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7/27/2019 Albert Einstein in 1921
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Albert Einstein in 1921
Born:14 March 1879Ulm, Kingdom of Wrttemberg, German Empire
Died:18 April 1955 (aged 76)Princeton, New Jersey, United States
Known forGeneral relativity and special relativity
Photoelectric effect
Mass-energy equivalence
Theory of Brownian MotionEinstein field equations
BoseEinstein statistics
BoseEinstein condensate
BoseEinstein correlations
Unified Field Theory
EPR paradox Signature
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Albert Einstein 14 March 187918 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He
developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongsidequantum mechanics). He is best known for his massenergy equivalence formula E = mc2
(which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"). He received the 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law
of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory.
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer
enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field.
This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the
principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent
theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He
continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his
explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal
properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein
applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe
He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish,
did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences.
He settled in the U.S., becoming an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he
endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development
of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar
research. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein supported
defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced the idea of using the newly discovered
nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signedthe RussellEinstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was
affiliated with the Institute for Advance Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.
Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works.
His great intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous
with genius.
http://en.wikipedia.org
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Sir Isaac Newton
(Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait of Isaac Newton (age 46).
Born: 25 December 1642[NS: 4 January 1643][1]
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England
Died :20 March 1727 (aged 84)OS: 20 March 1726
NS: 31 March 1727][1]
Kensington, Middlesex, England, Great Britain
Known forNewtonian mechanics
Universal gravitation
Calculus
Optics - Binomial series
Principia - Newton's method
Signature
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Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist and mathematician (described in his own day as a "natural
philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key
figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for classical mechanics.
Newton also made seminal contributions to optics and shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the
invention of calculus.
Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated scientists'
view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion
from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the
trajectories of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena, Newton
removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the cosmos. This work also
demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the
same principles. His prediction that the Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later
vindicated by the measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, which helped convince mostContinental European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of
Descartes.
Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the
observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours of the visible spectrum. He
formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a
Newtonian fluid. In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the
study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, and developed
Newton's method for approximating the roots of a function.
Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the
University of Cambridge. He was a devout but unorthodox Christian and, unusually for a member of the
Cambridge faculty of the day, he refused to take holy orders in the Church of England, perhaps because
he privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton
dedicated much of his time to the study of biblical chronology and alchemy, but most of his work in
those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. In his later life, Newton became president
of the Royal Society. He also served the British government as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint.
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Max Born 1882
1970)
Born :11 December 1882Breslau, German Empire
Died:5 January 1970 (aged 87)Gttingen, West Germany
Known for:BornHaber cycle
Born rigidity
Born coordinates
Born approximation
Born probability
BornInfeld theory
BornOppenheimer approximation
Born's Rule
BornLand equation
BornHuang approximation Signature
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Bornvon Karman boundary condition
Born equation
Max Born (11 December 18825 January 1970) was a German-British physicist and
mathematician who was instrumental in the development of quantum mechanics. He also
made contributions to solid-state physics and optics and supervised the work of a number of
notable physicists in the 1920s and 30s. Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for his
"fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the
wave function".
Born entered the University of Gttingen in 1904, where he found the three renowned
mathematicians, Felix Klein, David Hilbert and Hermann Minkowski. He wrote his Ph.D. thesis
on the subject of "Stability of Elastica in a Plane and Space", winning the University's Philosophy
Faculty Prize. In 1905, he began researching special relativity with Minkowski, and subsequently
wrote his habilitation thesis on the Thomson model of the atom. A chance meeting with Fritz
Haber in Berlin in 1918 led to discussion of the manner in which an ionic compound is formed
when a metal reacts with a halogen, which is today known as the BornHaber cycle.
In 1921, Born returned to Gttingen, arranging another chair for his long-time friend and
colleague James Franck. Under Born, Gttingen became one of the world's foremost centres for
physics. In 1925, Born and Werner Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics representation
of quantum mechanics. The following year, he formulated the now-standard interpretation of
the probability density function for in the Schrdinger equation, for which he was
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954. His influence extended far beyond his own research. Max
Delbrck, Siegfried Flgge, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Lothar
Wolfgang Nordheim, Robert Oppenheimer, and Victor Weisskopf all received their Ph.D.
degrees under Born at Gttingen, and his assistants included Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg,Gerhard Herzberg, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Lon Rosenfeld, Edward
Teller, and Eugene Wigner.
In January 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, and Born, who was Jewish, was
suspended. He emigrated to Britain, where he took a job at St John's College, Cambridge, where
he wrote a popular science book, The Restless Universe, and Atomic Physics, that soon became
a standard text book. In October 1936, he became the Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy at
the University of Edinburgh, where, working with German-born assistants E. Walter Kellermann
and Klaus Fuchs, he continued his research into physics. Max Born became a naturalised British
subject on 31 August 1939, one day before World War II broke out in Europe. He remained at
Edinburgh until 1952. He retired to Bad Pyrmont, in West Germany. He died in hospital inGttingen on 5 January 1970.
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Niels Bohr in 1922
Born: Niels Henrik David Bohr
7 October 1885
Copenhagen, Denmark
Died : 18 November 1962 (aged 77)
Copenhagen, Denmark
Known for :
Copenhagen interpretation
Complementarity
Bohr modelBohrSommerfeld quantization
Bohrvan Leeuwen theorem
SommerfeldBohr theory
BKS theory
BohrEinstein debates
Bohr magneton Signature
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Bohr radius
Hafnium
Niels Henrik David Bohr 7 October 188518 November 1962) was a Danish physicistwho made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory,
for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a
promoter of scientific research.
Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of
electrons are discrete, and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic
nucleus, but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has
been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the
principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory
properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity
dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy.
Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now
known as the Niels Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with
physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy and Werner Heisenberg. He
predicted the existence of a new zirconium-like element, which was named hafnium, after the
Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the element bohrium was named
after him.
During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by
the Germans, he had a famous meeting with Heisenberg, who had become the head of theGerman nuclear energy project. In September 1943, word reached Bohr that he was about to
be arrested by the Germans, and he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where
he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to
the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear
energy. He was involved with the establishment of CERN and the Research Establishment Ris
of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and became the first chairman of the Nordic Institute
for Theoretical Physics in 1957.
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Stephen Hawking
Born : Stephen William Hawking
8 January 1942 (age 72)
Oxford, England
Fields: General relativity
Quantum gravity
Known for:
Hawking radiation
PenroseHawking theorems
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Stephen William Hawking born 8 January 1942) is an English theoretical physicist, cosmologist,
author and Director of Research at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology within the University
of Cambridge.Among his significant scientific works have been a collaboration with Roger
Penrose on gravitational singularity theorems in the framework of general relativity, and the
theoretical prediction that black holes emit radiation, often called Hawking radiation. Hawking
was the first to set forth a cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity
and quantum mechanics. He is a vocal supporter of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum
mechanics.
Hawking is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a lifetime member of the Pontifical
Academy of Sciences, and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian
award in the United States. Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the
University of Cambridge between 1979 and 2009.
Hawking has achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own
theories and cosmology in general; his A Brief History of Time stayed on the British Sunday
Times best-sellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.
Hawking has a motor neuron disease related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a condition
that has progressed over the years. He is almost entirely paralysed and communicates through
a speech generating device. He married twice and has three children.
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Marie Skodowska Curie, c.1920
Born: Maria Salomea Skodowska
7 November 1867
Warsaw, Kingdom of Poland, then part of Russian Empire[1]
Died : 4 July 1934 (aged 66)
Passy, Haute-Savoie, France
Known for
-
Radioactivity- Polonium
-
Radium
Signature
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Marie Skodowska-Curie (7 November 18674 July 1934) was a Polish and naturalized-French
physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first
woman to win a Nobel Prize, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in
multiple sciences. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of
Paris, and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthon
in Paris.
She was born Maria Salomea Skodowska (pronounced *marja salma skwdfska]) in
Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at
Warsaw's clandestine Floating University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw.
In 1891, aged 24, she followed her older sister Bronisawa to study in Paris, where she earned
her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. She shared the 1903 Nobel
Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel. She won the
1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Her achievements included a theory of radioactivity (a term that she coined), techniques for
isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under
her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms, using
radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw, which remain
major centres of medical research today. During World War I, she established the first military
field radiological centres.
While a French citizen, Marie Skodowska Curie (she used both surnames)* never lost her sense
of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to
Poland. She named the first chemical element that she discoveredpolonium, which she first
isolated in 1898after her native country.
Curie died in 1934 at the sanatorium of Sancellemoz (Haute-Savoie), France, due to aplastic
anemia brought on by exposure to radiationmainly, it seems, during her World War I service
in mobile X-ray units created by her
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Richard Feynman
Born : Richard Phillips Feynman
May 11, 1918
New York City
Died : February 15, 1988 (aged 69)
Los Angeles, California
Known for
Manhattan Project Feynman propagator Quantum computing
Acoustic wave equation Feynman slash notation Quantum computingFeynman sprinkler Feynman point Quantum electrodynamics
BetheFeynman formula HellmannFeynman theorem Quantum hydrodynamics
Feynman checkerboard Feynman-Smoluchowski ratchet Quantum turbulence
Feynman diagrams Quantum cellular automata Universal quantum simulator
Feynman gauge Nanotechnology Shaft passer
FeynmanKac formula One-electron universe Sticky bead argument
Feynman Long Division Puzzles Parton Vortex ring model
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Feynman parametrization Path integral formulation
Signature
Richard Phillips Feynman (May 11, 1918February 15, 1988) was an American theoretical
physicist known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory
of quantum electrodynamics, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium,
as well as in particle physics (he proposed the parton model). For his contributions to the
development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman, jointly with Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro
Tomonaga, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965. He developed a widely used pictorial
representation scheme for the mathematical expressions governing the behavior of subatomic
particles, which later became known as Feynman diagrams. During his lifetime, Feynman
became one of the best-known scientists in the world. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists
worldwide by the British journal Physics World he was ranked as one of the ten greatest
physicists of all time.[2]
He assisted in the development of the atomic bomb during World War II and became known to
a wide public in the 1980s as a member of the Rogers Commission, the panel that investigated
the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. In addition to his work in theoretical physics, Feynman
has been credited with pioneering the field of quantum computing,[3][4] and introducing the
concept of nanotechnology. He held the Richard Chace Tolman professorship in theoretical
physics at the California Institute of Technology.
Feynman was a keen popularizer of physics through both books and lectures, notably a 1959
talk on top-down nanotechnology called There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom, and the three-
volume publication of his undergraduate lectures, The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Feynman
also became known through his semi-autobiographical books Surely You're Joking, Mr.
Feynman! and What Do You Care What Other People Think? and books written about him, such
as Tuva or Bust!.
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Galileo Galilei
Born: 15 February 1564
Pisa, Duchy of Florence, Italy
Died: 8 January 1642 (aged 77)
Arcetri, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy
Known for :
- Kinematics
- Dynamics
- Telescopic observational astronomy
- Heliocentrism
Signature
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Galileo Galilei (Italian pronunciation: [15 February 15648 January 1642), often known
mononymously as Galileo, was an Italian physicist, mathematician, engineer, astronomer, andphilosopher who played a major role in the scientific revolution. His achievements include
improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for
Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the
"father of modern physics",the "father of science",and "the Father of Modern Science".
His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases
of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his
honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science
and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.
Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most
subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from
astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax.
The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that
heliocentrism was false and contrary to scripture, placing works advocating the Copernican
system on the index of banned books and forbidding Galileo from advocating heliocentrism.
Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which
appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII, thus alienating not only the Pope but also the Jesuits, who
had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Holy Office, then found
"vehemently suspect of heresy", was forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house
arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two
New Sciences, in which he summarised the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the
two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.
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James Clerk Maxwell 18311879)
Born: 13 June 1831Edinburgh, Scotland
Died: 5 November 1879 (aged 48)Cambridge, England
Known for :-
Maxwell's equations
- Maxwell distribution
- Maxwell's demon
- Maxwell's discs
-
Maxwell speed distribution
- Maxwell's theorem
-
Maxwell material
- Generalized Maxwell model
-
Displacement current
- Maxwell coil
Signature
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James Clerk Maxwell FRS FRSE (13 June 18315 November 1879) was a Scottish[mathematical
physicist. His most prominent achievement was to formulate a set of equations that describe
electricity, magnetism, and optics as manifestations of the same phenomenon, namely, the
electromagnetic field. Maxwell's achievements concerning electromagnetism have been called
the "second great unification in physics"after the first one realised by Isaac Newton.
With the publication of A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1865, Maxwell
demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves moving at the
speed of light. Maxwell proposed that light is in fact undulations in the same medium that is the
cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. The unification of light and electrical phenomenaled to the prediction of the existence of radio waves.
Maxwell helped develop the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution, a statistical means of describing
aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. He is also known for presenting the first durable colour
photograph in 1861 and for his foundational work on analysing the rigidity of rod-and-joint
frameworks (trusses) like those in many bridges.
His discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundation for such fields
as special relativity and quantum mechanics. Many physicists regard Maxwell as the 19th-
century scientist having the greatest influence on 20th-century physics. His contributions to the
science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and
Albert Einstein. In the millennium polla survey of the 100 most prominent physicists
Maxwell was voted the third greatest physicist of all time, behind only Newton and Einstein. On
the centenary of Maxwell's birthday, Einstein himself described Maxwell's work as the "most
profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton".
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Erwin Schrdinger
Born: Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrdinger
12 August 1887
Vienna, Austria-Hungary
Died : 4 January 1961 (aged 73)
Vienna, Austria
Known for
Schrdinger equation
Schrdinger's cat
Schrdinger method
Schrdinger functional
Schrdinger group
Schrdinger picture
SchrdingerNewton equations
Schrdinger fieldRayleigh-Schrdinger perturbation
Schrdinger logics
Schrdinger's pure-affine theory
Coherent states
Energy level
Entropy and life
Interpretations of quantum mechanics
Qualia
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Quantum biology
Quantum superposition Signature
Subjectobject problem
Cat state
Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrdinger German: 12 August 18874 January 1961), a Nobel
Prize-winning Austrian physicist who developed a number of fundamental results in the field of
quantum theory, which formed the basis of wave mechanics: he formulated the wave equation
(stationary and time-dependent Schrdinger equation) and revealed the identity of his
development of the formalism and matrix mechanics. Schrdinger proposed an original
interpretation of the physical meaning of the wave function and in subsequent years repeatedly
criticized the conventional Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics (using e.g. the
paradox of Schrdinger's cat).
In addition, he was the author of many works in various fields of physics: statistical
mechanics and thermodynamics, physics of dielectrics, color theory, electrodynamics, general
relativity, and cosmology, and he made several attempts to construct a unified field theory. In
his book What Is Life? Schrdinger addressed the problems of genetics, looking at the
phenomenon of life from the point of view of physics. He paid great attention to the
philosophical aspects of science, ancient and oriental philosophical concepts, ethics, and
religion. He also wrote on philosophy and theoretical biology.
The philosophical issues raised by Schrdinger's cat are still debated today and
remain his most enduring legacy in popular science, while Schrdinger's equation is his most
enduring legacy at a more technical level. To this day, Schrdinger is known as the father of
quantum mechanics. The large crater Schrdinger, on the far side of the Moon, is named after
him. The Erwin Schrdinger International Institute for Mathematical Physics was established in
Vienna in 1993.
Schrdinger's portrait was the main feature of the design of the 198397 Austrian 1000-
Schilling banknote, the second-highest denomination.
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Werner Heisenberg
Born: Werner Karl Heisenberg
5 December 1901Wrzburg, Bavaria, German Empire
Died: 1 February 1976 (aged 74)
Munich, Bavaria, West Germany
Known for
Uncertainty Principle Heisenberg cut
Heisenberg's entryway to matrix mechanics
Heisenberg ferromagnet
Heisenberg group
Heisenberg limit
Heisenberg's microscope
Heisenberg model (classical)
Heisenberg model (quantum)
Heisenberg picture
Matrix mechanics
Euler-Heisenberg Lagrangian
Kramers-Heisenberg formula
Bootstrap model
C*-algebra
Exchange interaction
Isospin
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Mott problem
Quantum fluctuation Signature
Resonance (chemistry)
S-matrix
S-matrix theory
Werner Karl Heisenberg (5 December 19011 February 1976) was a German theoretical
physicist and one of the key creators of quantum mechanics. He published his work in 1925 in a
breakthrough paper. In the subsequent series of papers with Max Born and Pascual Jordan,
during the same year, this matrix formulation of quantum mechanics was substantially
elaborated. In 1927 he published his uncertainty principle, upon which he built his philosophy
and for which he is best known. Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932
"for the creation of quantum mechanics".[1] He also made important contributions to the
theories of the hydrodynamics of turbulent flows, the atomic nucleus, ferromagnetism, cosmic
rays, and subatomic particles, and he was instrumental in planning the first West German
nuclear reactor at Karlsruhe, together with a research reactor in Munich, in 1957. Considerable
controversy surrounds his work on atomic research during World War II.
Following World War II, he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics,
which soon thereafter was renamed the Max Planck Institute for Physics. He was director of the
institute until it was moved to Munich in 1958, when it was expanded and renamed the Max
Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics.
Heisenberg was also president of the German Research Council, chairman of the Commission
for Atomic Physics, chairman of the Nuclear Physics Working Group, and president of the
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.
Heisenbergs paper establishing quantum mechanics has puzzled physicists and historians. His
methods assume that the reader is familiar with Kramers-Heisenberg transition probability
calculations. The main new idea, noncommuting matrices, is justified only by a rejection of
unobservable quantities. It introduces the non-commutative multiplication of matrices by
physical reasoning, based on the correspondence principle, despite the fact that Heisenberg
was not then familiar with the mathematical theory of matrices. The path leading to these
results has been reconstructed in MacKinnon, 1977, and the detailed calculations are worked
out in Aitchison et al
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Michael Faraday, 1842
Born: 22 September 1791
Newington Butts, EnglandDied: 25 August 1867 (aged 75)
Hampton Court, Middlesex, England
Known for:
Faraday's law of induction
Electrochemistry
Faraday effect
Faraday cage
Faraday constant
Faraday cup
Faraday's laws of electrolysisFaraday paradox
Faraday rotator
Faraday-efficiency effect
Faraday wave
Faraday wheel
Lines of force
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Signature
Michael Faraday, FRS (22 September 179125 August 1867) was an English scientist whocontributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries
include those of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis.
Although Faraday received little formal education, he was one of the most influential scientists
in history. It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct
current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in
physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was
an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. He similarly discovered the principle
of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis. His inventions of
electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was
largely due to his efforts that electricity became practical for use in technology.
As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine,
invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and
popularised terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion. Faraday ultimately
became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great
Britain, a lifetime position.
Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language;
his mathematical abilities, however, did not extend as far as trigonometry or any but the
simplest algebra. James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others, and summarized itin a set of equations that is accepted as the basis of all modern theories of electromagnetic
phenomena. On Faraday's uses of the lines of force, Maxwell wrote that they show Faraday "to
have been in reality a mathematician of a very high orderone from whom the
mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile methods." The SI unit of
capacitance, the Farad, is named in his honour.
Albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Isaac Newton
and James Clerk Maxwell. Physicist Ernest Rutherford stated; "When we consider the
magnitude and extent of his discoveries and their influence on the progress of science and of
industry, there is no honour too great to pay to the memory of Faraday, one of the greatestscientific discoverers of all time".
http://en.wikipedia.org
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Max Planck
Born : Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
April 23, 1858
Kiel, Duchy of Holstein
Died : October 4, 1947 (aged 89)
Gttingen, Lower Saxony, Germany
Known for :
Planck constant
Planck postulate
Planck's law of black body radiation
Signature
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Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, FRS[ (April 23, 1858October 4, 1947) was a German theoretical physicist who
originated quantum theory, which won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918
Planck made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame rests primarily on his role as originator of the
quantum theory. This theory revolutionized human understanding of atomic and subatomic processes, just as
Albert Einsteins theory of relativity revolutionized the understanding of space and time. Together they constitute
the fundamental theories of 20th-century physics.http://en.wikipedia.org
Enrico Fermi
Born : 29 September 1901
Rome, Italy
Died : 28 November 1954 (aged 53)
Chicago, Illinois, United States
Known for:
Nuclear chain reaction
FermiDirac statistics
Theory of beta decay
Signature
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Enrico Fermi (29 September 190128 November 1954) was an Italian-American physicist, best
known for his work on Chicago Pile-1 (the first nuclear reactor), and for his contributions to the
development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. He is one of the
men referred to as the "father of the atomic bomb". Fermi held several patents related to the use of
nuclear power, and was awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity
by neutron bombardment and the discovery of transuranic elements. He was widely regarded as one of
the very few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally.
Fermi's first major contribution was to statistical mechanics. After Wolfgang Pauli announced his
exclusion principle in 1925, Fermi followed with a paper in which he applied the principle to an ideal gas,
employing a statistical formulation now known as FermiDirac statistics. Today, particles that obey theexclusion principle are called "fermions". Later Pauli postulated the existence of an uncharged invisible
particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay, to satisfy the law of conservation of energy.
Fermi took up this idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle, which he named
the "neutrino". His theory, later referred to as Fermi's interaction and still later as weak interaction,
described one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Through experiments inducing radioactivity
with recently discovered neutrons, Fermi discovered that slow neutrons were more easily captured than
fast ones, and developed the Fermi age equation to describe this. After bombarding thorium and
uranium with slow neutrons, he concluded that he had created new elements; although he was
awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery, the new elements were subsequently revealed to be fission
products.
Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his Jewish wife Laura. He
emigrated to the United States where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Fermi
led the team that designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942,
demonstrating the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. He was on hand when the X-10
Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee went critical in 1943, and when the B Reactor at the Hanford
Site did so the next year. At Los Alamos he headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Teller's
thermonuclear "Super" bomb. He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, where he used his
Fermi method to estimate the bomb's yield.
After the war, Fermi served under Oppenheimer on the influential General Advisory Committee,
which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters and policy. Following the detonation
of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949, he strongly opposed the development of a hydrogenbomb on both moral and technical grounds. He was among the scientists who testified on
Oppenheimer's behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of the latter's security clearance.
Fermi did important work in particle physics, especially related to pions and muons, and he speculated
that cosmic rays arose through material being accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar space. Many
awards, concepts, and institutions are named after Fermi, including the Enrico Fermi Award, the Enrico
Fermi Institute, the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, the
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Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station, and the synthetic element fermium.
http://en.wikipedia.org
Paul Dirac
Born : Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac
8 August 1902
Bristol, England
Died : 20 October 1984 (aged 82)Tallahassee, Florida, USA
Known for
Dirac equation Dirac's theorem on cycles in k-connected graphs
Dirac comb KapitsaDirac effect
Dirac delta function Diracvon Neumann axioms
FermiDirac statistics AbrahamLorentzDirac force
FermiDirac integral EinsteinMaxwellDirac equations
Complete FermiDirac integral Dirac-Coulomb-Breit Equation
Dirac sea Canonical quantisation
Dirac bracket Canonical quantum gravity
Dirac spinor Exchange interaction
Dirac picture First class constraint
Dirac measure Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics
Dirac monopole Negative probability
Dirac notation Path integral formulation
Dirac adjoint Primary constraint
Dirac large numbers hypothesis Quantum electrodynamics
Dirac fermion Spin magnetic moment
Dirac field
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Dirac hole theory
Dirac spectrum
Dirac string
Dirac algebra
Dirac matrices
Dirac operator
Dirac constantDirac's theorem on Hamiltonian cycles
Dirac's theorem on chordal graphs
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac OM FRS[2] (/drk/ di-RAK; 8 August 190220
October 1984) was an English theoretical physicist who made fundamental
contributions to the early development of both quantum mechanics and quantum
electrodynamics. He was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of
Cambridge, a member of the Center for Theoretical Studies, University of Miami, and
spent the last decade of his life at Florida State University.
Among other discoveries, he formulated the Dirac equation, which describes the
behaviour of fermions and predicted the existence of antimatter. Dirac shared the NobelPrize in Physics for 1933 with Erwin Schrdinger, "for the discovery of new productive
forms of atomic theory".[3] He also did work that forms the basis of modern attempts to
reconcile general relativity with quantum mechanics.
He was regarded by his friends and colleagues as unusual in character. Albert
Einstein said of him, "This balancing on the dizzying path between genius and madness
is awful",[4] referring to his autistic traits. His mathematical brilliance, however, means
he is regarded as one of the most significant physicists of the 20th century.
Gravity
He quantised the gravitational field, and developed a general theory of quantum field theories
with dynamical constraints, which forms the basis of the gauge theories and superstring theories of today.
The influence and importance of his work has increased with the decades, and physicists daily use the
concepts and equations that he developed.
Quantum theory
Dirac's first step into a new quantum theory was taken late in September 1925. Ralph Fowler, his
research supervisor, had received a proof copy of an exploratory paper by Werner Heisenberg in the
framework of the old quantum theory of Bohr and Sommerfeld, which leaned heavily on Bohr's
correspondence principle but changed the equations so that they involved directly observable quantities.
Fowler sent Heisenberg's paper on to Dirac, who was on vacation in Bristol, asking him to look into thispaper carefully.
Dirac's attention was drawn to a mysterious mathematical relationship, at first sight
unintelligible, that Heisenberg had reached. Several weeks later, back in Cambridge, Dirac suddenly
recognised that this mathematical form had the same structure as the Poisson Brackets that occur in the
classical dynamics of particle motion. From this thought he quickly developed a quantum theory that was
based on non-commuting dynamical variables. This led him to a more profound and significant general
formulation of quantum mechanics than was achieved by any other worker in this field.[46]
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Dirac noticed an analogy between the Poisson brackets of classical mechanics and the recently
proposed quantisation rules in Werner Heisenberg's matrix formulation of quantum mechanics. This
observation allowed Dirac to obtain the quantisation rules in a novel and more illuminating manner. For
this work, published in 1926, he received a PhD from Cambridge.
Ernest Rutherford
Born : 30 August 1871
Brightwater, Tasman District, New Zealand
Died : 19 October 1937 (aged 66)
Cambridge, England, UK
Known for
Father of nuclear physics
Rutherford model
Rutherford scattering
Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy
Discovery of proton
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Rutherford (unit)
Coining the term 'artificial disintegration'Signature
Louis de Broglie
Born : 15 August 1892
Dieppe, France
Died : 19 March 1987 (aged 94)
Louveciennes, France
Known for:Wave nature of electrons
De BroglieBohm theory
de Broglie wavelength
Louis-Victor-Pierre-Raymond, 7th duc de Broglie, (15 August 189219 March 1987) was a
French physicist who made groundbreaking contributions to quantum theory. In his
1924 PhD thesis he postulated the wave nature of electrons and suggested that all
matter has wave properties. This concept is known as wave-particle duality or the deBroglie hypothesis. He won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1929. The wave-like
behaviour of particles discovered by de Broglie was used by Erwin Schrdinger in his
formulation of wave mechanics. Louis de Broglie was the sixteenth member elected to
occupy seat 1 of the Acadmie franaise in 1944, and served as Perpetual Secretary of
the French Academy of Sciences.
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http://en.wikipedia.org
Joseph John Thomson
Born : 18 December 1856
Manchester, England
Died: 30 August 1940 (aged 83)
Cambridge, England
Known for:
Plum pudding model
Discovery of electron
Discovery of isotopes
Mass spectrometer invention
First m/e measurement
Proposed first waveguide
Thomson scattering
Thomson problem Signature
Coining term 'delta ray'
Coining term 'epsilon radiation'
Thomson (unit)
Sir Joseph John "J. J." Thomson, OM, FRS[1] (18 December 185630 August 1940) was a British physicist.
In 1897 Thomson showed that cathode rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle,
and thus he is credited with the discovery and identification of the electron; and, in a broader sense, with the
discovery of the first subatomic particle. Thomson is also credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of a
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stable (non-radioactive) element in 1913, as part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays (positive
ions). He invented the mass spectrometer.
Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the electron and for his work
on the conduction of electricity in gases.
http://en.wikipedia.org
Wolfgang Pauli
Born: Wolfgang Ernst Pauli
25 April 1900
Vienna, Austria-Hungary
Died: 15 December 1958 (aged 58)
Known for :
Pauli exclusion principle
PauliVillars regularization
Pauli matrices
Pauli effect
Pauli equation
Pauli group
Pauli repulsionPauliLubanski pseudovector
Coining 'not even wrong'
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Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (25 April 190015 December 1958) was an Austrian theoretical
physicist and one of the pioneers of quantum physics.
In 1945, after having been nominated by Albert Einstein, Pauli received the Nobel Prize
in Physics for his "decisive contribution through his discovery of a new law of Nature, the
exclusion principle or Pauli principle." The discovery involved spin theory, which is the basis of
a theory of the structure of matter.
http://en.wikipedia.org
Pierre Curie
Born: 15 May 1859
Paris, France
Died: 19 April 1906 (aged 46)
Paris, France
Known for:
- Radioactivity
Pierre Curie ( 15 May 185919 April 1906) was a French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography,
magnetism, piezoelectricity and radioactivity. In 1903 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics
with his wife, Marie Skodowska Curie, and Henri Becquerel, "in recognition of the
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extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation
phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel".
http://en.wikipedia.org
rnest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM FRS (30 August 187119 October 1937)
was a New Zealand-born British physicist who became known as the father of nuclear physics.
Encyclopdia Britannica considers him to be the greatest experimentalist since Michael
Faraday (17911867).
In early work he discovered the concept of radioactive half-life, proved that radioactivity
involved the transmutation of one chemical element to another, and also differentiated and
named alpha and beta radiationThis work was done at McGill University in Canada. It is the
basis for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry he was awarded in 1908 "for his investigations into the
disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances".
Rutherford moved in 1907 to the Victoria University of Manchester (today University of
Manchester) in the UK, where he and Thomas Royds proved that alpha radiation is heliumions
Rutherford performed his most famous work after he became a Nobel laureate. In 1911,
although he could not prove that it was positive or negative, he theorized that atoms have their
charge concentrated in a very small nucleus, and thereby pioneered the Rutherford model ofthe atom, through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering in his gold foil
experiment. He is widely credited with first "splitting the atom" in 1917 in a nuclear reaction
between nitrogen and alpha particles, in which he also discovered (and named) the proton.
Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University in 1919.
Under his leadership the neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932 and in the same
year the first experiment to split the nucleus in a fully controlled manner, performed by
students working under his direction, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton. After his death in
1937, he was honoured by being interred with the greatest scientists of the United Kingdom,
near Sir Isaac Newton's tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical element rutherfordium(element 104) was named after him in 1997.
http://en.wikipedia.org