   of treatment. pengobatan.  

 

General approaches: Pendekatan Umum:    

A) The sampling will be carried out at the beginning of treatment (3 rd and 4 th doses in many patients). Trough sample will be obtained previous to the next dose. A) Sampling akan dilakukan pada awal pengobatan (3 rd dan 4 dosis ke pada banyak pasien) akan Trough. Sampel diperoleh sebelumnya untuk dosis berikutnya. Peak sample will be obtained after the last dose. Peak sampel akan diperoleh setelah dosis terakhir.  

 

B) The peak will be obtained 0,5 - 1 hour postinfusion in patients with normal renal function or 1 – 2 hours postinfusion in patients with renal impairment. B) Puncak akan

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diperoleh 0,5 - 1 postinfusion jam pada pasien dengan fungsi ginjal normal atau 1 - 2 postinfusion jam pada pasien dengan gangguan ginjal.

 

C) When the infection is under control, the trough C) Ketika infeksi berada di bawah kontrol, palung level tingkat   can help to prevent toxicity, however, when the clinical effectiveness is high-priority the peak value is more appreciated. dapat membantu mencegah keracunan, namun, ketika efektivitas klinis adalah prioritas tinggi nilai puncak lebih dihargai. If the patient responds to the therapy, trough levels Jika pasien menanggapi terapi, tingkat melalui   obtained every several days diperoleh setiap beberapa hari   can help to evaluate the potential accumulation and toxicity. dapat membantu untuk mengevaluasi potensi akumulasi dan toksisitas.  

 

D) When aminoglycosides are administered once-daily, peak (0,5-1 hours from the end of the infusion) and intermediate (8-12 hours) serum levels should be collected. D) Ketika aminoglikosida yang diberikan sekali sehari, 0,5-1 jam dari akhir infus dan) menengah (8-12 jam) serum level (puncak harus dikumpulkan.  

E) Critically ill patiens (ICU, etc), unstable renal function patients or patients receiving aminoglycosides greater than 10 days requires a more frequent sampling. E) kritis penderita sakit (ICU, dll), tidak stabil, pasien fungsi ginjal atau pasien yang menerima aminoglikosida lebih dari 10 hari membutuhkan lebih sering sampling.

 

KINETIC MODEL MODEL KINETIK

Usually, the serum concentration versus time profile of aminoglycosides can be characterized using a linear one-compartment kinetic model. Biasanya, konsentrasi serum versus waktu profil aminoglikosida dapat dicirikan dengan menggunakan satu linear-model kompartemen kinetik. Basic pharmacokinetic parameters of the model as serum clearance (Cls) and the apparent distribution volume (Vd) may be estimated by non-linear regression, including bayesian estimation using appropiate software. parameter farmakokinetika dasar model sebagai clearance serum (CLS) dan volume distribusi nyata (Vd) dapat diestimasi dengan regresi non-linear, termasuk estimasi bayesian menggunakan perangkat lunak yang bersangkutan. These basic parameters allow to calculate others derived and of clinical interest as the serum half-life (t 1/2 ). Parameter dasar ini memungkinkan untuk menghitung orang lain diperoleh dan kepentingan klinis sebagai paruh serum (t 1 / 2).  

 

DOSAGE RECOMMENDATIONS DOSIS REKOMENDASI

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CONVENTIONAL DOSAGE REGIMENS DOSIS KONVENSIONAL rejimen

Dosage recomendations of the main aminoglycosides Dosis rekomendasi dari aminoglikosida utama

                  Daily Harian   Dose Dosis                            Dosage interval Dosis interval Expected serum levels Diharapkan tingkat serum

                                                    (mg/Kg) (Mg / Kg)                                          (h) (H)                                        (µg/ml) (Mg / ml)                                       Adults Dewasa            Pediatric Pediatric                                                         Máximum Maksimum                Mínimum Minimum Gentamicin Gentamisin                        3-5 3-5                  6-7,5 6-7,5                                      8 8 4-8 4-8                             1-2 1-2 Tobramycin Tobramycin                       3-5 3-5                  6-7,5 6-7,5                                      8 8 4-8 4-8                             1-2 1-2 Netilmicin Netilmicin                        4-6,5 4-6,5                  7,5 7,5                                     8-12 8-12 4-8 4-8                             1-2 1-2 Amikacin Amikasin                            15 15                     15 15                                      8-12 8-12                       20-25 20-25                           4-8 4-8                                                 Dosage in patients with renal impairment Dosis pada pasien dengan gangguan ginjal                                                                                                                   Creatinine clearance (ml/min) Bersihan kreatinin (ml / menit)                                          Dose (mg/Kg) Dosis (mg / Kg)                                         50-80 50-80 10-50 10-50                  < 10 <10 Gentamicin Gentamisin                                 1,5 1,5                                                  8-12 h 8-12 h 12-24 h 12-24 h              24-48 h 24-48 h Tobramycin Tobramycin                                1,5 1,5                                                  8-12 h 8-12 h 12-24 h 12-24 h              24-48 h 24-48 h Netilmicin Netilmicin                                1,3-2,2 1,3-2,2                                               8-12 h 8-12 h 12-24 h 12-24 h              24-48 h 24-48 h Amikacin Amikasin                                   5-7,5 5-7,5                                                  12 h 12 h 24-36 h 24-36 h              36-48 h 36-48 h Sarubbi-Hull method. Sarubbi metode-Hull. 1.- Loading dose in mg/Kg (lean body weight) and predicted peak serum concentrations. 1 .- Loading dosis dalam mg / (ramping) berat badan dan diperkirakan puncak konsentrasi serum Kg. AMINOGLYCOSIDE Aminoglikosida           USUAL LOADING DOSE LOADING BIASA DOSIS PREDICTED PEAK CONCENTRATIONS DIPREDIKSI PUNCAK KONSENTRASI                                                                       Tobramycin Tobramycin                          1,5 to 2 mg/Kg 1,5 sampai 2 mg / Kg 4 to 10 µg/ml 4 sampai 10 mg / ml Gentamicin Gentamisin                           1,5 to 2 mg/Kg 1,5 sampai 2 mg / Kg 4 to 10 µg/ml 4 sampai 10 mg / ml Amikacin Amikasin                             5,0 to 7,5 mg/Kg 5,0 sampai 7,5 mg / Kg 15 to 30 µg/ml 15 sampai 30 mg / ml 2.- Maintenance dose (% of loading dose). 2 .- Pemeliharaan dosis (% dari dosis loading).                                                                                                          Dosage interval Dosis interval

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Cl cr (ml/min) Cl cr (ml / menit)                           t 1/2 (h) t 1 / 2 (h)                            8 h 8 jam                      12 h 12 h                       24 h 24 jam        90 90                              3,1 3,1                      84% 84%                  - - - -        80 80                              3,4 3,4                       80 80                 91% 91% - -        70 70                              3,9 3,9                       76 76                  88 88 - -        60 60                              4,5 4,5                       71 71                  84 84 - -        50 50                              5,3 5,3                       65 65                  79 79 - -        40 40                              6,5 6,5                       57 57                  72 72                  92% 92%        30 30                              8,4 8,4                       48 48                  63 63 86 86        25 25                              9,9 9,9                       43 43                  57 57 81 81        20 20                             11,9 11,9                      37 37                  50 50 75 75        17 17                             13,6 13,6                      33 33                  46 46 70 70        15 15                             15,1 15,1                      31 31                  42 42 67 67        12 12                             17,9 17,9                      27 27                  37 37 61 61        10 10                             20,4 20,4                      24 24                  34 34 56 56        7 7                               25,9 25,9                      19 19                  28 28 47 47        5 5                               31,5 31,5                      16 16                  23 23 41 41        2 2                               46,8 46,8                      11 11                  16 16 30 30        0 0                               69,3 69,3                       8 8                   11 11                    21 21

EXTENDED INTERVAL DOSAGE REGIMENS DIPERPANJANG rejimen DOSIS INTERVAL __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________                  AMINOGLYCOSIDE Aminoglikosida                              DOSE (mg/Kg/day) DOSIS (mg / Kg / hari) ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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                       Gentamicin Gentamisin                                                          5-7 5-7                        Tobramycin Tobramycin                                                         5-7 5-7                        Netilmicin Netilmicin                                                            5-7 5-7                        Amikacin Amikasin                                                          15-20 15-20 ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ METHOD A: Prins JM. METODE A: Prins JM. et al. et al. Eur. Eur. J. Clin. J. Clin. Microbiol. Microbiol. Infect. Menginfeksi. Dis. Dis. 14: 531, 1995 14: 531, 1995 Reduction of the initial dose in patients with renal impairment. Pengurangan dosis awal pada pasien dengan gangguan ginjal. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________                   Creatinine clearance Bersihan kreatinin                                 % of standar dose % Dari dosis standar                             (ml/min) (Ml / menit)                                                                                          > 90 > 90                                                          100 100                                  90 90                                                             90 90                                  80 80                                                             88 88                                  70 70                                                             84 84                                  60 60                                                             79 79                                  50 50                                                             74 74                                  40 40                                                             66 66                                  30 30                                                             57 57 METHOD B: Nicolau, DP et al. METODE B: Nicolau, DP et al. Antimicrob. Antimicrob. Ag. Ag. Chemother. Chemother. 39: 650. 39: 650. 1995 1995 Increase of the dosage interval in patients with renal impairment. Peningkatan interval dosis pada pasien dengan gangguan ginjal.

Creatinine Clearance Kreatinin Clearance Dosage Interval Dosis Interval

       (ml/min) (Ml / menit)                                                                 >60 > 60                                                                    24 hours 24 jam

60-40 60-40                                                                 36 hours 36 jam 40-20 40-20                                                                  48 hours 48 jam <20 <20                                Dose Dosis   frequency is selected using a graphic method frekuensi yang dipilih menggunakan metode grafis

OBSERVATIONS PENGAMATAN

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Several factors should be considering in the selection of peak and trough concentrations of the aminoglycoside as: kind of patient, relative MIC of the isolated pathogens, site of infection and kind aminoglycoside dosage regimen (conventional or extended dosage interval). Beberapa faktor yang harus mempertimbangkan dalam pemilihan dan melalui konsentrasi puncak aminoglikosida sebagai: jenis pasien, MIC relatif dari patogen terisolasi, tempat infeksi dan jenis regimen dosis aminoglikosida (dosis interval diperpanjang atau konvensional). Therapeutic efficiency of aminoglycosides is related with peak therapeutic levels at the beginning of treatment. Terapi efisiensi aminoglikosida berhubungan dengan tingkat terapeutik puncak pada awal pengobatan.

Complementary to TDM of aminoglycosides, renal (serum creatinine) and auditive (audiometry) functions of the patient should be also monitored. Melengkapi TDM dari aminoglikosida, ginjal (kreatinin serum) dan auditive (audiometri) fungsi pasien harus juga dipantau. An increase in the serum creatinine concentration of 0.5 mg/dl in a period of 72 hours or less, when the initial serum Peningkatan konsentrasi kreatinin serum 0,5 mg / dl dalam jangka waktu 72 jam atau kurang, bila serum awal   creatinine level is within the normal range (<1.5 mg/dl) indicates renal disfunction of the patient, probably associated with the use of aminoglycoside antibiotics. Tingkat kreatinin dalam kisaran normal (<1,5 mg / dl) menunjukkan gangguan fungsi ginjal pasien, mungkin berhubungan dengan penggunaan antibiotik aminoglikosida. An increase of the auditory threshold of at least 15 dB indicates aminoglycoside ototoxicity. Kenaikan ambang pendengaran minimal 15 dB menunjukkan ototoxicity aminoglikosida.

POPULATION MODELS PENDUDUK MODEL

REFERENCES DAFTAR PUSTAKA

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