Alpha Coal Handbook - Alpha Natural Resources

A reference guide for coal, ironmaking, electricity generation, and emissions control technologies.

2012 A

lpha Coal H

andbook

Alpha Coal Handbook

2012 Edition

Forward-Looking StatementsStatements in this document which are not statements of historical fact are “forward-looking statements” within the Safe

Harbor provision of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Such statements are not guarantees of future per-

formance. Many factors could cause our actual results, performance or achievements, or industry results to be materially

different from any future results, performance, or achievements expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements.

These factors are discussed in detail in our filings with the SEC. We make forward-looking statements based on currently

available information, and we assume no obligation to update the statements made herein due to changes in underlying

factors, new information, future developments, or otherwise, except as required by law.

Third Party InformationThis document, including certain forward-looking statements herein, includes information obtained from third party

sources that we believe to be reliable. However, we have not independently verified this third party information and cannot

assure you of its accuracy or completeness. While we are not aware of any misstatements regarding any third party data

contained in this document, such data involve risks and uncertainties and are subject to change based on various factors,

including those discussed in detail in our filings with the SEC. We assume no obligation to revise or update this third party

information to reflect future events or circumstances.

Definitions and DescriptionsThe definitions, descriptions, formulas and other data used in, or referenced by, this document are not binding for purpos-

es of interpreting any other document, including without limitation agreements to which Alpha Natural Resources, Inc. or

any of its affiliates is a party. Neither Alpha Natural Resources, Inc. nor any of its affiliates is responsible for any liabilities

arising from a reliance upon the data in this document.

Design: McKenna Daniels Design

Who Is Alpha?

Alpha Natural Resources is one of the world’s premier coal suppliers

with coal production capacity of greater than 120 million tons a

year. Alpha is the United States’ leading supplier of metallurgical

coal used in the steelmaking process and third-largest in the world.

Alpha is also a major supplier of thermal coal to electric utilities

and manufacturing industries across the country. The Company,

through its affiliates, operates mines and coal preparation facilities

in Appalachia and the Powder River Basin. More information about

Alpha can be found on the Company’s website at www.alphanr.com.

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http://www.mckennadaniels.com

http://www.alphanr.com/

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About Alpha About Alpha

Our PurposeWe fuel progress around the world.

Our Values We conduct our business safely, ethically, honestly and with integrity at all times.

We care. Caring for one another helps us all return to our families safe and healthy.

We treat each other how we want to be treated.

We trust our people and work together as a team. All employees have an opportunity to contribute their ideas and share in our success.

We communicate openly, build on what we know and learn, and make informed decisions to keep us ahead of the competition.

We embrace change, continuously improving ourselves and our business.

What is RUNNING RIGHT ?Running Right is an important piece of our culture, a part of who we are and how we operate. At Alpha, we believe every employee should have a seat at the table and participate actively in all aspects of our business. Embedded within Running Right is a robust observation process that relies on participation from each and every employee to conduct observations. All employees are encouraged to cite safe behaviors, at-risk behaviors and operational improvements every day in order to improve the safety, efficiency, and productivity of all of our locations in Alpha. Safe and at-risk behaviors are part of Alpha’s behavior-based safety approach. The reason why we focus so much on at-risk behavior is that research has shown that 88 percent of workplace accidents can be attributed to at-risk behavior. At-risk behavior is often the precursor to workplace accidents. Observations are reviewed daily. In many cases action can be taken right away and employees are encouraged to take action when observations occur. Running Right is a big part of who we are and what we do and employee involvement and engagement are the keys to Running Right at Alpha. “We fuel progress around the world...and we do this through the energy of our people.”

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About Alpha

In July 2009, Alpha consummated its largest business venture to date by completing a merger with Foundation Coal Holdings Inc. The Alpha-Founda-tion merger resulted in the third-largest coal company in America. In June 2011, Alpha acquired Massey Energy Company in a $7.7 billion transaction. The acquisition brought together highly complementary assets, which included more than 150 mines and combined coal reserves of approximately 5 billion tons, including one of the world’s largest and highest-quality metallurgical coal reserve bases.

U.S. Leader in Metallurgical Exports Alpha Natural Resources is the largest exporter of metallurgical coal in the United States. In 2011, metallurgical export shipments exceeded 14 million tons and we expect to see growth going forward.

Alpha ships export coal on the East Coast through Norfolk Southern’s Lamberts Point facility in Norfolk, VA; through Dominion Terminal Associates (DTA) in Newport News, VA; through Pier IX Terminal in Newport News, VA; and through CSX Chesapeake Bay piers located in Baltimore, MD. Coal is also moved through United Bulk Terminal and International Marine Terminals, both located in New Orleans, LA.

International Sales and Development OfficesIn 2010, Alpha opened a European sales office in Lugano, Switzerland. In early 2011, Alpha opened two international sales and development offices: one in New Delhi, India and one in Sydney, Australia. Each office is focused on increasing Alpha’s sales of coal to high-growth markets through our existing export platform, as well as unique optimization opportunities. Both offices also serve to further develop and enhance trading opportunities, market intelligence, and strategic relationships in the Asian markets.

About Alpha

HistoryAlpha was formed in 2002 by members of management and by affiliates of First Reserve Corporation, a private equity firm. We acquired the majority of the Virginia coal operations of Pittston Coal Company, a subsidiary of The Brink’s Company, in December 2002. On January 31, 2003, we acquired Coastal Coal Company, and on March 11, 2003, we acquired the U.S. coal production and marketing operations of American Metals and Coal International. In November of that year, we acquired Mears Enterprises, Inc. and affiliated entities. In April of the following year, we acquired substantially all of the assets of Moravian Run Reclamation Co., Inc., including four active surface mines and two additional surface mines under development, operating in close proximity to and serving many of the same customers as our AMFIRE business unit located in Pennsylvania. That May, we acquired a coal preparation plant and railroad loading facility located in Portage, Pennsylvania and related equipment and coal inventory from Cooney Bros. Coal Company and an adjacent coal refuse disposal site from a Cooney family trust.

In October 2005 Alpha acquired the Nicewonder Coal Group including their three surface mines and a road construction and coal recovery business in southwestern Virginia and southern West Virginia. In May 2006, Alpha completed the acquisition of certain coal mining operations in eastern Kentucky from Progress Fuels Corp. Collectively the acquired businesses controlled 73 million tons of coal reserves. In December of that year, an Alpha subsidiary, Palladian Lime LLC, acquired a 94% ownership interest in Gallatin Materials LLC, a start-up lime manufacturing business in Verona, Ky. That interest was subsequently sold in October 2008. In June 2008, Alpha acquired the Mingo Logan-Ben Creek coal mining assets in West Virginia from Arch Coal Inc. Mingo Logan consists of coal reserves, one deep mine and a load-out and coal processing plant.

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About AlphaAbout Alpha About Alpha

Alpha Shipping and Chartering, LLCAlpha Shipping and Chartering, LLC, a subsidiary of Alpha Natural Resources, was formed in 2010 to provide ocean shipping services for overseas customers. Alpha is the disponent owner of two Panamax Gearless Bulk Carriers available to transport coal or other dry bulk commodities worldwide.

Export CapacityAlpha’s total export capacity from all U.S. terminals is approximately 25-30 million tons per year via multiple ports and terminals that provide unique blending, storage and transportation advantages.

Through our subsidiary, Alpha Terminal Company, LLC, we hold a 41% interest in Dominion Terminal Associates. The DTA facility consists of state-of-the art blending and sampling systems along with ground storage capability, allowing us to provide outstanding service to customers worldwide. We also have access to additional export capacity at Chesapeake Bay piers, Gulf of Mexico/New Orleans, and Great Lakes terminals.

KY

WV

VA

PA

Northern Kentucky7 Deep Mines1 Surface Mines3 Plants & LOs

Brooks Run West5 Deep Mines6 Surface Mines4 Plants & LOs

Coal River West1 Deep Mine1 Surface Mine2 Plants & LOs

Coal River East 11 Deep Mines1 Surface Mine3 Plants & LOs

PennsylvaniaServices2 Deep Mines2 Plants & LOs

Amfire6 Deep Mines10 Surface Mines2 Plants & LOs

Brooks Run North9 Deep Mines3 Surface Mines4 Plants & LOs

Southern Kentucky12 Deep Mines2 Surface Mines2 Plants & LOs

Virginia20 Deep Mines6 Surface Mines4 Plants & LOs

CorporateOffice

Coal River Surface7 Surface Mines4 Plants & LOs

LO = Loadout

Brooks Run South14 Deep Mines6 Surface Mines4 Plants & LOs

WY

Alpha Coal West2 Surface Mines

Western Coal Operations – 201149.9 million tons thermal

Eastern Coal Operations – 2011**37.2 million tons thermal19.2 million tons met

Total Mines: 132* Underground: 87 Surface: 45 Prep Plants: 34

*As of March 31, 2012 **Includes Massey

Alpha Natural Resources U.S. Locations

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About AlphaAbout Alpha About Alpha

South America1.7mm tons

2011 Export Shipments14.2mm tons met exports2.1mm tons steam exports16.3mm tons total exports

Africa2.0mm tons

Canada/Mexico2.0mm tons

Europe7.1mm tons

Asia3.5mm tons

Alpha Natural Resources Coal Exports, 2011Alpha Natural Coal Loading Facilities, 2011

Stockpiling

KR

T

Mar

met

*

Riv

erea

gle

Whe

eler

sbur

g**

Long Fork Prep Plant KY NSMartin County Prep Plant KY NSSidney Prep Plant KY NSCave Branch Prep Plant KY CSXRoxana Plant KY CSXClearfield PA TruckClymer Plant PA NSHomer City PA TruckPortage Plant PA NS XCumberland Plant PA NS/Mon RiverEmerald Plant PA CSX

Brooks Run South Virginia Energy VA NS XKnox Creek Prep Plant VA NS XMcclure Plant VA CSXPigeon Creek Prep Plant VA NS X XToms Creek Plant VA NS X XErbacon Plant WV CSXGreen Valley Prep Plant WV CSX XMammoth Prep Plant WV NS XPower Mountain Prep Plant WV NSBen Creek (Black Bear Plant) WV NS XKepler Plant WV NS X X X XLitwar Plant WV NS X X X XStirrat Prep Plant WV CSX XBandmill Prep Plant WV CSX XDelbarton Prep Plant WV NS X XHolden 29 Loadout WV CSX XRockspring Plant WV NS XElk Run Prep Plant WV CSX X XGoals Prep Plant WV CSX XKingston Plant WV CSX XMarfork Prep Plant WV CSX X X

Coal River Surface Pax (Hopkins) Loadout WV CSXHomer Iii Loadout WV CSX X XLiberty Prep Plant WV CSX X XOmar Loadout WV CSX XBelle Ayr Loadout WY UPREagle Butte Loadout WY UPR

*** We ship barges direct to customers, or down to the Gulf for export all over the globe.

Brooks Run West

Coal River East

Coal River West

Alpha Coal West

* Marmet is owned by Alpha** Wheelersburg is run by NS and rails in/out for Alpha stockpiles. Coal is typically used for our Great Lakes business serviced by Sandusky/Toledo terminals.

Barge Terminal Access***

Northern KY

Brooks Run South

Business Unit Loadout State Railroad

Southern KY

AMFIRE

PA Services

Virginia

Brooks Run North

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About Alpha

Electricity 53

Coal 54

Natural Gas 60

Nuclear 64

Renewables 70

Cooling Systems 84

Turbines and Generators 86

Transmission and the Grid 88

Energy Storage 92

Emissions Control Technology 95

Emissions Control 96

Particulate Emissions 98

SO2 & NOx 100

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 104

Mercury (Hg) 106

Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations 108

Additional Information 111

Definitions 112

Abbreviations 126

OTC Specifications 131

Conversions and Formulas 132

Useful Websites 141

Coal Supply & Demand 3

World Coal Overview 4

U S Coal Overview 12

Coal 19

Formation of Coal 20

Mining 22

Mining Laws and Regulations 30

Mine Reclamation 32

Preparation and Processing 34

Transportation 36

Metallurgical Coal 39

Metallurgical Coal 40

Coke 46

Iron Making 48

Finished Steelmaking 50

Table of Contents

Coal Supply & Demand

U.S. Coal Overview 12World Coal Overview 4

54 Return to Contents

B

Coal Supply & DemandWorld Coal Overview

2011 Global Coal Top 10

World coal consumption is expected to increase 39% by 2035 according to the 2011 EIA International Energy Outlook. Almost all of the future growth in world coal demand is from non-OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries, led by Brazil.

Most of the international trade in coal is in steam coal (70%) imported by Asian countries (58%). Asia also represents 70% of the global coking coal trade market. India and China’s growing economies are driving demand for imported coal.

Source: EIA

World Coal OverviewWorld recoverable coal reserves are currently estimated at 948 billion tons, according to the U.S. Energy Information Agency (EIA), which at current consumption rates is enough coal to last 118 years. Recoverable coal reserves represent coal that can be economically extracted at today’s prices using current technology. The U.S. has more coal reserves than all other countries (29%), followed by Russia (19%), China (14%), and Australia (9%). Anthracite and bituminous coal represent half of the world’s recoverable reserves, subbituminous is 32%, and lignite is 18%.

Source: EIATotal Recoverable World Coal Reserves, 2008

948 Billion Short Tons

World Coal Demand (Millions of Tons)

Source: EIA

United States 260,551 China 3,523 China 3,695

Russia 173,074 United States 1,085 United States 1,048

China 126,215 India 623 India 721

Australia 84,217 Australia 463 Russia 257

India 66,800 Indonesia 370 Germany 256

Germany 44,863 Russia 357 South Africa 206

Ukraine 37,339 South Africa 281 Japan 206

Kazakhstan 37,038 Germany 201 Poland 149

South Africa 33,241 Poland 146 Australia 145

Serbia 15,179 Kazakhstan 122 South Korea 126

Total 948,000 Total 7,985 Total 7,995Source: EIA (Reserves, 2008; Production & Consumption, 2010)

Reserves (M tons) Production (M tons) Consumption (M tons)

Source: EIA (Reserves, 2008; Production & Consumption, 2010)


World Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

AustraliaDalrymple BayHay PointAbbot PointGladstoneNewcastlePort Kembia

ChinaQinhuangdaoRizhaoQingdaoJingtangTianjinGuangzhou

ColombiaPuerto Bolivar

IndonesiaKalimantanBanjarmasin

India EastChennaiEnnoreGangavaramHaldiaKaraikalKrishnapatnamParadipVizag

India WestKandiaMumbaiMormugaoMundraNew MangaloreNavlakhiPipavav

ItalyPiombinoTananto

NW EuropeAntwerpRotterdamAmsterdamImmingham

PolandGdanskSwinoujscie

Russia (Baltic)Murmansk

Russia (Pacific)Vostochnyy

South AfricaRichards Bay

Western CanadaPrince RuppertVancouver

U.S. East CoastBaltimoreHampton Roads

U.S. Gulf CoastNew OrleansMobile

Major International Coal PortsSource: EIA, IEA, McCloskey, Velocity Suite

ExportImport

Primary Purpose

Net Exports

Major Seaborne Coal Trade (2010)

Importer

Source: EIA, IEA, McCloskey, Velocity Suite

Exporter

88M

2M

63M

17M 60M

27M

56M

341M

283M

Major International Coal PortsMajor Seaborne Coal Trade (2011)

Source: EIA, IEA, McCloskey, Velocity Suite


World Generation Capacity & DemandTotal world electricity generation was 20.6 trillion kilowatt hours in 2011 according to the EIA, with coal responsible for the most generation. Through 2035, worldwide demand for electricity is expected to grow 84% over 2008 levels, with most of that generation coming from coal.

World Coal Overview

2011 World Electricity Generating Capacity

Source: EIA

Source: EIA

International Steel IntensitySteel intensity is a measure of steel consumption as an economy develops. It is the ratio of steel consumption per capita to a country’s gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. Developing countries require growing quantities of steel to build their infrastructure, but they do not have sufficient available economic resources to meet their steel demand. Developed countries, on the other hand, have ample economic resources, but their demand for steel typically stabilizes because their infra-structure is largely complete.

The chart below shows the major steel consuming countries, sized by their population. The line represents the typical path countries follow as they develop their economies. From the graphic, we can see that the developing countries, notably China and India, are expected to significantly increase their steel consumption as their economies grow. With over 35% of the world’s population, demand for steel in China and India should drive healthy demand for steel and metallur-gical coal in the future.

International Steel Intensity



World Coal Overview

Internationally Traded Met Coal SupplyHigh quality metallurgical coal is only found in a handful of areas worldwide. Australia is by far the largest producer and exporter of met coal, followed by the United States and Canada. Other major producers include Russia, Poland, South Africa, and Colombia.

Developing regions of metallurgical coal production are in Mozambique and Mongolia. Some of the highest quality coals are generally found in the United States and Australia and will likely remain in demand as there is no suitable replacement.


Internationally Traded Met Coal Supply

Internationally Traded Met Coal DemandPrimary consumers of internationally traded metallurgical coal are Europe and Asia. Europe has a well-established steel making industry but lacks the metallurgical coal resources to supply its own requirements. This is also the case for Japan which has long been a large scale importer of metallurgical

coal. Imports to India and China have also grown tremendously as these countries develop. Growing Asian economies fueled primarily by India and China are expected to support growth in internationally traded metallurgical coal going forward.

Internationally Traded Met Coal Demand


U.S. Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

U.S. Coal SupplyAccording to the U.S. Mine Safety & HealthAdministration (MSHA), U.S. coal minesproduced 1.094 billion short tons in 2011. Coal is mined in 26 states. Wyoming produces the most coal, followed by West Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and Montana. The Powder River Basin contains some of the largest surface coal mines in the world. About a third of U.S. coal is produced in the Appalachian coal basins, led by West Virginia.

About 9.8%, or 107 million tons of the coal produced in 2011 was exported. The top five countries for U.S. coal exports were the Netherlands, South Korea, Brazil, the U.K, and Japan. About 13.1 million short tons of coal were imported into the U.S. in 2011. The top five countries of origin of U.S. coal imports were Colombia, Canada, Indonesia, Venezuela, and the Ukraine.

U.S. Coal Basins

2011 U.S. Coal Production by Basin

Source: EIA

Source: Velocity Suite

Northern Lignite

PRB

ILBRocky/ Uinta Basin CAPP

NAPP

Major U.S. Coal Seams

Source:USGS

Basin Seam

ILB Herrin No 6ILB Springfield No 5NAPP PittsburghNAPP Lower KittanningNAPP Upper FreeportNAPP Middle KittanningNAPP Lower FreeportNAPP Upper KittanningPRB AndersonPRB CanyonPRB SmithPRB FelixCAPP CoalburgCAPP Pocahontas No 3CAPP HazardCAPP JawboneCAPP Lower ElkhornCAPP RavenCAPP SplashdamCAPP Fire ClayCAPP Lower BannerCAPP Upper BannerCAPP ClintwoodCAPP SewellCAPP EagleRocky/Uinta Lower SunnsideGulf Lignite Wilcox GroupN. Lignite Beulah-‐Zap

Est. Avg. Btu/lb

Est. Avg. % Sulfur

Est. Avg. % Ash

Est. Maximum Depth

Est. Maximum Thickness Met/Steam

11,484 3.4 10.8 1,000 ft >42 inches Steam11,756 4.2 12.0 1,000 ft >42 inches Steam12,159 4.2 11.9 2,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam13,101 2.7 11.5 2,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam12,929 2.3 13.5 2,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam12,785 2.4 12.3 2,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam13,086 2.2 10.7 2,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam12,767 2.1 13.0 2,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam8,835 0.8 6.8 2,000 ft >10 feet Steam7,998 0.5 6.5 2,000 ft >10 feet Steam9,463 0.8 8.9 1,000 ft >10 feet Steam7,807 1.2 10.2 1,000 ft >10 feet Steam12,788 0.8 11.4 2,000 ft >42 inches Steam13,862 0.7 8.6 2,000 ft >42 inches Met12,651 1.2 10.4 1,000 ft >42 inches Steam13,085 0.9 12.2 1,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam13,069 1.1 10.4 1,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam12,875 0.9 6.0 1,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam13,782 1.1 8.2 1,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam12,702 1.3 11.2 1,000 ft >42 inches Steam13,497 0.9 9.9 1,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam13,615 0.9 8.4 1,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam13,770 1.6 6.7 1,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam13,762 0.9 5.9 2,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam13,564 1.5 8.2 2,000 ft >42 inches Met/Steam13,133 1.0 5.9 3,000 ft >42 inches Steam6,597 0.9 12.6 Unclassified Unclassified Steam6,439 0.9 7.9 Unclassified Unclassified Steam

Lower Sunnyside


U.S. Coal Overview

How much coal does the U.S. have?The image below shows estimated coal reserves and resources in the U.S. The estimated recoverable reserves only include the coal that can be profitably mined with today’s mining technology at today’s coal prices.

Recoverable coal reserves will last theU.S. approximately 239 years, based on2010 production levels. According to the EIA, if coal consumption grows at an annual rate of 0.4%, U.S. coal reserves will be depleted in 168 years, if mining technology does not improve, and if coal prices do not rise.

U.S. total coal resources, which are substantially larger than coal reserves, are estimated to be over 4 trillion tons—equivalent to over 4,000 years of coal supply for the United States. Coal resources include all coal that has been identified or is assumed to be beneath U.S. soil. It includes recoverable reserves as well as coal that is currently not economically accessible using today’s technology. As mining technology continues to advance and extraction economies continue to improve, much of the coal currently classified as a resource will eventually be mined.


4,475.3

1,672.9

484.5

259.5

U.S. Coal Resources and ReservesBillion Short tons as of January, 2011

Recoverable Reserves at Active Mines

Demonstrated Reserve Base

Estimated Recoverable Reserves

Identified Resources

Total Resources

17.9

Source: EIA, North Dakota Geological Survey

Future U.S. Electricity Generation(in billion kilowatt hours)

Source: EIA

U.S. Electricity GenerationThe United States generated over 4,100 billion kilowatt hours of electricity in 2011, with over 40 percent of that coming from coal. By 2035, the EIA

expects coal-fired generation to increase 8.5 percent, representing 39 percent of total U.S. electricity generation.


U.S. Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

U.S. Electricity Generation with Renewable Breakout, 2011

Source: EIA

Coal % of Total Electric Generation2009 Retail Elec. Price (¢/kWh)

Greater than 14.0¢ /kWh

11.5 to 14.0¢ /kWh

8.5 to 11.5¢ /kWh

7.0 to 8.5¢ /kWh

Less than 7.5¢ /kWh

Source: EIA, Velocity Suite

Average Retail Price of Electricity per Kilowatt-Hour, andPercent of Electricity Generated by Coal (2009)

CA 1%

NV 20%

AZ 39%

UT 76%

ID 1%

MT 62%

WY 89%

CO 68%

NM 71%

TX 36%

OK 44%

KS 68%

NE 64%

SD 33%

ND 82% MN 52%

IA 72%

MO 81%

AR 46%

LA 23%

MS25%

TN 53%

KY 93%

OH 82%PA 48%

NY 10%

ME 1%

NH 14% MA 19% RI 0% CT 8% NJ 10% DE 46%MD 54%DC 0%

IL 46%

WI 62%

MI 59%

IN93%

AL 41%GA 53%

FL 26%

SC 36%

NC 56%

VA 35%

WV97%

OR 7%

WA 8%

Average Retail Price of Electricity per Kilowatt-Hour, and Percent of Electricity Generated by Coal (2010)

Source: EIA, Velocity Suite

18

International Coal Overview

Mine Reclamation

Quiz: Which are Reclaimed Mines? 32

Preparation and Processing

Preparation and Processing 34

Transportation

Modes of Coal Transport 36

Major U S Coal Export Options 38

Formation of Coal

Formation of Coal 20

Coal Rank 21

Coal Beds 21

Mining

Coal Mining Introduction 22

Mine Types 24

Extraction Methods 26

Surface Mining 28

Mining Laws and Regulations

Mining Laws and Regulations 30

Coal

21Return to Contents20

Coal

Formation of CoalCoal is a sedimentary deposit comprised of the remnants of decayed plants, in contrast to minerals which are the building blocks for rocks. The plant remains that contribute to coal deposits depend on the type of plants that existed at the inception of the coal formation. The depositional environment determined the chemical, physical and biological changes that took place to the accumulated plant remains over time. Like minerals found in rocks, the preserved plant remains are metamorphosed over millions of years by pressure and temperature into various kinds of coal. For coal to be preserved in the geologic record into a merchantable and mineable seam thickness requires a depositional environment where plant debris can accumulate faster than it decays.

Depositional Environments – A thick, mineable accumulation of coal requires a depositional environment or geographic setting with rapid plant growth. Plant material and debris are preserved by accumu-lating faster than they decay. Tropical rainforests or swamps along a low-lying coastal delta are both examples of depositional environ-ments that encourage

thick accumulations of plant material, known as peat.

Time – Accumulations of plant material that have become coal are found in sedimentary rock layers throughout the world that are less than 350 million years old. The reason that the coal deposits are not found in older rocks is that plants only evolved and became numerous enough to form coal deposits about 350 million years ago.

Temperature – As the peat becomes more deeply buried, it becomes heated due to the geothermal gradient. Geothermal gradient is defined as the rate of increase of temperature with increasing depth from the Earth’s surface. In areas of tectonically stable sedimentary rock, the geothermal gradient starts at approximately 400 feet of depth and is approximately 1°F for every 100 feet of depth.

Formation of Coal

Pressure – The depositional environments for coal typically subside as the peat and underlying sediments compact. This, along with fluctuating sea levels, allows sand, silt, and clay to be deposited on top of the peat. This sediment accumulates causing pressure that, along with the heat generated by depth of burial, results in chemical and composi-tional changes, turning peat into lignite. Additional pressure turns lignite into bituminous coal, and then into anthracite coal, a process called coalification.

Coal RankCoal rank describes the amount of metamorphosis the coal has undergone and is used by industry to classify coals for certain uses. Properties of coal rank include carbon content, volatile matter content, moisture, and heating value.

Lignite – Commonly referred to as brown coal, lignite is soft and brownish-black in color. Lignite represents the largest portion of the world’s coal reserves. This geologically young coal has the lowest carbon content of all coal ranks, offering low heat value of 4,000-8,300 Btu/lb on a moist, mineral matter free (mmmf) basis. Lignite is mainly used for electric power generation.

Subbituminous – This dull black coal gives off more heat than lignite, 8,300-11,500 Btu/lb, and is cleaner burning than other coals due to its lower sulfur content. Subbituminous coals are mined in Wyoming, Montana, and a few other western states.

Bituminous – Mined in the Appalachian, Illinois, and Rockies regions, most bituminous coal was formed during the Pennsylvanian and Permian geologic ages. With a highly variable sulfur content and usually a high heat content (>10,500-14,000 Btu/lb), it is used for power generation, cokemaking, and other industrial uses.

Anthracite – Anthracite coal is the highest rank, having undergone the most metamorphosis; it contains the highest fixed carbon content. There are few anthracite coal reserves around the world to be mined. The U.S. reserves are located primarily in Pennsylvania. Used mostly for home heating, anthracite coal makes up a very small component of coal production nationwide. Anthracite coals contain heat values of 12,500+ Btu/lb. It is a misconception that anthracite coals contain the highest heat value due to their rank. The highest rank bituminous coals contain the highest heat values.

Coal BedsA coal bed is simply the layer of coal.

• Bedsvaryfromafewinchesto100'ormore.

• Therocklayersontopofacoal bed are called “overburden.” The rock layers between coal beds are called “interburden.” The rock layers below a coal bed are called “floor rock.”

• 60%oftheworldcoalproductionrequires underground mining.

Origins and Formation of Coal

source: www truthaboutsurfacemining com

www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com


CoalMining

Mining and water interact, as with any land disturbance. The effects depend on the location of the mine, the hydrology and climate of an area, and the physical and chemical properties of the coal, associated strata, and residual materials. The quality and quantity of surface water and groundwater can be protected both within a mine and in the surrounding areas if modern mining techniques and procedures are followed. Unfortunately, in the past, many sites were abandoned with inadequate reclamation measures, leaving a legacy of contaminated drainage and water pollution. However, today’s mitigation technologies offer solutions to past problems caused by out-of-date mining practices.

Coal Mining IntroductionMining is one of the oldest and most important contributors to modern societies. The minerals and precious metals that are extracted are vital to energy, electronics, transportation, infrastructure, and other aspects of everyday life. Coal mining in the United States is highly regulated at both the federal and state levels to protect the safety of miners and ensure the least environmental impact possible. Coal mining creates high paying jobs, supports local, state, and federal economies, and produces one of the only fully domestic energy resources available to the American people.

PermittingBefore a company can begin mining, it must go through the rigorous process of obtaining a mining permit. The permit application process begins by collecting baseline data to adequately characterize the pre-mine environmental condition of the permit area. This work includes surveys of cultural and historical resources, soils, vegetation, wildlife, assessment of surface and groundwater hydrology, climatology, and wetlands. In conducting this work, the company collects data to define and model the soil and rock structures and coal that will be mined. The company develops mining and reclamation plans using this data and incorporating elements of the environmental data.

Once a permit application has been prepared and submitted to the regulatory agency, it goes through a completeness and technical review. Proposed permits also undergo a public notice and comment period, allowing the public and other agencies to comment on the permit. Some mine permits may take several years or even longer to be issued. Regulatory authorities have consider-able discretion in the timing of the permit issuance, including through intervention in the courts. Before a mine permit is issued, a mine operator must submit a bond or otherwise secure the performance of reclamation obligations.

Coal Mining and the EnvironmentThe health of the environment is always analyzed prior to mining through baseline monitoring and analysis. Then, based upon proven engineering principles, data, and experience, engineers can prepare mine plans that eliminate and/or minimize the impacts of mining. Mine planning must mitigate those impacts. Before any mining begins, the post-mine land use must be addressed in such a way that the operator restore the land to a condition capable of supporting the uses it could support prior to mining, or to “higher or better uses.”


CoalMining

Slope MineSlope mines are another kind of underground mine. Slope mining uses shafts that are slanted down to the coal or mineral bed, in lieu of drilling shafts straight down.

• Slopeminesareusuallynotasdeepas shaft mines.

• Conveyorsbringthecoaloutofthemine using the slope tunnel.

• Sometimestherearethreeslopes–one takes workers in and out of the mine and provides an intake for fresh air, the second takes coal out on a belt and the third provides an exhaust for returned or used air.

Drift Mine Drift mining is used when the coal or mineral is accessed from the side of a mountain. The opening to the mine is dug from a bench to the coal or mineral vein.

• Driftmineshavehorizontalentries,called adits, in the coal deposit from a hillside.

• Conveyance/transportationequipmentoften contains conveyor belts, rubber-tired equipment, or track equipment.

Mine TypesOpen Cast MineOpen cast mining simply means mining at the surface, rather than underground. The mineral deposit is covered by soil, which is removed and stored for use after mining by large machines, and then explosives break up the overburden and ore deposit. Overburden is the layers of soil and rock that cover a coal seam.

• Thegreatestnumberofopencastminesin the U.S extract bituminous coal.

• Globally,about40%ofcoalproductioninvolves surface mining.

Shaft Mine When the top of a vertical excavation is the ground surface, it is referred to as a shaft, hence the term “shaft mining.” Shaft mining uses a vertical mineshaft, a tunnel where miners travel up and down in an elevator. Mine ventilation is also provided through the shafts. Tunnels are dug out from the mine shaft into the mine seam. Once the coal is mined, it is transported to the surface typically through a second vertical shaft.






CoalMining

Room & Pillar MiningThe most common type of underground coal mining involves the excavation of a room or chamber while leaving behind pillars of coal to support the roof. Coal seams are mined using a continuous miner, a machine that extracts the coal without interrupting the loading process. Excavation is carried out in a pattern advancing away from the entrance of a mine. Once a deposit has been exhausted, pillars may be removed, or pulled, in a pattern opposite from which the mine advanced, known as retreat mining.

Extraction MethodsLong Wall Mining This highly productive underground coal mining technique occurs when a long wall, about 250-400 meters long of coal, is mined in a single slice, typically 1-2 meters thick. Long wall mining machines consist of multiple coal shearers mounted on a series of self-advancing hydraulic ceiling supports. Long wall miners extract “panels,” or rectangular blocks of coal as wide as the mining machinery and as long as 12,000 feet.

Short Wall MiningSimilar to the long wall method, except the blocks of coal are no longer than 100 meters wide and removed by a continuous miner. The roof support also operates similarly to long wall shields, allowing it to collapse once the miner has advanced. It currently accounts for less that 1% of deep coal production. Coal panels are 150-200 feet wide and more than a half mile long.






CoalMining

Auger MiningWorking on a contour mining bench, or in an open mine pit, horizontal holes are drilled up to a distance of 300 feet into a coal seam. The coal is removed by a special auger through a screw-like action.

Open-Pit MiningAppropriate only where terrain is flat or only slightly rolling and where coal seams are very thick. An open pit is excavated with terraces, or benches, that expose the coal seam for extraction.

Surface MiningMountaintop MiningUsed where the presence of multiple coal seams allow for coal extraction across the entire area rather than around edges as in contour mining. Large scale equipment is used to move overburden from above coal seams and extract coal.

Contour MiningFollows the contours of one or more coal seams around a hillside where these are exposed. Overburden is excavated and the coal is removed creating a working bench referred to as a “contour bench.” When mining is finished the contour bench is filled in.

Highwall MiningHoles or entries are excavated up to a distance of 1,000 feet into a coal seam. A special highwall mining machine advances into the coal seam. Its cutting head removes the coal and moves it to conveyor cars attached to the machine.



U.S. Surface Mining Fast FactApproximately 69% of U.S. coal production is from surface mines.




CoalMining Laws and Regulations

“Permitorium”In June 2009, a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on Appalachian Surface Coal Mining was issued by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Dept. of the Interior (DOI), and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) to immediately implement an “Enhanced Coordination Process” (ECP) to more closely scrutinize CWA fill permits issued by the Corps. The EPA developed a Multi-Criteria Integrated Resource Assessment (MIRA) process to help decision makers to make more informed decisions that included stakeholder concerns. The ECP/MIRA process was supposed to streamline the permitting process according to the MOU, however new permit issuance effectively stopped. Over 230 §404 permits have been stalled by the EPA. In October 2011, the D.C. District Court invalidated the process, concluding the EPA “exceeded the authority conferred upon it by the Clean Water Act.”

The EPA has also issued new water quality guidance for surface mines in Appalachia, which stipulates that water discharging from mining disturbances must not exceed 500 microSiemens per centimeter (µS/cm, a unit of measurement of conductivity), and water in excess of as low as 300 µS/cm would be cause for close, critical scrutiny of the mining operation’s permit conditions. These values are extremely low and difficult to achieve, thus effectively eliminating mining

in that region. In addition, electrical conductivity is a non-specific parameter that does not specifically characterize water quality or define its impact on aquatic life and therefore is an inappro-priate regulatory metric.

It is unlikely permitting will return to historical levels due to additional tactics employed by regulating bodies such as the OSM’s Stream Protection Rule, EPA’s permit veto authority, and the Corps’ suspension of Nationwide permits (NWP 21) in Appalachia, together with additional guidance documents that are expected in the near future.

ReclamationAll surface mines must be reclaimed to a state equal to or better than the pre-mining state. This involves restoration of disturbed land, soil stabilization, water drainage control, reforestation, and water quality mining. Below is an image of a once active mine site (left) and its current state (right) almost 30 years later.

Mining Laws and RegulationsSurface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) This act governs valley fill engineering, water drainage controls, stabiliza-tion of soils and reforestation. Mining companies must minimize disturbance of the hydrologic balance within the permit and adjacent area while mining, and leave the land after mining in a state equal to or better than the pre-mining state. Companies must post bonds which cannot be released until the post-mining plans are fully completed and the land is demon-strated to be at least as productive as its pre-mining state.

Clean Water Act (CWA)Sections of this act, along with states’ National Pollutant Discharge Elimi-nation System (NPDES) permit, govern stream and wetland restoration and continuous water quality monitoring at all water discharge points from mines, preparation plants and coal handling facilities. Section 404 of the CWA specifically regulates the discharge of dredged and fill materials into waters of the U.S. and is used to regulate mining.

Clean Air ActLimits the amount of particulate or fugitive matter that can be gener ated at a mine site. Sources include dust generated by mining equipment and haul trucks moving across unpaved areas.

Other Environmental Laws and RegulationsOther regulations that impact coal mining include: Safe Drinking Water Act, Solid Waste Disposal Act, National Environmental Policy Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Compre-hensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, Toxic Substances Control Act, Migratory Bird Treaty Act, Endangered Species Act, National Historic Preservation Act, and various state statutes and regulations.

Stream Buffer ZoneThis rule was issued by the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSM) in 2008 under requirements of the SMCRA. The rule puts restrictions on how coal miners can dispose of coal mine waste and spoils created by the mining operation. The rule requires mine operators to avoid disturbing streams to the extent possible and when operators must maintain a buffer between mining operation and streams.

Stream Protection RuleThe OSM is in the process of developing a new rule to replace the Stream Buffer Zone rule. This draft rule is referred to as the Stream Protection Rule. OSM is conducting an Environ-mental Impact Statement for the new rule and a new proposed rule may follow after completion of the EIS.

Reclaimed Mine — Before and After


CoalMine Reclamation

Quiz: Which of the following are reclaimed mine sites?To learn more, go to: www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com.

Quiz Answer: All six of these images are of reclaimed mine sites in Appalachia.

1. Big Sandy Regional Airport in Debord, Kentucky

4. A forest in Logan County, West Virginia

2. Pete Dye Golf Club in Bridgeport, West Virginia

5. A farm in Southwest Virginia

3. A stream in Southwest Virginia

6. YMCA Paul Cline Memorial Youth Sports Complex in Beckley, West Virginia



CoalPreparation and Processing

Waste coal is a byproduct of coal processing operations, usually composed of coal, soil, and rock fragments.

Coal Is CleanedAfter coal is mined it generally goes through a process known as preparation or coal cleaning. Removing impurities from coal is done in order to:

• Boosttheheatcontentofthecoal.

• Improvepowerplantcapacity.

• Reducemaintenancecostsatthepower plant and extend plant life.

• Reducepotentialairpollutants,especially sulfur dioxide.

Coal Is BlendedBlending is simply a mixture of two or more types of coal. This provides, for example, the potential to mix lower cost or low quality coals with higher cost or higher quality coals and reduce the overall cost of the final blend. Blending of two or more kinds of coal together into a shipment provides a seller the opportunity to mix comple-

mentary products having different mining costs such that the final product can achieve a customer’s price and quality objectives. Benefits are:

• Optimizesplantfuelusage,controlling coal quality.

• Maximizesfuelefficiencyinresponse to forecasted generation needs.

• Minimizescoalqualityevents,reducing fouling, slagging, and emission occurrences.

Coal Is Sized to SpecificationsSizing coal is the process of segregating lumps of coal that are similar in size. Coal passes over one or more vibrating screens and the larger sizes not passing through each screen are separated.

• Thesizesofcoalproducedmayvarydepending on customer needs and type of coal.

• Thedesiredoutcomeisthesame:coal that can be handled and burned more advantageously.

Preparation and ProcessingAfter mining, coal is washed to remove impurities and increase heating value. Preparation plants remove rock, sulfur, and other particulates from the run-of-mine coal. These plants also allow mining companies to sort coal based on quality, enhancing their ability to serve customers’ various specifications.

Each coal preparation plant has three primary sections:

1. Sizing: Coal is usually separated using grates of three sizes: coarse, intermediate, and fines. Each size follows a different path through the plant.

a. Most utility coal specifications will require a 2” x 0 (2 inch or less) product with a maximum percentage of fines. This allows for efficient shipping & handling of the coal before being pulverized for combustion.

b. Some customers, especially in the industrial sector, will request stoker coal which is smaller and relatively uniform in size since it will not be crushed again before burning.

2. Processing: This is where rock and other contaminants are removed.

a. Coarse coal is separated using a heavy media bath which is a

mixture of magnetite and water. Less dense coal floats to the top and is skimmed off.

b. Intermediate sizes use a similar technique, however, the coal and heavy media mixture is spun in a cyclone to speed up the process. Less dense coal spins out of the top of the cyclone while rock falls out of the bottom.

c. Fines, particles of coal usually less than one-sixteenth inch, are separated first by a cyclone then recovered by froth flotation. The fines/rock mixture is added to a tank where special chemicals help the coal to adhere to air bubbles rising through the tank. The coal is skimmed off the top. The fine rock is then removed using a thickening agent and a skimmer.

3. Dewatering: Coarse and interme-diate coals are first rinsed to remove any remaining magnetite. They are then spun in a centrifuge to remove excess water. Fines are dewatered using vacuum disk filters. The filter disks are placed under a vacuum which pulls the water from the fines. Once the vacuum pressure is removed the fine coal falls from the disk. Fines may also go through a secondary thermal dryer.


CoalTransportation

Below is a list of the options for transporting coal. There is no specific tonnage for bulk carriers, but deadweight tonnage (dwt) should be used as an estimate.

Reclaimed mines are: A, B, D, F

Modes of Coal TransportTrucks – For shorter hauling distances, smaller quantities, and access to certain loading points, trucks meet the need. They are used mainly in short hauls to nearby electric and industrial plants. Multimodal deliveries can include trucks, railcars, and barges. Trucks are often the quickest and easiest way to move product and are able to be scaled up or down as needs change. Highway trucks haul coal in loads typically under 25 tons.

Trains – Rail is an effective way to move large quantities of coal over long distances. Nearly three-fourths of the coal produced annually in the U.S. moves by rail. A typical coal train travels over 800 miles from a mine to a plant or terminal, carrying about 12,000 tons of coal in 100 to 120 cars, but trains can be up to 150 cars long. Each coal train is about a mile long, or more. Railroads carry more coal than any other commodity. Coal is about 40% of the annual volume hauled by rail in the U.S.

Barges – The river system in the U.S. includes 12,000 miles of waterways. For coal with access to this system, barges are a good way to move it. One barge carries up to 1,700 tons of coal.

A common barge tow of a towboat and 15 barges can haul 25,000 tons of coal. 20% of the coal used in U.S. electricity generation travels by inland waterways. Although slower, barges are cost effective and fuel efficient, hauling one ton of cargo 576 miles per gallon of fuel.

Bulk Carrier – Single deck ship designed to carry homogeneous dry cargoes, such as coal, ores, grains, etc.

Storage – Coal is often stored at a plant, river port, or import/export terminal. Without some type of storage, the logistics of supplying coal would be far more difficult and costly. This also allows the blending of different coal products to better meet customer needs while optimizing the value received by the mine operators. Coal storage must be managed and controlled using proven practices, since some coals, especially lower rank coals, have a natural tendency to heat through spontaneous combustion.

U.S. Transportation Fast Facts

Source: EIA*Tons of coal by mode of terminating receipt.

Transportation Mode*

Million Tons (2011)

Railroad 700

River 105

Truck 110

Other 63

ModeApproximate Capacity (tons)

Truck < 25

Rail car 100 to 125

Unit train (100 to 150 cars)

10,000 to 18,750

River barge 1,700

River barge tow(~15 barges)

25,000

ModeDeadweight Tonnage (Dwt)

Handysize > 10,000 - 40,000

Handymax/ Supramax

> 40,000 to 60,000

Panamax/ Post-Panamax

> 60,000 to 100,000

Capesize 100,000 +

Transportation

38

Transportation

Richmond

Rocky Mtn

CAPP

NAPP

PRB

Columbia

Long Beach &Los Angeles

Ridley, Prince Rupert, BC

HoustonJacksonville

Charleston

Hampton Roads

Philadelphia

Baltimore

New OrleansMobile

Vancouver BC

Seattle

UP

UP

UP &

BNSF

ILB

UP & BNSFCSX & NS

CN

CSX

Major U.S. Coal Export Options

UP & BNSF

BNSF

BNSF - CP - CN

BNSF - CP - CN

Port

Rail Movement

Water Movement

Potential Movement

Export Volume

Legend

Major U.S. Coal Export Options

Iron Making

Blast Furnace Iron Making 48

Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI) 48

Finished Steelmaking

Finished Steelmaking 50

Metallurgical Coal

Metallurgical Coal Overview 40

Metallurgical Coal Properties 41

Coke

Coke Making 46

Coke Properties 47

Metallurgical Coal

Return to Contents


Metallurgical CoalMetallurgical Coal

Metallurgical Coal PropertiesPetrographic analysis is used to assess the utilization potential of coals and has proven particularly useful in gaining insight into their coking potential— being the only test available that can dissect coal into its integral parts and characterize them by rank, type, and grade simultaneously.

Coal is comprised of three major maceral groups — vitrinite, inertinite, and liptinite —which proceeded along distinctly different metamorphic paths.

• Vitriniteisthepredominantmaceralconstituent in nearly all coals, originating from the woody tissue of plants. It’s the most abundant of the macerals and matures the most uniformly throughout the coalification process. Its reflectance in plane polarized light is often used as the ultimate indicator of rank. In terms of coking properties, vitrinite is the predominate reactive binder forming the wall and pore structure of coke and acting as the cement necessary to assimilate and bond the aggregate, which originates with the inertinite group.

• Inertiniteiscomprisedofvariousplantremains which achieved a high rank early in the coalification process such as fusinite and semifusinite which originated from woody tissue exposed to fire and converted to charcoal, or micrinite which is believed to be the product of accelerated decay of a variety of plant tissues during the inception of coal formation. Most inertinite, as the name implies, is inert.

• Liptinite,whichiscomprisedofspores,resins, and cuticles of the preserved plant remains, is also very reactive. In terms of coking properties, members of the liptinite group have much lower coke yields than their associated vitrinite and contribute more heavily to the by-products during coke making (i.e., gas, tars, and light oils). Liptinite matures much more slowly than its associated vitrinite in the early stages of coalification, up through high volatile A bituminous in rank, and then very quickly in the medium volatile rank range where it becomes optically indis-tinguishable from the vitrinite.

• Mineralmatter,whichcomprisesthe ash and sulfur found in the coal, can be quite variable depending on its origin, and its level of concentra-tion can impact utilization potential. The inherent ash forming minerals which contribute to a plant’s nutrients represent the more basic components in the ash, while its inherent sulfur is of the organic variety. Ash forming minerals added later as impurities during or after the biochemical stage can be basic or acidic in nature depending on their origin. Pyritic sulfur can also be of primary or secondary origin, originating from bacterial action or the precipitation from sulfur bearing waters. Met coal, and the resulting coke, must have low ash and sulfur content for it to be used in the steelmaking process.

Metallurgical Coal OverviewCoal is a heterogeneous mixture of organically derived plant remains which have undergone chemical and physical changes in response to biologic and geologic processes. The right conditions must exist for plant materials to accumulate and be preserved in the geologic record. Coal formation occurred as far back as 350 million years ago and as recently as 2 million years ago.

Coals are classified on the basis of rank, type and grade. Older deposits are more likely to be higher in rank as their biologically digested plant remains were buried deeper, exposing them to higher temperatures and pressures, which advance the process of coalification. Rank refers to the degree of alteration or metamorphism of the plant remains. Type refers to the variety of plant remains preserved, known as macerals, and grade refers to the minerals associated with and/or accompanying the plant remains during the inception of coal formation.

Metallurgical coal, also referred to as met coal or coking coal, ranges from high volatile A through low volatile bituminous in rank, and possesses the ability to soften and re-solidify into a coherent, porous mass, when heated from 300 to 550°C in the absence of air in a confined space. The conversion from coal to coke occurs in long, tall, slender chambers called coke ovens

where the volatiles from the coal escape, leaving behind what is referred to as metallurgical coke, which reaches a temperature of approximately 1,000°C before being removed from the ovens. The coking cycle normally takes place in 18 hours for an oven width of 18 inches, or one inch per hour. Coke is used primarily as a fuel and a reducing agent in a blast furnace during the smelting of iron ore into iron before it is converted into steel.

Nearly all of the U.S. metallurgical coal mines are located in Appalachia which extends from Pennsylvania to the north and Alabama to the south with the vast majority of production clustered around the borders of southern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and western Virginia.

Major U.S. Metallurgical Coal Mines




normally applies to lower rank high vol coals. PCI is described in the blast furnace ironmaking section.

Coals considered as candidates for use in cokemaking must pass a barrage of analytical tests before they can be considered suitable for use. Met coals are analyzed for their chemical, physical, rheological (coking process), and petrographic (rank, type, and grade) properties. The preceding table identifies the majority of char-acterization tests performed and the importance of each in the context of cokemaking.

The amount of volatile matter in met coal impacts coke yield - the amount of coke and by-products produced per ton of coal charged. Increased moisture has a comparable impact on coke yield and can also impact bulk density in the ovens and the underfiring requirements in tems of btu/lb of coal carbonized.

The ash in met coal becomes an impurity in the coke and therefore displaces carbon in the blast furnace. Consequently, ash contributes to higher coke rates, and it reduces hot metal production due to increased slag volumes and the additional coke and limestone required to smelt out the ash. The composition of the ash is also important because certain components of the ash, such as the alkalis and phosphorus pentoxide content, will also impact coke rate and hot metal

quality. Ash composition has also been found to impact coke reactivity and the all-important coke strength after reaction (CSR) results. The composition of the ash should have as low a base/acid ratio as possible with low alkalis (K2O and Na2O) and low phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) content.

Sulfur, like ash, must be removed from the hot metal, either within or outside the furnace, and like ash, contributes to higher coke rates and lower hot metal productivity.

The ash fusion test is performed in a reducing atmosphere and helps assess the combined effect the ash forming minerals have on ash softening properties at different temperature levels. Higher ash fusion temperatures prevent ash from depositing on coke oven floors and walls or freeing up fresh carbon surfaces to reactive gases.

The light transmittance test was developed to detect weathered or oxidized coal found primarily in surface mined coking coal. The presence of even small amounts of oxidized coal will decrease fluidity, dilatation, coke strength, and lead to excessive fines generation which in turn create coal handling problems and decreased oven bulk densities. Oxidized coal also contributes to reduced by-product yields and increased heating requirements during the conversion of coal to coke.

Metallurgical coals are usually classified as high, medium, and low volatile based on their dry, mineral matter free volatile matter (dmmf VM). High vol coals are typically between 31% and 38%, while mid vols between 22% and 31%, and low vols between 17% and 22% volatiles. There is usually a strong inverse relation between vitrinite reflectance and dry ash free

volatile content. Other terms used to describe metallurgical coals are hard coking, semi-soft, and PCI. Coking coal, by definition, must be hard and the term hard coking coal is a general term used to describe coking coals with superior coking properties relative to their semi-soft counterparts. As described earlier, coking properties are rank dependent and the term semi-soft

Met Coal Properties

Analysis Focus Test Low Vol Mid Vol High Vol Importance

Moisture consumes energy

Ash coke impurity

Volatile 17 - 22% dry 22 - 31% dry 31 - 38% dry impacts coke yield

Fixed Carbon impacts coke yield

Sulfur (S) hot metal impurity

C, H, N, O

Initial Deformation

Softening (H=W)

Hemispherical (H=1/2W)

Fluid

Ash Mineral SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, CaO, MgO, K2O, Na2O, Fe2O3, P2O5, SO3

chemistry impacts coke CSR

Oxidation Light transmittance test

Physical Hardness Hargrove Grindabilty Index

Gieseler Plastomer Test (DDPM) 20 - 1,000 <200 - 20,000 5,000 - >30,000

Gieseler Plastic Temp Range

Dilatometer Test (% Dilatation) <0 - +200% +100 - +250% +50 - +300%

Free Swelling Index

Rank Vitrinite Reflectance 1.45 - 1.7% 1.15 - 1.40% 0.70 - 1.12%

best rank indicator; correlates with most other coking coal evaluation parameters

Type Maceral

Grade MineralSource: SGS

measure's coal resistance to crushing

PetrographicOptimum ratio of reactives to inerts for any particular reflectance for maximum coke strength

ash constituents, see above

Rheological Plasticity

Tests rheological or plastic properties - the ability, when heated in the absence of air, to soften, swell, and then resolidify to form a porous, hard coke structure

want wide plastic temp range to blend with other coals

higher values are better, most coking coals >6

Chemical

Proximate

ideally, as low as possible

ideally, as low as possible

ideally, as high as possible

Ultimateideally, as low as possible

composition of coal

Ash Fusion ideally, as high as possible - >2,700°Flow fusion temperatures can cause ash to deposit on coke oven walls

low base/acid ratio (<0.20), low alkalis (<3% K2O + Na2O), low P 2O5 (<0.02%)

want non-oxidized coal; oxidized coal creates poor coke



Met Coal BlendsMet coal blends are generally formulated from a variety of different ranks, types and grades of coals sourced from different geographic regions with the purpose of producing the highest quality coke at the lowest possible cost while protecting the ovens in which those blends will be carbonized.

Most North American coal blends are formulated to fall between 1.16% and 1.20% mean maximum reflectance (27.5 - 29.5% volatile matter content)—a level necessary to achieve maximum coke strength safely, after factoring in all the operational constraints of by-product slot ovens. Coal blends must perform optimally in the confined space of the ovens in which they are carbonized, while at the same time ensuring oven safety. The coking pressure of the coal blend being carbonized must be kept within strict limits, based on the age and height of the ovens to avoid undue pressure on the walls which can lead to their premature failure. The coal blend which initially expands during its conversion to coke must also contract

sufficiently away from the oven walls in order to allow for its easy discharge from the oven.

Other process variables in the coking process that must be controlled include coal blend moisture, pulveriza-tion, charge bulk density, and coking rate. The coal charge bulk density, measured in pounds per cubic foot, must be controlled to maximize oven productivity and coke stability, while maintaining safe coking pressure and blend contraction. Increased coal pulverization increases coke strength and blend homogeneity, however too finely ground coal is more difficult to handle and often leads to lower oven bulk densities and more problems with emissions and carryover in the by-product collection system during oven charging. The coking or heating rate of the coal charge, as measured in inches per hour, impacts coke strength, coke pressure, blend contraction, carbon formation, and oven produc-tivity. Heat of carbonization and coking times, which are more coal-blend related, are also impacted by changes in operating practice.

Coke produced from coal charges containing oxidized coal will also increase the coke reactivity index (CRI) and decrease its corresponding CSR.

Plasticity tests measure the degree to which coking coals soften, swell, dilate, and subsequently resolidify over the temperature range from 300°C to 550°C when heated in the absence of air. Some plasticity tests also measure the ability of a coal to agglomerate and assimilate inert material over this same temperature range. The Gieseler plastometer test measures the fluidity or plasticity of coking coal in a cylinder with a stirrer inserted inside. The cylinder of coal is heated at a constant rate as steady torque is applied to the stirrer. As the coal heats up, it softens and the stirrer rotates. The DDPM (dial divisions per minute) is the maximum amount of revolutions the stirrer completes. The test is logarithmic with high volatile coals exhibiting fluidities many multiples higher than low volatile coals, with medium volatile coals generating values in between those extremes. Since the combined effect of the test procedure and equipment on the ddpm results can contribute to an unacceptably high reproducibility, the plastic range is a more useful indicator of coking performance and ties more closely to the dilatometer results where the reproducibility is much better.

The Dilatometer test measures the contraction and dilatation of a 60mm pencil of coal in an oven of rising temperature. The dilatometer results are particularly useful because they indirectly measure the thickness and viscosity of the plastic layer, and how they are impacted by the amount and rate of gas evolution during softening and re-solidification. The Free Swelling Index (FSI) also tests the plastic properties of coal; however its value as a rheological test is limited because it is more of a threshold test having little quantitative value. The test involves heating a gram of coal in a crucible to 800°C and then visually comparing the resulting coke button to a standard chart of shapes and sizes to determine the FSI value on a scale of one to nine. Most coking coals have an FSI value greater than six. Other rheological tests used around the world include the Gray-King test, the Roga index, the G caking index, and the Sapozhnikov plastometer. The sole-heated oven test, the pressure oven test, and the movable oven wall test are technically classified as rheological tests but are intended to measure the performance of formulated blends in terms of contraction away from the oven walls, the pressure exerted against the oven walls, and the quality of coke expected to be produced respectively.


Metallurgical CoalCoke

Iron OreIron ore is predominantly used for steelmaking and mined in deposits around the world. The largest producing countries of iron ore are Australia, Brazil, China and India.

Iron ore pellets are the most common iron bearing material used in North America; ore is processed near the mine sites into small pellets containing 60% to 65% iron.

Iron ore sinter is most common in Europe and Asia. Iron ore sinter is processed at the steel plant where iron ore is heated along a slow moving belt to form lumps of sinter.

Both pellets and sinter can be of the acid or flux variety. Many operators have found it advantageous to use flux burdens because the gangue in the pellets and sinter can displace some of the limestone used to capture

impurities in the slag. High-quality lump iron ore is also directly charged into the blast furnace.

FluxFlux, which is crushed limestone, is also charged into the furnace to capture impurities and reduce the melting point of the slag. The calcium in the limestone combines with the silicates coming from the coke ash and iron ore burden, and any sand that might be added at times to balance the slag basicity to the desired levels in order optimize the capture sulfur, alkali and other unwanted impurities.

Coke MakingMost metallurgical coke is produced in airtight slot ovens operated under slight positive pressure, whereas the more recent adoption by the industry of non-recovery ovens operate under slight negative pressure to avoid air emissions. In both cases, the coke process is considered complete once the center of the oven charge reaches a temperature approaching 1000°C. The end product is called coke. In slot ovens which are 18” in width this normally takes around 18 hours whereas in non-recovery ovens the coking cycle per oven is between 40 to 48 hours due to their thicker beds. A series of coke ovens is referred to as a coke battery.

In a by-product coke battery, one ton of met coal yields approximately:

• 1,300-1,400lbscoke

• 100-500lbscokebreeze(fines)

• 8-12gal.tar

• 20-28lbsammoniumsulfate

• 15-35gal.ammonialiquor

• 2.5-4.0gal.lightoil

• 9,500-11,500cu.ft.cokeovengas(~550 Btu/cu. ft.)

North America has the capacity to make roughly 19-20 million tons per year of coke.

Coke is far stronger than coal and is able to support the blast furnace burden which includes iron ore in the form of pellets, sinter, and/or lump ore as well as limestone. In addition to providing the required permeability necessary to blow wind up into the furnace, which enhances productivity, coke also supplies much of the heat required to melt the iron ore and the carbon necessary to complete the reduction process.

The most important chemical properties of coke are its ash and sulfur contents, along with its alkali, phosphorous, and base/acid ratio in the coke ash. Physical properties analyzed are size, strength (or hardness), coke strength after reaction (CSR), and coke reaction to CO2 (CRI). The coke reactivity index and coke strength after reaction tests are intended to simulate the strength properties of coke as it descends in the blast furnace and is exposed to increasing quantities of reducing gases at higher temperatures. CSR has become a more important quality parameter for blast furnace operators as coke rates have declined and the amount of pulverized coal and other fuel injectants increased.

Analysis Test Coke Property

ChemicalAsh ideally, as low as possible - coke impurity

Sulfur ideally, as low as possible - coke impurity

Physical

Size consistent for blast furnace air flow

Strength/Hardness stronger is better

Coke Strength after Reaction > 60%

Coke Reactivity Index < 25%


Metallurgical CoalIron Making

Blast Furnace Iron MakingCoke is combined with an iron (Fe) bearing material to be smelted into pig iron. Coke, iron oxide, and limestone are charged into the top of a blast furnace in alternating layers.

Within the blast furnace, the iron oxides are reduced; meaning oxygen is removed in a chemical reaction. In the lower part of the furnace direct reduction occurs where carbon (C) in the coke and PCI (see below) reacts with the FeO to produce Fe and CO, which is a very endothermic reaction. When the hot air blast ignites the carbon contained in the coke and pulverized coal it also produces CO. Higher up in the furnace, indirect reduction occurs where reducing gases like carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H) originating with coke, PCI, and moisture in the blast are used to strip away oxygen (O2) from Fe2O3 and Fe3O4. This reaction is only slight endothermic. The lowest amount of heat required to convert iron oxides to iron is achieved with a balance of 55% indirect and 45% direct reduction. Eventually the reduced iron oxide becomes molten and accumulates at the bottom of the furnace. The limestone flux descends through the furnace and bonds to the sulfur in the iron, and becomes part of the slag. When the furnace is tapped, liquid metal (pig iron) and slag flow out. The slag is skimmed off the top of the liquid

metal, hardens as it cools, and then is granulated to make aggregate. The liquid iron is then transported to the next stage of the steelmaking process. Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI) Additional fuels, specifically natural gas and/or coal, can be injected into the blast furnace to reduce the use of expensive coke. Coal must be pulverized and injected directly into the bottom of the furnace in a process called pulverized coal injection (PCI). PCI has a high installation cost, but increases the productivity and reduces overall operating costs of a blast furnace, making it an attractive option to integrated steel makers. Some facilities co-fire PCI coal and natural gas together.

Low rank high vol and high rank low vol coal or blends of both are commonly used for PCI. Other fuels like natural gas and recycled oil are also used to supplement coke rates. Variations in their hydrogen, carbon content, and heat of combustion result in varying coke replacement ratios, but in general terms one pound of coal injected through the tuyeres at the bottom of the blast furnace will replace approximately one pound of coke per ton of hot metal produced. It is also becoming more commonplace to see coal and gas being co-fired. The advantage of using coal over

other fuels is that it has the potential to replace the largest quantity of coke in the blast furnace; today some furnaces regularly operate with as much as 550 pounds of injectant per ton of hot metal. Since the coal is pulverized to 70-80% minus 200 mesh before it can be injected into the furnace, whatever coal source is chosen for PCI must handle

well and its grindability must match the equipment design in order to achieve the rated capacity for the installation. As in the case of coke, lower ash and sulfur of the PCI is more desirable as they effect coke rates and iron production much the same way elevated levels in the coke do. The same can be said about the ash composition of the PCI.

Source: OSTI

Top Gas

Stack Zone

Cohesive Zone

Active Coke Zone

Raceway

Hearth

Hot Blast

Hot Metal

Slag

StagnantCoke Zone

OreCoke

Diagram of a Blast Furnace


Metallurgical CoalFinished Steelmaking

Finished SteelmakingPrimary steelmaking is the process of further refining blast furnace hot metal. There are two types of steelmaking: basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and electric arc furnace (EAF).

In a basic oxygen furnace, molten pig iron, along with as much as 30% scrap steel is charged into the furnace. Oxygen (O2) is blown through the hot metal, igniting and reducing its carbon (C) content, forming CO2 and CO. During this process, the hot metal is further refined to remove impurities such as sulfur and phosphorus; special additives such as nickel and manganese are incorporated to do this. BOF accounts for about 42% of U.S. steel production, and about 90% of the steelmaking in China.

Secondary steelmaking involves the recycling of steel scrap in an electric arc furnace (EAF), which accounts for about 58% of U.S. production. An electric arc is generated and passes through the furnace melting its contents. These furnaces can be charged with either scrap and/or pig

iron, or direct reduced iron, giving operators additional flexibility. In general, nations further into their industrial lifecycle, such as the U.S, produce a greater percentage of EAF steel while developing nations, such as China produce a greater percentage of primary steel.

Steel Fast Facts

1 43 tons of coal per ton of coke

0 40 tons of coke per ton of iron

0 80 tons of iron per ton of liquid steel

1 07 tons of liquid steel per ton of finished steel

Global crude steel production (2011) = 1,490 million tonnes

Top crude steel producer (2011) = China; 683 million tonnes

U S crude steel production (2011) = 86 million tonnes

U S coke production (2011) = 15 4 million tons

U S met coal exports (2011) = 69 5 million tons

Source: WSA, EIA

Diagram of Steelmaking

Source: OSTI

Iron Ore

Coal Injection

Coal

Coke Oven

Limestone

Nat

ura

l Gas

Electric Arc FurnaceProduces Molten Steel

Steel RefiningFacility

Basic Oxygen FurnaceProduces Molten Steel

Pig Iron CastingBlast Furnace Produces Molten PigIron from Iron Ore

Direct ReductionProduces Solid,

Metallic Ironfrom Iron Ore

Recycled Steel

Continuous Casting

Slabs Thin Slabs

Blooms Billets

CoalBy-Products

Slag Molten Iron

Renewables

Wind Power 70

Hydropower 72

Geothermal Power 74

Solar Power 76

Hydrogen Fuel Cells 78

Biomass Power 80

Ocean Power 82

Cooling Systems

Cooling Systems 84

Turbines and Generators

Turbines and Generators 86

Transmission and the Grid

Transmission 88

The Grid 90

Energy Storage

Energy Storage 92

Coal

Steam Turbine/ Pulverized Coal Combustion 54

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 56

Fluidized Bed Combustion 58

Natural Gas

Combustion Turbine 60

Combined Cycle 62

Nuclear

Nuclear Fission 64

Boiling Water Reactor 66

Pressurized Water Reactor 68

Electricity

55Return to Contents

ElectricityCoal

54

Ranking

Diagram of a Coal-Fired Steam Turbine Plant

Coal

U.S. Coal-Fired Steam Turbine Fast Facts

Coal-fired steam turbine capacity (GW) 332

Efficiency of current fleet (%) 32

Number of units 1,309

Number of plants 542

Percentage of U S generation (2011) 41

2011 Capacity factor (%) 63


Steam Turbine/ Pulverized Coal CombustionMuch of the world’s coal-fired electricity is produced using pulverized coal combustion. Coal is crushed into a powder and blown into a boiler with air where it is combusted. This provides heat that is used to produce superheated steam. The expanding steam drives turbines and generates electricity. The average efficiency for an existing coal plant in the U.S. is 34%. A typical new supercritical pulverized coal plant has an efficiency around 40%, while ultra-supercritical plants have potential efficiencies around 47%.

The most technologically advanced plants use high-strength alloy steels, which enable the use of supercritical and ultra-supercritical steam pressure. A typical pulverized boiler heats the water to around 1,050°F and to 2,400 psi (566°C/16.5 MPa).

Supercritical plants operate at tempera-tures and pressures in excess of the critical point of water, 705°F and 3,208 psi (374°C/22.1 MPa), where liquid water and steam are indistin-guishable. A typical supercritical plant operates around 1,100°F and 3,500 psi (593°C/24.1 MPa).

Ultra-supercritical plants operate around 1,400°F and 5,000 psi (760°C/35 MPa).

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Source: Tennessee Valley Authority

55

Electricity

Diagram of a Coal-Fired Steam Turbine Plant


Coal

Boiler(Furnace)

Steam

Turbine

TransmissionLines

RiverTransformer

GeneratorWater

Condenser Cooling Water Condenser


Electricity

56

Coal

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Ranking

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)Coal is gasified with steam and air under high temperatures, and pressures in a gasifier. Heat and pressure break the chemical bonds in the coal, which reacts with steam and oxygen to form syngas, mostly carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) can be removed from the syngas before it is combusted in a turbine to generate electricity, eliminating the constituents.

The integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) system generates electricity in two ways. First, a gas turbine burns syngas similar to a jet engine. Because coal cannot fuel a combustion turbine without coal ash particles damaging the turbine components, the coal must first be converted to syngas. The exhaust

rapidly turns a turbine to generate electricity. Second, the exhaust heat from the gas turbine is sent to a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to produce steam to power a traditional steam turbine, producing additional electricity.

The combined cycle, therefore, combines the electricity produced from a combustion turbine and generator, and a heat recovery steam generator and turbine, resulting in high efficiency. Greater efficiency means less fuel and fewer emissions to produce the same power.

IGCC plants can emit 40% less carbon dioxide (CO2) than a typical coal combustion plant, as well as little to no SO2 and NOx emissions, depending on the removal rate in the syngas.

Diagram of an Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

U.S. IGCC Fast Facts

Capacity (GW) 0 6


Number of units 2

Number of plants 2

Percentage of U S generation (2011) 0 03



ParticulateRemovalSyngas

SyngasCooler

CandleFilter

Steam

Steam

Char

Slag QuenchWater

Slag

FirstStage

OxygenPlant

Coal

SlurryPlant

Water

Entrained-FlowGasifier

Second Stage

Sulfur Removal& Recovery

Liquid SulfurBy-Product

Fuel-GasPreheatSteam

Steam

GeneratorGeneratorSlag By-Product Stack

Gas TurbineSteam Turbine

Heat RecoverySteam

Generator

Source: NETL


Electricity

58

Coal

Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Fluidized Bed CombustionFluidized bed combustion (FBC) suspends solid fuels on upward blowing jets of air. The turbulent action provides more effective chemical reactions and heat transfer than a standard boiler. FBC reduces SO2 emissions when the flue gas mixes with added limestone in the boiler.

Combustion temperatures are typically between 1,400°F and 1,700°F, below the 2,500°F threshold where NOx are formed. NOx emissions from FBC are 70% to 80% lower than conventional boilers.

Atmospheric fluidized bed combustion (AFBC) operates at atmospheric pressure. Pressurized fluidized bed combustion (PFBC) operate at pressures 6 to 16 times greater than atmospheric, enabling higher efficiency by generating enough flue gas energy to drive a gas turbine and operate in a combined cycle.

FBC reduces NOx and SO2 emissions compared to traditional coal boilers. FBC is being widely implemented largely due to its ability to burn virtually any combustible matter such as coal, biomass, or municipal waste, as well as its ability to control emissions without external controls such as scrubbers.

The first generation of PFBC was a “bubbling bed” technology – where air is used to suspend, or fluidize, the combustible materials. This technology uses a low air velocity to suspend the bed with the heat exchanger to generate steam.

The second generation of PFBC is a circulating fluidized bed (CFB). CFB uses increased air velocity to move the combusting materials to cyclone separators before the cleaner flue gas contacts the heat exchanger to produce steam. This reduces emissions and increases efficiency.

Diagram of a Coal-Fired Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Power Plant

U.S. FBC Fast Facts


Capacity (GW) 6 8


Number of units 64

Number of plants 44



Source: NETL

Source: NETL

Coal Limestone

Atmospheric CirculatingFluidized-Bed Boiler

Cyclone

CombustionChamberPartition

SecondaryAir

Air

Ash

Air

Steam

Steam

Fly Ash

Stack

Cyclone HeatExchange

Fabric Filter

To BoilerFeed Water

Generator

Steam TurbineSolid Waste To Disposal


Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Diagram of a Natural Gas-Fired Combustion Turbine Power Plant

NaturalGas

Air Intake Compressor

CombustionChambers

Turbine

Generator

Transformer

Exhaust

Natural Gas Electricity

Combustion TurbineNatural gas-fired combustion turbines are designed to start quickly and cycle repeatedly to meet demand for electricity during peak operating periods.

Turbines operate like a jet engine where outside air is drawn into the unit and compressed. The compressed air is mixed with the fuel (natural gas) and ignited, where it rapidly expands. Instead of using steam to drive the turbine, a combustion turbine uses expanding air. The hot combustion

gases expand through the turbine blades, spinning the turbine. The turbine in turn spins a generator to produce the electricity.

Approximately two-thirds of the usable energy rotates the air compressor blades and the remaining one-third spins the electric generator.

U.S. Natural Gas Combustion Turbine Fast Facts


Capacity (GW) 143





2011 Capacity factor (%) 6 2



Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Diagram of a Natural Gas Combined Cycle Power Plant

Source: EIA

SteamShaft

Feed waterpump

Boiler

SteamTurbine

Condenser

Heat fromcondensersent to lakeor cooling tower.

Electricity

Generator

ShaftCombustion

TurbineElectricity

Generator

1

2

Exhaust Heat

Gas Flame

Natural Gas Electricity

Combined CycleIn a natural gas combined cycle (CC) operation, electricity is generated in two steps.

First, natural gas is used to fuel a gas turbine which spins a generator to produce electricity. In a gas turbine, outside air is compressed, mixed with fuel (natural gas), and ignited, where it rapidly expands through the turbine blades, spinning the turbine, which in turn spins a generator to produce the electricity.

Second, the exhaust heat from the turbine is captured to produce steam to drive a steam turbine. The steam hits the blades of the turbine, causing it to spin, which in turn spins a generator to produce additional electricity without using additional fuel.

Combined cycle plants are very efficient since the waste heat is used to produce additional electricity, instead of being released. New natural gas combined cycle plants can achieve around 50% efficiency.

U.S. Natural Gas Combined Cycle Fast Facts

Capacity (GW) 247


Number of units 662






Electricity

Nuclear FissionDuring nuclear fission, a neutron hits the nucleus of a U-235 atom. When the neutron is absorbed by the nucleus, it becomes a highly excited U-236 atom. The U-236 atom then splits, resulting in two fission fragments (Ba-141 and Kr-92) and three neutrons, along with large amounts of kinetic energy. These neutrons then hit other uranium atoms in a chain reaction.

The energy from nuclear fission is used to heat water to create steam. The steam expands through a turbine causing it to spin, which in turn spins a generator creating electricity.

There are three main types of nuclear power plants; each uses water in one of three ways:

• Boilingwaternuclearreactor

• Pressurizedwaternuclearreactor

• Pressurizedheavywaternuclearreactor

Source: EIA

Diagram of Nuclear Fission

Nuclear


Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Diagram of Boiling Water Nuclear Reactor Power Plant

Nuclear Electricity

Boiling Water Reactor In a boiling water reactor, water is pumped through the reactor and is heated by the fuel rods. The heated fuel rods, heated by the nuclear fission process, boil the water creating steam.

The expanding steam drives turbines which spins generators to make electricity. The steam is then cooled back into water and reused in the reactor.

New fuel rods are needed every 18 to 24 months to replace spent rods. Currently there is no long-term solution for waste disposal. Spent rods are typically stored onsite in steel-lined concrete pools or above ground concrete and steel canisters.

The United States has recently terminated its plans to develop a nuclear waste disposal facility at Yucca Mountain in Nevada. There are no countries currently with an operational nuclear waste disposal facility.

Reprocessing, or separating the fissioned material from the unfissioned material to be reused as fuel, is not currently practiced in the U.S. Radioactive waste must decay to become harmless, a process that can take hundreds of thousands of years.

U.S. Boiling Water Nuclear Fast Facts

Capacity (GW) 37


Number of units 35

Number of plants 24




Source: TVA


Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Diagram of Pressurized Water Nuclear Reactor Power Plant

Nuclear Electricity

Pressurized Water ReactorIn a pressurized water nuclear reactor, high-pressure water is pumped through the reactor and heated by the fuel rods. High-pressure water does not boil, remaining in a liquid state.

The hot, pressurized water from the reactor passes through a steam generator, heating a secondary loop of water. The water in the secondary loop is heated and turns to steam by the pressurized water in the primary loop.

The expanding steam drives turbines, which spins generators to make electricity. The steam is then cooled back into water and reused in the system.

A pressurized heavy water nuclear reactor is a Canadian-designed reactor which uses heavy water for moderator and coolant, and natural uranium for fuel. This design is also referred to as CANDU, for Canada Deuterium Uranium.

Natural uranium widens the source of supply and there is no need for enrichment. Heavy water, or deuterium oxide (D2O) does not absorb neutrons like H2O, and as a result, natural uranium can be used. Heavy water is 10% heavier than ordinary water due to the extra neutrons. There are no heavy water nuclear reactors in the United States.

U.S. Pressurized Water Nuclear Fast Facts

Capacity (GW) 70


Number of units 66

Number of plants 40




Source: TVA


Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Diagram of a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine

Renewables Electricity

Wind PowerThere are two types of wind turbines used today, Horizontal Axis Turbines and Vertical Axis Turbines.

Horizontal Axis Turbines are the most common wind turbines used today. Horizontal Axis Turbines have a fan-like rotor that sits on top of a tall tower, usually consisting of two or three blades. Each blade works like an airplane wing – creating lift when the wind blows causing the rotor to spin, which spins a shaft and generator to produce electricity.

Conversely, there are two types of Vertical Axis Turbines, the Darrieus and the Savonius. The Darrieus turbine has vertical blades that rotate in the wind – described as looking like an eggbeater, and the Savonius turbine is a slow turning S-shaped drag type turbine useful for grinding grain and pumping water but not good for electricity generation.

U.S. Wind Power Fast Facts


Capacity (GW) 49

Efficiency of current fleet (%) N/A

Number of units (turbine groups) 1,063

Number of plants (unit groups) 770



Source: EIA, EERE


Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Diagram of Conventional Hydropower Turbine and Generator


HydropowerHydropower plants use the energy of moving water to create electricity.

Impoundment hydropower uses a dam to store surface water in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, which turns a generator.

Diversion hydropower channels a portion of a river through a canal and may not require a dam. Water flowing through the channel turns a turbine to generate electricity.

Pumped storage hydropower stores energy through pumping water from a low reservoir to a high reservoir, releasing the water during periods of

high electrical demand. Electricity from a nearby power plant is used to pump water to the higher reservoir at night when demand is lower. During the day the upper reservoir is drained to turn a turbine and generate electricity.

There are two main types of hydropower turbines used in hydropower. Impulse turbines use the velocity of the water to strike the blades to move the runners, while reaction turbines sit in the water stream, and use pressure and moving water to flow over the blades instead of striking.

U.S. Hydropower Fast Facts


Capacity (GW) 100



Number of plants 1,986



Source: USGS


Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe


Geothermal PowerGeothermal power uses the energy from heat deep within the Earth, accessed through water or steam wells. The heated water or steam is channeled to a turbine used to drive electric generators.

Dry steam plants use steam direct from underground reservoirs to drive turbines.

Flash steam plants are the most common today. High-pressure water (360°F +) is pumped into a lower pressure tank causing the water to vaporize, or flash, which is then used to power a turbine and generator.

Binary-cycle plants use hot geothermal fluids to heat a secondary fluid with a lower boiling point, which causes the secondary fluid to flash to a vapor to drive a turbine. Geothermal plants of

the future will most likely be binary plants because moderate temperature water is the most common geothermal resource.

Geothermal temperature increases with depth. Away from the boundaries of tectonic plates, temperature typically increases by 25°C to 30°C (77°F to 86°F) per kilometer of depth. The heat source deep within the earth mostly comes from radioactive decay and partly from residual heat from planetary accretion. Roughly 80 to 100 kilometers beneath the surface, temperatures range between 650°C to 1,200°C (1,200°F to 2,200°F). At the center of the earth, temperatures are estimated to be over 5,000°C (9,000°F). As a point of comparison, temperatures in an ultra-super critical plant reach 750°C (1,400°F).

U.S. Geothermal Fast Facts


Capacity (GW) 3 5


Number of units 238

Number of plants 64



Source: EERE


Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Diagram of a Concentrated Solar Power System

Photovoltaic Cell, Module and Array


Solar PowerPhotovoltaic (PV) materials convert sunlight into electrical energy by transferring the energy in the sunlight to electrons in the atoms of the PV cell. The electrons escape from their atoms and become part of an electrical current. PV cells, also known as solar cells, connect to form PV modules that can be several feet in length and width. Modules connect to form arrays.

Flat-plate photovoltaic systems are the most common array design. Array panels are fixed in place or track the movement of the sun.

Concentrator photovoltaic systems capture solar energy from a large area and focus that energy onto a solar cell using lenses. Concentrating the light energy increases the cell’s efficiency and uses fewer PV cells. Concentrator systems however are significantly more expensive.

Concentrated solar power (CSP) does not use PV materials. CSP technologies concentrate sunlight to create heat that is used to produce electricity. CSP tech-nologies use mirrors, called heliostats to reflect and concentrate the energy of the sun. There are three types of CSP systems: power tower, linear concen-trator, and dish/engine.

Power tower systems focus sunlight onto a receiver at the top of the tower. Fluid within the receiver is heated by the concentrated sunlight, which in turn heats water into steam, which powers a turbine and electric generator.

U.S. Solar Fast Facts

Capacity (GW) 2 4


Number of units 950


Percentage of U S generation (2011)* 0 02


Source: Velocity Suite*Value represents photovoltaic generation for transmission

Source: DOE, EERE

Source: EIA


Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe


Hydrogen Fuel CellsHydrogen fuel cells produce electricity using only hydrogen and oxygen. Water and heat are the only byproducts emitted if pure hydrogen is used.

Fuel cells have two electrodes, an anode (negative) and a cathode (positive) sandwiched around an electrolyte, a substance that conducts charged ions (protons).

Hydrogen (H2) fuel is channeled to the anode, where the catalyst separates the negatively charged electrons from the positively charged protons.

The electrolyte membrane allows the protons to pass through to the cathode, the electrons must flow around the membrane through an external circuit, forming an electrical current.

At the cathode, the negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons (hydrogen ions) combine with oxygen to form water (H2O) and heat.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

U.S. Hydrogen Fast Facts

Hydrogen fuel cell technology has not yet been developed for large scale commercial generation Hydrogen rarely exists in elemental form in nature and often is obtained by chemically breaking down fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas

Source: EIA


Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe

Source: EIA

Types of Biomass

Wood CropsGarbage

Landfill Gas Alcohol Fuels

Types of Biomass


Biomass PowerBiopower is the generation of electricity from biomass resources – organic matter such as plants, agricul-tural and forestry residue, and organic municipal and industrial wastes.

Direct combustion of biomass is the most widely used form of biopower. Conventional boilers use primarily wood products as fuel to heat water and create steam to spin a turbine and generator to produce electricity.

Co-firing involves replacing a portion of fuel in coal-fired boilers with biomass. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions of

coal-fired plants can be reduced with co-firing and is a low-cost renewable energy option for power producers.

Anaerobic digestion, or methane recovery, uses bacteria to decompose organic matter in the absence of oxygen to produce methane and other byproducts that form a renewable natural gas. Municipal wastes that contain significant amounts of organic material can produce methane that can be harvested in a landfill. Landfill gas facilities can combust the gas to produce energy.

U.S. Biomass Fast Facts

Capacity (GW) 0 6


Number of units 199

Number of plants 94


2011 Capacity factor (%) 63 6



Ranking

Clean

Inexpensive

Domestic

Abundant

Reliable

Safe


Diagram of a Tidal TurbineOcean PowerOcean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses heat energy stored in the Earth’s oceans to generate electricity.

Tidal energy generation uses the energy in the moving water during changing tides to turn underwater turbines, similar to an underwater wind farm.

Wave energy systems harness energy directly from surface waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface of the water.

Ocean energy technologies are not economical as they require substantial up-front capital investment and there are limited areas in the oceans in which they can be deployed.

U.S. Ocean Power Fast Facts

Ocean power has not yet been developed for large-scale commercial generation

Source: DOE


Cooling Systems Electricity

Diagram of Water Use in a 520MW Coal-Fired Tower Cooled Plant

Cooling SystemsThermoelectric power plants running on coal, nuclear, oil, biomass, or natural gas accounted for 89% of U.S. electricity generation in 2011. Every kilowatt-hour of electricity produced typically requires around 25 gallons of water, primarily used for cooling purposes, although pollution control, ash handling, wastewater treatment, and wash water are other required uses of water at a power plant.

There are three main types of cooling systems used in thermoelectric plants:

• Once-throughcooling

• Wetrecirculating

• Drycooling

Once-through cooling involves taking water from a local body of water, such as a lake, river, or ocean, and returning the water after it is used. This type of cooling requires a large amount water to be withdrawn, but very little water is consumed.

Wet recirculating cooling uses either cooling towers or cooling ponds to chill the hot water. The hot water from the power plant’s steam condenser is cooled in a cooling tower mostly through evaporation and partially through direct heat transfer to the atmosphere. The evaporated water is

discharged as a water vapor plume, and the remaining water is recirculated in the plant.

Cooling towers must withdraw and consume a significant amount of water to replace the losses of evaporation and blowdown water – which prevents the buildup of sediment and minerals in the water and cooling tower. Cooling ponds are used to cool the water though natural conduction/convection heat transfer to the atmosphere.

Wet cooling systems can have adverse impacts on aquatic life. The impingement of fish on screens meant to keep them from entering the cooling system is an issue. Another issue is the entrainment of small fish and other aquatic life with water entering the cooling system. The EPA has recently proposed a rule to address these issues. This rule could have substantial economic impacts on electric generating facilities nationwide.

Dry cooling systems employ either direct or indirect air-cooled steam condensers.

In a direct air-cooled system, steam is pumped into a pipe or tubes surrounded by moving air. Heat is transferred to the air through conduction without the loss of water

to evaporation, as the air and water do not contact. Direct air-cooled systems require no cooling water.

Indirect air-cooled systems use a water-cooled condenser to convert the steam to water, however the heat from the water is transferred to the air

in a closed heat exchanger, preventing evaporation of the cooling water. Dry cooling systems use little to no make-up water, but their cooling effi-ciencies are lower than wet systems, and capital costs and operating costs are higher.

Source: NETL


Diagram of an Electric Generator

Turbines and Generators Electricity

Turbines and GeneratorsA turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid (steam, water, or gas) to mechanical energy. Turbines consist of a number of blades attached to a shaft that rotates with the force of the fluids on the blades. The rotating mechanical energy of the turbine is sent to a generator to create electricity.

Steam turbines create most of the electricity in the United States. Steam is produced through the heating of water with fossil fuels or nuclear fission. In a gas turbine, high-pressure hot gasses produced from the combustion of natural gas or syngas are passed through the turbine, which spins the generator, producing electricity. Hydro-electric turbines use flowing or falling water as the energy to spin a turbine, and wind turbines use the energy in the wind to produce electricity.

A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generator has a series of coiled copper wire that form a stationary cylinder. This cylinder surrounds an electro-magnetic rotor. When the excited rotor spins, it creates a small electrical current in the wire coil. The small electric current in each of the wire coils are added together to form a large current, which is then transmitted to the customer.

Electric power generation stations use turbines, engines, or water wheels to create the rotating mechanical energy to drive an electric generator.

Source: EIA


Power Transmission & Distribution System

Transmission and the Grid Electricity

TransmissionElectricity delivery consists of a complex network consisting of over 160,000 miles of high-voltage transmission lines, also known as the “grid.” Local distribu-tion systems consist of smaller, lower voltage power lines to deliver electricity to the end customers.

Electricity generated at power plants travels through a series of substations, transmission lines, distribution stations, and distribution lines on the way to the customer.

A substation is a high-voltage electric system facility using transformers to change voltage from one level of the distribution system to another. Substations may also measure and regulate voltage, switch transmission and distribution circuits into and out of the grid system, and connect electricity generation plants to the system.

There are four types of substations:

Step-up transmission substations receive electric power from a generating plant and increase the voltage for trans-mission to distant locations. Increasing voltage decreases electricity losses during transmission.

Typical voltages leaving a step-up substation are: High voltage (HV) ac: 69 kV-230 kV Extra-high voltage (EHV) ac: 345 kV-765 kV Ultra-high voltage (UHV) ac: 1100 kV-1500 kV Direct-current high voltage (dc HV): ±250 kV- ±500 kV

Step-down transmission substations are located at switching points in the grid, connecting transmission lines to sub-transmission lines or distribution lines. Step-down transmission substations typically reduce the transmission voltage to 69 kV sub-transmission voltage.

Distribution substations are located near the end users and change the voltage to lower levels, where the power is distributed to industrial commercial and residential customers.

Underground distribution substations are also located near end-users and further reduce the voltage for delivery to customers.

Source: OSHA

PowerGenerationPlant

IndustrialCustomer

IndustrialCustomer

CommercialCustomer

ResidentialCustomer

IndustrialCustomer

DistributionSubstation



Step-upTransmissionSubstation

Step-downTransmissionSubstation

UndergroundDistributionSubstation

Underground Distribution Lines120/240 V

13,800 Volts Distribution System

69,000 VoltsOverhead Subtransmission Lines

440 Volts

220/440 V 120/240 V 20,000 V

345,000 VoltsOverhead Transmission Lines

4,000 Volts20,000 Volts

Source: OSHA


NERC Interconnections and Regions

RTOs/ISOs

Transmission and the Grid Electricity

The GridThe grid is made up of many local inter-connected grids, providing dependable networks for electricity delivery.

The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the federal agency that regulates the interstate transmission of electricity, natural gas, and oil.

The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) was established to ensure the reliability of the North American power delivery system. NERC is a non-government organization with legal authority to enforce reliability standards with all users, owners and operators of the power system in the U.S., Ontario and New Brunswick, Canada. There are eight regional entities of NERC.

NERC Regional EntitiesFlorida Reliability Coordinating Council (FRCC)

Midwest Reliability Organization (MRO)

Northeast Power Coordinating Council (NPCC)

Reliability First Corporation (RFC)

SERC Reliability Corporation (SERC)

Southwest Power Pool (SPP)

Texas Regional Entity (TRE)

Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC)

Independent System Operators (ISOs) and Regional Transmission Organiza-tions (RTOs) are regional organizations with similar missions. ISOs are an

independent, federally regulated entity established to coordinate regional trans-mission in a non-discriminatory manner and ensure the safety and reliability of the electric system. RSOs are a utility industry concept that FERC embraced for the certification of voluntary groups responsible for transmission planning and use on a regional basis.

ISOs/RTOsCalifornia Independent System Operator (CAISO)

Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT)

Midwest Independent Transmission System Operator (MISO)

ISO New England (ISO-NE)

New York Independent System Operator (NYISO)

PJM Interconnection (PJM)

Southwest Power Pool (SPP)

Alberta Electric System Operator (AESO)

New Brunswick System Operator (NBSO)

Ontario Independent Electricity System Operator (IESO)

The U.S. power delivery system is made up of three grids: the Eastern Intercon-nection, the Western Interconnection, and the Texas Interconnection. Electricity generated within an interconnect is used almost entirely within the intercon-nect. Very little electricity is transmitted between interconnections.

Source: NERC, Velocity Suite

Source: NERC, Velocity Suite


Diagram of Pumped Hydro Storage

Energy Storage Electricity

Energy StorageElectricity generally must be consumed as it is generated. This leads to challenges to match the changing demands throughout the day, especially when demands are at the greatest, or peak.

Energy storage technologies can help manage loads during peak periods and allow less reliable energy sources, such as wind and solar, to be dispatched as needed.

Most energy storage technologies with the potential to serve the grid are fairly new, with the exception of pumped-hydro storage. A few of the most promising technologies today are:

• Lithium-ionbatteries,• Sodiumbasedbatteries,• Redoxflowbatteries,• Advancedlead-acidbatteries,• Pumpedhydrostorage,• Compressedairenergystorage,and• Flywheelstorage.

Lithium-ion battery technologies offer high energy and power density, along with almost 100% efficiency. Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in mobile electronics and are considered the most promising technology for use in hybrid and electric vehicles.

Sodium based battery technologies are being researched because of their large-scale energy storage potential. Sodium (Na) is readily available and cheaper than other elements, such as lithium, used in energy storage.

Redox flow batteries store energy in liquid electrolytes that convert chemical energy into electrical energy as the liquid flows through a cell stack.

Advanced lead-acid batteries, based on mature technologies, have large-scale energy storage potential due to low costs; however, the batteries have short life cycles, minimizing their effectiveness.

Pumped-hydro storage is a mature technology where water held in a low reservoir is pumped to a higher reservoir during periods of low-demand, and releases the water from the higher reservoir during high-demand periods through a turbine, which generates electricity.

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) uses power generated at low-demand periods to compress and store air in underground salt domes, aquifers, gas fields or in above ground pipes or tanks. The compressed air is released during periods of high demand, heated and expanded with natural gas in a turbine to generate electricity.

Flywheels store kinetic energy in the momentum of a rotating wheel or cylinder. The energy in a flywheel is proportional to its mass and the square of its velocity, which leads to two techniques, heavy wheels spinning slowly and light wheels spinning quickly.

.

.

Source: USGS

Emissions Control TechnologyEmissions Control

Emissions Control 96

Particulate Emissions

Electrostatic precipitators 98

Fabric filters 98

SO2 & NOx

Sulfur Dioxide 100

Nitrogen Oxide 102

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon Capture and Storage 104

Mercury (Hg)

Activated Carbon Injection 106

Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations

Major Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations 108


Emissions Control TechnologyEmissions Control

Emissions ControlHow are NOX, sulfur dioxide, and notable ionic elements like some species of mercury controlled?

Sulfur emissions can be cut signi-cantly by washing the coal in a coal preparation plant (see Preparation and Processing) prior to combustion. In addition, sulfur scrubbers are added to coal fired plants to capture remaining sulfur post combustion.

Nitrogen oxides (NOX) emissions have been reduced through the use of new combustion technologies that prevent the formation of the pollutant. Nitrogen is a common element in the air we breathe, but the extreme temperatures achieved during combustion can cause the nitrogen atoms to combine with oxygen, forming NOX. Nitrogen capture

technologies are also used to capture emission post combustion.

Mercury emissions have declined as a co-benefit of existing emission controls for particulates, sulfur dioxides, and nitrogen oxides. In addition, there are post combustion mercury capture methods to further reduce emissions.

Electricity generation from all sources has been steadily increasing since 1990, and over that period coal has consistently generated about half of the generation. So while coal burn has remained steady, emissions have continued to decline thanks in part to new and ever improving emissions control technologies that make coal a viable and cleaner source of energy.

Electricity Generation and Emissions

Source: Historical Emissions - EPA, Projections and Generation - EIA


Emissions Control TechnologyParticulate Emissions

Diagram of an Electrostatic PrecipitatorParticulate EmissionsParticulate emissions are fine solids and liquids emitted from power stations that can affect respiratory systems, impact local visibility, and create dust problems. Control tech-nologies for particulates include electrostatic precipitators and fabric filters, also known as baghouses.

Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) can remove 99% of particulates from flue gas. They work by creating a positive charge on the particles, then attracting the particles to negatively charged plates.

Fabric filters (FF), or a baghouse, collect particulates by passing the flue gas through tightly woven fabric, much like a vacuum cleaner bag.

Source: EPA


Emissions Control TechnologySO2 & NOx

Diagram of an Advanced Flue Gas Desulfurization ProcessSulfur Dioxide (SO2)Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) forms during the combustion of coals containing sulfur and can lead to acid rain. Sulfur emissions reductions of 90% or more are achieved in a process called wet flue gas desulfurization (WFGD), otherwise known as a scrubber.

Flue gas desulfurization works by removing the SO2 from the flue gas exiting the coal boiler. A mixture of water and limestone is sprayed into the flue gas, causing a chemical reaction to occur with the SO2, resulting in the formation of gypsum (a calcium sulfate) which is used in the construc-tion industry. Modern scrubbers also have varying degrees of effectiveness removing particulates, acid gases, mercury, and other heavy metals.

Dry sorbent injection (DSI) is another technology used to reduce SO2 emissions from coal-fired boilers. Sulfur dioxide reductions greater than 80% have been demonstrated with systems using sodium-based sorbents.

Hydrated lime sorbent can be injected directly into the ductwork before the particulate control device. The hydrated lime reacts with the SOX, or sulfur oxides, and is collected in the particulate control system. Sulfur oxides are compounds containing sulfur and oxygen, such as sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide (SO3).

Trona is the most common sodium-based sorbent (sodium sesquicarbonate Na3H(CO3)2. Finely ground trona is injected into the hot exhaust gases, reacting with the SO2. The reacted salts are then collected in an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or a baghouse (filter fabric).

DSI with trona is often advantageous to wet flue gas desulfurization due to much lower capital investment, less physical space, less modification of existing ductwork at the plant and the environmental benefits from avoiding the use of water in the process. Higher stack temperature also leads to a higher plume rise and improved local air quality. DSI with Trona also consumes less energy to operate compared to WFGD.

Source: NETL


Emissions Control TechnologySO2 & NOx

Diagram of an Overfire Air Boiler with SNCR and DSI Emission ControlsNitrogen Oxides (NOX)Nitrogen oxides (NOX) form from two sources when coal is burned. First, nitrogen embedded in the chemical structure of the coal combines with oxygen in the air to form NOX, and second, the heat from combustion causes the nitrogen in the air to combine with oxygen to form NOX.

To reduce NOX emissions, there are four combustion modification options coal-fired plants can employ:

1) Low NOX burners (LNB) involve staged combustion, which reduces flame temperature and oxygen concentration, reducing NOX

emissions. 2) Overfire Air (OFA) technology

injects air above the normal combustion zone. The burners have lower than normal air-to-fuel ratio and combustion occurs at lower temperatures, reducing NOX emissions.

3) Re-burning technology introduces

a portion of the boiler fuel in a re-burn zone, reducing the NOX formed in the normal combustion zone.

4) Flue gas recirculation (FGR) recir-culates part of the flue gas to the furnace, lowering the temperature and oxygen, reducing NOX emissions.

There are three post-combustion treatment technologies available for reducing NOX emissions from coal-fired plants: 1) Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

involves injecting ammonia (NH3) into the flue gas before passing over a catalyst, which promotes a reaction between the NOX and NH3 to form nitrogen and water vapor.

2) Selective non-catalytic reduction

(SNCR) uses a reducing agent, typically NH3 or urea, injected into the furnace above the combustion zone, where it reacts with the NOX.

3) A hybrid process involving SCR

and SNCR used together, or either process can be used in conjunction with LNB’s.

Diagram of a Coal-Fired Boiler with SCR Emissions Control Technology Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Source: NETL

Source: NETL


Emissions Control TechnologyCarbon Dioxide (CO2)

Diagram of Pre-Combustion CO2 Capture

Diagram of Post-Combustion CO2 Capture

Diagram of Oxyfuel Combustion

Carbon Capture and StorageCarbon capture and storage (CCS) is a process of capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere, compressing it after capture, transporting it, and then injecting it into deep underground geological formations.

Carbon sequestration is not a new technology; it has been used for years in the natural gas industry and to produce food and chemical-grade CO2. Capturing CO2 from electric power producers is more difficult than the successful processes used today in industrial applications where the gas streams contain high concentrations of CO2. Flue gases from a typical coal-fired power plant contain roughly 75% nitrogen, 10% to 15% CO2, 8% to 10% water. The CO2 levels found in the flue gas of power producers is more diluted and the scale of power plants is much larger than industrial applications. Current technology costs between $60 and $114 per tonne of CO2 avoided, where 70% to 90% is associated with capture and compression. These barriers must be overcome in order to have widespread commercial development of CO2 capture in the U.S. CO2 capture systems currently working at coal-fired generating plants are capturing 75,000 to 300,000 tons of CO2 per year, however a 550MW coal-fired plant capturing 90 percent of CO2 would capture around 5 million tons.

There are three technologies for coal-fired carbon capture:

pre-combustion, post-combustion, and oxyfuel combustion.

In pre-combustion capture the CO2 is separated from the fuel before it is burned. Coal gasification produces two gases; hydrogen and carbon monoxide (CO). The hydrogen syngas is used as fuel in an IGCC power plant and the CO is converted to CO2 to be captured and stored.

In post-combustion capture, the CO2 is separated from the other gases after combustion of the fuel. Chemicals called amines bond with the CO2 in the flue gas. The CO2 is then removed from the CO2-saturated amine solution, and the amines can be re-used in the process. Current amine-based post-combustion capture technology would increase the cost of electricity about 80% and the electricity required to regenerate the amine solution and compress the CO2 results in a 30% energy penalty.

Oxyfuel (oxyfiring) combustion, or the combustion of coal in pure oxygen and recycled CO2, can also be used to capture carbon. Without nitrogen present at combustion, the CO2 in the flue gas is highly concentrated and easier to capture. Oxy-fuel combustion systems require high-capital costs and energy consumption due mainly to the air separation unit to produce the oxygen, in addition to the sequestration and compression costs.

CO2Compression

CO2 Storage

CO2CaptureProcess

CO2 & N2

N2

CO2

Boiler

Power Block

Steam

Air

Fuel

CombinedCycle Power

Block

AirSeparation

Unit

N2Air

Gasifier Water-GasShift Reactor

CO & H2 CO2 CaptureProcess

CO & H2 H2Fuel

O2

CO2Compression

CO2 to Storage

O2

Air O2 CO2

CO2 Recycle

FuelN2 Steam

Boiler

Power Block

CO2Compression

CO2

Compression

AirSeparation

Unit

Source: NETL


Emissions Control TechnologyMercury (Hg)

Mercury (Hg)Mercury emission reductions from coal-fired boilers are currently achieved as a co-benefit through existing controls for particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOX). Particulate-bound mercury is captured with existing PM controls and soluble mercury is captured with existing WFGD controls. Research also shows increased mercury capture in downstream FGD controls in boilers employing SCR for NOX controls. The following chart shows mercury removal rates as a co-benefit at plants with no mercury specific control technologies. Plants burning bituminous coals with fabric filter PM controls tend to capture the highest amount of mercury due to the higher halogen content of the coal and the tendency of more unburned carbon accumulating as filter cake on the fabric filter, allowing for greater adsorption of the mercury.

Activated carbon injection (ACI) is the most promising technology to specifi-cally target mercury emissions. This technology involves injecting dry, powdered activated carbon (PAC) into the flue gas. The mercury in the flue gas is absorbed into the activated carbon and then collected in electro-static precipitators or a baghouse. ACI is projected by some to become the most widely used process for mercury removal from flue gas.

Activated carbon removes impurities from liquids (liquid or gas) by a process called adsorption: molecules accumulate on the surface of the internal pores of the activated carbon and only occurs where the internal pores are larger than the molecules being adsorbed.

Mercury Removal Rates by Coal Rank and Emission Controls

Source: EPA


Emissions Control TechnologyCoal Combustion Laws and Regulations

Major Coal Combustion Laws and RegulationsMajor Environmental LawsClean Air Act This federal law was enacted by the U.S. Congress to control air pollution on a national level. It requires the EPA to develop and enforce regulations to protect the public from exposure to airborne contaminants that are known to be hazardous to human health. The Clean Air Act was last amended in 1990. The Clean Air Act also establishes primary and secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards for six pollutants: SO2, particulate matter, NOX, ozone, lead, and CO. A number of programs under the Clean Air Act also affect fossil fuel power generation facilities.

• TheozoneNational Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) controls ground-level ozone, a principal ingredient in smog linked to respiratory illnesses. The Clean Air Act requires the EPA to set NAAQS for ozone and the five other pollutants.

• TheNew Source Review and New Source Performance Standards, also under the Clean Air Act, apply to all new facilities and expansions.

• The National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants program regulates eight air toxic substances which are to be controlled based on best demonstrated control technolo-gies and practices.

• TheAcidRainProgramwasestablished by the Clean Air Act as the market allowance system to cap SO2 and NOX by establishing an emissions trading program that allows coal-burning power plants to buy and sell emission permits.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) This act establishes a “cradle-to-grave” system governing the disposal of solid and hazardous waste management activities. Subtitle C of this regulation reclassified fly ash from a waste to a reusable material, exempting coal ash from the regulations for hazardous waste.

Clean Water Act This act regulates the quality standards for the Nation’s surface waters in order to maintain their integrity. Under the regulation, it is unlawful for any amount of pollutants to be discharged, both directly and indirectly, into surface waters. Facilities that intend to discharge into surface waters can obtain a permit that will set conditions and limitations on the discharge. Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA)Created by amendments to the Su-perfund, this act improves community access to information about chemi-cal hazards and potential emergency responses.

Recent and Proposed Regulations Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) The rule, promulgated by the EPA (proposed as the Clean Air Transport Rule), requires 27 states to significantly reduce SO2 and NOX emissions that contribute to pollution in other states. Emission allowances have been set by the EPA for each coal-fired unit and state. States are divided into two groups with group 1 states required to make additional SO2 reductions in 2014. CSAPR replaces the EPA’s 2005 Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) which was remanded without vacatur by the D.C. Circuit Court in 2008. In December 2011, the U.S. Court of Appeals stayed CSAPR pending judicial review, putting the CAIR requirements in place during review.

Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) for Power Plants Commonly referred to as Utility MACT, this EPA rule aims to reduce the emissions of toxic pollutants, primarily mercury and acid gases, from power plants. The EPA set maximum achievable control technology (MACT) standards for electric power plants, both new and existing.

Cooling Water Intake Rule (316(b))The EPA, under §316(b) of the Clean Water Act, has proposed that the location, design, construction, and capacity of cooling water intake systems reflect the best available

technology for minimizing environ-mental impact. The proposed rule applies to over 1,500 industrial facilities including power plants or other manu-facturers that use large volumes of cooling water from surface waters to cool their plants.

Coal combustion residuals (CCR) These are by-products associated with the burning of coal at electric power plants. The residues include coal ash as well as by-products associated with pollution control technologies. Concerns about the potential environ-mental impact from the impoundment of CCRs in landfills and ponds sparked the development of this rule. Two possible options both fall under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). The first proposal would treat CCR under subtitle C of RCRA as special wastes. The less stringent second proposal would treat CCR under subtitle D for nonhazardous waste.

The combination of the above rules is expected to have a significant impact on coal-fired generation, electricity prices and the power grid reliability in the U.S. Of primary concern is the time line of these regulations. Generators would have to finance design, permit, engineer, and construct control tech-nologies in a shortened time frame to comply with proposed regulations. Significant increases in electricity cost are expected as retrofit expenses will be passed on to rate payers.

110

Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations

Definitions 112

Abbreviations 126

OTC Specifications 131

Conversions and Formulas 132

Useful Websites 141

Additional Information

Other concerns involve the reliability of the entire electricity grid including resource adequacy and the cost of new transmission to reroute power from different areas.

Return to Contents


Additional InformationDefinitions

Bench: A division in a coal seam either separated by rock or formed by the process of cutting the coal.

Beneficiation: The treatment of mined material to enrich or further concentrate that material.

Berth: Defines a specific location in a port or harbor where a vessel may moor, usually for loading or unloading.

Bill of lading: A shipping form which is both a receipt for property and a contract for delivery of goods by a carrier.

Binder: A streak of impurity in a coal seam.

Bituminous coal: Rank of coal formed when subbituminous coal is subject to increased heat, pressure and time. Bituminous coal has less moisture and higher heat content than subbituminous coal. Bituminous coal also contains a higher percentage of carbon than subbitu-minous coal. It is the most common coal found in the United States and is used to generate electricity and to make coke for the steel industry.

Blasting agent: An explosive material that consists of a fuel and oxidizer mixture used to fracture and loosen material

Bleeder or bleeder entries: Special air courses designed to ventilate air-methane mixtures away from the active workings and into mine-return air courses.

Blending: The practice of mixing or combining coals with different properties to produce a coal product that optimizes desired characteristics depending on use. Blending coal can reduce the cost of generation. Blending can occur at the

mine, prep plant, during shipment, or at the generating station.

Boiler: A tank that heats water and produces steam.

Borehole: A hole created by drilling into soil or rock.

Bottom: The underlying surface of an excavation site, typically referred to in an underground mine as the “floor.”

Bottom ash: Agglomerated ash particles formed in pulverized coal furnaces too large to be carried by the flue gasses. Bottom ash is commonly used as an aggregate substitute.

Breeze: Residual fine coke particles that remain after the coke crushing and screening process. Coke breeze is mainly used as a fuel for the iron ore sintering process. Breeze can also be formed into bricks and used to feed the Cupola furnace which is used as a melting device at foundries. Breeze is also used as an anti-fissurant in making foundry coke and as a fuel and reductant in a number of non-ferrous and chemical processes.

British thermal unit (Btu): The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 39° to 40° Fahrenheit. Used as a measure of coal’s heat content, expressed in Btu/lb.

Brown coal: Generally, subbituminous and lignite rank coals.

Bump (or burst): Severe stresses in the rocks surrounding the mine workings which cause a disturbance or dislocation of the mine workings.

Definitions404 Permit: Section 404 of the Clean Water Act regulates the discharge of dredged, excavated, or fill material in wetlands, streams, rivers, and other U.S. waters. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is the federal agency authorized to issue Section 404 permits for certain activities conducted in U.S. waters.

Activated carbon: a form of carbon that has been processed to make it extremely porous and thus to have a very large surface area available for adsorption or chemical reactions. Activated carbon is used to capture mercury from flue gases.

Adit: A horizontal passage or opening from the surface, providing access to the mine.

Air dry (ad): Coal quality data calculated to a basis in which only inherent moisture is associated with the sample. Inherent moisture is moisture held within the coal itself as opposed to surface moisture. For some ranks of coal such as subbitu-minous, air dry moistures can be below inherent.

Anthracite: The highest rank of coal which contains the highest fixed carbon. Anthracite has been subject to higher heat and pressure of the Earth longer than lower rank coals. It is hard, brittle, and shiny, containing a low percentage of volatiles.

As received (ar): Coal quality data calculated at a basis in which all moisture is associated with the sample. As received analysis includes both inherent and surface moisture of the coal sample.

Ash fusion temperature (AFT): Temperature at which coal ash begins to deform and melt. It is measured at four defined points during the deformation process. The test begins with a molded cone shaped sample of ash which is viewed as it is heated. The first of the four defined pointed is initial deformation and occurs when the point of the cone begins to melt. The softening temperature is next and is defined as the point when the base of the cone is equal to the height. The hemispherical temperature is next and occurs when the base of the cone is twice the height. The final phase is the fluid temperature and occurs when the cone is spreads into a mass no more than 1.6mm in height.

Ash: Residue remaining after burning coal or coke; also referred to as mineral mater in coal.

Auger: A rotary drill that penetrates, breaks, and transports the drilled material by using a screw device.

Back: The roof in an underground mining cavity.

Backfill: Rock and mine waste returned to a mined area from which the coal has been removed.

Beam: The width at the widest part of a ship.

Bearing plate: A plate used for the distri-bution of a load. In roof bolting, it is the plate used between the bolt head and the roof.

Bed: A stratum of sedimentary deposit, typically coal, rock, or soil.



Coal is primarily composed of carbon, as well as other elements such as hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Coal gasification: The process of converting coal into gas. The coal gas can be refined to reduce impurities then used as fuel.

Coal liquefaction: The process of converting coal into liquid fuel.

Coal mine: An area of land and any structures or equipment used in extracting coal from its natural deposits in the Earth. This also includes the coal preparation facilities

Coal washing: The separation of impurities or undesirable material from coal, based on differential densities.

Coke: A hard, dry carbon substance that forms when coal is heated to a very high temperature in the absence of air. The manufacture of iron and steel requires coke.

Coke strength after reaction (CSR): Measurement of the strength of coke after heating and reaction. This is one of the major quality considerations when assessing the coking coals. To test this quality parameter a sample of coke is heated to simulate the blast furnace. Once cooled the sample is placed in a drum and rotated for 30 minutes. The percentage of coke that is greater than 10 mm in size is the CSR.

Coke reaction with CO2 (CRI): Rate at which carbon in coke reacts with reducing gases such as CO2. Coke is heated to simulate blast furnace conditions. After cooling the amount of weight lost during the reaction is measured.

Coking coal: See metallurgical coal.

Colliery: A British term for “coal mine.”

Combustion chamber: The space within a device where fuel is oxidized or burned.

Competent rock: Rock capable of sustaining openings without any structural support (except pillars and walls left during mining).

Compliance coal: Coal that meets sulfur dioxide emission standards for air quality without the need for emission controls. The current maximum sulfur content for compliance coal is 1.2 pounds per million Btus.

Conductivity: A measure of a given quantity of water to conduct electricity at a specified temperature, predicated upon the presence of dissolved solids, which conduct an electrical charge.

Continuous miner (CM): A machine that extracts coal without interrupting the loading process, to be distinguished from a conventional unit which must stop the loading process to extract coal.

Contract price: Price agreed to in a coal sales contact. The contract price may differ from the current market or spot price.

Core sample: A cylindrical sample obtained by drilling an area of the ground, generally 1” to 5” in diameter, used to collect a geologic and/or chemical analysis of the overburden and coal.

Crop coal: Coal from the outcrop of the seam usually considered to be of inferior quality due to partial oxidation.

Bunker fuel: Fuel oil used aboard ships.

Calorific value (CV): Measure of the heating value of coal. Heat content is usually expressed in metric units of Kcal/ kg or English units of Btu/lb.

Cannel coal: Large, non-caking block coal. It is characterized by fine, even grain and a conchoidal fracture. It is easy to ignite, due to its high percentage of hydrogen and burns with a long, yellow flame.

Capacity (power plant): Maximum rated output of electric power production equipment. Power unit capacities are expressed as nameplate capacity, net summer capacity and net winter capacity. The nameplate capacity is the unit’s maximum output as designated by the manufacturer. The net summer capacity is the units output measured between June 1 and September 30 whereas the net winter capacity is measured between December 1 and March 31. In general, the net winter capacity is greater than the summer’s because of the impact of air temperature and density. Generating units can intake a greater amount of cooler, dense “winter” air than comparably warm, less dense “summer” air increasing rated capacity.

Capacity factor: A measure of how often an electric generator runs; it compares how much electricity a generator actually produces with the maximum it could produce, during a specific period of time.

Capesize vessel: Large dry bulk carrier vessel class with deadweight tonnage typically above 100,000. The beam and draft on these vessels makes them unable to transit the Panama Canal and must pass the Cape of Good Hope.

Carbon dioxide (CO2): Naturally occurring gas in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is colorless, odorless, and considered a greenhouse gas as it traps the sun’s infrared energy inside the Earth’s atmosphere. CO2 is released as a by-product of fossil fuel combustion.

Carbonization: The conversion of any organic substance into carbon or a carbon containing substance. Carbonization is the primary process used in coke making, where metallurgical coal is heated in the absence of air to drive off volatiles such as water and gases leaving behind carbon-rich coke.

Cast: The overburden above the coal is thrown directly into the previously mined area.

CIF (cost, insurance, freight): The seller delivers the goods on board the vessel or procures the goods already so delivered. The risk of loss of or damage to the goods passes when the goods are on board the vessel. The seller must contract for and pay the costs and freight necessary to bring the goods to the named port of destination.

Clean spread: Estimated gross margin of a gas or coal-fired plant in which costs include fuel, plant efficiency, and carbon cost. The clean spread is commonly used to track energy markets and fuel competition.

Cleat: The joints within coal seams that break when mined, which creates vertical cleavage in the coal seam.

Coal: A combustible black or brownish- black sedimentary rock formed by the partial to complete decomposition of organic matter over millions of years.



Entry: an underground passage used for haulage or ventilation, or as a manway.

Free alongside ship value (f.a.s.): The seller delivers when the goods are placed alongside the vessel (on a quay or barge) nominated by the buyer at the named port of shipment. The risk of loss of or damage to the goods passes when the goods are alongside the ship, and the buyer bears all costs from that moment onwards.

Face: The exposed area of a coal bed from which coal is extracted.

Fall: A mass of fallen roof rock or coal found in any part of a mine.

Fault: An area between two portions of the Earth’s surface that have moved relative to each other, caused by severe Earth stresses.

Fault zone: An area that consists of any amount of smaller interconnecting faults, or a fracture hundreds and even thousands of feet wide. Also a confused zone of gouge, breccia, or mylonite.

Federal coal lease: A lease between the federal government and a mining company specifying the terms regarding the extraction of federally owned coal from a defined area. The mining company is required to pay royalties to obtain the lease. These leases are typical in the Powder River Basin where mining companies must periodically obtain leases.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC): Independent agency that regulates the interstate transmission of natural gas, oil, and electricity. FERC also regulates natural gas and hydropower projects.

Feeder: A machine that evenly feeds coal onto a conveyor belt.

Force majeure: Clause included in many types of contracts that frees both parties from obligation due to an extraordinary circumstance. The clause is commonly used in coal sales agreement when an example of a force majeure may be a natural disaster.

Fouling: The buildup of deposits inside a boiler in sections that are not directly exposed to the flame. Fouling can decrease the boiler’s efficiency by restricting heat transfer between the combustion gases and convention pass tube surfaces.

Fixed carbon: The amount of carbon left in coal after the volatiles are driven off. Measurement is used to estimate the amount of coke that will be yielded from a sample of coal. .

Float dust: Fine coal-dust particles that can pass through a No. 200 sieve carried by air currents and deposited in return entries.

Floor: The bottom or underlying surface of an underground excavation, upon which a person walks and equipment travels.

Flue gas desulfurization (FGD): A process that removes sulfur compounds formed during coal combustion. The devices, commonly called “scrubbers,” combine the sulfur from gaseous emissions with another chemical medium, forming waste, which must then be removed for disposal.

Crosscut: A passageway created between an entry and its parallel air course for ventilation purposes. In vein mining, an entry perpendicular to the vein.

Crucible swelling number (CSN): See Free Swelling Index.

Culm: Waste from anthracite preparation plants, consisting of rock fragments and up to 30% small-sized coal.

Dark spread: Estimated gross margin of a coal-fired power plant where generation costs include only fuel and plant efficiency. The dark spread is commonly used to track energy markets and fuel competition.

Deadweight tonnage (dwt): The difference between loaded displacement and lightship, consisting of the total weight of cargo, fuel, fresh water, shores, and crew which a ship can carry when immersed to a particular load line.

Demurrage: Money paid by the charterer, shipper, or receiver for occupying port space beyond a specified period of time allowed in the charter party.

Dial divisions per minute (DDPM): Measure of the fluidity of coking coal during the coking process. This is a primary quality parameter of coking coal valuation. To test, a sample is placed in a cylinder with a stirrer inserted. The cylinder of coal is heated at a constant rate as steady torque is applied to the stirrer. As the coal heats up it softens and the stirrer rotates. The DDPM value is the maximum amount of revolutions the stirrer completes. In general, low volatile coals have low fluidity while high volatile coals achieve higher fluidity.

Dip: The inclination of a geologic structure (bed, vein, fault, etc.) from the horizontal, measured downward at right angles to the strike.

Dragline: A large excavation machine used in surface mining to remove overburden covering a coal seam. The dragline casts a wire rope-hung bucket to collect the dug material by pulling the bucket toward itself on the ground with a second wire rope (or chain), elevates the bucket, and dumps the material on a spoil bank, in a hopper, or on a pile.

Draught (or draft): The vertical distance measure from the waterline to the lowest submerged part of a vessel.

Drift: A horizontal passage underground that follows the vein, as distinguished from a crosscut that intersects it.

Dry ash free (daf): Basis of reporting and assessing coal quality similar to the dry basis, however in addition to assuming zero moisture content the ash content is also unaccounted for.

Dry basis (db): Basis of reporting and assessing coal quality in which no moisture is associated with the sample. The sample is free of both surface or inherent moisture and moisture associated with the coal itself.

EIA: The U.S. Energy Information Admin-istration.

Electrostatic precipitator: An electrical device that removes fine particles (fly ash) from combustion gases before they are released from a power plant stack.

Energy: the potential to do work.



Hazardous air pollutant (HAP): Pollutants that cause or may cause cancer or other serious health effects. The EPA is required to control these pollutants.

Heat rate: The amount of heat required to generate one unit of power. Primary measure of an electric generating unit’s efficiency usually expressed as Btu/kWh.

Head section: The portion of a belt or chain conveyor that discharges material.

Heaving: When the removal of coal from the floor of a seam causes the bottom to rise.

Henry Hub: A natural gas pipeline located in Louisiana used as the official pricing point for natural gas futures on the New York Mercantile Exchange. Settlement prices at the Henry Hub are used as benchmarks for the North American natural gas market.

Highwall: An unexcavated face of exposed overburden and coal. Applies to a surface mine, or the face, or bank on the uphill side of a contour mine excavation.

Highwall miner: A remotely controlled continuous miner, which extracts and simultaneously conveys coal by augers, belt, or chains to the surface. The cut is typically a rectangular, horizontal cut.

Hogsback: A sharp rise in the floor of a seam.

Hoisting: The vertical transport of coal, supplies, and waste.

Hydrocarbon: A class of compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon. Naturally occurring hydrocarbons found in coal, mineral oil, petroleum, natural gas, paraffin, fossil resins, and the solid bitumens in rocks are generally formed in association with the decomposition of organic matter.

Inertinite: A maceral which has been altered or degraded in the coal formation process. North American coals have inertinite content ranging from 5% to 40%.

Inherent moisture: Moisture found within coal. The term is usually referenced in the coal sampling and testing process.

In situ: In the natural or original position, from the Latin, translated literally as “in position.” This term describes rock, soil, or fossil found in the situation in which it was originally formed or deposited.

Joint Line: The term commonly used to describe the Powder River Basin (PRB) railroad line located in Wyoming which is jointly owned and served by BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad.

Kerf: The undercut of a coal face.

Kilocalorie (kcal): Amount of energy required to increase the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1°C. The unit is used to measure the heat content of coal, expressed in kcal/kg.

Lift: The amount of coal obtained from a continuous miner. Typically refers to one mining cycle.

Fluidity: Measure of how fluid coking coal becomes during the coking process. As the coal is heating in the coking process it becomes a liquid. The fluidity of coal during the coking process as expressed is DDPMs is a primary measure of coking coal quality and is used in formulating coking coal blends.

Fluidized bed combustion (FBC): A process to remove sulfur from coal during combustion with a high rate of effec-tiveness. Coal is burned in a bubbling, fluidized mixture while an upward stream of hot air suspends the coal and limestone in the bottom of a boiler. The sulfur combines with the limestone, thus creating a solid compound recovered with the ash, as opposed to releasing harmful emissions.

Fly ash: A product of burning pulverized coal in a boiler, removed from the exhaust gases by electrostatic precipitators and/ or baghouses. Some classes of fly ash have pozzolanic, or cementitious, properties and are commonly used in cement and concrete applications.

Fracture: A discontinuity in a body of rock, caused by a mechanical failure, whether by shear stress or tensile stress. Fractures include joints, shears, faults, and planes of fracture cleavage.

Free on board (FOB): The seller delivers the goods on board the vessel nominated by the buyer at the named port of shipment or procures the goods already so delivered. The risk of loss of or damage to the goods passes when the goods are on board the vessel, and the buyer bears all costs from that moment onwards.

Free swelling index (FSI): Standard measure used to determine if coal has coking properties. A small sample of coal is heated and forms a button which is compared to a series of standards. Standards are ordered 1 through 9, with 9 indicating the most swelling.

Gasification: The chemical process by which coal is turned into a syngas.

Gross as received (GAR): The heat content of coal under laboratory conditions where the impact of the coals moisture on reducing heat content is removed. GAR, also known as high heating values, are the standard in American reporting.

Gob: Loose waste in a mine, or the waste used to fill up an area of a coal mine from which coal has already been removed.

Handymax vessel: Class of dry bulk carrier typically rated at 40,000 to 60,000 tons deadweight.

Handysize vessel: Class of dry bulk carrier typically rated at 10,000 to 40,000 tons deadweight.

Hard coal: Generally, anthracite and bituminous rank coal.

Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI): Quality measure of the hardness of coal, used to measure the ease of pulverization. The higher the HGI value the softer the coal.

Haulage: The horizontal transport of ore, coal, supplies, and waste.

Haulage rights: similar to trackage rights, but the tenant’s traffic is hauled in the owner’s trains.



Mineable reserves: See recoverable reserves.

Net as Received (NAR): The heat content of coal under laboratory conditions where the absorbed water in the coal is included. Net calorific values, also known as low heating values are standard in European reporting.

Netback: Calculating the market value of coal at the source. Used to determine the potential price at the mine by subtracting all transportation and handling costs from a delivered price of the coal. Typically used to determine the necessary FOB price for CAPP and NAPP coals into Europe. (i.e., API 2 market price – ocean freight – terminal fees – rail freight = netback price.)

Opencast mine: See surface mine.

Openpit mine: See surface mine.

Overburden: Layers of soil and rock that cover a coal seam. In surface mining operations, large equipment removes the overburden from the site prior to mining. After the area has been mined, the overburden is used as backfill, taken to a dump site, or stored.

Oxidation (coal): the absorption of oxygen from the air by coal resulting in degraded chemical and physical properties of the coal.

Panamax vessel: Bulk carrier with a maximum beam of 106ft. Such vessels are capable of transiting the Panama Canal.

Panel: A coal mining block that generally comprises one operating unit.

Parting: A small joint in coal or rock, a layer of rock in a coal seam, or a side track or turnout in a haulage road.

Petcoke or Petroleum Coke: A residue high in carbon content from the cracking process or refining of petroleum products. Petcoke is generally lower ash, moisture, and volatiles than steam coal, however it is also contains a higher heating value and higher sulfur content. Petcoke is mainly used as an energy source for cement production, power generation, and iron and steel production.

Petrography: Microscopic study of coal used to determine its exact rank and type.

Pig Iron: Crude iron resulting from a blast furnace which is later refined into steel, or other iron products.

Pillar: typically square or rectangular sections of coal left behind in an underground room and pillar mine. The pillar is left in order to support the roof.

Pillar robbing: The systematic removal of pillars to regulate the subsidence of the roof.

Pinch: A compression used to squeeze out the coal, either between the walls of a vein, or between the roof and floor of a coal seam.

Power: energy flow or energy divided by time.

Portal: The structure surrounding the immediate entrance to a mine.

Preparation plant: A plant where coal is cleaned, sized, and prepared for market.

Lignite: Sometimes referred to as brown coal, lignite is the lowest rank of coal and is characterized by high moisture and low calorific content. Lignite is most commonly used for steam generation in power plants. It is also a feedstock for activated carbon used to capture mercury in coal fired utility flue gas emission streams.

Liptinite: Maceral derived from waxy or resinous part of plants. Liptinite usually makes up 5% to 15% of North American coal and is usually more prevalent in Appalachian coals.

Liquefaction: The process of converting coal into a synthetic fuel.

Lithology: The study of the character of a rock. This is described in terms of its structure, color, mineral composition, grain size, and arrangement of its component parts. Lithology is the basis of correlation in coal mines, and is usually reliable over a distance of a few miles.

Long ton: 1,016 kg or 2,240 lbs.

Longwall mining: This highly productive underground coal mining technique occurs when a long wall, about 250 to 400 meters long of coal is mined in consecutive slices, each typically 1-2 meters in depth. Long Wall mining machines consist of multiple coal shearers mounted on a series of self- advancing hydraulic ceiling supports. Long wall miners extract “panels,” or rectangular blocks of coal as wide as the mining machinery and as long as 12,000 feet.

Maceral: Organic particles found in coal. Macerals are can be broken into three basic groups: the vitrinite group, the liptinite group, and the inertinite group. Each of these groups is characterized by the source of their organic matter.

Man trip: A carrier of mine personnel to and from a work area, by rail or rubber tire.

Maximum achievable control technology (MACT): National emission standard used to control HAPs. MACT standards require pollutant sources to achieve certain emissions levels already achieved by their best performing peers. The expected benefit of this approach is to not penalize sources who already have effective emission controls.

Metallurgical or met or coking coal: Coal that has the unique ability to soften, transition through a plastic phase before re-solidifying into a porous substance called coke. This transition occurs in a temperature range between 300°C to 550°C in the absence of air.

Methane: The principle component of natural gas, formed from the decompo-sition of organic matter. It is frequently found in underground coal mining operations, and is kept within safe limits in a mine via ventilation systems due to its potentially explosive nature.

Metric ton (t): 1,000 kg or 2,204.6 lbs.

Mine mouth electric generating plant: A coal-fired electricity generation plant located near a coal mine that supplies the plant.



Rib: The side of a supporting pillar or the wall of an entry in a coal mine.

Rider: A thin seam of coal that overlies a thicker seam.

Roof: Layer of rock or other material which overlays the coal seam. This layer acts as the “roof” of an underground coal mine.

Roof bolt: A long steel bolt that is driven into the roof of an underground mine. Its purpose is to support the roof and help prevent falls which can endanger miners.

Roof support: Support given to a rock overlying a coal seam in an underground mine. Posts, jacks, roof bolts, and beams are typically used for support.

Room and pillar mining: A method of underground mining in which approxi-mately half of the coal is left in place for roof support in the general mining area. “Rooms” of coal are extracted, while support “pillars” are left behind.

Royalty: Consideration, typically monetary, paid by a producer to the mineral owner/lessor for the production and disposition of coal or other minerals. Coal royalties are generally calculated on a percentage of the selling price or on a per ton basis.

Run-of-mine (ROM): Refers to the coal as it leaves the mine before it is washed or sized in the preparation plant. Run-of-mine coal produced at some mines contains rock from within, above, and/or below the seam which is removed in the preparation plant to enhance its quality

Sampling: The collection and proper storage and handling of a relatively small quantity of coal for laboratory analysis for the purpose of coal resource assessment, production and processing assessment, and shipment or receipt monitoring for adherence to coal contract specifications.

Scrubber: A device that removes sulfur compounds from the flue gas formed during coal combustion. They combine the sulfur from gaseous emissions with a chemical medium to form a disposable waste product, referred to as “sludge.”

Seam: A stratum or bed of coal.

Self-contained breathing apparatus: A self-contained supply of oxygen which permits freedom of movement for use during rescue work (coal mine fires, explosions, etc.).

Self-rescuer: A small filtering device carried by a coal miner underground, either on his belt or in his pocket, to provide him with immediate protection against carbon monoxide and smoke in case of a mine fire or explosion. It is a small canister with a mouthpiece directly attached to it. The wearer breathes through the mouth, the nose being closed by a clip. The canister contains a layer of fused calcium chloride that absorbs water vapor from the mine air. The device is used for escape purposes only because it does not sustain life in atmospheres containing deficient oxygen. The length of time a self-rescuer can be used is governed mainly by the humidity in the mine air, usually between 30 minutes and one hour.

Shaft mine: An underground mine which uses a vertical shaft as its primary point of entry.

Proximate analysis: A physical, or nonchemical test of the composition of coal or coke; an assay of the moisture, ash, volatile matter and fixed carbon and may also include calorific and sulfur deter-minations. Provides a determination of commercial value rather than preciseness.

Prompt: The term is used in the pricing of coal and refers to the nearest delivery term actively being traded. For example, prompt month in May is slated for June delivery. Prompt can also be applied to quarter or year in addition to month.

Pulverized coal injection (PCI): process used by blast furnace operators in which coal is crushed into a fine powder then injected into the furnace. Blast furnaces implement PCI in order to reduce their usage of expensive coke. Lower grade metallurgical coals that aren’t necessarily suitable for coke making are used in PCI applications.

Rank: The classification of coal by degree of hardness, moisture and heat content. See anthracite, bituminous, subbitu-minous, and lignite. In terms of Btu or heating content, anthracite has the highest value, followed by bituminous, subbitumi-nous, and lignite.

Raw coal: Coal which has received no preparation other than possibly screening. As mined coal.

Reclamation: The process of restoring land and environmental values to a surface mine site. This is done after the coal is extracted, by restoring topsoil and planting native vegetation.

Recoverable reserves: The portion of reserves that can be economically and physically mined using current techniques after allowing for normal mining losses.

Recovery: The amount of coal and ore mined from the original seam or deposit.

Recovery factor: The clean coal portion of mined material. During the mining process impurities are mixed with the coal, which are then removed in the coal preparation plant. The ratio of clean coal to the amount of mined material is referred to as the recovery factor.

Reflectance: The ability of coal to reflect light. Macerals are exposed to light and their reflectance is measure to determine coal rank. Reflectance is the most accurate measure of a coal’s rank.

Reserves: The quantity of coal that is economically and physically recoverable using current mining techniques.

Resource (indicated): The quantity, quality, and rank of coal that can be estimated to a factor to support economic development.

Resource (inferred): The quantity, quality, and rank of coal that can be estimated but not confirmed for a reserve.

Resource (measured): The quantity, quality, and rank of coal that are estimated to a factor that supports economic development.

Respirable dust: Dust particles 5 microns or less in size.

Retreat mining: A system of pillar robbing. The line through the faces of the pillars being extracted retreats from the boundary toward the shaft or mine mouth.



Swell: The increase in volume as material is disturbed from its compacted state by mining or excavation, as a percent.

Tailgate: A subsidiary gate road to a conveyor face that commonly acts as a return airway, supplying road to the face. Opposite of a main gate.

Tail section: The part of a belt or chain conveyor system consisting of a frame, either a tail pulley or tail sprocket, and a tensioning device around which the belt or chain travels.

Thermal coal: See Steam coal.

Time Charter: Chartering a ship for a period of time at a daily cost to the owner. Crew and equipment are paid for by the ship owner.

Tipple: Facility used to load coal into railcars or trucks.

Ton-mile: the movement of one ton of freight a distance of one mile

Trackage rights: An agreement in which one railroad (“tenant”) negotiates the rights to operate its trains over specified track segments owned by another railroad (“owner”), typically without rights to serve customers along that portion of the line.

Trona: The most common sodium- based sorbent (sodium sesquicarbonate [Na3(HCO3)]) used in Dry Sorbent Injection (DSI) technology used to reduce SO2 emissions from coal-fired boilers. DSI with trona is advantageous to Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization (WFGD) due to lower capital costs, avoiding water use, and lower energy consumption.

Tuyere: Nozzle located at the base of a blast furnace through which hot air and fuel is injected.

Ultimate analysis: Precise determination, by chemical means, of the elements and compounds in coal.

Unit train: A long train of between 60 and 150 or more hopper cars that transports a single commodity between a single mine and destination.

Vitrinite: Maceral which is derived from the cell walls of plants. This group is the most common and can make up between 50% and 90% of most North American coals.

Volatile matter: Constituent of coal, not including moisture, that is given off as vapor when coal is combusted. Volatile matter is measured by heating the coal in laboratory conditions. After heating, the weight loss of the coal, excluding moisture, is measured. Volatiles are a key indicator of the quality of coking coals.

Waste: Rock or mineral removed from a mine which has no use or value.

Watt: A unit of power which is equivalent to one joule per second.

Yield: 1) The amount of coal after processing as a percent of total input. 2) The ratio of clean coal to raw coal feed as a percent. 3) When a pillar of coal in a mine begins to deform.

Short ton (T): 907.18 kg or 2,000 lbs.

Skip: A large bucket or hopper hoisted from a slope or shaft.

Slag: Byproduct formed in the smelting of iron in a blast furnace. Slag floats on the surface of the molten iron, allowing it to be skimmed off and cooled into a coarse aggregate used in concrete and road building.

Slagging: The buildup of deposits inside a boiler in sections that are directly exposed to the flame.

Slope mine: An underground mine with a downward or upward inclined access from the surface opening to the coal or ore to be mined.

Sloughing: The deterioration and crumbling of material from the roof, rib, or face.

Slurry: A mixture of coal, coal waste, and/or rock and liquid that is a by-product of the coal mining and preparation process. Slurry is normally impounded behind an earthen dam at the mine site.

Spark Spread: Estimated gross margin of a gas-fired power plant where generation costs include only fuel and plant efficiency.

Spot Price: The current market price of coal or other commodity.

Steam or thermal coal: Coal which is burned, producing heat that is used to generate steam. The steam expands through a turbine, which in turn spins a generator, producing electricity. All ranks of coal can be used for steam generation, however the varying heat content between ranks impact the volume of coal necessary to produce equivalent amounts of steam.

Strike: The direction of the line that intersects a bed or vein with a horizontal plane. Strike is perpendicular to the direction of the dip. The strike of a bed is the direction of a straight line that connects two points of equal elevation on the bed.

Stripping ratio: The amount of overburden that must be removed to gain access to a unit amount of coal. Stripping ratios are expressed as a ratio of overburden to coal either in the form of thickness, volume or mass. Stripping ratios are used to determine the feasibility of surface mining.

Subbituminous coal: Has a heating value between bituminous and lignite. It has low fixed carbon and high percentages of volatile matter and moisture.

Subsidence: The gradual sinking, and in some cases the abrupt collapse, of the rock and soil layers into an underground mine. Structures and surface features above the subsidence area can potentially be affected.

Sulfur: Naturally occurring element found in varying concentrations in fossil fuels. When fossil fuels are combusted the sulfur forms sulfur dioxides which contribute to air pollution. Coal contains varying amounts of sulfur with lower sulfur coals of similar rank demanding premium prices. Coal plants are able to reduce sulfur emissions by implementing scrubbers allowing them to meet federal emissions standards.

Surface mine: A mine in which the coal lies at a sufficiently shallow depth to be economically extracted by first removing the overburden. The coal is extracted by removing the covering layers of rock and soil.


Additional InformationAbbreviations

DC Direct currentddpm Dial divisions per minute dmmf Dry, mineral-matter-free basisDOE U.S. Department of EnergyDSI Dry sorbent injectionDTA Dominion Terminal Associates (Hampton Roads, VA; CSX)Dwtat Deadweight tonnes all toldEAF Electric Arc FurnaceEERE DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable EnergyEIA U.S. Energy Information AdministrationEPA U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyESP Electrostatic precipitatorFas Free alongside shipFBC Fluidized bed combustionFC Fixed carbonFCPA U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices ActFERC Federal Energy Regulatory CommissionFGD Flue gas desulfurizationFGR Flue gas recirculationFOB Free on boardFRCC Florida Reliability Coordinating CouncilFSI Free swelling indexFTC U.S. Federal Trade CommissionFX Foreign exchangeg GramGAD Gross air driedGAR Gross as receivedGW GigawattGWh Gigawatt hourHAP Hazardous air pollutantHCC Hard Coking CoalHg MercuryHGI Hardgrove grindability indexHV High VolHVA High Vol AHVB High Vol BIAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

AbbreviationsAC Alternating currentACI Activated carbon injectionAFT Ash Fusion TemperaturesAAD Audibert-Arnu Dilatometerad Air dried API2 CIF ARA price benchmarkAPI4 FOB Richards Bay, South Africa price benchmarkAPI 6 FOB Newcastle, Australia price benchmarkar As receivedARA Amsterdam, Rotterdam, AntwerpARP Acid Rain ProgramASTM American Society for Testing and Materialsatm Standard atmospherebbl Barrelbit Bituminous coalbn BillionBNSF Burlington Northern Santa Fe RailwayBOF Basic oxygen furnaceBS Rvr Big Sandy RiverBtu British thermal unitCAPP Central AppalachiaCAES Compressed air energy storageCAIR Clean Air Interstate Rule (EPA)CC Combined cycleCCS Carbon capture and storageCIF Cost, insurance & freightcm CentimeterCN Canadian National RailwayCO Carbon monoxideCO2 Carbon dioxideCP Canadian Pacific RailwaycP CentipoiseCRI Coke reaction index (coke reactivity)CSAPR Cross-State Air Pollution RuleCSN Crucible Swelling NumberCSP Concentrated Solar PowerCSR Coke strength after reactionCSX CSX Corporation (Rail)cSt CentistokesCV Calorific valuecwt Hundred weightdaf Dry, ash free basisdb Dry basis


Additional InformationAbbreviations

Mt Million tonnesMtce Million tonnes of coal equivalentMtoe Million tonnes of oil equivalentmtpa Million tonnes per annumMV Medium volatileMW Megawatt MWh Megawatt hourNa SodiumNAPP Northern Appalachian mile Nautical mileNAICS North American Industry Classification SystemNAR Net as receivedNERC North American Electric Reliability CorporationNETL National Energy Technology Laboratory (DOE)NFDL Nonfatal days lostNGCC Natural gas combined cycleNMA National Mining AssociationNOx Nitrogen oxidesNOLA New Orleans, LouisianaNPCC Northeast Power Coordinating CouncilNPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination SystemNRC Nuclear Regulatory CommissionNS Norfolk Southern Railroadntp Normal temperature pressureO&M Operations and MaintenanceOECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentOFA Over-fire airOSHA U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (DOL)OSM U.S. Office of Surface MiningOSTI U.S. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (DOE)OTC Over-the-counteroz OunceOZ AustraliaPa PascalPCI Pulverized Coal InjectionPJM Pennsylvania Jersey Maryland power poolppm Parts per millionPRB Powder River Basin

IDT Initial deformation temperatureIEA International Energy AgencyIGCC Integrated gasification combined cycleILB Illinois Basin IM Inherent moistureIMF International Monetary FundIPP Independent Power ProducerISO Independent System OperatorJ Joulekcal Kilocalorieskg Kilogramkm KilometerkV KilovoltkW KilowattkWh Kilowatt hourL Literlb PoundLCOE Levelized cost of electricityLNB Low NO

x burnersLNG Liquefied natural gasLPG Liquefied petroleum gasLV Low volatileMACT Maximum achievable control technologyMATS Mercury and Air Toxics Standard (EPA, proposed rule)Mcf million cubic feetMF Maximum fluidityMHC Moisture holding capacityMISO Midwest Independent Transmission System OperatorMJ MegajoulesMM Mineral mattermmBtu Million Btusmmmf Moist, mineral-matter-free basisMMR Mean maximum reflectanceMon Rvr Monongahela River MRO Midwest Reliability OrganizationMSHA U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (Dept. of Labor)MT Million tons


Additional InformationSpecifications

Over-the-Counter (OTC) SpecificationsOver-the-counter (OTC) coal markets are used by producers, consumers, and traders of coal to hedge against price volatility. Most OTC activity occurs around the CAPP 12,000 Btu/lb Big Sandy barge coal, the CAPP 12,500 Btu/lb CSX rail coal, and the PRB 8,800 Btu/lb coal.

PV PhotovoltaicRGGI Regional Greenhouse Gas InitiativeRFC Reliability First CorporationROM Run of mineRTO Regional Transmission OrganizationsS SulfurSAPP Southern AppalachiaSCR Selective Catalytic ReductionSE Specific energySEC U.S. Securities and Exchange CommissionSERC SERC Reliability CorporationSG Specific gravitySMCRA Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act of 1977SNCR Selective Noncatalytic ReductionSO2 Sulfur dioxideSOx Sulfur oxidesSPP Southwest Power Poolsshinc Saturday, Sunday, holidays includedT Short Ton (2,000 lbs)t Tonne or metric ton (1,000 kg)TCE Time charter equivalentTM Total moisturetoe Tonne oil equivalentTRE Texas Regional EntityTRIR Total recordable injury rateTS Total sulfurUMWA United Mineworkers of AmericaUP Union Pacific RailwayUSACE U.S. Army Corps of EngineersUSEC United States East CoastUSGC United States Gulf CoastVM Volatile matterVol Volatile matterWECC Western Electricity Coordinating CouncilWFGD Wet flue gas desulfurization

NAPP cif ARA fob RBCT

NYMEX CSX 1.2 CSX < 1% NS 1.2 NS < 1% Pitt 8 3.4# PRB 8800 PRB 8400 API 2 API 4

Btu/lb guarantee 12,000 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,500 13,000 8,800 8,400 6,000

kcal/kg 6,000

kcal/kg

Btu min reject 11,750 12,200 12,200 12,200 12,200 12,800 8,600 8,200 5,850 kcal/kg

5,850 kcal/kg

Sulfur % or #SO2 1.0% 1.2# 1% or 1.6# 1.2# 1% or 1.6# 3.0# 0.8# 0.8# 1.0% 1.0%

Sulfur max reject 1.0% 1.2# 1% or 1.6# 1.2# 1% or 1.6# 3.4# 1.2# 1.2# 1.0% 1.0%

Ash % 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 8.0 5.5 5.5 11-‐15 11-‐15

Ash max reject 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 15.0 15.0

Moisture % 10 7 7 7 7 8 27 30 12-‐15 12-‐15

Volatile matter % min reject 30 30 30 30 30 22-‐37 22-‐37

HGI min reject 38 40 40 40 40 44 44

7,750 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 14,500 14,500

5 barges unit trains unit trains unit trains unit trains unit trains unit trains unit trains

Ohio River Big Sandy Big Sandy Thacker Thacker Dual Line Dual Line Dual Line

Big Sandy Kanawha Kanawha Kenova Kenova

Transport Mode Barge CSX CSX NS NS NS-‐CSX BNSF-‐UP BNSF-‐UP

FOB OriginRichards

Bay, South Africa

OTC SpecsCentral Appalachia Powder River Basin

Contract size (tons)

1,000 metric tonnes

1,000 metric tonnes


Additional InformationConversions and Formulas

Conversions and FormulasHow to use the conversion tables:To convert into DESIRED UNITS multiply GIVEN UNITS by the value in the appropriate box. For example, to convert 100 metric tonnes to short tons, multiply by 1.102. (i.e., 100 metric tonnes x 1.102 = 110.2 short tons)

Desired Units:

Given Units

Foot (ft) 1 0.3333 0.3048 3.048 x 10-‐4 1.894 x 10-‐4 1.646 x 10-‐4

Yard (yd) 3 1 0.9144 9.144 x 10-‐4 5.682 x 10-‐4 4.937 x 10-‐4

Meter (m) 3.281 1.094 1 0.001 6.214 x 10-‐4 5.4 x 10-‐4

Kilometer (km) 3,281 1,094 1,000 1 0.6214 0.54

Mile (mile) 5,280 1,760 1,609 1.609 1 0.869

International nautical mile (n mile) 6,076 2,025 1,852 1.852 1.151 1

Desired Units:Given Units

Cubic inch (in3) 1 5.787 x 10-‐4 2.143 x 10-‐5 1.639 x 10-‐5

Cubic foot (ft3) 1,728 1 0.03704 0.02832

Cubic yard (yd3) 46,656 27 1 0.7646

Cubic meter (m3) 61,024 35.31 1.308 1

Foot (ft) Yard (yd) Meter (m) Kilometer (km) Mile (mile)

International nautical mile (n mile)

Volume Conversion Formulas

Cubic inch (in3)

Cubic foot (ft3)

Cubic yard (yd3)

Cubic meter (m3)

Length Conversion Formulas

Desired Units:Given UnitsBritish Thermal Unit (Btu) 1 0.000293 0.252 0.001055 1 x 10-‐5 3.930 x 10-‐4

Kilowatt hour(kWh) 3,412 1 859.8 3.6 0.03412 1.341

Kilocalorie(kcal) 3.968 0.001163 1 0.0041868 3.968 x 10-‐5 0.00156

Megajoule(MJ) 947.8 0.2778 238.8 1 0.009478 0.3725

Therm(therm) 100,000 29.31 25,200 105.5 1 39.3

Horsepower hour(hp h) 2,544 0.7457 641 2.685 0.02544 1

British Thermal Unit

Kilowatt hour (kWh)

Kilocalorie (kcal)

Megajoule (MJ)

Therm (therm)

Horsepower hour (hp h)

Energy Conversion Formulas

Desired Units:Given Units

Short ton (ton) 1 0.9071 2,000 907.2

Metric Ton (tonne) 1.102 1 2,205 1,000

Pound (lb) 0.0005 0.000454 1 0.4536

Kilogram (kg) 0.001102 0.001 2.205 1

Mass Conversion Formulas

Short ton (ton)

Metric Ton (tonne) Pound (lb) Kilogram (kg)

Desired Units:

Given Units

Square inch (in2) 1 6.94 x 10-‐3 7.716 x 10-‐4 6.452 x 10-‐4 2.491 x 10-‐10 6.45 x 10-‐10 1.594 x 10-‐7

Square foot (ft2) 144 1 0.1111 0.0929 3.587 x 10-‐8 9.29 x 10-‐8 2.296 x 10-‐5

Square yard (yd2) 1,296 9 1 0.83613 3.228 x 10-‐7 8.36 x 10-‐7 2.066 x 10-‐4

Square meter (m2) 1,550 10.7639 1.196 1 3.861 x 10-‐7 1.0 x 10-‐6 2.471 x 10-‐4

Square Mile (mi2) 4.0145 x 109 2.788 x 107 3,097,600 2,589,988 1 2.586 640

Square Kilometer (km2)

1.55 x 109 10,763,910 1,195,990 1,000,000 0.3861 1 247.105

Acre 6,272,640 43560 4840 4046.856 1.653 x 10-‐3 4.047 x 10-‐3 1

AcreSquare inch

(in2)Square foot (ft2)

Square yard (yd2)

Square meter (m2)

Square Mile (mi2)

Square Kilometer (km2)

Area Conversion Formulas



Useful power generation factors:

1 MWh = 3,600 MJ1 MW = 1 MJ/s1 MW (thermal power) = approx. 1,000 kg steam/h1 MWe = approx. MW (thermal power) / 3

Approximate Btu Values of Selected Energy Sources: 1 Gallon of Gasoline = 125,000 Btu1 Gallon of Heating Oil = 139,000 Btu1 Gallon of Propane = 91,000 Btu1 Cubic Foot of Natural Gas = 1,021 Btu1 Kilowatt hour of Electricity = 3,412 Btu

Coal Utilization

Annual coal consumption of a 1,000 MW plant operating at 36% efficiency and 70% utilization: See Power Plant Burn formula.

Coal Conversions

Other Conversions

Area1 acre foot coal in place = 1.850 short tons (approx.) Cubic ft. of water = 7.48 gallons = 62.321 pounds

TemperatureCelsius = C° = 5/9 x (F° – 32°)Fahrenheit = F° = 9/5 x C° + 32°Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 lbs/in2

Heat of vaporization = 970 Btu/lb

Coal Type Btu/lb. TonsPRB 8,400 3,500,000 PRB 8,800 3,300,000 ILB 11,500 2,500,000 Nymex 12,000 2,400,000 CAPP Rail 12,500 2,300,000 Pitt #8 13,000 2,200,000

Desired Units:Given Units Kilocalorie/kilogram (Kcal/kg) 1 0.004187 1.8

Megajoule/kilogram (MJ/kg) 238.8 1 429.9

British Thermal Unit/pound (Btu/lb)

0.5556 0.002326 1

Kilocalorie/kilogram (Kcal/kg)

Megajoule/kilogram (MJ/kg)

British Thermal Unit/pound (Btu/lb)

Calorific Conversion Formulas



Coal Trading Formulas

123

Conversions and Formulas Standard Btu Price Adjustment:

!"# !"# !"#$% !"#$%&'()& = !"#$% ∗!"#$%& !"#/!" − !"#$%&'$ !"#/!"

!"#$%&'$ !"#/!"

Standard SO2 Price Adjustment ($/ton):

Emission Price = price of SO2 emission allowance ($/ton of SO2 emissions)

!"₂ !"#$% !"#$%&'()&

= !"#$%&'$ !"# !"! − !"#$%& !"# !"! ∗ !"#$%& !"#/!" ∗ !""#$$#%& !"#$%

1,000,000

Power Plant Capacity Factor (%):

MWh = power plant generation in one year Capacity = plant capacity measured in MW

!"#"$%&' !"#$%& = !"ℎ

!"#"$%&' !" ∗ 87.6

Power Plant Annual Burn (tons):

Capacity = power plant capacity Capacity factor = utilization of the power plant (%) Heat rate = thermal efficient of a power plant (Btu/kWh) Btu/lb = heat content of coal consumed by the plant

!""#$% !"#$ = !"#"$%&' !" ∗ 4,380 ∗ !"#"$%&' !"#$%& ∗ ℎ!"# !"#$/(!"#!" )

Emissions – Ashing Rate:

!" !"ℎ!!"#$ =

% !"ℎ ∗ 10,000!"#/!"

Emissions – SO2 Rate:

*Assumes 100% conversion to SO2

!" !"₂!!"#$ =

% !"#$"% ∗ 20,000!"#/!"

122

Conversions and Formulas Coal Trading Formulas

% Sulfur to lbs SO2/mmBtu:

!"# !"₂/!!"#$ = % !"#$"%!"#/!" ∗ 20,000

Example: If coal has 1% sulfur and 12,000 Btu/lb, then

1

12,000 ∗ 0.0001 ∗ 2 = 1.67 !"# !"2/!!"#$

Lbs SO2 per mmBtu to % Sulfur:

% !"#$"% = !"# !"! !"# !!"#$ ∗

!"#/!"10,000

2

% Ash to lbs Ash/mmBtu:

!"# !"ℎ/!!"#$ = % !"ℎ

!"#/!" ∗ 0.0001 ∗ 2

$/mmBtu to $/ton:

$!"# =

$!!"#$

!"#!"

500

$/ton to $/mmBtu:

$!!"#$ =

$!"# ! 500

!"#!"


112,000 ∗ 20,000 = 1.67 !"# !"2/!!"#$

122

Conversions and Formulas Coal Trading Formulas

% Sulfur to lbs SO2/mmBtu:

!"# !"₂/!!"#$ = % !"#$"%!"#/!" ∗ 20,000


1

12,000 ∗ 0.0001 ∗ 2 = 1.67 !"# !"2/!!"#$

Lbs SO2 per mmBtu to % Sulfur:

% !"#$"% = !"# !"! !"# !!"#$ ∗

!"#/!"10,000

2

% Ash to lbs Ash/mmBtu:

!"# !"ℎ/!!"#$ = % !"ℎ

!"#/!" ∗ 0.0001 ∗ 2

$/mmBtu to $/ton:

$!"# =

$!!"#$

!"#!"

500

$/ton to $/mmBtu:

$!!"#$ =

$!"# ! 500

!"#!"


112,000 ∗ 20,000 = 1.67 !"# !"2/!!"#$



126

Conversions and Formulas Calorific value conversions

Btu/lb to kcal/kg: !"#/!"!.!""

Kcal/kg to Btu/lb: !"#$/!" ∗ 1.799

Btu/lb

15,000

14,000

13,000

12,500

12,000

11,000

10,000

9,0008,8008,400

8,000

8,000

7,500

7,228

7,0006,950

6,500

6,000

5,500

5,0004,8934,670

4,448

Calorific Value Conversions

Kcal/kg

124

Conversions and Formulas Fuel Cost of Generation:

Heat rate is measured in Btu/kWh

$/!"ℎ = $

!!"#$ ∗ !"#$ !"#$1,000

Gross As Received (GAR) to Net As Received (NAR):

Where: H = % Hydrogen, M = % moisture, O = % oxygen

kcal/kg GAR to kcal/kg NAR:

!"#$/!" !"# = !"#$/!" !"! − 50.6 ! − 5.85 ! − .0191 !

Btu/lb GAR to Btu/lb NAR:

!"#/!" !"# = !"#/!" !"# − 91.2 ! − 10.5 ! − 0.34 !

The approximate differences between gross and net values for typical

bituminous coals (10%M, 25% volatile Matter) are:

260 kcal/kg 470 Btu/lb

As Received to Dry Conversion:

AR = as received

% !"# !"ℎ = !" % !"ℎ ∗ 100100 −% !"#$%&'(

% !"# !"#$"% = !" % !"#$"% ∗ 100100 −% !"#$%&'(

% !"# !"#$%&' !"#$% = !" !"#!"#$ !"#$% ∗ 100100 −% !"#$%&'(

or



Useful WebsitesAlpha Natural Resources www.alphanr.com

OrganizationsThe Truth about Surface Mining www.truthaboutsurfacemining.orgNational Mining Association www.nma.orgFriends of Coal www.friendsofcoal.orgFederation for American Coal, Energy and Security (FACES) www.facesofcoal.orgAmerican Coalition for Clean Coal Electricity www.americaspower.orgCORESafety www.coresafety.orgAmerican Coal Foundation www.teachcoal.orgAmerican Coal Council www.americancoalcouncil.orgAmerican Coal Ash Association www.acaa-usa.orgNational Coal Council www.nationalcoalcouncil.orgCoal Utilization Research Council www.coal.orgNational Energy Education Development Project (NEED) www.need.orgNorth American Electric Reliability Corporation www.nerc.orgWorld Coal Association www.worldcoal.orgWest Virginia Coal Association www.wvcoal.comKentucky Coal Associatoin www.kentuckycoal.orgPennsylvania Coal Association www.pacoalassn.comVirginia Mining Association www.virginiaminingassoc.comWyoming Mining Association www.wma-minelife.comAmerican Legislative Exchange Council www.regulatorytrainwreck.com

GovernmentU.S. Department of Energy www.doe.govDOE National Energy Technology Laboratory www.netl.doe.govDOE Office of Fossil Energy www.fossil.energy.govDOE Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy www.eere.energy.govDOE Office of Electricity Delivery & Energy Reliability www.energy.gov/oeEnergy Information Administration www.eia.govEIA’s Kid Page www.eia.gov/kidsMine Safety and Health Administration www.msha.govMSHA’s Kid Page www.msha.gov/kids/kidshp.htmU.S. Geological Survey www.usgs.govBureau of Land Management www.blm.govEnvironmental Protection Agency www.epa.govDOI Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement www.osmre.govTennessee Valley Authority www.tva.govFederal Energy Regulatory Commission www.ferc.govU.S. Army Corps of Engineers www.usace.army.mil

125

Conversions and Formulas Heat rate conversions

Plant Efficiency (%) = !,!"#

!"#$ !"#$

Heat Rate = !,!"#

!"#$% !""#$#%&$' (%)

Plant Efficiency(%)

3,412

5,687

6,204

6,824

7,582

8,530

9,749

11,373

13,648

Heat Rate Conversions

Heat Rate(Btu/kWh)

100

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

http://www.alphanr.com

http://www.truthaboutsurfacemining.org

http://www.nma.org

http://www.friendsofcoal.org

http://www.facesofcoal.org

http://www.americaspower.org

http://www.coresafety.org

http://www.teachcoal.org

http://www.americancoalcouncil.org

http://www.acaa-usa.org

http://www.nationalcoalcouncil.org

http://www.coal.org

http://www.need.org

http://www.nerc.org

http://www.worldcoal.org

http://www.wvcoal.com

http://www.kentuckycoal.org

http://www.pacoalassn.com

http://www.virginiaminingassoc.com

http://www.wma-minelife.com

http://www.regulatorytrainwreck.com

http://www.doe.gov

http://www.netl.doe.gov

http://www.fossil.energy.gov

http://www.eere.energy.gov

http://www.energy.gov/oe

http://www.eia.gov

http://www.eia.gov/kids

http://www.msha.gov

http://www.msha.gov/kids/kidshp.htm

http://www.usgs.gov

http://www.blm.gov

http://www.epa.gov

http://www.osmre.gov

http://www.tva.gov

http://www.ferc.gov

http://www.usace.army.mil

A reference guide for coal, ironmaking, electricity generation, and emissions control technologies.

2012 A

lpha Coal H

andbook

Alpha Coal Handbook

2012 Edition

One Alpha Place | P.O. Box 16429 | Bristol, Virginia 24209 | www.alphanr.com

www.alphanr.com

Documents

Alpha Coal Handbook - Alpha Natural Resources