Aircraft Design: A Systems Engineering Approach, M ... · PDF file7 Ruddervator, Aileron V -tail (e.g. UAV Global Hawk and Predator) 8 ... IV High ly maneuverable aircraft, no weight

1

Aircraft Design: A Systems Engineering Approach, M. Sadraey, Wiley, 2012

Chapter 12

Design of Control Surfaces

Tables

No Term Definition

1 Trim, balance, equilibrium

When the summations of all forces exerting on an aircraft; and the summations of all moments about aircraft center of gravity are

zero, the aircraft is in “trim”.

2 Control A desired change in the aircraft trim condition from an initial trim point to a new trim point with a specified rate.

3 Stability The tendency of an aircraft to oppose any input and return to the

original trim point, if disturbed by an undesired force or moment.

4 Static stability The tendency of an aircraft to oppose any input if disturbed from the trim point.

5 Dynamic

stability

The tendency of an aircraft to return to the original trim point if

disturbed.

Table 12.1. Definition of fundamental terms

2

No Control surface Symbol Positive control surface deflection

1 Elevator E Producing a negative pitching moment; (Down: +E;

Up: -E)

2 Aileron A Generating a positive rolling moment; Left and right

aileron are considered (Aleft-down, Aright-down);

A= 0.5×(Aleft+Aright)

3 Rudder R Producing a positive side-force and a negative yawing

moment(left:+R, right: -R);

Table 12.2. Convention for positive control surface deflections

3

Control Surface Elevator Aileron Rudder

Control surface area/lifting

surface area

SE/Sh = 0.15-0.4 SA/S = 0.03 - 0.12 SR/SV = 0.15-0.35

Control surface span/lifting surface span

bE/bh = 0.8 - 1 bA/b = 0.2 - 0.40 bR/bV = 0.7 - 1

Control surface chord/lifting

surface chord

CE/Ch = 0.2 - 0.4 CA/C = 0.15 - 0.3 CR/CV = 0.15-0.4

Control surface maximum deflection (negative)

-25 deg (up) 25 deg (up) - 30 deg (right)

Control surface maximum

deflection (positive)

+20 deg (down) 20 deg (down) +30 deg (left)

Table 12.3. Typical values for geometry of control surfaces

4

No Control Surface Configuration Aircraft Configuration

1 Conventional (aileron, elevator, rudder)

Conventional (or canard replacing elevator)

2 All moving horizontal tail, rudder,

aileron

Horizontal tail and elevator combined

3 All moving vertical tail, elevator, aileron

Vertical tail and rudder combined

4 Flaperon, Elevator, Rudder Flap and aileron combined (e.g. X-29 and F-

16 falcon)

5 Taileron, Rudder All moving horizontal tail (elevator) and aileron combined (e.g. F-16 Falcon)

6 Elevon, Rudder (or equivalent) Aileron and elevator combined (e.g. Dragon, F-117 Night Hawk, Space Shuttle)

7 Ruddervator, Aileron V-tail (e.g. UAV Global Hawk and Predator)

8 Drag-Rudder, Elevator, Aileron No vertical tail (e.g. DarkStar)

9 Canardvator, Aileron Elevator as part of canard, plus aileron

10 Four Control Surfaces Cross (+ or ×) tail configuration (e.g. most missiles)

11 Aileron, Elevator (or equivalent),

Split Rudder

No vertical tail. Aileron- like surfaces that is

split into top and bottom sections (e.g. bomber B-2 Spirit)

12 Spoileron, Elevator, Rudder Spoiler and aileron combined (e.g. B-52)

13 Thrust vector control Augmented or no control surfaces, VTOL UAV

Table 12.4. Control Surface Configuration Options

5

Class Aircraft characteristics

I Small, light aircraft (maximum take-off mass less than 6,000 kg) with low maneuverability

II Aircraft of medium weight and low-to-medium maneuverability (maximum take-off mass between 6,000 and 30,000 kg)

III Large, heavy, low-to-medium maneuverability aircraft (maximum take-off

mass more than 30,000 kg)

IV Highly maneuverable aircraft, no weight limit (e.g. acrobatic, missile, and

fighter)

Table 12.5. Aircraft Classes

6

Category Examples of flight operation

A 1. Air-to-air combat (CO); 2. Ground attack (GA); 3. Weapon

delivery/launch (WD); 4. Aerial recovery (AR); 5. Reconnaissance (RC); 6. In-flight refueling (receiver) (RR); 7. Terrain following (RF); 8. Antisubmarine search (AS); 9. Close formation flying (FF); and 10. Low-

altitude parachute extraction (LAPES) delivery.

B 1. Climb (CL); 2. Cruise (CR); 3. Loiter (LO); 4. In-flight refueling in which the aircraft acts as a tanker (RT); 5. Descent (D); 6. Emergency descent (ED);

7. Emergency deceleration (DE); and 8. Aerial delivery (AD).

C 1. Takeoff (TO); 2. Catapult takeoff (CT); 3. Powered approach (PA); 4. Wave-off/go-around (WO); and 5. Landing (L).

Table 12.6. Flight phase categories [8]

7

Level Definition

1 Flying qualities clearly adequate for the mission Flight Phase.

2 Flying qualities adequate to accomplish the mission Flight Phase, but some

increase in pilot workload or degradation in mission effectiveness, or both, exists.

3 Flying qualities such that the airplane can be controlled safely, but pilot workload is excessive or mission effectiveness is inadequate, or both. Category

A Flight Phases can be terminated safely, and Category B and C Flight Phases can be completed.

Table 12.7. Levels of acceptability

8

Level Meaning Pilot Comfort Level Pilot Status

1 Very comfortable 1 to 3

2 Hardly comfortable

4 to 6

3 Uncomfortable 7 to 10

Table 12.8. Levels of acceptability and pilot comfort

9

No Aircraft type Rotation time during

take-off (second)

Take-off pitch angular

acceleration (deg/sec2)

1 Highly maneuverable (e.g. acrobatic GA and fighter)

0.2 – 0.7 12-20

2 Utility; semi-acrobatic GA 1-2 10-15

3 Normal General Aviation 1-3 8-10

4 Small transport 2-4 6-8

5 Large transport 3-5 4-6

6 Remote control, model 1-2 10-15

Table 12.9. Take-off angular acceleration requirements

10

Level of acceptability Requirement

1 Damping ratio of phugoid mode (ph) 0.04

2 Damping ratio of phugoid mode (ph) 0.0

3 The time-to-double the amplitude of at least 55 seconds.

Table 12.10. Phugoid mode requirement

11

Flight

phase

Short period damping ratio (s)

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

A 0.35 1.3 0.25 2.0 0.15 No maximum

B 0.3 2.0 0.2 2.0 0.15 No maximum

C 0.35 1.3 0.25 2.0 0.15 No maximum

Table 12.11. Short period mode damping ratio specification

12

Level Flight Phase Category

A B C

Time to achieve a bank angle of 60o



1 1.3 seconds 1.7 seconds 1.3 seconds



a. Time to achieve a specified bank angle change for Class I

Level Runway Flight Phase Category

A B C Time to achieve a bank angle of 45

o

Time to achieve a bank angle of 45

o


o


o

1 Land-based 1.4 seconds 1.9 seconds 1.8 seconds - Carrier-based 1.4 seconds 1.9 seconds 2.5 seconds -

2 Land-based 1.9 seconds 2.8 seconds 3.6 seconds - Carrier-based 1.9 seconds 2.8 seconds - 1.0 seconds

3 Land-based 2.8 seconds 3.8 seconds - 1.5 seconds Carrier-based 2.8 seconds 3.8 seconds - 2.0 seconds

b. Time to achieve a specified bank angle change for Class II

Level Speed

range

Flight Phase Category

A B C

1 Low 1.8 seconds 2.3 seconds 2.5 seconds Medium 1.5 seconds 2.0 seconds 2.5 seconds High 2.0 seconds 2.3 seconds 2.5 seconds

2 Low 2.4 seconds 3.9 seconds 4.0 seconds Medium 2.0 seconds 3.3 seconds 4.0 seconds High 2.5 seconds 3.9 seconds 4.0 seconds

3 All 3.0 seconds 5.0 seconds 6.0 seconds

c. Time to achieve a 30o bank angle change for Class III

13

Level Speed

range

Flight Phase Category

A B C 30

o 50

o 90

o 90

o 30

o

1 Very Low 1.1 sec - - 2.0 sec 1.1 sec Low 1.1 sec - - 1.7 sec 1.1 sec Medium - - 1.3 sec 1.7 sec 1.1 sec High - 1.1 sec - 1.7 sec 1.1 sec



d. Time to achieve a specified bank angle change for Class IV

Table 12.12. Roll control requirements

14

Level Class Crosswind speed

1 I 20 knots

II, III, and IV 30 knots

2 I 20 knots

II, III, and IV 30 knots

3 I, II, III, and IV One-half the value for levels 1 and 2

Table 12.13. Crosswind velocity requirements

15

Flight Phase Aircraft Class TR (seconds)


A

I, IV 1.0 1.4 10

II, III 1.4 3.0 10

B All 1.4 3.0 10

C

I, IV 1.0 1.4 10

II, III 1.4 3.0 10

Table 12.14. Roll mode time constant specification (maximum value)

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Aircraft Class Flight Phase Minimum time to double amplitude in spiral mode


I and IV A 12 seconds 8 seconds 4 seconds

B and C 20 seconds 8 seconds 4 seconds

II and III A, B, C 20 seconds 8 seconds 4 seconds

Table 12.15. Time to double amplitude in spiral mode

17

Level Flight Phase Aircraft Class min d min

dnd (rad/s) mindn (rad/s)

1 A

I ,IV 0.19 0.35 1.0

II , III 0.19 0.35 0.4

B All 0.08 0.15 0.4

C

I , II , IV 0.08 0.15 1.0

III 0.08 0.15 0.4

2 All All 0.02 0.05 0.4

3 All All 0.02 No limit 0.4

Table 12.16. Dutch roll mode handling qualities

18

No Aircraft Type mTO

(kg)

b

(m)

CA/C Span ratio Amax (deg)

bi/b/2 bo/b/2 up down

1 Cessna 182 Light GA 1,406 11 0.2 0.46 0.95 20 14

2 Cessna Citation

III

Business

jet

9,979 16.31 0.3 0.56 0.89 12.5 12.5

3 Air Tractor AT-802

Agriculture 7,257 18 0.36 0.4 0.95 17 13

4 Gulfstream 200 Business

jet

16,080 17.7 0.22 0.6 0.86 15 15

5 Fokker 100A Airliner 44,450 28.08 0.24 0.6 0.94 25 20

6 Boeing 777-200 Airliner 247,200 60.9 0.22 0.321 0.762 30 10

7 Airbus 340-600 Airliner 368,000 63.45 0.3 0.64 0.92 25 20

8 Airbus A340-600

Airliner 368,000 63.45 0.25 0.67 0.92 25 25

Table 12.17. Characteristics of aileron for several aircraft

1 Inboard aileron

2 Outboard aileron

19


(kg)

SE/Sh CE/Ch Emax (deg)

down up

1 Cessna 182 Light GA 1,406 0.38 0.44 22 25

2 Cessna Citation III Business jet 9,979 0.37 0.37 15 15.5

3 Gulfstream 200 Business jet 16,080 0.28 0.31 20 27.5

4 AT-802 Agriculture 7,257 0.36 0.38 15 29

5 ATR 42-320 Regional airliner

18,600 0.35 0.33 16 26

6 Lockheed C-130 Hercules

Military cargo 70,305 0.232 0.35 15 40

7 Fokker F-28-4000 Transport 33,000 0.197 0.22 15 25

8 Fokker F-100B Airliner 44,450 0.223 0.32 22 25

9 McDonnell Douglas DC-

8

Transport 140,600 0.225 0.25 10 25

10 McDonnell Douglas DC-9-40

Transport 51,700 0.28 0.30 15 25

11 McDonnell Douglas DC-10-40

Transport 251,700 0.225 0.25 16.5 27

12 McDonnell Douglas MD-11

Transport 273,300 0.31 0.35 20 37.5

13 Boeing 727-100 Transport 76,820 0.23 0.25 16 26




17 Airbus A-300B Transport 165,000 0.295 0.30 17 30

18 Airbus 320 Transport 78,000 0.31 0.32 17 30

19 Airbus A340-600 Airliner 368,000 0.24 0.31 15 30

20 Lockheed L-1011 Tristar Transport 231,000 0.215 0.23 0 25

21 Lockheed C-5A Cargo 381,000 0.268 0.35 10 20

Table 12.18. Specifications of elevators for several aircraft

20

E

(deg)

Tail-to-elevator-chord ratio; CE/Ch

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

±5 0 0.3 0.5 1.1 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.4 5

±10 0 0.6 1 2.1 3.2 4.4 5.5 6.6 7.7 8.9 10

±15 0 0.9 1.5 3.2 4.9 6.5 8.2 9.9 11.6 13.3 15

±20 0 1.2 2 4.2 6.5 8.7 11 13.2 15.5 17.7 20

±25 0 1.6 2.5 5.3 8.1 11 13.7 16.5 19.4 22.2 25

±30 0 1.9 3 6.4 9.7 13.1 16.5 19.9 23.2 26.6 30

Table 12.19. Reduction in tail stall angle (Eh ) in degrees when elevator is deflected

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(kg)

SR / SV CR/CV Rmax

(deg)

Max cross wind

speed (knot)

1 Cessna 182 Light GA 1,406 0.38 0.42 ±24

2 Cessna 650 Business jet 9,979 0.26 0.27 ±25

3 Gulfstream 200 Business jet 16,080 0.3 0.32 ±20

4 Air Tractor AT-802 Regional airliner 18,600 0.61 0.62 ±24

5 Lockheed C-130E Hercules

Military cargo 70,305 0.239 0.25 ±35 -

6 DC-8 Transport 140,600 0.269 35 ±32.5 34

7 DC-10 Transport 251,700 0.145 38 ±23/±463

30

8 Boeing 737-100 Transport 50,300 0.25 0.26

9 Boeing 777-200 Transport 247,200 0.26 0.28 ±27.3

10 Boeing 747-200 Transport 377,842 0.173 0.22 ±25 30

11 Lockheed C-5A Cargo 381,000 0.191 0.2 - 43

12 Fokker 100A Airliner 44,450 0.23 0.28 ±20 30

13 Embraer ERJ145 Regional jet 22,000 0.29 0.31 ±15

14 Airbus A340-600 Airliner 368,000 0.31 0.32 ±31.6

Table 12.20. Characteristics of rudder for several aircraft

Tandem rudder

3

22

No Requirements Brief description Aircraft

1 Asymmetric thrust When one engine fails, the aircraft must be able to overcome the asymmetric thrust.

Multi-engine aircraft

2 Crosswind landing An aircraft must maintain alignment with the

runway during a crosswind landing.

All

3 Spin recovery An aircraft must be able to oppose the spin rotation and to recover from a spin.

Spinnable aircraft

4 Coordinated turn The aircraft must be able to coordinate a turn. All

5 Adverse yaw The rudder must be able to overcome the

adverse yaw that is produced by the ailerons.

All

6 Glide slope adjustment

Aircraft must be able to adjust the glide slope by increasing aircraft drag using a rudder

deflection.

Glider aircraft

Table 12.21. Rudder design requirements

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No Aircraft The most critical flight condition

1 Glider/sailplane Glide slope adjustment

2 Single engine Normal GA Crosswind landing

3 Single engine Utility/Acrobatic GA Spin recovery

4 Multi-engine Normal GA Asymmetric thrust

5 Multi-engine Utility/Acrobatic GA Asymmetric thrust/ Spin recovery

6 Multiengine transport (fuselage-

installed engines)

Crosswind landing

7 Multiengine transport (wing-

installed engines)

Asymmetric thrust/ Crosswind landing

8 Military fighter Directional maneuverability/Spin recovery

9 Remote controlled/ model Coordinated turn

Table 12.22. The most critical flight condition for a rudder

Documents

Aircraft Design: A Systems Engineering Approach, M ... · PDF file7 Ruddervator, Aileron V -tail (e.g. UAV Global Hawk and Predator) 8 ... IV High ly maneuverable aircraft, no weight