AnimalLiberation

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AnimalLiberationisananimalrightscharityfoundedin1976byChristineTownend,basedonthephilosophiessetoutbyProfessorPeterSingerinhisbest-sellingbook,AnimalLiberation.

Ourgoal

Webelieveallanimalshavetherighttolivefreefromhumanintervention.Associetiesthroughouttimehavehadtofightfortherightsofslaves,womenandotherminoritygroupstochallengedominantsocialviews,theanimalrightsmovementisnowthegreatestsocialchangemovementaroundtheworldwiththepotentialtovastlyimprovethelivesofnon-humananimals.AnimalLiberationintendstofightforallnon-humananimalsuntiltheyareabletolivelivesoftheirchoosing,freefromintervention,anduseandabusebyhumans.

Ourwork

• Wepursueourgoalthrougheducationcampaigns,publiceventsandtheutilisationofthemediatogetspreadandgetourmessageacross.Ourmissionstatementis:toworktowardtheendofsufferingofexploitedandconfinedanimals,throughlegislation,consumeradvocacy,actionandhumaneeducation.

• Weruna1800CrueltyHotlineforpeopleinVICandNSWcountryandruralareastoreportneglectandcrueltytoanimals–overaperiodofeightyearsthisservicehasassistedhundredsofthousandsofanimals.

• Thedevelopmentofcampaignstrategiesdesignedtoinfluencechangesinlawandconsumerbehaviour.

• Research,investigationandevidencegatheringintoareassuchastheuseofnon-humananimalsforfood,entertainment,scienceandfashion.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 4

OVERVIEW 4

GENERALDISCUSSION 5

1.CATS 7

1.1OVERVIEWOFTHERECOMMENDATIONSPROVIDEDWITHINTHEREVIEW 7

1.2ABRIEFINTRODUCTIONTOTNR 7

1.3TNRINAUSTRALIA:RESISTANCE,EFFICACY,ANDPOTENTIAL 8

1.4TNRONUNIVERSITYCAMPUSES 11

1.5CASESTUDY:UNSWKENSINGTONCAMPUSANDINNERCITYSTRAYS 11

1.6THEUSEOFPOISONSASAMETHODTOCONTROLFREE-ROAMINGCATS 13

1.7ETHICSANDTHEDEMANDFORHUMANETREATMENT 14

1.8ISSUESRELATINGTODATA-MAPPINGTECHNOLOGIES: 15PESTSMART’SFERALSCAN

1.9CASESTUDY:ISRAELANDITALIANLAWNO.281(1991) 16

1.10CONCLUSION 18

2.CARP 20

2.1OVERVIEWOFTHERECOMMENDATIONSPROVIDEDWITHINTHEREVIEW 20

2.2ABRIEFEPIDEMIOLOGICALHISTORYOFTHEKOIHERPESVIRUS(KHV) 20

2.3THEHOST-SPECIFICITYOFKHV 21

2.4WATERTEMPERATUREANDTHESTABILITYOFTHEMURRAY-DARLING 22

2.5THEEVIDENCEOFLATENTKHVINFECTIONANDVIRUSTRANSMISSION 23

2.6ADISTINCTLACKOFALTERNATIVECONSIDERATIONS: 24AREVIEWOFTHEEFFICACYOFDAUGHTERLESSCARPTECHNIQUESANDTHEDEVELOPMENTOFJUDASFISH

2.7ALTERNATIVETECHNIQUECASESTUDY:JUDASCARPINTASMANIA 25

3.ALTERNATIVESTOLETHALCONTROLMETHODS28

3.1POISONING 28

3.1.11080ANDTHESECONDARYPOISONINGOFNATIVEAUSTRALIANMAMMALS 28

3.1.2THREATSTOAGRICULTURALPRODUCTION:THERHETORICANDTHEREALITY 30

3.2STERILISATIONANDIMMUNOCONTRACEPTIVES 33

3.2.1OVERVIEW:ABRIEFHISTORYANDANALYSISOFTHEREVIEW’SRECOMMENDATIONS 33

3.2.2THEEFFICACYOFSTERILISATIONANDIMMUNOCONTRACEPTIVESASAHUMANECONTROLMETHODFORWILDUNGULATEPOPULATIONS:ZONAPELLUCIDAVACCINE(PZP) 34

3.2.3PZPANDIMMUNOCONTRACEPTIVESASVIABLEANDACTIONABLEALTERNATIVESTOCURRENTCONTROLPROGRAMS 36

3.2.4IMMUNOCONTRACEPTIVESINTHEAUSTRALIANCONTEXT 37

3.2.5CONCLUSION 38

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4.ANIMALWELFARE 40

4.1ABRIEFEXPLANATIONOFWHATWEMEANWHENWETALKABOUTANIMALWELFARE 40

4.2OVERVIEWANDDISCUSSIONOFTHERECOMMENDATIONSPROVIDEDWITHINTHEREVIEW 41

4.3ABRIEFDISCUSSIONONTHEROLEOFCODESOFPRACTICE(COPS)ANDSTANDARDOPERATINGPROCEDURES(SOPS)INREGULATINGANIMALWELFAREISSUES 42

4.4WELFARECONCERNSRELATEDTORECREATIONALHUNTINGINNSW 43

4.5THENEEDFORTRANSPARENCYANDACCOUNTABILITY 45

CONCLUSION 47

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Introduction

AnimalLiberationappreciatestheopportunitytoprovidethefollowingcommentsontheNSWpestanimalmanagementreview.Forthepurposesofthisreport,focuswillbeonfouraspectsthatwarrantdeepandcriticalattention:theabsenceorinadequateprovisionsformonitoringand/orplanningofcontrolprograms;thedistinctlackofconcertedefforttoaddressviablealternativestotheseprograms;thereview’scallforareductionof“redtape”constrictingrecreationalhunting;and,finally,thedeficiencyofconsiderationspertainingtowelfareissuesinapprovedand/ordevelopingcontrolprograms.Tothisend,focuswillbeuponcatmanagementprograms,potentiallydestructivedata-mappingefforts,theproposedadoptionofcarpcontrolmethods,thewelfareissuesinherentinrecreationalhunting,andthelackofattentionorefforttoascertainalternativecontrolmethods(notablysterilisationandnon-lethalcontrolmethods).Itisimportanttonote,however,thatthisselectiveconsiderationandrelianceonacomparativelynarrowsegmentofanalysisdoesnotmeanthattheotherun-encompassedaspectsarenotworthyofadditionalattentionandanalysis.Rather,itistheopinionofAnimalLiberationthattheimplementationofanylethalcontroltechniquesisunacceptable.Forthisreason,considerationwithinthissubmissionisdividedintosectionsandsubsections.Eachsectionwilladdressadistinctzoneofanalysis,witheachcorrespondingsubsectiondevelopingfurthertheseanalyses.Itmustbenotedthatanumberoffactorswillnecessarilybeincludedineachdistinctivesection(welfare,forexample,isinherentlytiedtoeachandeveryanalyses).

Overview

Numbersofanimalskilledannuallyingovernmentandprivatecontrolprogramsarenotoriouslydifficulttoapproximate.Itis,however,anumberthatislikelytorunintothemillions1.AsidefromtheGameandFeralAnimalControlAct,themanagingofanimalsdeemed‘feral’or‘pests’isadministeredthroughbothStateandTerritoryaswellasCommonwealthlaw.TheThreatenedSpeciesConservationAct1995(NSW)sanctionsthedevelopmentof‘threatabatementplans’tomanagetheseissues2.Asurveyofcontrolprogramsdevelopedanddesignedtocontrol‘feral’animalsrecordedmorethan2,500distinctoperations3.Thesurveyconcludedthat“therewaslittlereliableknowledgeaboutthebenefits”oftheseprogramsand“fewcontrolprogramsmonitoredchangesinthepestspeciestargetedforcontrolandthenativespeciesofinterest”4.Thereis,despiteclaimstothecontrary,limitedinformationonresultsof‘pest’animalcontrolprograms,primarilyduetoalackofmonitoring.

ThedraftPestAnimalManagementReview2016(henceforth‘theReview’)underconsiderationpaysconsiderableattentiontotheroleofcatsandtheperceiveddamageandthreatposedtobiodiversityandnativespecies5.Importantly,theReviewacknowledgesthattherecommendationsprovided“arenotlimitedtolegislativeorregulatoryframeworksalone”.Instead,theyseektopropoundtheviewthatpeople,citizens,“willbeintegraltoprogramsuccess”.Accordingly,accountabilitycomestobeconsideredanationalresponsibility.

1Thiriet,D.,2007,‘Inthespotlight:thewelfareofintroducedwildanimalsinAustralia,’EnvironmentalandPlanningLawJournal,vol.24,pp.417-426.2Ellis,E.,2010,‘Australianregulatoryframework,’HotTopics:LegalIssuesinPlainLanguage,vol.74,pp.7-14.2Ellis,E.,2010,‘Australianregulatoryframework,’HotTopics:LegalIssuesinPlainLanguage,vol.74,pp.7-14.3Thiriet,D.,2007,‘Inthespotlight:thewelfareofintroducedwildanimalsinAustralia,’EnvironmentalandPlanningLawJournal,vol.24,pp.417-426.4Reddiex,B.,andForsyth,D.M.,2004,‘FinalreportfortheAustralianGovernmentDepartmentoftheEnvironmentandHeritage:Reviewofexistingredfox,feralcat,feralrabbit,feralpigandferalgoatcontrolinAustralia.II.Informationgaps,’LandcareResearch/ArthurRylahInstituteforEnvironmentalResearch.5Thereportclaims,forinstance,thatcatsthreaten36mammalspeciesacrossAustralia.

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Akeyandunderpinningemphasisisonrecastingseveralspeciesas‘pests,’andsubjecttotreatmentthatisdeemednecessarytosuppressthethreatthesespeciesareconsideredtopose.Urgencyisconsistentlyconsideredtobenecessaryintreatinganderadicatingtheserisksandimpacts;byadvocatingthelegislativeuseoftheBiosecurityAct2015andintroducingcatsanddeerintothescopeof‘pestmanagement,’theReviewaimstoprioritiseselectspecieswhilstcontinuingotherprogramsofcontrol.Communities,theReviewexplains,“willbeinstrumentalingettingbetteron-groundresults”.

OnewaytheReviewsuggeststhistooccuristhroughactiveencouragementofrecreationalhunting.Asthisreportwillshow,huntingandthelackofresponsibilityand/oraccountabilitythismethodinvolves,suchmethodsarebothinadequateandinvolveinherentthreatstoanimalwelfare.Througheffortstoplacethedutyof‘pest’animalmanagementonlandholdersandcitizens,theReviewclaimsitisessentialtonotonlyengagetheAustralianpublic,buttoholdthemaccountableforthecontrolofanimalsconsidered‘invasive,’‘pests,’and‘feral’.

Generaldiscussionconcerningtheabsenceofalternativesandtheimpactcurrentpracticesandmethodspresenttoissuesconcerningwelfare

A2004studysurveyedcontrolprogramscentreduponsixspeciesofanimalsconsidered‘invasive’inAustralia.Thesurvey,thefirstofitskindinAustralia,foundover2,500separatecontrolprograms.Thereportconcludedthat“therewaslittlereliableknowledgeaboutthebenefitsoffox,feralcat,feralrabbit,feralpig,andferalgoatcontrolforEPBCActlistedthreatenedspecies”6.Further,“fewcontrolprogramsmonitioredchangesinthepestspeciestargetedforcontrolandthenativespeciesofinterest,”arguingthattheseprograms“rarelyincludednon-treatmentareasorwererandomlyallocated”.Fewoftheprogramsevaluatedeitherthespeciesorthehabitatpriortoconductingtheircontrolprograms.WhilstFederal,StateandLocalgovernmentsconsignconsiderableresourcestoapplyingthesecontrolmethods,thefailureoftheseprogramstomeet“thebasicexperimentalrequirements”necessarytofacilitatingsuccess,includingreplicationandappropriatemonitoringtechniques,ultimatelymeansthatblameisaprioriplaceduponanimalsandmakesitimpossible“toseparateanobservedresponseinnativespecies/habitatfollowingpestcontrolfromclimaticfactorsand/orasuiteofpotentiallythreateningprocesses”.Assuch,threatsandrisksposedbyhumanactionsanddevelopmentsareconsistentlyandultimatelydeemedoutsidethescopeofcontrolmethods.Habitatchange,environmentaldegradation,theconsequencesofpasthumanendeavoursatcontrolthatutilisedanimalsintroducedforthesereasons(andarenowcategorisedas‘pests’),meansthatresponsibilityiseffectivelydetoured,withalternativescensureddespiteclearevidencethatsuchalternativesarenotonlyfunctionallyappropriate,butalleviateanumberofrelatedissues.The2004auditofcontrolprogramsconcludedthatfew“metalloftherequirementsforreliableknowledge”.Forexample,a1996studynoted“no[…]experimentshavebeencompletedtodeterminetheeffectsofcatsonnativefauna”.Thishasnotbeenaddressed,despitethefactthatitisapparentthat“manyfactorsotherthanferalcatscanaffectpopulationsize,”includingtheconsequencesandthreatsposedtohumansandourimpactsupontheenvironment.

Asaresult,thissubmissionanalysedtherecommendationsandoverallcontentofthe2016Review(withconsiderationofanumberofrelatedpublications).ItistheopinionofAnimalLiberationthatmonitoringprovisions,preliminaryresearch,controltechniquefeasibilityandefficacy,andsignificantwelfareandhumanenessconcernsrendertheReviewinoperable.Thefollowingreportwilladdresseachoftheseaspectsandpresentanumberofviableandoperationalalternatives.

6Reddiex,B.,andForsyth,D.M.,2004,‘FinalreportfortheAustralianGovernmentDepartmentoftheEnvironmentandHeritage:Reviewofexistingredfox,feralcat,feralrabbit,feralpigandferalgoatcontrolinAustralia.II.Informationgaps,’LandcareResearch/ArthurRylahInstituteforEnvironmentalResearch

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1Cats

1.1OverviewoftherecommendationsprovidedwithintheReview

TheReviewcallsontheNSWGovernmenttodeclarecatsapest,andconsequentlybeincludedinpestanimalregulationprovidedwithintheBiosecurityAct2015.TheReviewalsocallsforamendmentstotheNSWCompanionAnimalsAct1998tolegislatecompulsorydesexingandregisteringofallcatsbyfourmonthsofage(theReviewnotesthatNSWistheonlystatewhichdoesnotconsideritanoffenceforacattobe“atlargeincontraventionofconfinementorder[s]”anddoesnotlegallyrequiredesexing),withanaddedprovisionrequiringlocalgovernmentstoinstitute“catconfinementareas”.ItisalsonotedthattheAustralianGovernmentThreatenedSpeciesCommissioneriscurrentlypursuingpublicsupportfor“24-hourcontainmentrequirementsfordomesticcats”.Additionally,theReviewsuggestsapartnershipwiththeRSPCA(and“otherrelevantorganisations”)whereina“targetededucationcampaign”toraisecommunityawarenessoftherisksposedbystrayorferalcats.Asthisreportwillshow,thelatterrecommendationsarenecessaryinclusions,yetthebroademphasisandproposedmethodologiesultimatelydetract,ratherthanreinforce,theseprinciples.Infact,communityawarenessraisingcampaignsareoftenattheforeofoneofthemostwidelyused,andpractical,humanecontrolmethodsapplicabletocontrollingfree-roamingcatpopulations;trap-neuter-releaseprograms.

1.2AbriefintroductiontoTNR

AgrowingnumberofacademicandfieldstudiesindicatethatTNRprogramsarenotonlythemosthumaneoptionavailablewhenconductingcatpopulationcontrol,theyareeffectivewhencomparedtolethalmethods7.TNRprogramshavedevelopedacrossAustraliaandworldwide,withuniversitiesactingasgroundstodevelopTNRprogrameffectivenessandprovideothercommunitieswithresourcesandsupportnetworks.ThefirstoftheseisthoughttobetheformationoftheStanfordCatNetworkatStanfordUniversity(California)inthelate1980’s8.PriortopracticingTNRmethods,approximately500catswerepresentonuniversitygrounds.Theprogramlasted15yearsandresultedinasteeppopulationdecline,leaving85catsaftertheprogram.Sincethattime,thecatshavebeenadopted.AsthePaloAltoHumaneSocietyexpress,lethalmethodsneednotbeutilisedas“feralcoloniesaresuccessfullymanagedthroughouttheUnitedStates,inCanada,theVirginIslands(undertheguidanceoftheTuftsUniversityVeterinarySchool),SouthAfrica,Denmark,otherpartsofEuropeandAfrica,andBritain”9.Frequentlytheseinitiativesarerunincollaborationwithveterinaryinstitutesandcommunitygroups(afactorthatwillbefurtherdiscussedbelow).A1998studyofatrap-test-vaccinate-alter-return-monitor(TTVARM)programataTexasuniversityeffectivelyshowcasesthebenefits,andincreasedefficacyof,humanecontrolmethods:kittenlevelsdroppedtheyearfollowinginitialstudy,tamecatproportionsincreased,facilitatedadoption,andeliminatedcomplaintsconcerningthecolony10.

WhilstseveralstudieshaveindicatedthatTNReffortsareineffectiveatreducingcatnumbers,anumberofrelatedissuesrequireadditionalanalysis:anevaluationofarangeofcatcontrolmethodsandprogramsindicatedthataprimaryreasonTNRmaybedeemedineffectiveisduetoillegaldumpingofcatswhichconsequentlynegatepositivedevelopmentsandpopulationeffects11.Theabandonedcatswould,forexample,beattractedtothefoodallocatedtothecatsreturnedtothe7Levy,J.K.,Gale,D.W.,andGale,L.A.,2003,‘Evaluationoftheeffectofalong-termtrap-neuter-returnandadoptionprogramonafree-roamingcatpopulation,’JournaloftheAmericanVeterinaryMedicalAssociation,vol.222,no.1;Zaunbrecher,K.K.,andSmith,R.,1993,‘Neuteringofferalcatsasanalternativetoeradicationprograms,’JournaloftheAmericanVeterinaryMedicalAssociation,vol.203,no.3,pp.449-452;Holton,L.,andManzoor,P.,1993,‘Managingandcontrollingferalcatpopulations,’VeterinaryForum,pp.100-101.8Slater,M.R.,andShain,S.,2005,‘Feralcats:anoverview,’inDJSalemandANRowan(eds.),TheStateoftheAnimalsIII,WashingtonDC,HumaneSocietyPress.9PaloAltoHumaneSociety,1995,Non-LethalandNon-PunitiveControlofFeralCatPopulationsataGlance.Availableat:http://www.paloaltohumane.org/programs/pdfs/Feral_Cat_Populations.pdf10Hughes,K.L.,andSlater,M.R.,2002,‘Implementationofaferalcatmanagementprogramonauniversitycampus,’JournalofAppliedAnimalWelfareScience,vol.5,no.1,pp.15-28.11Schmidt,P.M.,Swannack,T.M.,Lopez,R.R.,andSlater,M.R.,2009,‘Evaluationofeuthanasiaandtrap-neuter-return(TNR)programsinmanagingfree-roamingcatpopulations,’WildlifeResearch,vol.36,pp.117-125.

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colonypost-TNRandmultiplythenumberofcatsinanygivencolony,thusdestabilisingtheefficacyoftheprogram12.

TNRprogramshavedevelopedacrossAustraliaandworldwide,withuniversitiesactingasgroundstodevelopTNRprogrameffectivenessandprovideothercommunitieswithresourcesandsupportnetworks.Agrowingnumberofinternationalcommunities,councils,andstategovernmentsareimplementingTNRprinciplestohumanelymanagecatpopulationlevelsinurbanareas.ThecityofBerkeleyinCalifornia,forexample,openlysupportsTNRonthegroundsthatso-called‘feral’catsarethewildoffspringofdomesticcatsabandonedandallowedtobreeduncontrollably.Thecitynotonlyrecognisesthetrueoriginsofstrayanimals,butalsoarguesthatTNRprograms“enhancepublicsafety”and“humanelycontrolsferalcatpopulations”13.Similarly,ConnecticutalsoadvocatesTNRandannounceda$175,000grantforaTNRprogramin201414.AfterasurgeincatcullsinitiatedbytheAgri-FoodandVeterinaryAuthority(AVA)followingtheSARSoutbreakinSingapore,theSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimals(SPCA)andotherwelfaregroupslobbiedfortheintroductionofTNRprogramstoremedytheadoptionoflethalmethods.TheAVAreversedthedecision,implementedtheStrayCatRehabilitationSchemeandsterilisedcatsthroughtheCatWelfareSociety15.

1.3TNRinAustralia:resistance,efficacy,andpotential

CatswereintroducedintoAustraliaascompanionanimalsof18thcenturyEuropeansettlers,whothenreleasedthemintothewildtocontrolrabbitsandrodents,whothemselveswereintroducedtoAustraliabyearlysettlersandsubsequentlyreleased16.Itisworthnotingthatthesespeciesarethemselvessubjecttoextensiveandlethalcontrolmethods,includingpoisonedbaiting,warrenfumigation,andexposuretolethalviruses,includingmyxomatosisandRHDV(rabbithaemorrhagicdisease)17.Theuseofpoisons,particularly1080andpindone,havesincebeenconsideredtobeinhumane18,resultinginaslowandpainfuldeathandhasbeenlinkedtothedeathsofotherexoticornativeanimals(so-called‘by-kills’19)thatsubsequentlyeatthecarcassesofpoisonedmammals20(forfurtherdiscussionofthiskeyareaofconcernseesections3and4).

Thegrowthincatpopulationnumbersisenabledby“thehighnaturalreproductivecapacityofcats:afemalecatislikelytoreproduceforallheradultlife,andcanproduceuptothreelittersperyearwithanaverageoffourkittensperlitter”.Whilstthismaybeso,itdoesnotaccountforthehighmortalityratesseeninstraycolonies,whichcanbeashighas75%,withthispercentagereachingcloseto100%whenfemalesproducemorethan2littersinayear21.Kittensalsodieintheearlyneonatalperiod(between6to8weeksofage)attherateof12.8%toashighas48%,withthesamehighpercentagedyingbeforereaching100daysold.Accordingtoa2012InvasiveSpeciesCouncil

12Schmidt,P.M.,Swannack,T.M.,Lopez,R.R.,andSlater,M.R.,2009,‘Evaluationofeuthanasiaandtrap-neuter-return(TNR)programsinmanagingfree-roamingcatpopulations,’WildlifeResearch,vol.36,pp.117-12513CityofBerkeley,n.d.,‘Feralcats’.Availableat:http://www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/City_Manager/Animal_Shelter/Feral_Cats.aspx14Penney,J.,2014,‘$175KstategrantwillhelpcontrolQuietCornerferalcatpopulation,’theBulletin.Availableat:http://www.norwichbulletin.com/article/20141026/NEWS/141029610/10284/NEWS15Slater,M.R.,2007,‘Thewelfareofferalcats,’inIRochlitz(ed.),TheWelfareofCats,Springer,theNetherlands.16AustralianGovernmentDepartmentofSustainability,Environment,Water,PopulationandCommunities(ABARES),2011,‘Theferalcat(feliscatus)’.Availableat:https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/34ae02f7-9571-4223-beb0-13547688b07b/files/cat.pdf17NSWGovernmentDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,n.d.,‘Rabbitcontrol’.Availableat:http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/content/agriculture/pests-weeds/vertebrate-pests/pest-animals-in-nsw/rabbit-control.18“TheRSPCAbelievesthattheavailableevidenceindicatesthat,ingeneral,theeffectof1080onanimalsisnothumaneandisopposedtoitscontinueduseforthecontrolofpopulationsofintroducedornativespecies”.InJones,B.(ed.),2003,Proceedingsofthe2003RSPCAAustraliaScientificSeminarattheTelstraTheatre,AustralianWarMemorialCanberra,February2003.Availableat:https://www.rspca.org.au/sites/default/files/website/The-facts/Science/Scientific-Seminar/2003/SciSem2003-Proceedings.pdf.19NewZealandParliamentaryCommissionerfortheEnvironment,2011,‘Evaluatingtheuseof1080:predators,poisonsandsilentforests’.Availableat:http://www.pce.parliament.nz/media/1294/evaluating-the-use-of-1080.pdf.20Notman,P.,1989,‘Areviewofinvertebratepoisoningbycompound1080,’NewZealandEntomologist,vol.12,pp.67-71.21Nutter,F.B.,Levine,J.F.,andStoskopf,M.K.,2004,‘Reproductivecapacityoffree-roamingdomesticcatsandkittensurvivalrate,’JournalofAmericanVeterinaryMedicine,vol.225,no.9,pp.1399-1402.

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report,asmanyas60%ofapopulationneedstobekilledinordertohaveanymeaningfuleffect22.This,coupledwiththe75%ofkittenswhodonotsurvivetheirfirst6months,begsfurtherinvestigationintotheactualpercentages,populationdensitiesandtheefficacyofcurrentlyoperationalmethodsof“feral”catcontrolinNSW.

TheRSPCAconsidersthat“wherehumansmakeuseofanimalsorinterferewiththeirhabitat,theyshouldbestowalevelofcarebefittinghumandignityasrational,intelligent,compassionatebeings,andalevelofcaremeritedbythenatureoftheanimalasasentientcreaturecapableofrespondingtohumancareandattention.Suchcareshouldbemarkedbysympathy,consideration,compassionandtendernesstowardsanimals”23.Despitethis,theAustralianGovernmentandStateauthoritiesroutinelyignoreorpilloryprinciplesandpotentialprogramsinfavouroflethalcontrolmethods.

TNRprogramsworktominimisefree-roamingcatpopulationsandcoloniesthroughaseriesoftechniques,includingtrapping,veterinarysterilisation,andreleasebackintotheareatheywereinitiallylocated.TheUS-basednot-for-profitadvocacygroupAlleyCatAlliesmaintainsthatTNRis“theonlyeffectivemethodofstabilisingoutdoorcatcolonies”.Thismethodworkspreciselybecausewhenallcatsinacolonyaresterilised,theirreproductiveratesdropandeventuallyreachacompletehalt24.

Legally,thestatusofTNRismiredinconfusion25.Thereleasingofneuteredordesexedcatsbackintotheircoloniesmaybeconsideredanoffencerelatedtoabandonmentor“unlawfulliberation”26.In2014GreensmemberAlexGreenwichintroducedtotheLegislativeAssemblyasaPrivateMember’sBilltheAnimalWelfare(PopulationControlPrograms)Bill2014.TheBillmaintainsthatTNRiseffectiveindecreasingpopulationlevelsandconsequentlyisbeneficialtotheecosystem(echoingtheprofessedrationalebehindmanycontrolprograms).Thesecondreadingmaintainsthatevenifthiswerenotthecase(i.e.,ifTNRdidnoteffectivelylimitpopulationsize)itdoesnotincrease,andassuchthereisnoharminapplyingTNRprinciplesthatareproventobefarmorehumanethanotheroptions27.

Whilstithasbeenknownforsometimethattheoverpopulationofcompanionanimalsresultsinmillionsofdeatheveryyear28,itisoftennotacknowledgedthatthistoocostsmoney29.Of33,736catsadmittedtoRSPCAsheltersinQueenslandbetween2006and2008,themostcommonlydocumentedreasonwasthattheywere“stray”(54%).So-called“owner-surrender[ed]”catsfellslightlylowerat44%.Theoutcomeforeachoftheseadmissionswasmostofteneuthanasia(65%),withadoptionpeakingat30%.Crucially,theoddsofeuthanasiadroppedforcatsandkittensthatweredesexedpriortoarrival,andofthestraysadmittedonly8%hadbeensterilised(whetherthiswasthroughoneofthemanycurrentlyoperationalcatcolonycaregroupsisunknown).Althoughthemajorityofcatskeptascompanionsaredesexed(approximately90%),only34%ofcatssurrenderedtoRSPCAshelterswere,suggestingthattherearevitaldifferencesbetweenownerswhosurrendertheircompanionscomparedtothosewhodonot.Ofthecompanioncatsthatweredesexed,thereareindicationsthatupto20%reproducepriortosterilisation,producingupto2kittensbeforethis.Americanstudieshavefoundthatdespitesterilisationofcompanioncats,16%

22InvasiveSpeciesCouncil.2012,‘RecreationalhuntingNSW:claimsvfacts’.Availableat:http://invasives.org.au/files/2014/02/fs_rechunt_NSWvfacts.pdf23RSPCAAustralia,2009,‘RSPCAAustraliaanimalscharter,’citedinEllis,E.,2010,‘Theinfluenceofhistory,’HotTopics:LegalIssuesinPlainLanguage,vol.74.Availableat:http://www.legalanswers.sl.nsw.gov.au/hot_topics/pdf/animal_law_74.pdf.24AlleyCatAllies,2015,‘Trap-neuter-returneffectivelystabilisesandreducesferalcatpopulations,’Bethesda,Maryland.Availableat:http://www.alleycat.org/document.doc?id=70225Gotsis,T.,2014,‘Feralcats:dotrap-neuter-returnprogramswork?’NSWParliamentaryResearchService.26UnlawfulliberationislistedasanoffenceinbothNSWandSA.Halstead,B.,1994,‘WildlifelegislationinAustralia:traffickingprovisions,’AustralianInstituteofCriminology,Canberra,ACT.27https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/bills/DBAssets/bills/SecondReadSpeechLA/2821/2R%20Animal%20Welfare.pdf2815,491(31.5%)ofallcatsreceivedbyRSPCAsheltersareeuthanased,almostdoublethenumberofdogseuthanaseddespitethesimilarnumbersofanimalsreceived(45,954dogsand49,166cats).RSPCAAustralia,2014,‘RSPCAAustralianationalstatistics2013-2014’.Availableat:http://www.rspca.org.au/sites/default/files/website/The-facts/Statistics/RSPCA_Australia-Annual_Statistics_2013-2014.pdf29Frank,J.M.,andCarlisle-Frank,P.L.,2007,‘Analysisofprogramstoreduceoverpopulationofcompanionanimals:doadoptionandlow-costspay-neuterprogramsmerelycausesubstitutionofsources?’EcologicalEconomics,vol.62,pp.740-746.

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hadreproducedpriortodesexing30.Otherstudieshavefoundthatthenumberofsterilisedcatsthatreproducedpriortosterilisationisashighas24.7%31.Of103,643catsstudiedinseveralfree-roaming(stray)coloniesacrosstheUnitedStates,only2.3%hadbeensterilised32.ThepioneeringstudyofItaly’sTNRprogramsfoundthatupto21%ofeachcolonystudiedwasmadeupofcatsabandonedbyowners33.Forthisreason,ithasbeensuggestedthatprogramsthatincreasesterilisationofcompanioncats,combinedwitheffectivepublicinformationandawarenesscampaigns34,mayassistindecreasingthepopulationnumbersoffree-roamingcatcoloniesandsubsequentlyincreasetheefficacyofTNRprograms35.

Allthingsbeingequal(age,sex,neutering/spaying,feral/straystatus),thestraycatsadmittedtoRSCPAQLDshelterswerefoundtobemorelikelytobeadoptedthanthosesurrendered36.Ifpeopleare,asthedraftPestAnimalManagementReview(March2016)maintains,“acornerstoneofsuccessfulpestmanagement,”surelythisimpliesalevelofcollectiveresponsibilityandaccountability.Asthereportsdiscussedaboveconclude,newstrategiesarenecessarytoreducethenumbersofcatsadmitted(whetherthroughsurrenderortheirstraystatus)andsubsequentlyeuthanased.As“manycatsadmittedasstrayswererehomable,”providingthattheyweredesexed,thisclearlyimpliesthatfordeath-ratestosubstantiallyfallasystemofsterilisationappliedspecificallytostrayswouldalleviatethelevelsofeuthanasiawhilstsimultaneouslyminimisingthenumberofcatsinfree-roamingcolonies.UniversityofFloridaresearchers,whofoundthatoverthecourseofatwo-yearstudy,shelterintakesofcatsdroppedby66%inTNR“target”zones,haveeffectivelyprovedthisparticularhypothesis.Thiscomparedfavourablytoa12%declineinothernon-targetzones,andwasaccompaniedbya95%reductionineuthanasiaratesinthetargetzonecomparedto30%innon-targetzones37.This,inessence,isthegoalofTNR.

1.4TNRonuniversitycampuses

Asisthecaseinmanyoftheco-existingfeaturesofcatcontrolprograms,thesuccessorfailureofTNRhingesontheactionsandattitudesofthecommunity.Asthereisincreasingsupportforthehumanetreatmentandcontrolofso-called‘pest’animals,anumberofagencies,organisationsandgovernmentshaveopenlysupportedthismethod38.

TNRhasastrongsupportbaseintheUnitedStatesandbygovernmentalaccountsisagrowingtechniqueusedtoensurehumanetreatmentwithinAustralia39.Historically,attemptsandtrialsofTNRtechniqueshavebeenconductedonuniversitycampuseswithincreasinglevelsofsuccess40.A

30Marsh,P.,2010,ReplacingMythwithMath:UsingEvidence-BasedProgramstoEradicateShelterOverpopulation,TownandCountryReprographics,Inc.,NewHampshire.31Manning,M.M.,andRowan,A.N.,1992,‘Companionanimaldemographicsandsterilizationstatus:resultsfromasurveyinfourMassachusettstowns,’Anthrozoos,vol.5,no.3,pp.192-201.32Wallace,J.L.,andLevy,J.K.,2006,‘Populationcharacteristicsofferalcatsadmittedtoseventrap-neuter-returnprogramsintheUnitedStates,’JournalofFelineMedicineandSurgery,vol.8,pp.279-284.33Natoli,E.,Maraliano,L.,Cariola,G.,Faini,A.,Bonanni,R.,Cafazzo,S.,andFantini,C.,2006,‘ManagementofferaldomesticcatsintheurbanenvironmentofRome(Italy),’PreventativeVeterinaryMedicine,vol.77,no.3-4,pp.180-185.34Natoli,E.,Maraliano,L.,Cariola,G.,Faini,A.,Bonanni,R.,Cafazzo,S.,andFantini,C.,2006,‘ManagementofferaldomesticcatsintheurbanenvironmentofRome(Italy),’PreventativeVeterinaryMedicine,vol.77,no.3-4,pp.180-185.35Marsh,P.,2010,ReplacingMythwithMath:UsingEvidence-BasedProgramstoEradicateShelterOverpopulation,TownandCountryReprographics,Inc.,NewHampshire.36Alberthsen,C.,Rand,J.S.,Bennett,P.C.,Paterson,M.,Lawrie,M.,andMorton,J.M.,2013,‘CatadmissionstoRSPCAsheltersinQueensland,Australia:descriptionofcatsandriskfactorsforeuthanasiaafterentry,’AustralianVeterinaryJournal,vol.91,no.1-2,pp.35-42.37Levy,J.K.,Isaza,N.M.,andScott,K.C.,2014,‘Effectofhigh-impacttargetedtrap-neuter-returnandadoptionofcommunitycatsoncatintaketoashelter,’TheVeterinaryJournal,vol.201,pp.269-274.38TorontohasbylawsthatenableauthorisationofTNRprogramsthatincludesterilisationclinicsandmembershipintheTorontoFeralCatCoalition.Torontoalsoprovidesfreesterilisationforstraycatsontheprovisothataworkshopisattended(ortheownerhasalowincome)andthecolonyisregisteredwithAnimalServices.In2013,Toronto’smajorinaugurateda“FeralCatAwarenessDay”.Thisisapatternseenacrosstheworld,withmanystategovernmentsintheUSofferingTNRinitiativesanddiscountedorfreeveterinaryassistance.TheHumaneSocietyoftheUnitedStates(HSUS)supportsTNR.39Gotsis,T.,2014,‘Feralcats:dotrap-neuter-returnprogramswork?’NSWParliamentaryResearchService.

40Jones,A.L.,andDowns,C.T.,2011,‘Managingferalcatsonauniversity’scampuses:howmanyarethereandissterilizationhavinganeffect?’JournalofAppliedAnimalWelfareScience,vol.14,pp.304-320.

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1991TNRprogramconductedontheUniversityofCentralFloridacampus,forexample,ledtotheadoptionofclosetohalfofthecatslivingonuniversitygroundsoveran11-yearperiod41.AparticularlynotableexampleconcernstheUniversityofKwaZula-Natal’sHowardCollegeinSouthAfrica.Theareaisconsideredan“urbanconservancy”(habitatisvariedbetweenurbanzonesand“conservation-sensitivenaturalbushhabitat”).Despitethis,andinspiteoftheAustralianGovernmentandStateagenciespromotinglethalcontrolastheonlyefficaciousmethod,theresearchersofthisstudyexplicitlyrecommendedtheestablishmentof“asuitableandongoingsterilisationprogramme[…]runinconjunctionwithaferalcatfeedingprogramme”tomanagepopulationnumbers.Further,thestudyconcludesthateradicationprograms,particularlyinurbanareas,canresultina“vacuumeffect,”whereinnew“migrant”(abandoned)catsfillthenichethateradicationproducesandeffectively“encourage[s]subsequentreinvasionofthearea”42.ThisisparticularlyrelevanttotheAustraliancontext,asfree-roamingcatsareprefiguredtobemajorthreatstonativewildlife43.Thevalidityofthesubsequentcontainmentand/orlethaleradicationmeasures,rangingfromtrappingtopoisoning,areinthisinstanceseverelyweakened.Asfree-roamingcatsareconsideredtobeoneofsixselectspeciescausing“thegreatesteconomic,socialandenvironmentimpacts,”thepossibilitythattheirremovaloreradicationcouldcausesuchavacuumrequiresconsiderableattention(if,thatis,thetrueintentoftheproposedcontrolprogramsistoprotectnativespeciesand/orbiodiversity44).Asisstandardacrossalldiscussionsregardinganimalcontrolprogramsandtechniques,economicsisconsideredtobeayardstickuponwhichallotherelementsmaybemeasured.TheSouthAfricanexample,however,beliesthis:whilststerilisation(andTNRtechniques)mayrequirefinancialinputandsupport,thiscanprovetobelesscostlyinthelong-termandalsointermsofnegativenativewildlifeimpacts.If,aswehaveseen,free-roamingcatsaregenerallyunsterilized(withoutthesupportofgovernmentfundingorthepresenceofacommunitycatcaregroup),theirintroductionormigrationintosuchanenvironmentwouldprovemoredetrimentalthanthecostsofhumanelyminimisingtheirreproduction.TheSouthAfricancaseexemplifiesthedangersinfoolhardilyadoptinganinsufficientlyanalysedtechniquetothedetrimentofasound,humane,andeffectiveprogramprovenfunctionalandvalidoverbothtimeandplace.

1.5Casestudy:UNSWKensingtonCampusandInnerCityStrays

AnindicativecasethatoughttobeconsideredintheAustraliancontextistheUNSWKensingtoncampusTNRcampaign,which,inthephraseologyofthedraftPestAnimalManagementReviewinquestion,“set[s]aprecedentforNSWtobuildon”.Thecampushadahistoryoffree-livingcatcolonies.Beforeitwasauniversity,itwasaracecoursewithracingstablesandthecatswerekepttocontrolrodentpopulationlevels(routinely,suchpopulationsarenotadequatelyfedtokeepthecatsundernourishedandthusmoreliabletopredation).UntilattemptsweremadeusingTNR,thepopulationwaslargelyuncontrolled.In2000,theCampusCatCoalition(CCC)wasformedandappliedTNRprinciples,incombinationwitharosteredcat-feedingprogram.Thisattemptfailed,however,primarilyduetointernaloppositionwithintheuniversityandalackoffundingandsupport.Priortothis(2007-08),anumberofkittenswerefounddeadintheuniversityenvirons,withmanyotherssufferingseverefleainfestations.Asacontrolmethod,trappinganderadicationwaspursuedonthegroundsthatthecolonypresentedanOHSrisktostaffandstudentsoncampus.InJuneof2008,theCCCapproachedtheuniversityOHScommitteetopresentthecaseforahumaneapproachtotheperceivedproblem.

TheCCCadvocatedaTNRprogramtobesupplementedbyongoingmedicalcareandtheimplementationofaregistrysystemwithmicrochippingtobecarriedoutonatrialbasisforoneyear

41Levy,J.K.,Gale,D.W.,andGale,L.A.,2003,‘Evaluationoftheeffectofalong-termtrap-neuter-returnandadoptionprogramonafree-roamingcatpopulation,’JournaloftheAmericanVeterinaryMedicalAssociation,vol.222,pp.42-46.42Tennent,J.,Downs,C.T.,andBodasing,M.,2009,‘Managementrecommendationsforferalcat(Feliscatus)populationswithinanurbanconservancyinKwaZulu-Natal,SouthAfrica,’SouthAfricanJournalofWildlifeResearch,vol.39,no.2,pp.137-142.43TheReviewmaintains,forexample,that“catsalonethreaten[…]36mammalspeciesnationally”andendorsestheirinclusionwithinthe“pest”animalcategorybaseduponthis.44Thisconclusionistenuous.Formoreinformation,seeSection3(alternativestolethalcontrolmethods).

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(withdefinedgoalsandtargetsculminatingina12-monthreview).Theimplementationoftheregistrycoupledwithmicrochippingenabledcertaintyofthenumberofcatsintheuniversitycolony(monitoring).This“experiment”inTNRresultedinareductionofcatnumbers(77>30),with93%ofallcatsdesexedand100%offemalecatssuccessfullydesexed.Theaccompanyingsystemofvolunteerfeedingprogramsandrosteringgrewastheprojectdevelopedwithselectretailersprovidingdonatedcatfoodtobeusedbystudentfeeders(collaboration).Aneffectivecommunityeducationprogramaidedthesuccessoftheproject,utilisingacampuswebsiteandpublishingofarticlesinuniversitypublicationsandwebsitepages,aswellasholdingaforumaimedatattractingvolunteers.ACatWorkingGroupwasinitiatedoncampusthatworksincooperationwithuniversitystafftofacilitatepositiveinteractionsandmitigatepotentialproblems.Sincethiswasinitiated,complaintsregardingthecatsoncampusfelltozero.Throughthesemethods,andtheaccompanyingdevelopmentofsocialnetworksandveterinarysupport,CampusCatsNSWhasbecomearegisteredbusiness,endorsedbytheAustralianCharitiesandNot-for-profitsCommission(ACNC)asacharitywithtaxdeductibility.

Morerecently,theSydney-basednot-for-profitassociationandcharityInnerCityStrayshasreceivedagrantfundedbytheCityofSydneyunderitsResponsiblePetOwnershipschemetoinitiateahumaneprogramtodecreasethenumberofstraycatswithininner-citySydney45.ThisisthefirstinitiativeofitskindinNSW,andthroughafour-monthinitialtrial,40straykittenswerecaught,desexed,vaccinated,treatedforworms,fleas,andcommonillnesses(allsubsidisedbytheCityofSydney)andfinallyadopted.Thisstate-sponsoredcampaign,accordingtoanofficialCityofSydneydocument,hastheeffectofreducingthenumberofcatsby320inasingleyear,and1,200withintwoyears“withoutanyanimalsbeingculled”46.Ultimately,thesuccessofthepilotprogramledtheCitytosupplementandextendtheprogram,inlinewiththeno-killpolicyexplicitlyadopted.Critically,thiscampaignwasintroducedasadirectresponsetotheStateGovernment’splantocullapproximatelytwomillionstraycatsby2020.Tothisend,veterinaryhospitalsandlocalorganisations,includingInnerCityStrays,havesupportedtheinitiativethrougharescueandre-homingstrategy.Additionally,theCityofSydney,incollaborationwithInnerCityStrays,CommunityCatCarers,andtheCatProtectionSociety,operateeducationworkshopsaimedatpromotinghumaneandeffectivemanagementofstraycatpopulations.Throughthisscheme,attendeesareentitledtoreducedratedesexingaspartoftheCity’sferalcatmanagementproject(acollaborationbetweenAlexandriaVeterinaryHospital,CommunityCatCarers,InnerCityStrays,andtheCatProtectionSocietyandfundedbytheNSWOfficeofLocalGovernment)47.

Theseinitiatives,supportedbystatefunding,arecurrentlyworkingunderhumaneprinciplestoachievegoalsthatdonotrequireresortingtolethalcontrolmeasuressuchasthoseadvocatedbytheReview.Tellingly,theReviewfailstomentionanyofthesecampaigns,andinsteadfocusesupontechniquesthatareinherentlyinhumaneandcauseundueandunnecessarysufferingandinevitablyresultinentirelyavoidabledeaths.FortheReviewtoproposetheutilisationofwhollygratuitouslethalformsofcontrolmeasuresdespitethefactthatcurrentandongoingcampaigns48disproveitsrequirementsandefficacypatentlyinvalidatesitsrecommendations.

1.6Theuseofpoisonsasamethodtocontrolfree-roamingcats

TheReviewclaimsthatpoisonbaitsare“generallythecheapestandmosteffectivebroadscaletechniqueforcontrolofferalpredators,”includingfree-roamingcats.Further,theReviewmaintainsthattheAustralianGovernmenthasheavilysubsidised“theresearchanddevelopmentofahumaneandtargetspecificbait[Curiosity]suitablyforthecontrolofferalcats”.TheReviewalsocallsfor

45CityofSydney,2016,‘City’spurrfectsolutiontostraycatproblem,’mediarelease,April14.Availableat:http://www.sydneymedia.com.au/citys-purrfect-solution-to-stray-cat-problem/46Ibid.47CityofSydney,n.d.,‘Feralcatmanagementproject’.Availableat:http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/live/animals/living-with-pets-in-the-city/adopt-a-pet48Forthepurposesofthissubmission,focusisuponaselectportionofamuchwiderarrayofcommunityinitiativesworkingtoutilisehumaneprinciplesineffortstoreducestraycatcolonypopulationlevels.

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furtherresearchpredicatedonexploiting“thecleaninghabitsofcats”inordertodeliverlethaltoxins(thisispresumablyacalltoinstigateatrapping/poisoningtechnique,althoughthisisnotexplicitlydiscussedwithintheReview).Additionally,theCommonwealthThreatAbatementPlanforPredationbyFeralCats(2008)doesnotrefertoTNR.Instead,its“veryhighpriority”istodevelop“aneffectivetoxicbaitforferalcats,onethatisdesignedtobeeatenbycatsbutnotbyotheranimals”.Thisisentirelyunnecessaryandineffective.ThisformoflethalcontrolissettorelyonCuriosity,apoisonbaitcontainingparaminopropiophenone(PAPP)“developedwithinvestmentfromtheCommonwealth,VictorianandWesternAustralianGovernment”49andchampionedasamarketablesaviourfornativeAustraliananimals50.Itis,theReviewnotes,expectedtoberegisteredforuseinAustraliaby2016andisconsideredtobe“morehumane”than1080.TheCuriositybait,however,issimplytheEradicatbaitwithaHardShellDeliveryVehicle(HSDV)andinjectedwith1080poison51.HSDVisahardcoatingappliedtotoxinsthatenableinsertionintobaits52.PAPP,whenabsorbedintothebloodstreamafteringestion,causesmethaemoglobinaemia.Thisdecreasesthebody’sabilitytofunction,primarilyresultinginalackofoxygentothecardiacmuscleandbrain.Whilstthiscausesunconsciousnesspriortodeath,thepoisoncantakeupto125minutestocausedeath.Thishasledresearcherstoconcludethatitis“humaneincomparisontoavailabletoxins”53.Whetherasmallerdegreeofsuffering,orahigherdegreeofcomparativehumaneness,iswherewearewillingtocedewhatisstillaprolongeddeathsteepedinsuffering,shouldbethesubjectoffurtheranalysisanddetailedstudy.If,asthissegmentacknowledges,theuseofpoisonisgenerallyknowntocauseseveresufferingandcanthusbecharacterisedaspatentlyinhumane,thedearthofresponsibleresearchintoalternativesisgrosslynegligent.

TheReviewacknowledgesthat“totalmainlanderadication”maybethe“idealgoal,”itiscurrentlynotachievablewith“currentresourcesandtechniques”.Itappears,then,thatalternativesoughttobeaddressedandthatsuchalternativesshouldbenotonlytakenseriously,butalsoactivelyassessedtoascertainwhichmethodismostsuitedtoachievecontrolprogramgoalswhilstsimultaneouslymeetingessentialwelfarecriteria.Action1.7oftheferalcatThreatAbatementPlanconsiders“humanekillingmethods,”includingshootingandlethalinjection,andnotesthatwherethesemethodsareunavailableorconsideredeithertooexpensiveorinhumane,newtechniquesarerequired.Tothisend,thePlanadvocatestheuseofmonitoringtechniques(morediscussionontheimplementationofthePestsmartFeralscantechnologywillbeprovidedbelow),yetshiesawayfromadvocatingnon-lethalmethods.

Curiosity(PAPP)hasbeenfieldtestedinSouthAustralia’sFlindersRangesNationalPark.Twentycatsweretrapped,monitoredwithatrackingcollar,andreleased.Twocatsdiedafteringestingthebait,yettwoingestedthebaitandsurvived54.Thestudyfoundthatmiceconstitutedthestapleofthecatsdiet,andclaimsthatCuriositybaitsdecreasedthepopulationby50%.Further,thereportadmitsthatcatstypicallypreferliveprey,andtheirinstinctmayessentiallydecreasethebaitsefficacy(“theabundanceoflivepreyatthisstudysitemayhavecontributedtotheapparentlowlevelsofbaituptakebyferalcats”).Further,thereportattemptedtovalidatetheefficacyofthepoisonbaitbyanalysingthepopulationlevelsofbirdspecies.Whilstanominaldecreasewasapparent,this,thereportacknowledges,islikelytobeduetothe“highlymobile”natureofthebirdinquestion(Aquila

49Gotsis,T.,2014,‘Feralcats:dotrap-neuter-returnprogramswork?’NSWParliamentaryResearchService.50Arup,T.,andPhillips,N.,2014,‘‘Curiosity’:thecat-killingbaittoprotectnativespecies,’theSydneyMorningHerald,July2.Availableat:http://www.smh.com.au/environment/animals/curiosity-the-catkilling-bait-to-protect-native-species-20140701-zssij.html51Johnston,M.,Algar,D.,O’Donoghue,M.,andMorris,J.,2011,‘FieldefficacyoftheCuriosityferalcatbaitonthreeAustralianislands,’inCRVeitch,MNClout,andDRTowns(eds.),IslandInvasives:EradicationandManagement,IUCN,Switzerland;WesternAustralianDepartmentofEnvironmentandConservation,2011,‘FieldtrialtocomparebaitingefficacyofEradicatandCuriositybaits’.Availableat:https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive-species/publications/field-trial-compare-baiting-efficacy-eradicat-and-curiosity-baits;AustralianGovernmentDepartmentoftheEnvironment,2015,‘Threatabatementplanforpredationbyferalcats’.Availableat:http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/tap/predation-feral-cats52Quinn,J.,Johnston,M.,Algar,D.,andO’Donoghue,M.,2010,‘Curiositybait,’inCLane,ABengsen,andEMurphy(eds.),ProceedingsoftheNationalFeralCatManagementWorkshop,30thNovember2010,InvasiveAnimalsCooperativeResearchCentre,NSW.53Murphy,E.C.,Shapiro,L.,Hix,S.,MacMorran,D.,andEason,C.T.,2011,‘Controlanderadicationofferalcats:fieldtrialsofanewtoxin,’inCRVeitch,MNClout,andDRTowns(eds.),IslandInvasives:EradicationandManagement,IUCN,Switzerland.54Johnston,M.,Gigliotti,F.,O’Donoghue,M.,Holdsworth,M.,Robinson,S.,Herrod,A.,andEklom,K.,2012,‘FieldassessmentoftheCuriositybaitformanagementofferalcatsinthesemi-aridzone(FlindersRangesNationalPark),’ArthurRylahInstituteforEnvironmentalResearch,technicalreportseriesno.234.

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audax–wedge-tailedeagle).Alarmingly,fromawelfareandhumanestandpoint,“pentrials”werealsoconducted.Thisinvolvedcaptiveferalanimals(i.e.trappedwildanimals)beingadministeredthepoisonsoresearcherscouldascertainitsefficacy.ThisresearchwasapprovedandgrantedapermitbytheAustralianGovernment’sPesticidesandVeterinaryMedicinesAuthority,yetbegsthequestionwhyongoingstudiesspecificallyaimingtoimprovethefeasibilityandefficacyoflethalcontrolmethodsareconsistentlyelectedoverhumane,non-lethaltechniques.Apossibleexplanationisthatuntileffectiveandactionablealternativesareconsideredthecurrentlyemployedtechniques,regardlessoftheirqualityandefficacy,willcontinuetobeapplied.ThissentimentwasencapsulatedinanRSPCAassessmentofcurrentanimalcontrolmethods,withastakeholderexplaining,“theretentionofeffectivevertebratepestmanagementtechniques[…][isneeded]untilmorehumanealternativesaredeveloped”55.TheReview,inpart,acknowledgesthis(concerningthecontrolofspeciestargetedonorganicfarms,wherethefarmermaynotwishtosubjecttheirsystemtochemicals,“theycanadoptanalternativeapproachsuchastrapping”–again,nomentionismadeofTNRtechniques).Thus,theReviewconcedesthatalternativesareavailable,andexplicitlyincludesinitsrecommendationconcerningcatmanagementtheneedfor“continuedresearchintothescale,efficiency,cost-effectiveness,sustainability,andriskofcatcontrolmethods”(Recommendation17).YetthisisasfarastheReviewiswillingtogo.Again,thisisgrosslynegligent.

Furthermore,theReviewincludesasectionexpresslyrelatingtotheimprovementofthe“knowledgebase”regardingresearchcapacities(Recommendation26).ThislatterrecommendationcallsupontheNSWGovernmentto“commitlong-termfunding”foranimalcontrolresearch,includingthosetargetingcats(Recommendation26,iv(d)).Ultimately,however,thereportconcludesthatpoisonbaitingismostefficaciouswhendistributedatatimewhen“alternativefoodsources”(thatis,foodthatispartoftheanimalspreferredornaturaldiet)areindecline.Howthisscenariocanbeachieved,however,isnotmentioned(briefmentionofenvironmentalorhabitatalterationisdiscussed,howeverthisisnotaddressedinsufficientdetailtoenableanevaluativecomment).Noristhepossibleramificationsstemmingfromthelossofpredationbycatsonthemousepopulationaddressed.Itishard,ifnotimpossible,toreconcilethevaluesespousedbythecommunitywiththemethodscurrentlyutilisedorunderconsiderationbytheNSWGovernmentinattemptstocontrolcatnumbers.

1.7Ethicsandthedemandforhumanetreatment

ThedraftPestAnimalManagementReview(March2016)maintainsthatsolutionstotheburdenofso-called“pest”animalsrequires“sharedresponsibility,investment,action,andaccountability”.Thisistrue.ThereportdrawsonthepassingoftheBiosecurityBill2015,citingitasanopportunitytofacilitateconsistentregulationstomanagewildanimalpopulationsandtheirimpacts.

Effectivenessislistedasaprimaryconcerninanydiscussionofmanagementprograms,spanningacrossspeciesandtechniques.Alsoofprimaryimportance,accordingtoaNSWGovernment2014researchreport,aretheethicalfactorstherein.ThereportquotesEllis,citingthefactthat“they[feralcats,andallotherso-called“pest”species]aresentientcreatures,”andarguesthatthe“applicationofdifferentstandardstothecontrolof‘feral’animalsor‘pests’isinconsistentwithamoralobligationbasedonthecapacitytosuffer”56.ThisistheessenceoftheconcernregardingthelackofwelfareconsiderationsintrinsicinAustralia’swildanimalcontrolprograms(formoreonthis,seeSections3and4).

OneofthemethodsthedraftReviewendorsesisdata-mapping.TheThreatAbatementPlanforPredationbyFeralCats(2015)alsoendorses“monitoringtechnologies”thataggregatedata

55HumaneVertebratePestControlWorkingGroup,2004,ANationalApproachTowardsHumaneVetrebreatePestControl,discussionpaperarisingfromtheproceedingsofanRSPCAAustralia/AWC/VPCjointworkship,August4-5,Melbourne.RSPCAAustralia,Canberra.55Sharp,T.,2012,‘StandardOperatingProcedure,PIG002:Aerialshootingofferalpigs,’InvasiveAnimalsCRC.Availableat:http://www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/PIG002_aerial-shooting_web.pdf56Gotsis,T.,2014,‘Feralcats:dotrap-neuter-returnprogramswork?’NSWParliamentaryResearchService.

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compiledbyandavailabletothepublic57.This,itappears,isthe“sharedresponsibility”alludedtointheReview.

Data-mappingandtechnologygearedtowardscompilingreservesofactionableinformationraiseanumberofconcernsregardingnotonlytheefficacyofsuchmethodology,butalsoissuesofwelfareandaccountability.ThePestsmartFeralscanwebsiteandsmartphoneappareadvertisedasawayto“mapsightingsofpestanimalsandrecordproblemstheyarecausinginyourlocalarea”58.DevelopedbytheInvasiveAnimalsCRC,withfundingfromtheAustralianGovernment,thetechnologybillsitselfasa“citizensurveillance”initiativeusinga“citizenscienceapproach”59that“empower[s]thecommunity60,”andendeavoursto“protectAustralia’sthreatenedwildlife”61.Thetechnologyisdividedintospeciessubsections62.Thepublicisencouragedtoreportsightings,withinformationlistingthedate,thespeciesseen,andthenumberofanimalswitnessed.Immediately,thisraisesanumberofquestions.PreliminaryinvestigationsconductedbyAnimalLiberationhaveuncoveredinstancesofdocumentedkillinglinkedtothistechnology.AsocialmediapagevisitedbycitizensacrossthecountryactivelyencouragestheuseofFeralScanessentiallyasahuntingplatform,withphotographsanddescriptionsofthemethodsemployed,theresults,andadviceforothers.Locallandholders,incollaborationwithTuckombilLandcare(NSW)andtheNorthCoastLocalLandServices(LLS),formedawilddoglethalbaitingprogram,beginninginAprilof2015.ByDecemberthegrouphadpoisoned70wilddogs,openlyconfessingthattheyuseFeralScan63(whethersimilargroupsareutilisingthetechnologyforthecontrolofcatsiscurrentlyunknown).FortherecommendationsofthedraftReviewtomeetitsowncriteriaforsuccess,accountabilitymustbeensured.Thisguidingprinciplehasemphaticallynotbeenmet.Throughthewebsiteorapp,anymemberofthecommunitycanessentially“mark”anyanimalseenwhichfallsunderthesubcategoriesof“targeted”species(thisraisesissuesofnon-targetanimalswithinatargetspeciesbeing“mapped”asavailableandsuitableforcontrol).

AspresidentandfounderofAlleyCatAllies,anAmericanbasedorganisationthatadvocatesTNR,BeckyRobinsonhasargued,theappessentiallyallowsyou,“ifyoudon’thavethestomachforkillingcats,youcanletotherskillthemforyou”64.

1.8Issuesrelatingtodata-mappingtechnology:Pestsmart’sFeralscan

Itisunclearwhetherthisencouragementandfacilitationofdocumentinglocationsofstraycatstobeeuphemistically“managed”(read:killed)constitutesincitementundertheCommonwealthCriminalCode1995(s11.4).TheNSWLawReformCommission’sreportoncomplicityrecommendedthattheoffenceofincitementbeextendedtocover“actsofassistanceaswellasofencouragement”65.Whilsttherearenocommonlyhelddefinitionsofwhatconstitutesanactofincitement,theprovisionconcerningpublication(throughmediaandwebsites)“addressedtotheworldatlarge”canbeconsideredincitementandengenderaconviction“ifitisdistributedinsuchawayastobelikelytocomeintothehandsofthosecapableofcommittingtheincitedoffense(althoughnotaddressedtoanyoneinparticular)”.Asthewebsiteandapparebothopenlyavailable57AustralianGovernmentDepartmentoftheEnvironment,2015,‘Threatabatementplanforpredationbyferalcats’.Availableat:http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/tap/predation-feral-cats58http://www.pestsmart.org.au/feralscan/59NoxiousWeedsAdvisoryCommittee,2012,‘Keymeetingoutcomes:meeting55heldon27November2012’.Availableat:https://www.nswfarmers.org.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/30514/FS-NWAC-55-Key-Meeting-Outcomes.pdf60Mitchell-Whittington,A.,2016,‘Newonlinetoolincanetoadcontrol,’BrisbaneTimes,February9.Availableat:http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/new-online-tool-in-cane-toad-control-20160209-gmprbk.html61http://www.feralscan.org.au/feralcatscan/default.aspx62AsofMay2016,speciesincludedarerabbits,dogs,cats,foxes,pigs,mynas,mice,camels,goats,toads,fish,andstarlings.63‘Ahowlingsuccess:Tuckombilgetswilddogsundercontrol,’2015,LandcareinFocus.http://www.landcareonline.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Landcare-in-Focus-pp1-6.pdf

64Robinson,B.,2015,‘Thecatandtheapp:howtechnologydownunderiskillingcats,’theHuffingtonPost.Availableat:http://www.huffingtonpost.com/becky-robinson/the-cat-and-the-app-how-t_b_8785438.html65Encouragement,accordingtotheNSWLawReformCommissionreport,include“command,request,propose,advise,induce,persuade,authorise,urge,andthreatenorpressureanothertocommitanoffense”.NSWGovernment,2010,‘Report129:complicity,’NewSouthWalesLawReformCommission.Availableat:http://www.lawreform.justice.nsw.gov.au/Documents/r129_final_v02.pdf

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toallmembersofthepublic,thiscriterionisplainlymet.Further,underthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimalsAct(POCTA),aperson“shallnotcommitanactofcruelty,authorisesuchanactorfailtotakereasonablecaretopreventanactofcruelty,failtotakestepstoalleviatepainwherecrueltyisbeinginflictedand,wherenecessary,provideveterinarytreatment”66.ActsthatareprohibitedunderPOCTAincludeabandonment,poisoning,baiting,andtrap-shooting67.POCTAintendstoensurethatpeople“treattheanimalinahumanemanner”and“ensurethewelfareoftheanimal”68.Cruelty,ascodifiedunderPOCTA,referstoanactinwhichtheanimalis“unreasonably,unnecessarilyorunjustifiably:(a)beaten,kicked,killed,woundedpinioned,mutilated,maimed,abused,tormented,tortured,terrified,orinfuriated”or“(d)inflictedwithpain”.EachofthesecriterionsismetthroughthepossibleincitementprovisionundertheCriminalCodeandassociatedsectionsofPOCTA.TheActprovidesforcriminalprosecutionandsetspenalties,includingfinesandimprisonment(poisoningananimalcarriesamaximumfineof$22,500andupto2yearsimprisonment)69.

CatsareincludedunderSchedule3(Part2)oftheGameandFeralAnimalControlAct2002asgameanimals“livinginthewild”.UnderthisAct,theterm“hunt”isdefinedasactivelysearching,pursuing,trailing,stalking,ordrivingoutananimal“inordertocaptureorkill”.Alicenseisrequiredtohuntgameanimalsonprivatelands,yetisnotrequiredif“apersonishuntingananimallistedinPart2ofSchedule3onprivateland”.WhilsttheRSPCAanditsinvestigatorsarefurnishedwithpowerstosearch,enterproperty,andexamineorseizeanimalsunderPOCTA,itisdifficulttoascertainhowthisregulatorymechanismfunctionswhenconsideringthebroadandanonymousnatureofthePestsmartFeralscantechnology.TheevidentdisconnectbetweencurrentlegislationandtherecommendationsandadviceprovidedbybothGovernmentsandgovernmentalagenciesrequiresfurtherinvestigation,withtransparencyoffindingsandaclearandcogentmechanismenablingtheenforcementoftheseprovisionsunsulliedbyeitherinstitutionalorindividualdesirestolaunchcampaignscentreduponanimalmanagement.

1.9CaseStudy:IsraelandItalianLawNo.281(1991)

Forover50years,straycatsweredestroyedinIsraelwithnodiscernibleornotabledifferenceinpopulationnumbers70.PressurefromtheIsraeliCatWelfareSocietyandwelfareorganisationspushedfortheapplicationofTNRtoeffectivelyensurehumanetreatment.Since1997,theIsraeliSupremeCourthasmandatedthat“themasskillingofdogsandcats[is]notpermitted”andthateachcase,orcomplaint,mustbeindividuallyevaluated.Additionally,theCourtannouncedthatnon-lethalmethods,includingTNR,shouldbeutilised.Tothisend,IsraelimunicipalitiesandtheMinistryofAgricultureandRuralDevelopmentannuallyinvestmillionsintoTNRcampaignsconductedwiththeassistanceofcommunitymembers71.

Similarly,Italianlawimplementedano-killpolicyforfree-roaming(stray)catsin1991withTNRfunctioningastheprimarycontrolmethodutilised72,makingitthefirstofitskindintheworld.InItaly,TNRprogramsareconsidered“themostpractical,effectiveandhumanewayforcontrolling

66TheLawSocietyofNewSouthWales,2010,AnimalLawGuide:NewSouthWales.Availableat:https://www.lawsociety.com.au/cs/groups/public/documents/internetyounglawyers/420246.pdf67Ibid.68PreventionofCrueltytoAnimalsAct1979.Availableat:http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/inforce/af92116f-7d2d-60a9-f731-9dacdd705d05/1979-200.pdf69TheLawSocietyofNewSouthWales,2010,AnimalLawGuide:NewSouthWales.Availableat:https://www.lawsociety.com.au/cs/groups/public/documents/internetyounglawyers/420246.pdf70Slater,M.R.,2007,‘Thewelfareofferalcats,’inIRochlitz(ed.),TheWelfareofCats,Springer,theNetherlands.71Gunther,I.,Raz,T.,Zor,Y.E.,Bachowski,Y.,andKlement,E.,2016,‘Feedersoffree-roamingcats:personalcharacteristics,feedingpractices,anddataoncathealthandwelfareinanurbansettingofIsrael,’FrontiersinVeterinaryScience,vol.3,no.21.72UnderNationalLawNo.281(1991)catsareconsideredtohave“therighttolivefree[andbe]protectedandcannotbemovedfromtheircolony,”mustbe“surgicallyneutered[bythecooperatingveterinaryservice]and[be]reintroducedintheircolony”.Underthelaw,carersbecomeinstitutionalisedfigureswhoaregranted“theofficialassignmentofthemanagementofacatcolonyifthelocalVPS[VeterinaryPublicServices]andtheofficefortheanimalwelfareagree”(Natoli,E.,Maragliano,L.,Cariola,G.,Faini,A.,Bonanni,R.,Cafazzo,S.,andFantini,C.,2006,‘ManagementofferaldomesticcatsintheurbanenvironmentofRome(Italy),’PreventiveVeterinaryMedicine,vol.77,pp.180-185).

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free-roamingcats”73.Thisuniqueinstanceenabledthefirstcriticalassessmentofa“nationallymandatedTNRcampaign”74.WhilstmoststudiesevaluatingtheefficacyofTNR,adecade-long2006surveyanalysed103distinctcoloniesandconcludedthatthecampaignsawadecreaseincatnumbers,beforenotingthat“catimmigration”(primarilyabandonment)raisedpopulationlevelsbyupto21%.Yetagain,itisprimarilyduetocommunitynon-cooperationorlackofcommunitysupportoreducationthatseearelativedeclineintheefficacyofTNRcampaigns.AsthetrueeffectsofTNRcampaignsmaynotbeseenuntil2yearsafterinitiation75,theactionsofcommunitymemberscanbeconsideredcounterproductiveandharmfultothepublicandinstitutionalresponsetoTNRefforts.Thecontrolandeffectivemanagementofcompanioncatreproductioniscitedas“crucial”toachievingcontroloffree-roamingcatpopulationlevels76.NoneofthesecanbeconsideredindictmentsofTNRprinciplesoreffectiveness.

TNRprograms,inandofthemselves,canbeeffectivewhenappliedinconjunctionwithcommunityeducation/informationcampaignstoalleviatetheriskofundoingtheachievementsfacilitatedthroughTNR.Thepublic,astheoriginalItalianassessmentpapermaintains,mustbemadeawayoftheneedforbettermanagementofcompanionanimalfertilityandoughttobe“matchedwithaneffectiveeducationalcampaigndirectedtocitizenstoreducethehighriskofowned-catabandonment”.TheAustralianRSPCA,whilstnotopenlyendorsingTNRandclaimingthatitisrather“difficulttorecommend,”notesthatforittobesuccessfulitwouldneedtobe“wellmanaged”andhave“sufficientresourcestocontinueovertime”77.This,however,istrueofallcurrentlyoperationalcontrolprogramsandtechniques.TheprimarycauseofTNRprogramsfailingtoachieveresultsappearstobelackofcommitmentbygovernmentandgovernmentalagencies,limitedfundingandresources,andadistinctlackofstructuralsupport78.Simplyclaimingthatamethodisineffectualwithoutresourcesandmanagementistosaythattheproblemwillnotsolveitself.Theillegaldumpingofunwantedcatsandstraycatsbeingattractedtofoodprovidedtoneuteredcolonycatsareknownto“offsetreductionsincatnumberscausedbydeathandadoption,”adefiningfeatureofmanyTNRprograms79.TheItalianstudyconcluded,“Subsidisedneuteringforownedpetcatsmightbelessexpensive[thanlethalmethods]inthelongrun”80.

1.10Conclusion

TheThreatAbatementPlanforPredationbyFeralCats(2015)[henceforth‘thePlan’]considersshootingasexpensive,labourintensiveandtimeconsuming,yetincludesnomentionofhumane-ness(forfurtherdiscussiononhumanenessandwelfareconcernsseesection3andsection4).Curiosity,meanwhile,isendorsedashavinga“greaterlevelofhumaneness,”andexpresslydesignedforuseinenvironmentswherenon-targetspeciesarelocated(formoreinformationonthepossibleissuesrelatedtothisseesection3.1.1).ThePlanalsoconsiderotherpotentialtechniques,includingtheuseofanencapsulatedtoxintobeimplantedeitherdirectlyinto,oroncollars,ofthreatenedspecies,andproposesaconceptof“exploiting”so-called“majorlandscapemodifiers”(Action1.4).

73Natoli,E.,Maragliano,L.,Cariola,G.,Faini,A.,Bonanni,R.,Cafazzo,S.,andFantini,C.,2006,‘ManagementofferaldomesticcatsintheurbanenvironmentofRome(Italy),’PreventiveVeterinaryMedicine,vol.77,pp.180-18574Natoli,E.,Maragliano,L.,Cariola,G.,Faini,A.,Bonanni,R.,Cafazzo,S.,andFantini,C.,2006,‘ManagementofferaldomesticcatsintheurbanenvironmentofRome(Italy),’PreventiveVeterinaryMedicine,vol.77,pp.180-185;Schmidt,P.M.,Swannack,T.M.,Lopez,R.R.,andSlater,M.R.,2009,‘Evaluationofeuthanasiaandtrap-neuter-return(TNR)programsinmanagingfree-roamingcatpopulations,’WildlifeResearch,vol.36,pp.117-125.

75Natoli,E.,Maragliano,L.,Cariola,G.,Faini,A.,Bonanni,R.,Cafazzo,S.,andFantini,C.,2006,‘ManagementofferaldomesticcatsintheurbanenvironmentofRome(Italy),’PreventiveVeterinaryMedicine,vol.77,pp.180-18576Ibid.77RSPCAAustralia,2014,‘Whatistrap-neuter-returnandisitanappropriatestrategyforthemanagementofunownedcats’.Availableat:http://kb.rspca.org.au/What-is-trap-neuter-return-and-is-it-an-appropriate-strategy-for-the-management-of-unowned-cats_462.html.78Slater,M.R.,2007,‘Thewelfareofferalcats,’inIRochlitz(ed.),TheWelfareofCats,Springer,theNetherlands.79Winter,L.,2004,‘Trap-neuter-releaseprograms:therealityandtheimpacts,’JournalofVeterinaryMedicineAmerica,vol.225,no.9,pp.1369-1376.

80Natoli,E.,Maragliano,L.,Cariola,G.,Faini,A.,Bonanni,R.,Cafazzo,S.,andFantini,C.,2006,‘ManagementofferaldomesticcatsintheurbanenvironmentofRome(Italy),’PreventiveVeterinaryMedicine,vol.77,pp.180-185

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These“modifiers,”thePlansuggests,canbe“usedormanipulatedtoexertadditionalcontrolpressureonferalcats”.

Ascatsarenotconsidered“pests”inallstateandterritorylegislationthePlanseekslegislativeamendmentsto“minimiseanyadministrativeburdensonlandmanagersundertakingferalcatcontrolprograms”.Ultimately,thedraftReviewunderconsiderationeffectivelynegatesthepossibilityofutilisingTNRtechniquesonthespuriousrationalethatlethalmethodsprovemorevaluableandcost-effective.Recall,however,theSouthAfricanuniversitycase.ClassifyingTNRandother“non-lethalmeans”as“impractical,”thedraftReviewconsiderspoisonbaitstobethe“cheapestandmosteffectivebroadscaletechniqueforcontrolofferalpredators”andadvocatesthedevelopmentofnewtechniquesthat“exploitthecleaninghabitsofcatstodelivertoxins”(asuggestionthatisalsoadvisedbythePlan).ItistheopinionofAnimalLiberationthatthecurrentcontrolcampaignstargeting“feral”catsisnotonlyineffectualcomparedtoothertechniques,itisliabletobelesscost-effectiveandincludefarlessnegativewelfareimplications.ThisisaviewupheldbyagrowingrangeofindependentandempiricalstudiesintotheefficacyofTNRtechniquesandprograms,outlinedherewithexamplesandstatisticalevidence.FortheReviewtobeacceptabletothewidercommunity,thesealternativesmustbeapproachedwiththesamevigourandenthusiasmthatthecurrenttechniquesaregranted.

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2Carp

2.1OverviewoftherecommendationsprovidedwithintheReview

TheReviewacknowledgesthatcarpwereintroducedintoAustraliainthe1860s,yetdidnotpresentathreatuntilthe1970swhenfloodingadverselyaffectedtheMurray-DarlingBasinand“sawtheirnumbersexplode”.Asaresultofthis,carp(alongwithrabbits,pigs,foxes,dogs,goatsandselectspeciesofbirds),arethoughttorepresentanannualcostof$170million.Carpaloneareconsideredtopresentacostofapproximately$9millionayearinNSWalone.This,itshouldbenoted,isbasedonasinglestudyestimate(McLeod2016).TheReviewrecommendsthattheNSWGovernmentconsidercarp“asignificantpestanimalandprioritisetheirremovalfromfreshwaterenvironments”astheyareconsidered“themostsignificantpestinNSWfreshwaterecosystems,”makingupover80percentoffishbiomassintheMurray-Darling.TheeradicationofcarpispresentedintheReviewasa“once-in-a-generationopportunity”thatcouldreducepopulationlevelsbybetween90-95percent(thetwofiguresappearinterchangeableintheReviewdocument).

TheReviewrecommendsthewholesaleuseofcyprinidherpesvirus(CyHV-3)tocontrolthepopulationlevelsofcarpinAustralianwaterways,notablytheMurray-DarlingBasin,wheretheirpresenceiscitedasaffectingtherecreationalfishingindustry.Thelatterisconsideredasocialimpact,inthatthereductionofrecreationalfishingamenitiesispositionedasaprimaryreasonforreleasingarelativelyunprovenandinadequatelyresearchedtoxiceradicationpolicyandmethod.Throughreferencetosupposedly“effective”controlprogramsofwildrabbitsbymyxomaandRHD,whichthemselveshavebeenthoroughlycriticised81,theReviewessentiallycallsfortheindiscriminateeradicationofanentirespecies.

2.2Abriefepidemiologicalhistoryofkoiherpesvirus(KHV)

Beginninginthelate1990s,koiherpesvirusdisease(KHVD),alsoknownasgillnecrosisvirus(CNGV)82,hascausedmassmortalitytocommoncarpandkoicarp(Cyprinuscarpio)inEurope,Israel,andtheUnitedStates83.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthevirushadbeenpresentinwildcommoncarpfrom1996intheUnitedKingdom,andsinceinitialreportsithasbeenidentifiedacrossEurope,Asia,andAfrica84.ThefirstreferencetoKHVanditspotentialtocausemasscarpmortalitywaspresentedin1999atthe9thInternationalConferenceofEuropeanAssociationofFishPathologists(EAFP)85andwasfirstisolatedandidentifiedayearlater86.Thevirushasbeenproventospreadthroughfaecesandemissionofviralparticlesinwaterviahorizontaltransmission(amongindividualsofthesamegeneration)87,withtheskinactingas“theportalofentry[…]andthesiteofearlyreplication”,whichfurtheractsasasiteoftransferbetweenfish.Itisalsothoughtthat

81“MyxomatosisandRHDdonotcontrolrabbitsinAustraliatoasufficientextent”(Williams,C.K.,Davey,C.C.,Moore,R.J.,Hinds,L.A.,Silvers,L.E.,Kerr,P.J.,French,N.,Hood,G.M.,Pech,R.P.,andKrebs,C.J.,2007,‘PopulationresponsestosterilityimposedonfemaleEuropeanrabbits,’JournalofAppliedEcology,vol.44,no.2,pp.291-301).82Shapira,Y.,Magen,Y.,Zak,T.,Kotler,M.,Hulata,G.,andLevavi-Sivan,B.,2005,‘Differentialresistancetokoiherpesvirus(KHV)/carpinterstitialnephritisandgillnecrosisvirus(CNGV)amongcommoncarp(CyprinuscarpioL.)strainsandcrossbreds,’Aquaculture,vol.245,pp.1-11.83Bergmann,S.M.,Schutze,H.,Fischer,U.,Fichtner,D.,Riechardt,M.,Meyer,K.,Schrudde,D.,andKempter,J.,2009,‘Detectionofkoiherpesvirus(KHV)genomeinapparentlyhealthyfish,’BulletinofEuropeanAssociationofFishPathologists,vol.29,no.5,pp.145-152.

84Michel,B.,Fournier,G.,Lieffrig,F.,Costes,B.,andVandersplasschen,A.,2010,‘Cyprinidherpesvirus3,’EmergingInfectiousDiseases,vol.16,no.12,pp.1835-1843.85Pokorova,D.,Vesely,T.,Piackova,V.,Reschova,S.,andHulova,J.,2005,‘Currentknowledgeonkoiherpesvirus(KHV):areview,’VeterinaryMedicineCzechoslovakia,vol.4,pp.139-147.86Shapira,Y.,Magen,Y.,Zak,T.,Kotler,M.,Hulata,G.,andLevavi-Sivan,B.,2005,‘Differentialresistancetokoiherpesvirus(KHV)/carpinterstitialnephritisandgillnecrosisvirus(CNGV)amongcommoncarp(CyprinuscarpioL.)strainsandcrossbreds,’Aquaculture,vol.245,pp.1-11.87Macera,C.A.,Shaffer,R.A.,Shaffer,P.M.,2013,IntroductiontoEpidemiology:DistributionandDeterminantsofDisease,Delmar,NewYork.

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transmissionoccurswhenuninfectedfishcomeintocontactwiththelesionsthiscreates88andresearchhasshownthatentryofCyHV-3isdramaticallymagnifiedwhenthemucusliningofaffectedlesionsaredisturbed(eitherthroughcontactwithotherfishorothermeans)89.

Wheninfected,initialsignsbecomeapparentat2to3days.Infectedfishpresentaslethargicorfatigued,havediminishedappetites,sufferinternalhaemorrhages90,and“lieatthebottomofthetankwiththedorsalfinfolded”91.Theskinactsasavisiblemarkerofinfection,withclinicalsignspassingthroughaseriesofstages;themostapparentoftheseaffectthegills,whichregularlybecomenecroticandemitmucus,ultimatelysuffocatingthefish.Asidefromphysicalsymptoms,neurologicalmarkers,suchasdisorientationanddiminishedequilibrium,alsobecomeapparentinthefinalstages92.Studieshaveshownthattheinfectionaffectsthegill,skin,kidney,liver,spleen,gastrointestinalsystem,andbrain,withtheeffectsonthegillsthefirsttobecomeapparent.

2.3Thehost-specificityofKHV

Priortoa2009study,itwasbelievedthatkoiherpesvirusdisease(KHVD)onlyaffectsC.carpiofishspecies.Asaresult,ithasbeenconsideredcommonknowledgethatKHVDiscapableoftransferringspecificallytothesespeciesandnoneother.ThisviewisendorsedbytheReview,whichclaimsthatthevirusis“specifictocommoncarp”.However,CyHV-3infectioniscapableofaffectinga“broadhostrange”93.

Since2003anumberof“unexplainablecasesofKHVD[…]withoutanyepidemiologicalconnectiontoKHV”havebeendocumented.Consequentlytheseoutbreaksof“apparentlyhealthcarp,”withKHVvaccination,wereconsideredtobepotentialcarrierscapableofspreadingKHV.Thereis“nopublishedreportorsuccessfulexperimentshowingthere-activationandre-isolationofherpesvirusfromanylatentorpersistentlyinfectedaquaticanimal”94.Thevirusisbelievedtohave“anundetectablelatentphase”thatcanbecomplicatedthrough“theunregulatedsaleofliveapparentlyhealthy”fish95andenvironmentalfluctuations(formoreonthisseesection2.4).

InattemptingtoascertainwhetherthevirusexclusivelyinfectsCyprinuscarpiospecies,researchershaveconductedaseriesofcomparativeexperimentswithcommoncarpandstrainsorcrossbreedsofbothdomesticatedandwildspecies.Oneofthecrossbredspeciesprovedhighlyresistant,withsurvivalratesofover60%,whilstothercrossbreedswereshowntohavegreaterresistanceinwildenvironmentscomparedtothoseinlaboratorysettings96.

88Michel,B.,Fournier,G.,Lieffrig,F.,Costes,B.,andVandersplasschen,A.,2010,‘Cyprinidherpesvirus3,’EmergingInfectiousDiseases,vol.16,no.12,pp.1835-1843.89Raj,V.S.,Fournier,G.,Rakus,K.,Ronsmans,M.,Ouyang,P.,Michel,B.,Delforges,C.,Costes,B.,Farnir,F.,Leroy,B.,Wattiez,R.,Melard,C.,Mast,J.,Lieffrig,F.,andVanderplasschen,A.,2011,‘SkinmucusofCyprinuscarpioinhibitscyprinidherpesvirus3bindingtoepidermalcells,’VeterinaryResearch,vol.42,no.92,pp.1-9.90Shapira,Y.,Magen,Y.,Zak,T.,Kotler,M.,Hulata,G.,andLevavi-Sivan,B.,2005,‘Differentialresistancetokoiherpesvirus(KHV)/carpinterstitialnephritisandgillnecrosisvirus(CNGV)amongcommoncarp(CyprinuscarpioL.)strainsandcrossbreds,’Aquaculture,vol.245,pp.1-11.91Michel,B.,Fournier,G.,Lieffrig,F.,Costes,B.,andVandersplasschen,A.,2010,‘Cyprinidherpesvirus3,’EmergingInfectiousDiseases,vol.16,no.12,pp.1835-1843.92Michel,B.,Fournier,G.,Lieffrig,F.,Costes,B.,andVandersplasschen,A.,2010,‘Cyprinidherpesvirus3,’EmergingInfectiousDiseases,vol.16,no.12,pp.1835-1843.93Bergmann,S.M.,Kempter,J.,Riechardt,M.,andFichtner,D.,n.d.,‘Investigationonthehostspecificityofkoiherpesvirus(KHV)infection,’FederalResearchInstituteforAnimalHealth.

94Bergmann,S.M.,Schutze,H.,Fischer,U.,Fichtner,D.,Riechardt,M.,Meyer,K.,Schrudde,D.,andKempter,J.,2009,‘Detectionofkoiherpesvirus(KHV)genomeinapparentlyhealthyfish,’BulletinofEuropeanAssociationofFishPathologists,vol.29,no.5,pp.145-152.

95El-Matbouli,M.,andSoliman,H.,2011,‘TransmissionofCyprinidherpesvirus-3(CyHV-3)fromgoldfishtonaivecommoncarpbycohabitation,’ResearchinVeterinaryScience,vol.90,pp.536-539.96Shapira,Y.,Magen,Y.,Zak,T.,Kotler,M.,Hulata,G.,andLevavi-Sivan,B.,2005,‘Differentialresistancetokoiherpesvirus(KHV)/carpinterstitialnephritisandgillnecrosisvirus(CNGV)amongcommoncarp(CyprinuscarpioL.)strainsandcrossbreds,’Aquaculture,vol.245,pp.1-11.

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Astudyofseveralunexplainableoutbreaksofthevirusledanotherresearchteamtoconcludethat“morediseaseinfluencingfactorsexist”thanhavecurrentlybeenaccountedfor97.Thatis,thetrueextentofthehostrangeofKHViscurrentlyunknown.Thisstudyconductedanexperimenttoestablishwhetherapparentlyhealthyfish(koiornon-Cyprinuscarpiospecies)canbeinfectedwhenkeepincohabitationwithinfectedcarp.Ultimately,theyfoundthatthesepreviouslyhealthyfishcouldbecomeinfectedandtheinfectedspecies“wereabletotransferKHVtonaïvecarp,”withthealarmingconclusionthat“someornamentalfishspeciescouldactasreservoirsofKHVinfection”.ThroughstudyingseveralclinicallyhealthygoldfishvarietiesforKHVinfectionusingPCR(polymerasechainreaction)methods,noneofthestudiedfishshowedinfectionutilisingthistechnique.However,utilisationofanestedPCRmethodologyindicatedthatthese“apparentlyhealthy”fishwereinfact“KHVDNApositive”.Thismeansthattheviruscanbe,andhasbeenshowntobe,transferrabletonon-Cyprinuscarpiospecies,andcanbelatentinseveralspeciescommonlysoldatpetshopsorwholesalers98.Thereportnotedthatthemajorityofresearchers“denythepresenceofKHVinotherfishspeciesthanC.carpio,”despitethefactthatthroughtheuseofmorediscerningmethodsandtechniquesthishasinfactbeenprovenincorrect.NestedPCRisprimarilyusedtoachieve“high-levelsensitivity”99allowingresearcherstoeffectivelydifferentiatespecificDNAforcomparativestudy.Infact,ithasbeenshownthatstudiesindicatingthatC.carpioaresingularlyvulnerabletoKHVrelateto“testsensitivity,”asothertechniquesdonotroutinelyorcommonlyindicateinfection.FishspeciesotherthancarparevulnerableandatriskofKHVinfection,leavingopentheopportunityforthewholesaleuseofapreviouslyabsenttoxininAustralianwaterwaystopresentfargreaterdamagetoboththeecosystemandeconomy.

Bystudyinggoldfishandanumberofothernon-CyprinuscarpiofishspeciesthatareconsideredtobeimmunefromKHVinfectionandutilisingtraditionaldiagnosticmeasures(PCR),researchershavefoundthatwithamoresensitivediagnosticmechanism(nestedPCRandin-situhybridisation)theycould,anddo,showKHVinfection.Ultimately,KHVhasbeenshowntobeinfectioustonon-Cyprinuscarpiospecies,belyingtheReviewsassurancethatthisisnotthecase.

2.4WatertemperatureandthestabilityoftheMurray-Darling

WatertemperatureisasignificantfactorrelatingtoCyHV-3100anddiseasesusceptibility101.Temperaturecanactasarestrictorofviralcellreplication,effectively“lockingin”theviruswithouttherebeinganyvisibleindicatorsofthis.Thevirusisknowntoaffectfishonlywhenwatertemperatureisbetween18°Cand28°C.Optimalconditionsforreplicationisbetween15°Cand25°C,whereaspropagationofthevirusis“turnedoff”at30°C.

AccordingtotheMurray-DarlingBasinAuthority(MDBA),cold-waterpollution(CWP),ortheartificialloweringofwatertemperaturecausedbythereleaseofwaterfromdamsbackintothe

97Bergmann,S.M.,Schutze,H.,Fischer,U.,Fichtner,D.,Riechardt,M.,Meyer,K.,Schrudde,D.,andKempter,J.,2009,‘Detectionofkoiherpesvirus(KHV)genomeinapparentlyhealthyfish,’BulletinofEuropeanAssociationofFishPathologists,vol.29,no.5,pp.145-152.

98Bergmann,S.M.,Schutze,H.,Fischer,U.,Fichtner,D.,Riechardt,M.,Meyer,K.,Schrudde,D.,andKempter,J.,2009,‘Detectionofkoiherpesvirus(KHV)genomeinapparentlyhealthyfish,’BulletinofEuropeanAssociationofFishPathologists,vol.29,no.5,pp.145-152.

99Singleton,P.,2000,DNAMethodsinClicicalMicrobiology,Springer-Science+BusinessMedia,Berlin;McPherson,M.,J.,andMøller,S.G.,2006,PCR,2ndedition,Taylor&Francis,NewYork.100Pokorova,D.,Vesely,T.,Piackova,V.,Reschova,S.,andHulova,J.,2005,‘Currentknowledgeonkoiherpesvirus(KHV):areview,’VeterinaryMedicineCzechoslovakia,vol.4,pp.139-147;Rakus,K.,Ouyang,P.,Boutier,M.,Ronsmans,M.,Reschner,A.,Vancsok,C.,Jazowiecka-Rakus,J.,andVandersplasschen,A.,2013,‘Cyprinidherpesvirus3:aninterestingvirusforappliedandfundamentalresearch,’VeterinaryResearch,vol.44,no.85,pp.1-16.101Ryan,T.,andPreece,R.,n.d.,‘PotentialforthermalshockintheMurray-DarlingBasin:ascopingstudyfortheMurray-DarlingBasinCommission,’ArthurRylahInstituteforEnvironmentalResearch.Availableat:http://www.mdba.gov.au/sites/default/files/archived/mdbc-SW-reports/468_execsum_thermal_Shock.pdf

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riverchannelfurtherdownstream102,is“widespreadthroughouttheMDB[Murray-DarlingBasin]”103.A2009reportpublishedbytheMDBAcites20instancesinwhich“someformofCWP”hasbeenregistered104.Similarly,aNSWDepartmentofInfrastructure,PlanningandNaturalResources(DIPNR)cold-waterpollutionassessmentfoundthatfromashortlistofcloseto100dams,9withintheMurray-Darlingwerecausing“relativelylargeandpervasivecold-waterpollution”.Thisresultsinamarkeddecreaseinwatertemperatures,withsomebodiesfalling“morethan10°Clowerthannatural”105.ThepotentialfordamagetoaquaticorganismsandgeneralecosystemhealthcausedbyCWPhasbeenknownforover45years106.YettheReviewhasneglectedtoincludethesefiguresortheimplicationsthattheyraise,andhasfailedtoprovideadequateestimatesregardingtheefficacyandconsequencesofdiminishedwatertemperatureindirectconnectiontotheplannedreleaseofCyHV-3.AfargreaterandbroaderanalysisofthispotentialityisrequiredpriortotheapprovalandadoptionofCyHV-3.

2.5TheevidenceoflatentKHVinfectionandvirustransmission

Vitally,evenintheabsenceofidentifiablemarkersoftransmission,infectedfishcanremainlatentlyinfectedforupto30days.UltimatelythismeansthatCyHV-3canremainintactininfectedbodiesasymptomatically“forlongperiods[…]whenthetemperaturepreventsvirusreplication”and“burstsofnewinfection[s][can]occurafterexposuretopermissivetemperatures”107.Whetherthecarcassesofinfectedfishremainlatentlyinfected,andthusposeasecondaryrisktootherenvironmentsand/orspecies,hasnotbeenaddressedbytheReview,norcontemplatedintermsofbiosecurityrisks.

CyHV-3isknowntoreplicateingoldfish,andundertemperaturefluctuationsorenvironmentalstressors,goldfishinfectedwithCyHV-3arecapableoftransmittingthevirus.Further,goldfish“canactasatruecarrier,astheviruscanreplicateintheirtissues”.Despitethis,infectedgoldfishexhibit“noabnormalclinicalsigns,”possiblybecausegoldfisharenot“thenaturalhostofthevirus”andarecapableofactingasenablers,allowingthevirustomultiply,replicate,andtransmitat“undetectablelevels”108.

InstudyingtheratesandsymptomologyofinfectedgoldfishandtheirroleascarriersofKHV,researchersfoundthatcarpkeptinco-habitationwiththeseinfectedfishdied“withoutanyclinicalsignsofinfectionwithCyHV-3”.Despitenotexhibitingvisiblesignsofinfection,analysisfoundthattheCyHV-3genomewaspresentinthegills,kidneys,andspleensofthedeceasedfishaswellasanumberoflivecarpcohabitatingwithknowninfectedgoldfish109.FurtheranalysisrevealedthatthecarpthatdiedhadbeeninfectedwiththeCyHV-3virus“excretedfromtheinfectedgoldfish”.Indiscussingwhythisoccurred,researcherspositedthatenvironmentalstressors,includingunforeseenorunavoidabletemperaturealterations,“encouragedthevirustoreplicateanddisseminate”.

102NSWOfficeofWater,2011,‘NSWcoldwaterpollutionstrategy:guidelinesformanagingcoldwaterreleasesfromhighprioritydams,’NSWOfficeofWater,Sydney.103Boys,C.A.,Miles,N.,andRayner,T.,2009,Murray-DarlingBasinAuthorityNativeFishStrategy:ScopingoptionsfortheecologicalassessmentofcoldwaterpollutiondownstreamofKeepitDam,NamoiRiver,Murray-DarlingBasinAuthority,Canberra.104Boys,C.A.,Miles,N.,andRayner,T.,2009,Murray-DarlingBasinAuthorityNativeFishStrategy:ScopingoptionsfortheecologicalassessmentofcoldwaterpollutiondownstreamofKeepitDam,NamoiRiver,Murray-DarlingBasinAuthority,Canberra.105Preece,R.,2004,‘ColdwaterpollutionbelowdamsinNewSouthWales:adesktopassessment,’WaterManagementDivision,DepartmentofInfrastructure,PlanningandNaturalResources,Sydney.106Lugg,A.,andCopeland,C.,2014,‘ReviewofcoldwaterpollutionintheMurray-DarlingBasinandtheimpactsonfishcommunities,’EcologicalManagementandRestoration,vol.15,no.1,pp.71-79.107Michel,B.,Fournier,G.,Lieffrig,F.,Costes,B.,andVandersplasschen,A.,2010,‘Cyprinidherpesvirus3,’EmergingInfectiousDiseases,vol.16,no.12,pp.1835-1843.

108El-Matbouli,M.,andSoliman,H.,2011,‘TransmissionofCyprinidherpesvirus-3(CyHV-3)fromgoldfishtonaivecommoncarpbycohabitation,’ResearchinVeterinaryScience,vol.90,pp.536-539.

109Ibid.

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AsecondstudyproducedtoascertainthehostspecificityofKHVledwiththefactthatchannelcatfishherpesvirus(CCV)iscapableofinfectingmorethanonespecies.ThroughanalysingdifferentorgansofspeciespreviouslyconsideredincapableofdevelopingortransmittingKHV,thestudyfoundthat,despitepreviouslyshowingno“clinicalsign[s]ofKHVD,”theviruswasdetectedin“mostoftheexperimentallyornaturally-infectedfish110”.ThisstudyalsoutilisedtheaforementionednestedPCRmethodology,andnotedthatinstancesofKHVinfectionwerenotfoundusingthe“conventional”PCRmethod.Thishasbeennotedbyotherstudies,who,todate,havenotfoundthecauseofthedifferentialoutcomesfromeachmethod111

AkeyfactorinherenttotheproposedplantoinfectcarpinAustralianwaterwayswithKHVistheinevitable,andimmeasurable,massofdeadfishthatwillresult.Withanestimatedmortalityrateofbetween90-95%,andconsideringtheReview’sestimationthatcarpaccountforupto80%ofbiomass,thecolossalamountoffishthatwilldieandsubsequentlypollutewaterwaysisstaggering.Bywayofmanagingthisproposedinevitability,theReviewcallsontheLocalLandServices(LLS)andNSWDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries(DPI)toformacollaborativepartnershiptonotonlyplanthereleaseofthevirus,butalsoengagewiththecommunityto“participateincarpclean-upissues”.AshasbeenshownthroughtheunacknowledgedacademicandscientificevidenceofthepotentialCyHV-3presentsinfacilitatinginfectioninspeciesotherthanthosetargeted(carp),thedelugeofdeadbiomassthatwillresulthasnotbeenadequatelyaddressedandwarrantsfurtherstudyandattention.Despitethefactthat$30billionhasreportedlybeenallocatedtotheclean-upaftertreatment,theissuesrelatedtohost-specificity,orthelackthereof,areunattendedtointheReview,whichclaimsthat“theimplementationofthisvirusasacontrolmethodisessential”.Thereleaseofthevirusispresentedasacuretotheinvasivenatureofcarp,withthevirusactingasanaidetoachievinghealthywaterwaysandfishcommunities.TheReviewacknowledgesthatlimitationscurrentlyexist,yetpresentsthecaseforCyHV-3asaquickandsaferemedy.Inadmittingthat“severalsignificantissuesneedtobeadequatelyresourcedandaddressedpriortothevirus’release,”mostapparently,fortheReview,theclean-uppost-release,theReviewnonethelesspresentsthecaseforreleaseasrequiringa“fast-track[ed]”response.Byalludingtothe“successandlessonslearntfrom[previous]biologicalcontrolresearchprojects,”notablymyxomatosisusedagainstrabbits,theReviewmaintainsthatthevirusshouldbereleasedasapriority.However,thevirusnotonlyhasthepotentialandknownabilitytotransmitbetweenspecies,ofwhichmoremaybesusceptible,itcanalsoremainlatent,posingathreattoun-targetedareasandspecies.Thishasprofoundeffectsonboththelocalecosystem,includingthewaterwaysandspeciesitisintendedtosafeguard,aswellasbroadercommunitiesthataresubjecttounforeseenthreatsthatarenotadequatelyaddressedintheReview.

2.6Adistinctlackofalternativeconsiderations:areviewoftheefficacyofdaughterlesscarptechnologyanddevelopmentofJudasfish

In2014,theAustralianFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentCorporation(FRDC)reportedthatthisgenetechnology(thetechniqueinvolvesalteringthegenesoffishtoensurethesurvivalorfertilityofmaleoffspring)wastrialledsuccessfullyanditsadoptionincontrolprograms“couldcontrolandevenexterminateinvasivefishsuchascarp”112.Asthereportcitingthissuccessexplains,methodsofcarpcontrolhaveprimarilyinvolvedeithercommercialharvestingorpoisoning.Yet,whilstthesetechniquesmaydiminishcarpnumbersandpoisoningcan“occasionallyeradicatethemfrom

110Bergmann,S.M.,Kempter,J.,andFichtner,D.,2009,‘Howhostspecificisinfectionwithkoiherpesvirus(KHV)forreal?’TheIsraeliJournalofAquaculture,vol.61,no.3,pp.270-290.

111El-Matbouli,M.,andSoliman,H.,2011,‘TransmissionofCyprinidherpesvirus-3(CyHV-3)fromgoldfishtonaivecommoncarpbycohabitation,’ResearchinVeterinaryScience,vol.90,pp.536-539.112Thresher,R.,2014,‘Maledominancetoendspecies,’FISH,vol.22,no.3.Availableat:http://frdc.com.au/stories/Pages/24-Male-dominance.aspx

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isolatedareas113,”alternativemethodsareavailable,includingdaughterlesstechnologiesandtheimplementationofbarriers,monitoringprocedures(suchasthe‘Judascarp’approach,whereinradiotransmittersareinsertedintoindividualsformonitoringandlocationanalyses),useofpheromone“baits”toenticeandtrap,aswellasselectandlocalisedimplementationofpoisonstokillunbornembryos114.

AccordingtotheSouthAustralianResearchandDevelopmentInstitute(SARDI),thesolutiontodeveloping“acost-effectivecarpcontrolstrategyisknowledgeofthemovementpatternsandhabitatpreferencesofcarp”whichcanthenbeexploitedtotargetandmaintaincontrollevels115.TheReviewfundamentallyfailstoconsideralternativestotheproposedbiologicalcontrolofcarpinAustralianwaterways.Despitethefactthatindependentstudiesand/orspecificresearchislackinginthisarea,theReviewpressuresforthereleaseregardless.Itisnotuntilitisnotedthatanalternativemethodisavailablethatwecanadequatelydifferentiateanddiscriminate.

Daughterlesscarp,or‘DaughterlessCarpGeneTechnology’(DCGT),isabiotechnologicalmethodapplicabletocontroltechniquesofcarpthathasbeenknowntogovernmentandagenciesforover10years116andisincludedinaseriesofprojectsundertheCSIRO’sumbrellaconceptof‘SterileFerals’117.ThetechniqueisincludedintheMurray-DarlingBasinCommission’s50-yearNativeFishStrategy,withtheCSIROcitingitisa“novelmethodofinvasivespeciescontrol[which]warrant[s]furtherdevelopment”118.Ithasbeenproveneffectiveinmanagingthereproductionofzebrafish,aspeciescloselyrelatedtocarp,andtheInvasiveAnimalsCRCreportedin2013thatdaughterlesscarptechnologiesnotonlyhavethepotentialtoeradicatethefemalepopulation,itcurtailseggproductionbyupto90%119.Essentiallyitfunctionsasacontrolmethodaswellasasterilisationprocedure,therebyaddingamulti-tieredelementtoanotherwiseneglectedalternative.

Sinceatleast2013,theMurray-DarlingBasinAuthority(MDBA),incollaborationwiththeInvasiveAnimalsCRCandtheCSIRO,hasbeenactivelydevelopinginsightsintothismethod.Itisknownto“radicallyreduce[…]carpnumberswithinafewgenerations”andhasbeendescribedbytheaboveagenciesasanalternativeenablinga“potentiallymorepowerfulmeans[comparedtoothertechniques]ofcontrollingcarp”120.Thetechniqueessentially“biasesoffspringsexratiostowardsmales,”withtheresultofamanipulatedpopulationleadingto“massivelydistortedsexratios,reproductivefailureandextinction”121.Ifthisisthegoalofthecarpcontrolprogram,andit’saimsareachievablevianon-toxicmeanswithoutthepotentialtocausearangeofdetrimentalsideeffects,theadoptionofadaughterlesscarpcampaignappearstobeworthyofsupplementalattention.TheReview,however,alludestothepossibilityonasingleoccasionwithoutdiscussingthemeritsthistechniquehasoverwholesaleinfectionwithCyHV-3.

2.7Alternativetechniquecasestudy:JudascarpinTasmania

AsterilisationprogramhasbeenemployedinTasmaniatocontrolcarpnumbersthroughtheaforementioned‘Judascarp’technique.CarpwerefirstdiscoveredinLakeSorellin1995,leadingtheInlandFisheriesService(IFS)toinstigateacontrolprogramaimedateradication.InOctober2015it

113Thereisnoevidencethatthecurrentlyproposedprogramwillbeeffective,whilsttherearedocumentedcasesandarichbodyofliteraturepointingtothemeritsofthedaughterlesscarptechnique.114Thresher,R.,2014,‘Maledominancetoendspecies,’FISH,vol.22,no.3.Availableat:http://frdc.com.au/stories/Pages/24-Male-dominance.aspx115Thwaites,L.,Fredberg,J.,andRyan,S.,2015,‘GlenelgRiver‘Judas’CarpTracking:Program2015,’anInterimReporttotheGlenelgHopkinsCatchmentManagementAuthority,SouthAustralianResearchandDevelopmentInstitute(AquaticSciences),Adelaide.116Gilligan,D.,andRayner,T.,2007,‘Thedistribution,spread,ecologicalimpactandpotentialcontrolofcarpintheupperMurrayRiver,’NSWDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries–FisheriesReportSeries:14.Availableat:https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/b8589b8e-52dc-4391-bd18-3046ea775aef/files/upper-murray-carp-report.pdf117Lapidge,K.,2003,‘Background,’inProceedingsoftheNationalCarpControlWorkshop,5-6March2003,CSIRO,Canberra.Availableat:http://www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/CarpProc.pdf118Ibid.119InvasiveAnimalsCRC,theMurray-DarlingBasinAuthority,andtheCSIRO,2013,‘Daughterlesscarp’.Availableat:http://www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/CPFS2_daughterless.pdf120InvasiveAnimalsCRC,theMurray-DarlingBasinAuthority,andtheCSIRO,2013,‘Daughterlesscarp’.Availableat:http://www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/CPFS2_daughterless.pdf121Thresher,R.,VandeKamp,J.,Campbell,G.,Canning,M.,Grewe,P.,andBarney,M.,2012,‘Daughterlesstechnology:arecipeforeradicatingcarpinAustralia,’ManagementofCarpinAustralia,Melbourne,Victoria,19-21June.

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wasannouncedthatafurther$1.37mwouldbeprovidedtocontinuethismethod122.Theprojecthingesuponsterilisation,withtheaimofreliablysterilisingcarpwhilstmaintaining“behaviouralintegrity”tothenbeutilisedas“Judasfish”(theyaredeployedto“assimilateandintegrateseamlesslyintothewildpopulations”)123.AccordingtotheFRDCreportcompiledincollaborationwiththeUniversityofTasmania,theInlandFisheriesService(IFS)andtheTasmanianGovernment,thismethodwaschosenlargelyduetothefactthat“severalecologicalandeconomicconcernsandlogisticallimitations[…]precludedtheuseofdrasticcontrolapproachessuchasrainingormassapplicationofchemicals/poisons”124.Thishaseffectivelyproducedan“eradicationofthespecies”inthisregionandgovernmentreportshavedeclaredtheriversystem“carp-free”125.TheInvasiveAnimalsCRCalsoreportedthatthisTasmanianprogram“enabled[…]nearcompletecarperadication”126.

TheFRDCmaintainthatakeycomponenttothesuccessoftheprogramwastheuseoftheJudastechnique,firstimplementedin1997.Notonlydidthetechniqueenablethefulfilmentoftheprogramsobjectives,itenabledabroaderunderstandingofcarpbehaviour,whichinturnfacilitatedavaluablemonitoringsystem.AstheSARDIreportexplains,useofchemicalsinwaterwayshasinherentrisksthatneedtobeconsidered:theuseofchemicalsnecessitateslargeamountsofchemicalsandmayrequireanumberofreleases,thewatersystemwillgenerallyrequireisolationandresidualchemicalsrequiretreatmenttoalleviatetheriskofunintendedenvironmentalconsequences,andmayrequirespecialisttrainingand/orpermission.TheserequirementswereconsideredtobeunviablebytheresearchersandwouldbeconsideredinappropriateunderVictorianregulation127.

Whilstitisacknowledgedthatthisprocedurerequiresintensiveplanningandtime,andinherentlyinvolvesalevelofsufferingduetotherequirementofessentiallycorrallingandfishing,ithasprovensuccessfulateffectivelymanagingcarpnumberswithoutrecoursetopotentiallydamagingpoisonsorviruseswithunreliablydocumentedhost-specificity.Thismethod,alongwithdaughterlesscarptechnologies,isworthyoftheReview’sattentionanddeliberation.

122Hunt,G.,Hutchinson,E.,andRockliff,J.,2015,‘Jointmediarelease:$1.37mboostforcarperadicationinTasmania,’28October.Availableat:http://www.environment.gov.au/minister/hunt/2015/pubs/mr20151028a.pdf123Patil,J.G.,Purser,J.,andNicholson,A.,2014,‘Developmentanddeploymentofsterile‘Judasfish’toassistcarperadicationinLakeSorell,Tasmania:surgicalandchemicalsterilization,’FisheriesandDevelopmentCorporation.NewNorfolk,Tasmania.124Ibid.125Hunt,G.,Hutchinson,E.,andRockliff,J.,2015,‘Jointmediarelease:$1.37mboostforcarperadicationinTasmania,’28October.Availableat:http://www.environment.gov.au/minister/hunt/2015/pubs/mr20151028a.pdf126Wisniewski,C.,n.d.,‘Demonstrationsite:LakesSorellandCrescent,Tasmania,’InlandFisheriesServiceTasmania.Availableat:http://www.invasiveanimals.com/research/phase1/goals/goal-4/4f16/127Patil,J.G.,Purser,J.,andNicholson,A.,2014,‘Developmentanddeploymentofsterile‘Judasfish’toassistcarperadicationinLakeSorell,Tasmania:surgicalandchemicalsterilization,’FisheriesandDevelopmentCorporation.NewNorfolk,Tasmania.

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3Alternativestolethalcontrolmethods

3.1Poisoning

Aspreviouslydiscussedthecontrolmethodsunderreviewincludearelianceonpoisonbaits.Thisrelianceiscouchedineconomicandefficacyterms(“poisonbaitsaregenerallythecheapestandmosteffectivebroadscaletechniqueforcontrolofferalpredators”).Whilstallowingforseveralshortcomingsassociatedwiththistechnique,theReviewclaimsthatresearchallowsforahigherdegreeofcertaintyinadoptinglethalcontrolmeasures.Specifically,theReviewstatesthatinvestmentinresearchconductedtoascertainapoisonthatisbothhumaneandtargetspecifichasbeenongoinginrelationtothecontroloffree-roamingcats(theReviewexpectsthis“improved”lethalbaittobeapprovedwithintheyear–seesection1formoreinformation).Inrationalisingthisever-greaterconcentrationofbothfundingandresearchgearedsolelytowardlethalcontrol,theReviewstatesthat“untilmoreeffectivebaitsormethodsareavailable”poisonbaitingremainsanecessarytechnique.Notetheterseandincompleteallusiontomethods.Thecontinueduseofpoisoningisrationalisedpreciselybecausemoreeffectivemethodsareconsideredtobecurrentlyunavailable.However,assection1(‘cats’)attemptstoillustrate,thisisfarfromthecase.TheReviewopenlyconcedesthatwholesaleeradicationofmainlandspeciesmaybeimpossible,andendeavourstoutiliselethalcontrolineffortsto“suppress”populationlevels.This,however,ispossibleandproventobeachievablethroughalternativemethods(seesection1fordiscussiononthemeritsandvalueofnon-lethaltechniquesincatcontrolprogramsandbelowforanalysisonnon-lethalsterilisationtechniques).Itappears,however,thataninstitutionalrelianceonlethalmethodsisentrenchedwithinboththegovernmentalagenciesendorsingtheiruse,andthecommunity’sthatpurporttobenefitfromthem.

Ultimately,poisoningisvindicatedasposingasalimitedyetappropriatetechniquetoprotectotherspeciesnotdeemedtobe‘pests,’oractsasasafeguardagainstincursionsthatresultinfinanciallyand/orsociallynegativeconsequences.Asoundandthoroughanalysisofthenature,efficacy,andconsequencesofpoisoningisanurgentrequirementthatisnotforthcomingfromeithertheRevieworotheragenciestaskedwithitsimplementation.Untilsuchatime,itisdifficulttoreconcilethestatedgoalsofpoisoningcampaignswiththeirefficacyandhumaneness,especiallyincomparisontothealternativenon-lethaltechniquesdiscussedwithinthissubmission.

3.1.1SecondarypoisoningofnativeAustraliananimals:1080poison

1080(sodiummonofluoroacetate)iscommonlyusedasavertebratepesticideinNSWasamethodtocontrolwildanimalpopulations.Itiscurrentlyusedincampaignstargetingdogs,foxes,pigs,andrabbits.UndertheLocalLandServicesAct2013theLocalLandServices(LLS)regulatespestanimalmanagementonbothprivateandagriculturallandandistheexclusivedistributorandtrainingbodyof1080(aswellasPindone,ananticoagulantthatcausesfatalhaemorrhaging,mostcommonlyappliedtorabbitsinaseriesofbaitingprograms128).ItsuseiscurrentlyregulatedbyaPesticideControlOrder(PCO),whichauthorisesitsuseforspecificspeciesandplacesconditionsonhowandwhereitmaybeused129.ResearchconductedwithinAustraliahasconcludedthat1080isinhumane,witha2007studyconcluding,“ThereisanurgentneedforresearchintoimprovingthehumanenessofvertebratecontrolmethodsinAustralia,”includingtheuseof1080130

Theuseof1080isincludedwithinstandardoperatingprocedures(SOPs),alongwithguidesconcerningitsimplementationandknownimpactsuponanimalwelfareforbothtargetandnon-targetspecies.Thislastpointisofparticularrelevance,as1080isknowntobeingestedandcausedeathsinarangeofnon-targetspecies,includingnativeAustralianmammals.TheWestern

128Sharp,T.,andSaunders,G.,2004,‘RAB004:Groundbaitingofrabbitswithpindone,’NSWDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries.Availableat:http://www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/rab004-ground-baiting-rabbits-pindone.pdf129NSWEnvironmentProtectionAuthority,2015,‘1080baituserguidancefactsheet’.Availableat:http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/pesticides/1080pcofactsheet.htm#a130Sherly,M.,2007,‘Issodiumfluoroacetate(1080)ahumanepoison?’AnimalWelfare,vol.16,pp.449-458.

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AustralianGovernmenthaveevenpublishedacompilationofresearchpapersthatassesstheriskof1080baitsonnon-targetnativespecies131.A2002reporttoEnvironmentAustraliaandtheNSWNationalParksandWildlifeServiceontheimpactof1080foxpoisoningcampaignsontigerquollpopulationsrevealedthatthe“actualimpact”ofthepoisononquollpopulationsisunknown,yetstatesthatthe“assumedrisk”effectivelyledtorestrictionsonitsuse.Thisiscritical.Fortheretobeenoughconcerntowarrantarestrictiononwhathasbeenamainstayintheanimalcontrolarsenalnecessarilyleadstotheconclusionthatthismeasurewasconsideredvital.Oneofthereasonsforthisisthat1080is“notspeciesspecific”andconsequentlyintroducesapotentialthreatandrisktonon-targetspecies132.Thisconclusionwasalsoadoptedina2000reportavailableontheAustralianGovernment’sDepartmentofAgricultureandWaterResourceswebsiteonquollsintheOtwayRangesofVictoria133.Similarly,areportcompiledfortheVictorianDepartmentofSustainabilityandEnvironmentexplainsthat1080baitingisconducted“extensively”inregionsknowntobehometoSpotted-tailQuollpopulationsdespitethespeciesknownsensitivitytothepoison134.TheWorldWildlifeFund(WWF)hasalsoindicatedthatfemaleandyoungquollsare“especiallysusceptible”to1080poison135.Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatquolls,amonganumberofotherendangeredorvulnerablenativeAustralianspecies,arecapableofconsuminghardshelleddeliveryvehicle(HSDV)encapsulatedbaits,oftenthoughttoreducetheincidenceoruptakeofpoisonsbynon-targetspecies136.Numerousotherreportsadoptsimilarconclusionsandcite1080asapotentialcontributingcauseofquollpopulationdeclines137.Whilstthereareconsiderableconcernsregardingtheuseofpoisonsinwildanimalcontrolprograms,thisisoftencounteredbyclaimsthatdiscontinuingtheirusemayresultindiminishedefficacyofcurrentmanagementtechniques138.However,asthissubmissionhasattemptedtobelabour,thedistinctlackofinstitutionalwillingnesstoconsidernon-lethalandprogressivelyhumaneapproacheshasledtoarelianceonthestatusquo(regardlessofinferiorefficacyandstrongindicationsofarangeofwelfareconcerns).

Poisonbaitingiscriticisedwithinthe2014ABARESreportduetodiminishedefficacyasdogshavelearntnottoingestpoisonedbaitsandthattherehavebeendocumented“off-targetdeaths”ofdomesticorworkingdogs.Thebaitsarealsoknownbylandholderstokillnativeanimals,includingsandgoannas139,despitethefactthattheInvasiveAnimalsCRCexplicitlyclaimsthisisunlikely140.Itisalsopossiblethat“secondarypoisoning”willoccurthroughtheingestionofbaitbynon-targetspecies,andmaggotsinmeatbaits“canaccumulateenoughtoxintokillavertebrate”.Itisalsoknownthatpigspoisonedwith1080vomitthetoxin,subsequentlypassingonthepoisonasasecond-handorrecycledtoxin.

131http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/publications/tabledpapers.nsf/displaypaper/3912644c9a73ca72e8844c9048257e0c000976c4/$file/tp-2644.pdf132Körtner,G.,andGresser,S.,2002,‘Impactoffoxbaitingontigerquollpopulations,’finalreporttoEnvironmentAustraliaandtheNewSouthWalesNationalParksandWildlifeService.Availableat:https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/321120e5-e421-4740-af6d-3fd285584828/files/final-report.pdf133Belcher,C.,2000,‘Therange,statusanddistributionofthespot-tailedQuoll(Dasyurusmaculatus)intheOtwayRanges’.Availableat:http://www.agriculture.gov.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/rfa/regions/vic-west/forest-management/spot-tailed-quoll/vic_west_raa_quoll.pdf134Long,K.,andNelson,J.,2008,‘NationalRecoveryPlanfortheSpotted-tailedQuoll(Dasyurusmaculatus),’VictorianGovernmentDepartmentofSustainabilityandEnvironment,Melbourne.135WorldWildlifeFund(WWF),n.d.,‘Speciesfactsheet:spotted-tailedquolls’.Availableat:http://awsassets.wwf.org.au/downloads/sp003_fs_spotted_tailed_quoll_27feb08.pdf136Buckmaster,T.,Dickman,C.R.,andJohnston,M.J.,2014,‘Assessingriskstonon-targetspeciesduringpoisonbaitingprogramsforferalcats,’PLOSOne,vol.9,no.9,pp.1-7.137Burnett,S.,andHolmes,B.,2008,‘Thespotted-tailedquollDasyurusmaculatusinQueensland’sBorderRangesarea,’reporttotheNorthernRiversCatchmentManagementAuthorityandtheQueenslandParksandWildlifeService.Availableat:http://www.wildlife.org.au/projects/quolls/image/nrcma_quollreport.pdf;Glen,A.S.,andDickman,C.R.,2003,‘Effectsofbait-stationdesignontheuptakeofbaitsbynon-targetanimalsduringcontrolprogrammesforfoxesandwilddogs,’WildlifeResearch,vol.30,pp.147-149;Andrew,D.,2005,‘EcologyofthetigerquolldasyurusmaculatusmaculatusincoastalNewSouthWales,’MScthesis,SchoolofBiologicalSciences,UniversityofWollongong.Availableat:http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1686&context=theses138HumaneVertebratePestControlWorkingGroup,2004,ANationalApproachTowardsHumaneVertebratePestControl,DiscussionpaperarisingfromtheproceedingsofanRSPCAAustralia/AWC/VPCjointworkshop,August4-5,Melbourne.RSPCAAustralia,Canberra.139Binks,N.,Kancans,R.,andStenekes,N.,2015,WildDogManagement2010to2014–NationalLandholderSurveyResults,ABARESreporttoclientpreparedforAustralianWoolInnovationLtd.,Canberra.140InvasiveAnimalsCRC,2015,‘Frequentlyaskedquestions:wilddogsandpoisonbaiting’.Availableat:http://www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/WDFS8_dogs-poison-baiting.pdf

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Asaresult,theNSWGovernmentOfficeofEnvironmentandHeritagehasconcludedthat“secondarypoisoninghasbeendemonstratedtokillindividualnon-targetanimals,”butreliesonthefactthatthetrueextentofthisisunknownandthereforedeclinestoquestiontheoverallefficacyofpoisonbaiting141.This,again,isaninstitutionalrelianceonthestatusquo.Despitethis,thereisevidencethatthespotted-tailQuoull(Dasyurusmaculatus),currentlylistedasanendangerednativespeciesundertheEnvironmentalProtectionandBiodiversityConservation(EPBC)Act142,isparticularlyaffectedbywilddogandfoxpoisonbaiting(thisislistedasacauseofthedistributionandpopulationofthisspeciesacrossNSWbytheOfficeofEnvironmentandHeritage)143.Forthesereasons1080poisonwaspresentedasakeythreateningprocessundertheThreatenedSpeciesConservationActandthusproposedtobelistedunderSchedule3oftheAct.Ultimately,theNSWScientificCommitteerejectedthisproposallargelyduetotheconclusionthattherewas“nosubstantiveevidencethat[…]it[1080]adverselyaffectsthreatenedspecies,populationsorecologicalcommunities”orthatitcouldcause“species,populations,orecologicalcommunitiesthatarenotthreatenedtobecomethreatened”144.Itisincreasinglycrucialthatabroadandinclusivere-evaluationofthisagentbeconducted,withaviewtoassessingitsefficacyandhumaneness.Itisonlythroughevidence-baseddialogueandopennesstoinnovativetechniquesthatprogresscanbemade.Progressthatnotonlyreducesufferingandwelfareconcerns,butalsoaddtotheoverallmoralstatusofanyanimalcontrolcampaignsandbolstercommunitysupportforGovernmentresponsestoperceivedthreats.Further,asthissubmissionhasendeavouredtoexplicitlyshow,thealternativesneedn’tbeconceivedasinferiorintermsofefficacy.Rather,astheevidenceandreportsincludedattempttoreiterate,thereisawealthandabundanceofcomplimentaryalternativesavailablethatnullifytheneedtorelyonlethalmeans.

3.1.2Threatstoagriculturalproduction:therhetoricandthereality

TheReviewemphaticallylinks“pest”(read:introduced)animalstosubstantialagriculturallosses,intermsofbothincomeandproductivity.

Deerareperceivedtocompetewithnativespeciesandthreatenagriculturalproduction,withtheReviewclaimingthattheirpresence“damage[s]theenvironmentbyalteringvegetation[and]soilandwatersystems,”ultimatelycausingsubstantiallanddegeneration.This,however,isanimpactthatisexplicitlyapparentinmodernagriculturalproduction145,particularlyintensivefactoryfarmingoperations.Itisatragicironythataspeciesintroducedforrecreationalhuntinghasbeenrecastasenvironmentallydamaginganddemonisedasasubstantialthreattoagriculturalproduction,whentherealityofmodernintensiveagricultureisitselfaleadingcauseofmanyofthesecitedissues.Modernanimalproductionisaknowncauseofmanyenvironmentalproblems,withCompassioninWorldFarming(CWF)explicitlystatingthatithas“adevastatingenvironmentalimpact”andconstitutesamajorcontributortoglobalwarming,withlivestockaccountingforupto10%ofallgreenhousegasemissionsandapproximately25%ofallmethaneemissions146.Baseduponestimates,asdefinitivefiguresarenon-existent,millionsofintroducedwildanimalsarekilledeachyear“toallowotherintroducedanimals[primarilyexploitedforagriculturalproduction]theopportunitytograzeunimpededthefragileAustraliansoils,ortoprotectintroducedcrops”.These,

141Hughes,L.,2008,‘1080poisonbaitingusedforthecontrolofvertebratepestanimals–rejectionofkeythreateningprocesslisting:finaldetermination,’NSWGovernmentOfficeofEnvironmentandHeritage.http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/1080PoisonBaitingVertebratePestAnimalsRejectionKTP.htm142AustralianGovernmentDepartmentoftheEnvironment,2016,Dasyurusmaculatusmaculatus(SEmainlandpopulation)’inSpeciesProfileandThreatsDatabase,Canberra.Availableat:http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=75184#summary143NSWGovernmentOfficeofEnvironmentandHeritage,2014,‘Spotted-tailquoll’.Availableat:http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/animals/spottedtailedQuoll.htm144Hughes,L.,2008,‘1080poisonbaitingusedforthecontrolofvertebratepestanimals–rejectionofkeythreateningprocesslisting:finaldetermination,’NSWGovernmentOfficeofEnvironmentandHeritage.145Halden,R.U.,andSchwab,K.J.,n.d.,EnvironmentalImpactofIndustrialFarmAnimalProduction,AReportofthePewCommissiononIndustrialFarmAnimalProduction.Availableat:http://www.ncifap.org/_images/212-4_envimpact_tc_final.pdf146Gold,M.,2004,TheGlobalBenefitsofEatingLessMeat,CompassioninWorldFarmingTrust,Hampshire,UK.

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however,are“well-recognisedcausesofseriousenvironmentaldamage”147.Nativespeciesarealsosubjecttolethalcontrolrationalisedasamechanismtoprotectagriculturalstock.Sincesettlement,dingoeshavebeensubjectedtoextensiveexterminationcampaignsimplementedtodefendagriculturalanimals,frequentlyutilisingmethodsthatinflictextensivepainandsuffering.

Rabbitshavealsobeencondemnedasthreatstoagriculturalproduction,andhavesimilarlybeensubjectedtoaggressivecontrolmeasures.Controlofrabbitpopulationsisthoughttohavetwospecificaims:thepreventionofagriculturalproductionlosseswhereinimprovementisconsideredtobeadirectcorollarycommensuratetorabbitpopulationreductionandthemaintenanceandsafeguardingofnativevegetation148.

FortheReviewtobeconsideredinclusiveandauthoritative,andtherebyincludethoughtfulandrationalsolutions,theseissuesrequireconsideration.Tosimplylabelanintroducedspeciesa‘pest,’andtherebylegitimiselethalcontroltechniquestoremedytheirimpact,isnegligentanddishonest.Intensiveagricultureposesafargreaterdangertotheenvironmentandisafactorthatisconsistentlyoverlooked.Whilstitistruethatanumberofviablealternativestolethalcontroltakecomparativelymoretimeandresources,thisminorlimitationcannotbediscreditedasthevastmajorityofcurrentlyoperationaltechniquesneitherguaranteesuccessnortakeintoaccountthedurationofimplementation.

Itisdifficulttoarriveataconclusionthatdoesnotappeartopositionintroducedspeciesasthescapegoatsforseriousissuesthatrequiredeliberativeandthoroughanalysis.Itisevidentthroughoutthecatalogueofdocuments,studies,andresearchconductedby,oratthebehestof,governmentagenciesthataccountabilityisreroutedtoanimalswhoseinitialappearanceonAustralianlandsandwaterwayswaseitherpoorlymanagedorinappropriatelyconducted.Thisistosay;wemustacceptatleastamodicumofresponsibilityandconsequentlyre-evaluatethemannerinwhichweendeavourtoremedynegativeecological,social,oreconomicimpacts.

147Thiriet,D.,2007,‘Inthespotlight:thewelfareofintroducedwildanimalsinAustralia,’EnvironmentalandPlanningLawJournal,vol.24,pp.417-426.148Williams,C.K.,Davey,C.C.,Moore,R.J.,Hinds,L.A.,Silvers,L.E.,Kerr,P.J.,French,N.,Hood,G.M.,Pech,R.P.,andKrebs,C.J.,2007,‘PopulationresponsestosterilityimposedonfemaleEuropeanrabbits,’JournalofAppliedEcology,vol.44,no.2,pp.291-301.

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3.2Sterilisationandimmunocontraceptives

3.2.1Overview:AbriefhistoryandanalysisoftheReview’srecommendations

Forthepurposesofthissubmission,focuswillbeupontheReview’srecommendationsconcerningdeerandthelitanyofpeer-reviewedevidenceexpoundingtheefficacyofimplementingsterilisationorimmunocontraceptivecampaigns.Itmustbenoted,however,thatanumberofrelatedconcernsandpotentialalternativesareapplicabletoarangeofspeciestargetedintheReview.

DeerwereintroducedintoAustraliaasearlyasthe19thcenturybysettlersand“huntclubs”asreadilyavailablesourcesofrecreationalhuntingfodder149.Deerpopulationlevelsmayreachunwelcomedensitiesduetoanumberofpossiblefactors;thismayincludearelativecornucopiaoffoodsources,alackofpredatorsornaturalrivals,accesstoagriculturalcrops,oranartificialabundanceofsustenancesources(suburbanwasteandgardens)150.Yettheinitialintroductionofthisspecies,andmanyothers,israrelyconsideredintermsofeitheraccountabilityorresponsibility.Thatis,theunderlyingcauseisoftenbypassedorroutinelydisregardedasthepreliminarysourceofcurrentpopulationlevelsinfavourofimplementingwidescalelethalcontrolmeasures.

Today,deerinAustraliaareconsideredtobeinaprecariouspositionontheso-called“invasioncurve”.Thisconceptreferstothelikelihoodoferadicationovertimeandinrelationtocost-effectiveness.Alongthecurvetherearethoughttobefourseparatecategoriesaspeciesmayfallundertherubricofatanygiventime,dependingontherangeanddensityofpopulations:theseare,inorderofdevelopment,prevention,eradication,containment,andlong-termmanagement151.

TheReviewmaintainsthatlegislativechangestotheNSWGameandFeralAnimalControlAct2002shouldbemadeto“excludeallspeciesofdeer”andeachshouldbeaddedtoregulationsconcerning“pestanimals”mandatedbytheNSWBiosecurityAct2015(Recommendation16).WhenthelatterBillcomesintoeffect,Part10oftheNSWLocalLandServicesAct2013willnolongapply,withprovisionsconcerningwildanimalcontrolshiftingtotheBiosecurityAct.Asaresult,currentcontrolorderswillbeinvalidated.Undertheforthcomingframework,“pests”needn’tbedeclaredtoauthorisecontrolmethodsandprogramsontheirmanagement,yettheReviewarguesthatsuchadeclaration“providesanunambiguousstatementofintent”.Thisistrue.Toexplicitlypronounceaspeciesasa“pest”amountstoanunequivocaldeclarationthatsuchaspeciesistobesubjectedtoarangeofroutinelylethaltechniquesaimedattheirtotalornear-totaleradication.AstheReviewfurtherexplains,“thedeclarationofaspeciesasapestbythestategovernmentisaneffectivemechanismforraisingcommunityawarenessandshiftingattitudestowardsthemanagementofthatspecies”.Thispresentsacriticalproblemforboththerealisationandadoptionofhumanecontrolmethods.Theuseofnegativelabelling,itselfanintrinsicallysubjectiveprocedure,actstoinstilinthepublicanegativeimageofthespeciesunderconsideration.Itisevidentthatsomepeople’sdefinitionofa“pest”speciesdiffersdramaticallyfromothers.Somemayconsideraspeciesa“nationalicon,”whilstothersmayconsiderthemaresourceoreven“avictimisedgroup”152.Furthermore,theuseofsuchnegativeterminologydoesnotaccruestablelegislativesignificance153andisafactorrecreationalhunter’shighlightedintheReview’sconsultationprocess,albeitfromasignificantlydifferentangle(“Languagewas[…]seenascrucial:thereisadifferencebetweenrecreationalhuntingandhuntingasameansofpestcontrolandprotectingtheenvironment”).Itisoutsidethescopeofthissubmissiontodelvedeeperintothishighlyproblematicaspectofthe

149Paronson,I.,1998,TheAustralianArk:AHistoryofDomesticatedAnimalsinAustralia,CSIROPublishing,Collingwood,Victoria.150Green,P.,n.d.,‘CancontraceptioncontroldeerpopulationsintheUK?’.Availableat:http://www.thedeerinitiative.co.uk/pdf/contraception-and-wild-deer-control.pdf151Harvey,R.G.,andMazzotti,F.J.,2014,‘Theinvasioncurve:atoolforunderstandinginvasivespeciesmanagementinSouthFlorida,’TheInstituteofFoodandAgriculturalSciences.Availableat:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/UW/UW39200.pdf152Thiriet,D.,2007,‘Inthespotlight:thewelfareofintroducedwildanimalsinAustralia,’EnvironmentalandPlanningLawJournal,vol.24,pp.417-426.153Ibid.

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“pest”animalcontroldebate,yetitiscrucialtoconsidertheconsequencesfundamentallyattachedtosuchlinguisticpraxis154.

Further,theReviewdeclaresthattheNSWGovernmentshould“commitlong-termfundingtomaintainpestanimalresearchcapacitytodevelopandevaluatecost-effectiveandhumanecontroltechniques,”includingthoserelatedtodeercontrol.Again,data-mappingisadvocatedforthesepurposes,withexpressintenttofurthertheexpansionofthePestsmartFeralScanwebportalandapptoaidanimalnumbercollation.TheReviewacknowledgesthatfinancialimpactscausedbydeerare“lesswellresearched”thanotherspecies,yetmaintainsthatotherStateshavegaugedtheirimpactsonagriculturalproductiontobeashighas$20,000.Asaresult,andwithoutadequatecurrentinvestigatorygroundwork,deerarejudgedasamassinganumberofsocialimpacts,includingthementalhealth,qualityoflife,familysuccessionplanning,andculturaltraditions,andthattheseimpactsare“acutelyfelt”inselectsectorsand“appeartobeincreasing”.Thisconclusionisadirectreferencetothenegativeimpactsfeltbyagriculturalfarmerswhoconsiderdeertobeanemergingthreattotheirproductionandprofits.Itisvitaltorecall,however,thattheunderlyinghistoricalcauseofthiseconomicimpactcannotbelegitimatelylevelledattheanimalsinitiallyintroducedbyhumans.Thatis,wearethecardinalcauseandanysubsequenteffortstore-establishanecologicalbalancemustkeepthisinmind.Tosimplyassignsuchaspecieswiththelabel“pest,”ascribetothem,andthemalone,theroleofmenacetomonetarygainoragriculturallivelihood,andsubsequentlyattempttocorrecthistoricalerrorsthroughlethalandinhumanemeansisadishonestrewritingofourcollectiveaccountability.If,astheReviewclaims,the“problemofpestanimalsisasharedone”andwecollectivelyshareresponsibility,itisimprudentandimpolitictodismissthissharedhistory.

3.2.2Theefficacyofsterilisationandimmunocontraceptivesasahumanecontrolmethodforwildmammalpopulations:zonapellucidavaccine(pZP)

Fertilitycontrolhasbeensuccessfullyappliedtowildhorses,deerandzoopopulationsforovertwodecades,beginningin1996withapplicationtoelephantsinKrugerPark155.Itisconsideredtobeamorehumane156,andoftenmoreeffective,formofwildanimalmanagementaslethalmethods,includingshooting,arenotprecise,mayresultinprolongedsuffering,andnecessarilyresultinsuccessivecullingcampaigns.Despiteawealthofauthoritativeknowledgeandevidenceontheefficacyofsuchmethods,theReviewcategoricallydeniesitsapplicabilitybasedonitscostandperceivedrisk.Asthefollowingsegmentwillillustrate,however,thisisnotthecase.TheReviewcharacterisestheapplicationoffertilitycontroltobeattractive,presumablyonthebasisthatitiseffectiveandpresentsafarhigherdegreeofhumanenesswithoutthesamelevelofanimalwelfareconcernslethalmeasuresentail.However,thisisasfarastheReviewiswillingtogoinitscommentsregardingitspotentialapplicability.

TheAmericanbasedScienceandConservationCenter(SCC),createdin1998,isanindependentnot-for-profitorganisationthatis“theworld’sonlydedicatedfacilityforthedevelopmentofwildlifecontraceptivesandmethodsofapplication”157.Inareportonwildlifefertilitycontrol,theSCCtracesthehistoryofwildlifepopulationcontrolmethods,claimingthat“humanshavechosentoimposeartificialhuman-inducedmortalitycontrolonwildpopulations,”primarilythroughhunting,trappingandpoisoning,andthatthesemethodshavebecomeentrenchedandwidelyaccepted.ThisisanalogoustocurrentAustraliancontrolprograms.However,anumberofexternalinfluencershave

154Consider,forexample,thediscretionaryuseofthe“pest”designationasappliedtotwocommoncompanionanimals:dogsandcats.Labellingandsubsequentlyimplementinglethalmeasuresagainstaselectsegmentofasinglespeciessendsamanifestlycontradictorysetofbeliefsandbehaviours.Whilstitiscommonknowledgethatanimalsarelegallyclassifiedasproperty,thisconflictingdesignationmayresultin“non-target”killingswithinasingle,sanctionedforcontrol,species.155Kirkpatrick,J.F.,2011,‘Fertilitycontrol:anewandsuccessfulparadigmforAfricanelephantpopulationmanagement,’VeterinarySciencesTomorrow.156Hardy,C.M.,andBraid,A.L.,2007,‘Vaccinesforimmunologicalcontroloffertilityinanimals,’ScientificandTechnicalReviewoftheOfficeInternationaldeEpizooties,vol.26,no.2,pp.461-470.157Kirkpatrick,J.F.,2010,WildlifeFertilityControl:FactandFancy,ScienceandConservationCenter,Billings,Montana.

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incrementallychangedthissituation.Expandinghumanurbanisation,variedlegislativeprohibitionsandtransformingpublicsentimentshavethreatenedthelegitimacyandvalidityoflethalcontrolmethods.ThisisaphenomenonseeninAustralia,withtheInvasiveAnimalsCRCpreparingaseriesofreportsdesignedtoassesspublicattitudestowildanimalcontrolmethods158.Clearly,publicattitudestocontrolmethodsareconsideredimportanttotheagenciesandinstitutionalarmsthatplanandimplementsuchpolicies.If,itwouldseem,thereareoperationalalternativesthatnotonlyboastincreasedratesofefficacyanddonotposesignificantthreatstowelfare,whythesealternativesarenotadequatelyconsideredisinacceptabletoagrowingportionofthepopulation.Wearequicklyapproachingapointinwhich“safe,humane,andpubliclyacceptablewildlifemanagementparadigmsarebeginningtoreplacelethalmethods”.Toarbitrarilydismisssuchadvancementsisunacceptable.

Forthesereasons,contraceptionhasbeenchampionedasahumanealternative159.Forasterilisationmethodtobeconsideredsuitable,anumberofcharacteristicshavebeenpresentedasprerequisites:thevaccinemusthaveanefficacyrateof90%,itmustbesafewhenappliedtopregnantanimalsandmustnothaveanydetrimentaleffectuponeitherthefoetusorneonate,itmustbereversible,requirenosurgicalinvasion,haveaminimalimpactuponanimalbehaviour,havenoshort-orlong-termconsequences,itmustberemotelyapplicableandnotrequiredirecthandlingofthetargetedanimal,anditmusthaveprolongedefficacyoveraperiodofyears.Itisreasonedthatforcontraceptiveprogramstodeliverdesiredresults,theserequirementsareobligatory160.

Oneprovenmethodwhichmeetsmany,ifnotall,oftheseconditions,utilisestheporcinezonapellucidavaccine(pZP),whicheffectivelyandsafelyfunctionsasanimmunocontraceptive,andthuseffectivelynegatestheuseoflethalcontrolmeasures161.Ithasbeenusedasacontraceptivemediumforthemanagementofhorsesforanumberofyears,andwasinitiallytrialledspecifictothisspecies.PZP,likemanyotherimmunologicalvaccines,iscomposedofnumerousformulationsofproteinscombinedwithadjuvants(pharmacologicalagentsthataltertheinfluenceofotheragents)162.Thevaccinerequiresinjectionintothemuscleoftheanimal,arequirementthatcanbemetthroughtheuseofremote(dart)delivery.Whenimmunised,theantibodiesthevaccineproducesenclosetheoocyteandthroughsterichindrance(theimmobilisationofchemicalreactions)interceptsfertilisation163.Thevaccineis“atleast90%effectiveinpreventingpregnancyinavarietyofungulates,”andispredominantlyadministeredtofemalesofthetargetedspecies,includingdeer.Utilisingfertilitycontrolmethodstoalleviateoverpopulationproblemshavebeenadvocatednotonlyonthegroundsofitsprovenefficacy,butalsobecauseitconstitutesaconsiderablymorehumanesolution164.Inreferencetothepreviouslydiscussed“invasioncurve,”immunocontraceptivetechniqueshaveenteredthemanagementlevelandhasbeenproveneffectiveinover85differentspeciesat“thelevelofboththeindividualanimalandthepopulation”165.Thatis,ithasbeenproveneffectiveatstabilisingandcontrollinglargenumbersoffree-roamingungulates.This,then,ispresentedasaviableandvalidalternativetolethalcontrolmethods.

158Fitzgerald,G.,Fitzgerald,N.,andDavidson,C.,2007,‘Publicattitudestowardsinvasiveanimalsandtheirimpacts:asummaryandreviewofAustralasianandselectedinternationalresearch,’theInvasiveAnimalsCooperativeResearchCentre,UniversityofCanberra,ACT;Fisher,N.I.,Lee,A.J.,andCribb,J.H.J.,2012,‘Willthecommunityacceptourscience?Monitoringthecommunity’sviewaboutmanagingpestanimalsinAustralia,’theInvasiveAnimalsCooperativeResearchCentre,UniversityofCanberra,ACT;Fitzgerald,G.,2009,‘Publicattitudestocurrentandproposedformsofpestanimalcontrol,’InvasiveAnimalsCooperativeResearchCentre,UniversityofCanberra,ACT.159Liu,I.K.M.,2011,‘Asynopsisoncontraceptioninwildlifeandferaanimals,’RevistaBrasileiradeReproduçãoAnimal,vol.35,no.2,pp.77-79.

160Ibid.161Kirkpatrick,J.F.,Lyda,R.O.,andFrank,K.M.,2011,‘Contraceptivevaccinesforwildlife:areview,’AmericanJournalofReproductiveImmunology,vol.66,pp.40-50.162Hardy,C.M.,andBraid,A.L.,2007,‘Vaccinesforimmunologicalcontroloffertilityinanimals,’ScientificandTechnicalReviewoftheOfficeInternationaldeEpizooties,vol.26,no.2,pp.461-470.163Liu,I.K.M.,2011,‘Asynopsisoncontraceptioninwildlifeandferaanimals,’RevistaBrasileiradeReproduçãoAnimal,vol.35,no.2,pp.77-79.164Killian,G.,Diehl,N.K.,Miller,L.,Rhyan,J.,andThain,D.,2006,‘Long-termefficacyofthreecontraceptiveapproachesforpopulationcontrolofwildhorses,’Proceedingsofthe22ndVertebratePestConference,RMTimmandJMO’Brien(eds.),pp.67-71.165Kirkpatrick,J.F.,Lyda,R.O.,andFrank,K.M.,2011,‘Contraceptivevaccinesforwildlife:areview,’AmericanJournalofReproductiveImmunology,vol.66,pp.40-50.

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Inprogramsadministeringimmunocontraceptivevaccinestowildanimalpopulations,concentrationhasbeenprimaryaffordedtowildhorses,urbandeer,bison,andAfricanelephants166.Itsuseforwildlifemanagementhasbeenprovensincefirsttrialledin1988,andPZPinparticularhasproventobeeffectiveandsafeacrossarangeofspecieswithnegligiblenegativeconsequences167.Sinceinitialdevelopmentandtrials,PZPhasbeensupplementedtoalleviateissuesproblematizingitsapplicability(forexample,shortimmunisationperiodsandproblemsassociatedwithremoteadministration).TheearlyPZPvaccinerequiredaninitialprimershotfollowedbyanannualbooster.Toaidinapplicabilityandensureprolongedefficacy,thevaccinehasbeenmergedwithadjuvants(FreundsMondifiedandFreundsIncomplete)andcanbeappliedremotely168,meaningthatitcanbeappliedfromadistanceandrequiresnomoreeffortthanthecurrentlyappliedlethalaerialshootingcampaigns(OnelongitudinalstudyoftheefficacyofPZPindeercomparedtwodifferentmodesofadministeringthevaccine,eachwithdifferentadjuvants(oneoil-basedandtheotheralum,oraluminiumsalt,based)169.Eachmethodwascomparedonthebasisofefficacyduration,withtheoil-basedemulsionadjuvantvaccineremainingactiveforthegreatestlengthoftimeandcanremainoperativeforupto7yearsafterasingle-shotimmunisation).

3.2.3PZPandimmunocontraceptivesasviableandactionablealternativestocurrentcontrolprograms

Whilstthetechnologywasinitsinfancytwodecadesago,itisnowaprovenmechanismtodeliverhumaneandeffectivevaccinesthatinvalidatethejustificationforlethalmethods.Studieshaveconsistentlyshownthatthesetechniquesarepracticalandfunctionalnow.Initially,questionsregardingtheeconomicfeasibility,safety,andefficacyoftreatingfree-roamingmammalswithimmunocontraceptiveswerenotonlyreasonablebutnecessarylinesofenquiry.Today,thequestionhingesonhowtodeliversuchvaccineswithlesslabourandlessfinancialexpenditure170.Thatis,thetechnologyisavailable,isproventobeeffective,andentailnosuffering;thesingledecisivefactorpreventingtheapplicationofimmunocontraceptivestowildanimalsappearstobealackofinstitutionalcommitmentanddeterminationtoactinaccordancewiththecriteriathatanimalcontrolauthoritiesplaceuponthemselves(nodoubtatthebehestofpubliccondemnationofinhumanetreatmentofanimals).

TheReviewexplicitlystates“recreationalhuntingofdeerwillcontinueandevenbeexpanded”(Section6.2)despitethefactthatRecommendation26(expandresearchcapabilities)callsontheNSWGovernmentto“commitlong-termfundingtomaintainpestanimalresearchcapacitytodevelopandevaluatecost-effectiveandhumanecontroltechniques,”includingthoserelatedtodeercontrolprograms.Further,theReviewacknowledges“theavailablecontroltechniquesvaryinefficiencies,cost-effectiveness,andhumaneness,”beforeunequivocallystatingthatthemostsuccessfulprogramsutiliseseveraltechniques,includingaerialshooting.Fertilitycontrolofwilddeerisconsidered”conditionallyacceptable”intermsofhumaneness,“notcurrentlyeffective,”andexpensive.Theevidencepresentedwithinthisreportbeliestheseconclusions.

166Ibid.167Kirkpatrick,J.F.,2010,‘Immunocontraceptivereproductivecontrolutilisingporcinezonapellcuida(PZP)infederalwildhorsepopulations.’Availableat:http://www.einsten.net/pdf/110242569.pdf;Kirkpatrick,J.F.,Rowan,A.,Lamberski,N.,Wallace,R.,Frank,K.,andLyda,R.,2009,‘Thepracticalsideofimmunocontraception:zonaproteinsandwildlife,’JournalofReproductiveImmunology,vol.83,pp.151-157.168AustralianBrumbyAlliance,2012,‘ABAinfosheet:fertilitycontrolforwildhorses’.Availableat:http://australianbrumbyalliance.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/ABA-Info-Sheet-Fertility-Control.pdf169Miller,L.A.,Fagerstone,K.A.,Wagner,D.C.,andKillian,G.J.,2009,‘Factorscontributingtothesuccessofasingle-shot,multiyearPZPimmunocontraceptivevaccineforwhite-taileddeer,’Human-WildlifeConflicts,vol.3,no.1,pp.103-115.170Kirkpatrick,J.F.,Lyda,R.O.,andFrank,K.M.,2011,‘Contraceptivevaccinesforwildlife:areview,’AmericanJournalofReproductiveImmunology,vol.66,pp.40-50.

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3.2.4ImmunocontraceptivesintheAustraliancontext

ItisimportanttoconsiderwhetheranypotentialprogramwillbeeffectiveandconducivetoAustralianconditions.Thefollowingpassagewillillustratethatnotonlyistheimplementationofnonlethalsterilisationcampaignsapossibility;itisadvantageousforarangeofreasons.Toillustratethis,anumberofrelevantAustralianexampleswillbediscussed.

A2013ParksVictoria171reportonwildhorsemanagementandcontrolmethodscitesthePZPvaccineandnotesitssuccessinreducingthefertilityofmaresinAmericanstudies.However,thereporterroneouslystatesthatitis“ashort-termcontraceptive”thatrequiresreapplication“regularly”172.Aswehaveseen,thisisnolongerthecase.Thevaccinecanbeeffectiveonalong-termbasisandrequiresnoadditionaleffortcomparativetocurrenttechniques.

AreportcompiledonbehalfoftheNSWOfficeofEnvironmentandHeritageformedtoassessthehumanenessofhorsemanagementmethodsinrelationtotheKosciuszkoNationalParkWildHorseManagementPlandiscussestheuseofPZPincontrollingwildpopulationnumbers.Thereport,inmarkedcontrasttotheParksVictoriareview,acknowledgesthatthevaccinecanbe“administeredusingadart(e.g.shotfromahelicopter173)orbyhandinjectiontoaconfinedanimal(e.g.trappedandmusteredandheldinayard)”174.Thestudyassessedthe“overallwelfareimpact”ofutilisingthePZPvaccineinfree-roaminghorsesandconcludedthatitsoverallimpactwascategorisedasmild.Incomparisontothewelfareassessmentofaerialshootingcampaigns,whichwassplitintotwocontrastingscenariosduetothepotentialinstancesinwhich“bestpracticealonedoesnotresultintheidealoutcomeofimmediatedeath,”andinvolvesa“severeoverallimpact”withacorrespondinglysevereimpactonmarkersofanxiety,fear,andpainaswellasinjuryandfunctionalimpairment,theuseofPZPvaccineimmediatelyappearstooutweighthisroutinelychosenmethod.Inassessingthe“modeofdeath”thisinvolves,theassessmentconcludedthat“levelsofsuffering”wereeithersevereorextremewhenutilisingaerialshooting.Thereportconcludesthat“debilitatinglong-termeffectshavenotbeenobservedinanyspeciesofwildlifetreatedwithPZP,”andithasbeneficiallong-termeffectsrelatedtoanimalwelfare.ThisisanAustraliandocumentthatexplicitlyendorsesthepotentialuseofPZPincampaignsaimedatstabilisingwildungulates.TheReviewdoesnotincludereferencetothisstudy.

Furthermore,MeatandLivestockAustralia(MLA),the“marketing,researchanddevelopmentbodyofAustralia’sredmeatandlivestockindustry”175,hasalsopublishedreportscitingPZP.TheMLAreportacknowledgesthattheuseofPZPhasbeenprovensuccessfulinenablinginfertilityinanumberofspecies,includingwildhorsesandcitessingledoselong-termsuccessindeer,andmayenablesterility“fortargetedgroupsoffemales[…]giventhatthisvaccinecanbesafelyadministered”.Thereportadvocatesfurtherfinancialsupportforitsdevelopment.Thereportconcludesbyexplicitlystating“this[thedevelopmentofthePZPvaccine]isamajorlogisticadvantageforwildlifecontraception”.ThisreportisalsoabsentfromtheReview’sconsideration,perhapsduetothefactthatiteffectivelycontradictsthestatedrationalesprecludingtheuseoffertilitycontrolmethods,particularlyPZP.

171ParksVictoriaisastatutoryauthorityresponsibleformanagingVictorianestates,createdbytheParksVictoriaAct1998172Axford,J.,andBrown,D.,2013,‘Wildhorsemanagementandcontrolmethods,’ParksVictoriaBackgroundPaper.Availableat:http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/574148/Background-Paper-3-Wild-horse-management-and-control-methods.pdf173SpecificallytheSpayVacliquidformulationofthePZPvaccine.174IndependentTechnicalReferenceGroup(ITRG),2015,‘Assessingthehumanenessofwildhorsemanagementmethods:KosciuszkoNationalParkWildHorseManagementPlan;AreportontheoutcomesofahumanenessassessmentpanelassembledonbehalfoftheIndependentTechnicalReferenceGroup(ITRG),’StateofNSWandtheOfficeofEnvironmentandHeritage.Availableat:http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/protectsnowies/knp-sssessing-humaneness-wild-horse-management-methods-2804.pdf175MeatandLivestockAustralia(MLA),n.d.,‘AboutMLA’.Availableat:http://www.mla.com.au/About-MLA

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3.2.5Conclusion

Tobeadequatelyinclusiveofallviableoptionsandalternatives,eachpossibilityoughttobetreatedwiththesameconsideration.Thatis,lethalmeasuresmustbeconsideredincomparisontonon-lethalhumanealternativesandbegrantedthesamelevelofdeliberation.Atpresent,acomparativeanalysisisfundamentallylacking,withpreferentialadoptionoflethalmethodsprevailingovereachofthevalidandoperationalalternativeslaidoutinthisreport.Atbest,thisamountstoaninstitutionallackofconsideration,andatworsttoawilfulomissionofpotentialalternatecontrolprogramsandprinciples.Neitheroftheseverdictsisacceptablewhentheobjectiveinvolvesthewholesalekillingofanimals.

TheAustralianGovernment’sreportonassessing“therelativehumanenessofpestanimalcontrolmethods”providesastep-by-stepmethodapplicablewhenratingtheacceptabilityorappropriatenessofparticularcontrolmethods176.Thereshouldbeaprocessofidentifyingalternativestobecontrastedagainstoneanother(includingshooting,baiting,poisoning,andintroductionofvirusesordiseases),followedbyanidentificationofthecriteriarelevanttoeachmethod(includingefficacy,humaneness,viability,targetspecificity,andcost-effectiveness).Thesestepsinformtheapplicationofacontrolmethod.Followingtheinitialassessment,theGovernmentreportstatesthatanidentificationofthe“relativeimportanceofeachcriterion”shouldbeanalysed,witheachalternativebeingrankedagainsttheotherstoreachaconclusionthatadequatelyaddresseseachvariable.Ineachofthesesteps,thecontraceptionoffree-roaminganimalsvastlyoverrideslethalmethods.

176Sharp,T.,andSaunders,G.,2011,‘Amodelforassessingtherelativehumanenessofpestanimalcontrolmethods,’AustralianGovernmentDepartmentofAgriculture,FisheriesandForestry,Canberra,ACT.

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4Animalwelfare

4.1Abriefexplanationofwhatwemeanwhenwetalkaboutanimalwelfare

WhilstAnimalLiberationconsidersanyexploitativeuseofanimalstobeunacceptableandadoptsatrulyabolitioniststanceinregardstoanycurrentorforeseeableuseofanimalswhichmayresultinharm,suffering,orpain,itisimportanttobrieflydefinewhatwemeanwhenwetalkaboutanimalwelfare.Commonlydefinedasthehealth,happinessandconditionofanindividualoraregulatorypolicydevisedtopromotethefundamentalphysical,physiologicalorpsychicwellbeingofanindividual,welfareasappliedtoanimalsisoftenneedlesslycontroversial.Itis,atitscore,anattempttovalidatetheintrinsicworthofnonhumananimalssothattheyarenottreatedasmereautomatonsorcommoditiesavailabletobeusedinanymannerhumanswish.Thisisindirectoppositiontoearlyaccountsthatheldtheviewthatsincenonhumananimalscannotreason,andthusdidnotpossessamind,andthereforedidnothaveamentallife,theywerelittlemorethanmachines177.Sincethis“monstrousthesis”wasfirstproposed,mostfamouslybyDescartes178,ourcollectiveunderstandingofanimalshaschangeddramatically.Yet,thisincreasedconsiderationhasnottranslatedintoanyappreciablereductionineithercrueltyordisregardforanimals.Indeed,somehaveclaimedthatthemodernworldexhibitsgreaterexamplesofcrueltyandabusethananyseenbeforeinhumanhistory179.Itisundeniable,however,thatdespiteourcompunctionsregardingwelfare,animalscontinuetosufferimmenselyandforreasonsthatbearnorelationtonecessity.

AccordingtotheWorldOrganisationforAnimalHealth(OIE),animalwelfarerefersto“how[positivelyornegatively]ananimaliscopingwiththeconditionsinwhichitlives”andadoptsasaguidingmechanismtheuniversallyrecognised“FiveFreedoms”developedin1979bytheUKFarmAnimalWelfareCouncilandsinceextrapolatedtocoverabroaderrangeofspeciesandcontexts180.Thespecifiedfreedomsinclude:freedomfromhungerandthirst;freedomfromdiscomfort;freedomfrompain,injury,ordisease;freedomtoexpressnormalbehaviour;andfreedomfromfearanddistress181.Sincetheadoptionofthesebasicfreedomstheyhavebeenconceivedofasapreliminarysetofrights182,whilstothershavearguedthatwelfareisnottranslatableintorights-basedlanguage.Ithasalsobeenrecognisedthatanimalwelfare,understoodastheverdictthatwhilenonhumananimalshave“aninterestinnotsuffering,”thisisroutinelyrescindedoroutweighedbytherightsordesiresofhumans183.Thisdevelopmentinourcollectivethinkingaboutanimalshasbeentracedtotheearlytwentiethcentury,whenmodernanimalwelfarelegislationbegantobeintroduced.Beforethistime,concernforanimals,atleastinlaw,wasprimarilyadebatecentreduponpropertystatus.Thiswas,asonecritichasargued,the“moralorthodoxy”;therewasyettobea“sustainedchallengetotheviewthatonlyunnecessarysufferingshouldbeavoided”184.Today,however,itisincreasinglyevidentthatsimplyprohibitingunnecessarysufferingisinsufficient.Anenforceableandstrongregulatoryapproachisrequiredifwearetoeffectivelygovernwhatwecall“animalwelfare”.

Itisclearthatthemajority,ifnotall,oftheanimalsdiscussedwithinthisreportwillnothavetheirfivefreedomsmet.Forthedeer,cat,carp,orkoitargetedbycurrentcontrolcampaigns,littlehaschangedsinceDescartesdiagnosedthemasmerelycomplexmachines.Whilstitislikelythatthevastmajorityofpeoplewouldagreewiththephrase“animalshaveaninterestinnotsuffering,”howthissentimenttranslatesintoactionisunclear.Forexample,itisknownthatAustralians“generallyagreethatanimalsaresentientandthatpeopleareobligedtoavoidharmingthem,”and“relativelyfewAustraliansbelievethatcurrentlawsintendedtoprotectthewellbeingofanimalsare

177Rollin,B.E.,2011,PuttingtheHorsebeforeDescartes,TempleUniversityPress,Philadelphia.178Harrison,P.,1992,‘Descartesonanimals,’ThePhilosophicalQuarterly,vol.42,no.167,pp.219-227.179Francione,G.L.,2000,IntroductiontoAnimalRights:YourChildortheDog?TempleUniversityPress,Philadelphia.180McCausland,C.,2014,‘Thefivefreedomsofanimalwelfarearerights,’JournalofAgriculturalandEnvironmentalEthics,vol.27,pp.649-662.181Webster,J.,2005,AnimalWelfare:LimpingTowardsEden,BlackwellPublishing,Oxford.182McCausland,C.,2014,‘Thefivefreedomsofanimalwelfarearerights,’JournalofAgriculturalandEnvironmentalEthics,vol.27,pp.649-662.183Ibid.184Garner,R.,2004,Animals,Politics,andMorality,2ndedition,ManchesterUniversityPress,NewYork.

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adequate”185.Itisunknownwhatthegeneralpublicbelievesinregardstoourtreatmentof“pest”species,yetiftheseconclusionsareagaugeitisreasonabletopresumethat,givenreliableandfactualinformation,thevastmajoritywouldbeunsupportiveofmanyofthecurrentlyoperationalmethods.How,itmightbeasked,isitpossibletobelievethatanimalsaresentientandarecapableofsuffering,thatwehaveanobligationtoavoidcausingthemharm,andcondonetheuseoflethalcontroltechniquesthatarenotonlyinhumaneandineffectual,butwhollyunnecessary?Theanswertothisquestionisnotforthcoming,anditisquiteeasytounderstandwhy.

4.2OverviewanddiscussionoftherecommendationsprovidedwithintheReview

Despitetherangeofspeciesandnumbersofanimalstargetedincontrolprogramseachyearandthemethodsandtechniquesapplied,thereislittlereflectionprovidedwithinrelevantCodesofPractice(COP)andStandardOperatingProcedures(SOPs)relatingtowelfareconcerns.Atfirstglancethiswouldappeartocontradictthestatedaimsofmanyofthesedocuments.Thegeneralpublicisundoubtedlyunawareorinnocenttothefateaffixedtoaspeciesdesignated“pest”.However,anumberofreasonsareassociatedwiththis,includingpoorcommunityawarenessofthesufferingimplicitincontrolcampaigns,anabsenceofempathyfortargetspecies(particularlythosethatarewidelyconsidered‘pests’),andawidespreadbeliefthatthewelfareoftargetanimalsismerelyaperipheralconcernultimatelytrumpedbyperceivedenvironmentaloreconomicissues186.Thisisdemonstratedbythepublicationofnumerousgovernmentorgovernment-fundedreportsexclusivelyrelatingtothe“economicimpacts”of“pest”animals,includingastudyextensivelyusedwithintheReview187whichevaluatesavarietyofdetrimentalimpactvariablesposedbyspeciescurrentlyconsidered“pests”inNSW.Thesevariablesincludedistributionandeconomic,environmental,andsocialimpacts.Throughoutthereport,thereisextensivediscussionrelatingtothesefactors.Thereisasinglereferencetoanimalwelfare(specificallyregarding“wildhorsemanagementcosts,”andassuchhingesprimarilyoneconomicratherthanwelfareconsiderations).WithintheReview,thisstudyisheldupasthedefinitiveaccountofassessingthefinancialimpactsoftargetspeciesandisusedtoenumerateactualcostsassociatedwiththeseanimals,instillingintheeconomicevaluationfarmoreworththananyconcernforthewelfareoftheanimalstrapped,shot,poisoned,orotherwisekilled188.Atthispoint,itisworthreiteratingthatnoneofthesetechniquesarenecessary.Thereareviableandoperationalalternativesthatrendertheircontinueduseunnecessary.Ifwearetoescape,orcollectivelyadvance,fromtheantiquatedandobsoletenotionthatonlyunnecessarysufferingoughttobeabdicated,alternativestolethalmeansthatinherentlyrequiresufferingtoeffectivelyfunctionmustbeabolished.This,itmustbestressed,isneitherradicalnorillusive.Itisconservativeinsofarastheoverwhelmingmajorityofpeoplebelievesufferingshouldbeexcised,andpracticalinthatsuchalternativesareavailable,providingwearewillingtoadoptthem.

Thepurposeofilluminatingthisfocusistointroducethedearthofconcernforwelfare,which,althoughtheReviewacknowledgesis“agrowingconcern,”isultimatelydisposedofbyreferencetoCodesofPractice(whichnegotiate“relativehumaneness”)andStandardOperatingProcedures(whichdescribetechniquesandpotentialwelfareissuesarisingfromthem).Inresponsetotheselaudable,yetfrequentlyinoperableclaims,abriefcritiqueofthecodesandstandardswillendeavourtoillustratetherotinherenttothewildanimalcontrolprogramsandtechniquescurrentlyemployedthroughoutNSW.

185HumaneResearchCouncil,2014,‘AnimaltrackerAustralia:baselinesurveyresults’.Availableat:https://www.voiceless.org.au/content/animal-tracker-australia-0186Thiriet,D.,2007,‘Inthespotlight:thewelfareofintroducedwildanimalsinAustralia,’EnvironmentalandPlanningLawJournal,vol.24,pp.417-426.187McLeod,R.,2004,CountingtheCost:ImpactofInvasiveAnimalsinAustralia,CooperativeResearchCentreforPestAnimalControl,Canberra.188Table2.2oftheReviewliststhecostsandlossesbelievedtobecausedby“pest”animalsinNSW.“Productioncosts”vastlyoutweigheachofthetworemainingvariables(landholdermanagementcostsandgovernmentexpenditure)totalingat$109millionbetween2013-14.

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4.3AbriefdiscussionontheroleofCodesofPractice(COPs)andStandardOperatingProcedures(SOPs)inregulatinganimalwelfareissues

ArangeofCodesofPractice(COPs)andStandardOperatingProcedures(SOPs)hasbeendevisedasreferralstoconsultwhenplanningorundertakinganimalcontrolprogramsatboththeStateandCommonwealthlevels.Thesedocumentsarethoughttoenableastandardisationprocedurethatallowscontrolmethodstobeevaluatedandadministeredinthemostefficientandhumanemanner.SOPsdiscussandcataloguecontroltechniques,theirimplementation,andthewelfareimpactsthathaveonbothtargetandnon-targetspecies,whilstCOPsdistributegeneralinformationregarding“bestpracticemanagement,controlstrategies,speciesbiologyandimpact”andincludeoutlinesofthehumaneness,efficacy,cost-effectivenessandtargetspecificity”ofeachtechnique189.Whilstitisapparentthattheseweredesignedtoassistintheplanninganddevelopmentofcontrolmechanisms,andassuchareinclusiveofanimalwelfarerequirements,bothhavesignificantshortcomings.

Thecodesandstandardsareinsufficient.Theydonotincludeallspeciessubjecttocontrolandissuesregardinghumanenessareinadequate190.ManyofthetermsincludedintheCodesarephrasedinanadvisoryratherthanamandatorytone(“should”insteadof“must”)andthus,theyembodyminimalmeasuresofwelfareandarefrequentlydevisedtofulfileconomicorexpedient-basedconsiderations.AnexampleofthisisfoundintheModelCodeofPracticefortheHumaneControlofFoxes.ThisCOPacknowledgesthat1080poisoningcanresultin“painandsuffering,sometimesforanextendedperiod,”yetcontinuestoprescribeitsuseonthegroundsofitbeingrelativelycost-effective191.Thispatentlyandimmediatelyrunsafouloftheprovisionpresentedaboverequiringthediscontinuationofanypracticethatentailsunnecessarysuffering.Clearly,tosuffer“foranextendedperiod”presupposesunnecessarysuffering.

Further,theCodescanbecriticisedassupplyingobstaclestopresentingprosecutionsforcruelty.Althoughtheremaybeclausesrelatingtoanimalprotectionand/orwelfarewithinCodes,thismaybetrivialwhenthecontroltechniqueisappliedincompliancewiththeCodes.Thatis,ifanactisendorsedwithinaCodethatcouldotherwisebeconsideredanactofcruelty,itprovidestheindividualapplyingitabsolution.Thiseffectivelyenablesanexemptiontoprosecutionsofcruelty.Forexample,theNSWCodeofPracticeforLicensedGameHuntersincludesreferencetotheGameandFeralAnimalControlRegulation2004,inwhichitisamandatoryobligationto“avoidsufferingofanimals”192andhuntedanimalsarenottobesubjectedtounnecessarypain,theymustbehuntedonlyifahumanekillislikelyandthetechniquesusedmustbereasonablyacceptedtoachievetheseprerequisites193.Asthisexhibits,thechosenterminologyisnotonlyvagueandinexplicit,itallowsforpotentialdefencesagainsttheveryactsitclaimstoprohibit,andreinforcesthepossibilityofprovidingexoneration.How,itmustbeasked,isitpossibletoascertainwhatexactlyis“unnecessarypain”orwhatconstitutesa“humanekill”?Presumablythetwoarecloselyrelated,yetitisnotclear,perhapsintentionallyso,whatthesevaguetermsmeanorhowtheyaretobeassessedwhenappliedtoaninjured,poisoned,orotherwisedyinganimal.

Additionally,theGameCouncilNSWstatutoryauthorityistaskedwithprovidingeffectivemanagementofintroducedspeciesofgameanimalsandwithpromotingtheresponsibleandsystematichuntingofthesespecies.TheCouncilwasestablishedundertheGameandFeralAnimalControlAct2002andhastheresponsibilityforsettingstandardsapplicablethroughoutNSW.TheCouncilhaspublishedaHunterEducationHandbookthatactsasaguidetoacquiringarestrictedhuntinglicence(R-Licence)throughsectionsconcerninghuntingtechniquesandtheirapplicabilitytospecificspecies.Again,thereisasinglereferencetowelfarewithintheCouncil’s“GameandFeral189Sharp,T.,andSaunders,G.,2011,AModerlforAssessingtheRelativeHumanenessofPestAnimalControlMethods,2ndedition,AustralianGovernmentDepartmentofAgriculture,FisheriesandForestry,Canberra.190Thiriet,D.,2007,‘Inthespotlight:thewelfareofintroducedwildanimalsinAustralia,’EnvironmentalandPlanningLawJournal,vol.24,pp.417-426.191Sharp,T.,andSaunders,G.,ModelCodeofPracticefortheHumaneControlofFoxes,NSWDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries.192Thiriet,D.,2007,‘Inthespotlight:thewelfareofintroducedwildanimalsinAustralia,’EnvironmentalandPlanningLawJournal,vol.24,pp.417-426.193GameandFeralAnimalControlRegulation2004(NSW),Schedule2.

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Species”portionoftheHandbook.Instead,itfocusesonthelegalitiesofeachtechniqueasappliedtoeachspecies.ThisisunsurprisinggiventhefunctionsandresponsibilitiesoftheCouncil,yetitdoesnotexplainwhyagovernmentallysanctionedbodytaskedwithprovidingmanagementofgameanimalsdoesnotconsideritaworthyfactorforinclusion.

TheReviewnotesthattheCommission“supportsthecontinuedguidanceofCodesofPracticesandStandardOperatingProceduresandtheirrevisionwithadvancementsintechnologyandresearch”.Thisisappropriate.Yetthisallowsforacyclicalrelianceonlethaltechniquesand/ormethodsthatareconsideredtobeeconomicallyviableandcost-effectivewithoutacomparableconsiderationforhumanenessorwelfare.Theunenforceablenatureofthecodesandstandardssanctiontheuseongoinguseofastaggeringrepertoireofcruelmethods,includingtheuseof1080baiting(criticisedbytheRSPCAonthegroundsthatitisinhumane194andcanposesecondarypoisoningthreatstonon-targetspecies195)andaerialshooting(consideredtobehumaneonlywhenconductedbyexperiencedandtrainedshooters,aprovisothatisoftennotfollowed,andinanycase,isunenforced196).

Atrulytransparentandreliablegoverningbodyoughttostrategicallyandforcefullyaddressissuesconcerninganimalwelfare.Instead,weareprovidedwithasetofinadequateandnegligentdocumentsthatpurporttoconsiderhumanenessandwelfare,yetdolittlemorethanpaylipservicetothem.

4.4WelfareconcernsrelatedtorecreationalhuntinginNSW

TheReviewintendstopositionrecreationalhuntingasananimalmanagementtool(Section7.4)andopenlyencouragesitinthisway.Recreationalhuntingisendorsedasa“validandvaluedrecreationalpursuit,”beforeacknowledgingthat“shootingonitsownisrarelyaneffectivepopulationcontrolmethod”andinfactpopulationcontrolis“nottheprimarypurposeofmostrecreationalhunters”.Infact,huntersoftenactivelymaintainpopulationlevels,leavingjuvenilesandfemales,toallowforfuturehunting197.Generally,accordingtotheInvasiveSpeciesCouncil,“feral”animalsareusuallyhighlygenerativeandhavepopulationsinfusedwithsocalled“doomedsurplus”(animalswhodieduetoinsufficientresources).Thisfactorallowsthemtofillthegapsinnumberskilledbyhunters198.Additionally,recreationalhuntershavebeenknowntoillegallyreleaseanimalsintothewildtobehuntedinthefuture,anactthatdrasticallyunderminesanypurportedcontrolprogram.Additionally,huntersareknowntofavourkillinglargemales(“trophies”),anactthatinitselfbeliestheoftcitedjustificationthathuntingactsasaconservationboon,asmanyspeciesarepolygamousandselectingtokillmalesallowsthoseremainingtomateandpropagatethepopulationfurther.

RecreationalhuntersarecodifiedintheReviewasaspecialinterestgroup,andplotsto“activelyengagerecreationalhuntinggroupsinregionalpestanimalmanagement”(Recommendation22)whilstcallingupontheNSWGovernmentto“reduceredtapesurroundingrecreationalhuntingonprivateland”(Recommendation23).ThislattersuggestionaddsafurtherrequestthattheGovernment“removetherequirementforhunterstobelicensedtotargetnon-indigenousspeciesonprivateland”andintendsto“promotetheuseofapprovedhuntingorganisationmembershipandprogramstolinkhunterswithlandholders”.Presumablythisisareferencetoprogramscurrentlyrunbyhuntingorganisationsthatattempttoencourageamicablerelationshipsbetweenlandholdersandrecreationalhunters.WhilstnotbeingexplicitlyendorsedbytheReview(thereisnomentionof194RSPCAAustralia,2014,‘WhatistheRSPCA’sviewonusing1080forpestanimalcontrol?’Availableat:http://kb.rspca.org.au/what-is-the-rspcas-view-on-using-1080-for-pest-animal-control_141.html195HumaneVertebratePestControlWorkingGroup,2004,ANationalApproachTowardsHumaneVetrebreatePestControl,discussionpaperarisingfromtheproceedingsofanRSPCAAustralia/AWC/VPCjointworkship,August4-5,Melbourne.RSPCAAustralia,Canberra.196Sharp,T.,2012,‘StandardOperatingProcedure,PIG002:Aerialshootingofferalpigs,’InvasiveAnimalsCRC.Availableat:http://www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/PIG002_aerial-shooting_web.pdf197InvasiveSpeciesCouncil.2012,‘RecreationalhuntingNSW:claimsvfacts’.Availableat:http://invasives.org.au/files/2014/02/fs_rechunt_NSWvfacts.pdf198Ibid.

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furtheringoradoptingsuchastrategy),theSportingShootersAssociationofAustralia’s(SSAA)FarmerAssistprogramispromotedasasocialmethodtoadvocatetheuseofhuntersastoolsincontrolprograms.Crucially,adefiningfeatureoftheFarmerAssistprogramistheeffortto“providemorehuntingopportunitiesforrecreationalhunters”throughthefosteringofsuchrelationships.(ThisresemblesthecritiqueoftheFeralscanportalandappadmonishingthefactthatanindividualcaneffectivelysignananimalsdeathsentence,yetallocatethefinalacttoanother.Itappears,despitetheeffortsofthehuntinglobbyandthemeasurestakenwithintheReview,thatthevastmajorityofpeopleareunwillingorunabletophysicallyengageinthekillingofsentientbeings).Asmentioned,thisisnotexplicitlytabledasamethodwithintheReview,yetitisgivenweightandoughttobeadequatelyaddressed(recallthatthegoalsofcontrolprogramsare“nottheprimarypurposeofmostrecreationalhunters”–theyare,infact,typicallyantitheticaltowardsthis).

AccordingtotheReview,recreationalhuntingisnotonlyavalidoption,butshouldbeincludedincontroltechniquesusedinconjunctionwithothermethods.Thismulti-facetedapproachisthoughtto“maximise[recreationalhunting’s]effectiveness,”especiallyifitisconductedinaplannedsequence(i.e.ifshootingisutilisedinsuccessionwithothertechniques),atthemostappropriatetime,isundertakenby“suitableoperators”placedatthemostappropriatelocationstomaximisetheimpactonselectedtargetspecies,andiscoordinatedwithotherregions.Assuch,recreationalhuntingispositionedasa“complementarypestcontroltool”thatismost,orsingularlyeffective,whenusedinconjunctionwithothercontroltechniques.Theprimarybenefitrecreationalhuntersarethoughttoaugmentcontrolprogramswithareon-groundknowledgerelatingtothelocation,dispersal,andbehaviouroftargetedspecies.Forthesereasons,theReviewendorsesactiveengagementwithrecreationalhunters.

TheReviewnotesthatduringtheCommission’sregionaltourstheissueofrecreationalhuntingwasraisedoften.Importantly,thesewereprimarilynegativepositions,includingconcernsregardingillegalhuntingpractices,trespassingofhuntersontoprivatelands,andassociatedanti-socialbehaviours,allofwhich“contributetoalossoftrustbetweenlandholdersandhunters”.Thisiscoveredindiscussionoftheconsultationswithselectstakeholdersconductedtogaugeresponsesand/orsupportforspecifictopics.Forinstance,theReviewmentionsinstancesoflandholders“intentionallykeepingpestanimalsontheirpropertyandprovidingaccommodationforhunters,”thusactingas“quasigame-parks”199.Thisissuewasalsoincludedwhendiscussingthesocialimpactsofrecreationalhunting(Section2.3.2).Thus,theReviewactivelyencouragesareductioninlegalbarrierstorecreationalhuntingandadiminishingofregulatoryorlegislativesafeguardsagainstpotentiallydangeroushuntingactivities,whilstsimultaneouslyconcedingthatsignificantissuesarecurrentlyinadequatelyaddressed.Thisschizophrenicapproachrequirestransparentjustification.

TheReviewexplainsthattheRSCPAendorsesshootingoffree-roaminganimalsbyprofessionalmarksmenonthegroundsthatitisconsideredmorehumanethanpoisoning.Thisinitselfininsufficientgrounds,asithasbeenadequatelyassessedthatneitherprocedureiseffectiveandinvolvessignificantwelfareandhumane-relatedissues.Similarly,boththeAustralianBureauofAgriculturalandResourceEconomicsandSciences(ABARES)andtheAustralasianWildlifeManagementSocietyagree“shootingisineffectiveinsignificantlyreducingpestanimaldensitiesandimpacts”thatbecomeslesspracticalandeffectiveovertime.

Ultimately,huntingisaninadequateandoftenself-defeatingtechniqueasappliedtocontrolanimals.Notonlyisitineffectiveself-defeating,itisanimmoralandindefensibleactthathasasitsprimarypurposethestalkingandkillingofasentientbeing.Nohonourableorvirtuousgovernment

199TheReview’sresponsetothisistoerectfencesaroundsuchproperties,andpresumably,asisthemethodologyappliedtootherpropertiesnotundertakingpersonalmanagementprograms,authorisedofficerswillenterto“undertakepestmanagement”.Nomentionismadeofthefactthatanimalsconfinedonsuchpropertiesareeffectivelykeptascaptivefodder,orthefactthattheShootersPartytabledanamendmenttotheGameandFeralAnimalControlBillin2009seekingtoenabletheestablishmentof“privategamereserves”inwhichanimalswouldbereleasedforthepurposesofbeinghuntedandkilledforafee199,and“expandthelistofgameanimalsthatmaybehunted”.Thisproposalagainresurfacedin2015,whentheShootersandFishersPartyissuedasimilarbillwhichwouldnotonlyallowtheestablishmentof“privatehuntingreserves,”or“gameparks,”butwouldalsoamendPOCTA199.

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oragencywouldactivelypromoteorcondonesuchbehaviour,andforthisreason,andthemanyothersoutlinedabove,theadoptionofrecreationalhuntersintothecontrolprogramfoldisanunacceptableadditiontoanotherwisefaultyprogram.

4.5Theneedfortransparencyandaccountability

Despitetokenreferencestowelfarescatteredthroughoutthereport(“animalwelfarehasbecomeagrowingconcerninthepestanimalcontrolsector”),inestablishingandrecordingthesentimentsofspecialinterestgroupsintheconsultationportionofthereportthesegroupsweremarginal.ThesectionoftheReviewregarding“feralhorsemanagementprogram[s],”forexample,statesthat“goodrelationshipswithlandowners,animalwelfaregroups,horseandconservationadvocates,andprofessionals(suchashorsehandlersandscientists)areessentialifaprogramisgoingtobesuccessful”.Therewere,however,acomparativelyfarlargersegmentofgroupsintimatelytiedtotheexploitativeuseofanimalsincludedwithinthereviewprocess200.

TheSportingShootersAssociationofAustralia(SSAA)appearstohavebeenheavilyinvolvedthroughoutthereviewprocessandwithintheconsultationprocedureoftheReview.OtherorganisationspresentinthisprocessthatwarrantadditionalanalysisincludeAustralianWoolInnovation(AWI).AWI,forexample,hasadvertisedandfinanciallysupportedwilddogeradicationcampaigns,includingtheKillMoreDogsInitiative201(sincerenamedtheCommunityWildDogControlInitiative202).ThisinitiativeisbilledbyAWIundertheumbrellaof“Sheephealth,welfare,andproductivity,”aswilddogsandfoxesareconsideredtobeleadingcausesofsheepmortalityincommercialwoolgrowingenterprises203.LandcarecurrentlyrunsWildDogControlGroups,suchastheTuckombilWildDogControlGroup204.ThegroupisregisteredontheFeralScanwebsiteanduploadssitingandimagesofwilddogs.Thegroupisconsideredasuccesswithinthewilddogcontrolcommunity,withanarticlepublishedintheLandcaremagazineentitled‘AHowlingSuccess’.ThearticlenotesthatthegroupactivelyusestheFeralscantechnology,andhadsuccessfullypoisoned70dogsbetweenAprilandDecemberof2015205.Despitethisglowingreviewoflethalcontrol,thesameissueofLandcareinFocusincludedanarticleoutliningthemeritsofstrategicfencinginmanagingwilddogpredationandassociatedagriculturaldamage206.

Thereareanumberofalternativemethodstoensuringwildanimalsdonotposeathreattocommercialbusiness.TheLeadingSheepprogram,forexample,offersviablealternativestolethalmethods,includingclusterfencing.SouthWestNRMiscurrentlyassessingapplicationsunderagrantsprogramwithfundingfromtheAustralianGovernmentandtheQueenslandGovernment(undertheQueenslandFeralPestInitiative)promotingtheadoptionofclusterandexclusionfencingavailabletoseveralQueenslandshires207.Thisprogrammeetsseveralofthedesiredcriteria

200Includedintheconsultationprocess,alongwiththeSSAA,weretheAustralianPigDoggersandHuntersAssociation(pigdogging,theignoblepastimeofhuntingwildpigswithdogssolelyforentertainmentorenjoyment,iseffectivelycondonedbyinclusion).Comparatively,thegroupsalignedwithanimalwelfareincludedwere,presumably,theAustralianVeterinaryAssociation(which,althoughclaimingtoadvocateanimalwelfare‘standards’isnotexpresslyopposedtohunting)andtheRSPCA(whichopposesthepracticeofrecreationalhuntingbasedexplicitlyonthesufferingandpaincausedtoanimalsthroughitsact).Assuch,thesingleauthorityconsultedinregardstorecreationalhuntingthatopenlyopposesthepracticewastheRSPCA;eachofthepreviouslymentionedbodieseitheropenlyencourageitorquietlyacceptit.201Bolsenbroek,J.,2015,‘AWIrecruitingWAwilddogco-ordinator,’FarmWeekly,30May.Availableat:http://www.farmweekly.com.au/news/agriculture/agribusiness/general-news/awi-recruiting-wa-wild-dog-coordinator/2733367.aspx?storypage=2202AustralianWoolInnovationLimited,2016,‘Dogs,foxes,andpigs:CommunityWildDogControlInitiative–fundingavailable’.Availableat:http://www.wool.com/on-farm-research-and-development/sheep-health-welfare-and-productivity/pest-animals/wild-dogs-foxes-and-pigs/203AustralianWoolInnovationLimited,2016,‘Pestanimals’.Availableat:http://www.wool.com/pestanimals204NorthernRiversLandcare,Inc.,n.d.,‘TuckombilWildDogControlGroup’.Availableat:http://www.northernriverslandcare.org.au/wild-dog-control.html205‘Ahowlingsuccess:Tuckombilgetswilddogsundercontrol,’2015,LandcareinFocus.http://www.landcareonline.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Landcare-in-Focus-pp1-6.pdf206‘Fenceskeepthedogsoutat‘LowerLansdowne’,’2015,LandcareinFocus.http://www.landcareonline.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Landcare-in-Focus-pp1-6.pdf207SouthwestNRM,2016,‘Collaborativeareamanagement–phase2’.Availableat:http://www.southwestnrm.org.au/sites/default/files/uploads/managed/SWNRM-CAM-Phase-2-FAQ.pdf

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discussedthroughouttheReview:itfocusesuponprevention208(“themostefficientapproach”)andwouldincorporate“examplesofcurrentgoodpractice,including[those]fromotherjurisdictions”.

FortheReviewtodisplaythenecessaryclarity,transparency,andaccountability,alternativessuchasthese(andeachoftheothersprovidedabove)needtobeadequatelyaddressedandthoroughlyanalysedanddebated.Withoutsuchtransparencyandaccountability,itwouldappearthattheReviewhassimplyanticipatedthecontinueduseoflethalmeanswithoutsufficientorreasonableconsiderationforamyriadofoperationalandhumanealternatives.Untilthesedeficienciesareaccountedfor,itisimpracticaltoreachanysubstantiveconclusions.Itisessentialthattheseconsiderationsbeconsidered,astheymeetorexceedmanyofthetechniquesrecommendedbytheReviewandadditionallyhavenegligiblenegativeoutcomes,entailagreaterlevelofhumaneness,andarepeerandempiricallyproventobeefficacious.

208ExclusionfencingismostcommonlyutilisedinVictoriabutisbeingincreasinglyemployedasaviablealternativetobaiting.AccordingtoanABARESreporttheuseofgroundbaitingfellfrom81%to69%between2010and2014,whilsttheuseofexclusionfencingincreasedfrom9%in2010to29%in2014.

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5Conclusion

AnimalLiberationiscommittedtofightingfortherightsofallspeciestolivelivesfreeofhuman(ab)useandexploitation.Tothisend,thissubmissioncompiledacatalogueofoperationalalternativesthatareapplicableforeachofthedesignatedspeciesconsidered.AsitisoutsidethescopeofthissubmissiontoprovidedetailedanalysisofeachrecommendationandassociatedcontroltechniquesprovidedwithintheReview,aselectsegmentofthemeasuresunderconsiderationisdocumented,analysed,andsubmittedforfurtherevaluation.ItistheopinionofAnimalLiberationthatalllethalcontrolmeasuresbeabandoned,notonlyonthegroundsthatthecurrentlyproposedmeasuresdemonstrablylacktherequiredandnecessaryprovisionssafeguardingthewelfareoftargetedspeciesandthehighdegreeofhumanenesstheproposedalternativesoffer,butadditionallyonthegroundsthatsuchalternativesarecurrentlyapplicableandtransplantabletoAustraliancircumstances.

Itisofprimaryimportancethattheethics,values,andmoralsthatarepracticedwithinanimalcontrolprogramsbegrantedtheweightandequalconsiderationtheylegitimatelyandrightfullydeserve.AnimalLiberationappreciatestheopportunitytoprovidethissubmission,andtruststhattherationalesandmeasuresproposedwithinthisreportwillbefaithfullyandcandidlyassessed.