AIRBUS 12 Performance and Flight Operations … th Performance and Flight Operations Support & Line Assistance Operations Conference - Rome 2003

AIRBUS AIRBUS AIRBUS AIRBUS 12th Performance and Flight Operations Support & Line Assistance Operations Conference - Rome 2003

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COPING WITH MYTHS AND REALITIES OF COSMIC RADIATION

REVIEW OF THE PHENOMENA, OF REGULATIONS AND OF PRACTICAL COMPLIANCE POLICIES

By Jean-Jacques Speyer

Director Operational Evaluation,Human Factors and Communication

1. COSMIC RADIATION BASICS

1.1. RadiationWhen discussing hazards to flight, general crew and passenger health, radiation falls into 2 categories:ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.Ionization involves the displacement of electrically charged particles (electrons) from atoms and thebreakup of the nuclei of atoms and the resultant production of ions.Ionizing radiation also includes alpha rays/particles, beta rays/particles, gamma rays, radon and X-raysand is associated with the radiation of ions.Cosmic radiation is the collective term for the radiation of high-energy subatomic particles from space(exploding stars) and to a lesser extent, from the sun, and the secondary (ionizing) radiation producedwhen the high-energy subatomic particles interact with nitrogen, oxygen and other elements of earth’satmosphere.

1.1.1. Non-ionizing radiationThis includes the major part of the Electro-Magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum, from ultraviolet throughvisible, infrared and microwave. Laser light is included in this group. These EMR’s, which are the mostimportant to pilots from the perspective of health, include ultraviolet (UV) and to a lesser degreemicrowaves. Various portions of ultraviolet light, or radiation wavelengths, can affect the eye, specificallythe cornea (UVB 200-315 nanometers), the eye lens (UVA 315-400 nm) and to an uncommon degree,the retina (UVC 400-700nm).Most ultraviolet radiation from the sun is filtered out by the ozone layer in the atmosphere, especially UVCwaves. Ultraviolet radiation damage is limited to cataracts and can be prevented by ensuring thatsunglasses have a coating that filters out the full ultraviolet range (200-400nm). Exposure to ultravioletradiation also affects the skin with UVB causing most of the damage. Despite the relationship betweenultraviolet radiation and sunburn with skin cancer through melanoma, tanning is still an outdoors ritual butits risks can be mitigated through gradual exposure. Microwave radiation is of minimal danger, the worstbeing the generation of heat within the cells.

1.1.2. Ionizing radiationIonizing radiation is potentially serious and studies have recently intensified to determine its effectsespecially in the context of Ultra Long Range (ULR) flights, the main concern being the development ofcancer in the pilot and other aircrew as they spend more time at altitude. A lot of variables are involved,including length of exposure, altitude, latitude and time of the year. The earth’s atmosphere filters outmost of this kind of radiation and even if cosmic radiation does not really reach the levels consideredbeing toxic, any level of radiation that may cause hazards is considered unacceptable. Ionization thatoccurs in body tissues or body organs can lead to cancer and to genetic defects that can be passed onfrom parents to offspring. Considering that there is background radiation at ground level from the Earth

AIRBUSAIRBUSAIRBUSAIRBUS 12th Performance and Flight Operations Support & Line Assistance Operations Conference - Rome 2003

itself, any suspected issues must be relative to the background level to make sense. The European JointAviation Authorities (JAA) in 2001 established requirements for operators to educate crewmembers ofhealth risks, to adjust work schedules of those exposed to high levels of radiation and to measure or tosample radiation during flights above 49,000 ft. The exposure limit recommended by JAA is about eighttimes less than that recommended in the USA. The radiation we receive comes either from outer space(constant intensity) or from the sun (periodic solar flare activity).

1.1.3. Components of Cosmic Radiation

Cosmic radiation consists of primary ionizing particles coming from the sun and sources outside our solarsystem and of secondary radiation produced when these particles collide with atoms in the atmosphere.The primary ionizing particles coming from the sun together with the resultant secondary radiation areclassified as solar radiation while that coming from outside our solar system and its associated secondaryradiation are classified as galactic radiation.

As can be seen in figure 1, the interaction with the earth’s atmosphere produces nuclear reactions thatgenerate a cascade of secondary particles comprising protons, neutrons, mesons and nuclear fragmentsmost of which are being absorbed before reaching the surface of earth. The geomagnetic field and theattenuating effects of the earth’s atmosphere provide natural protection from cosmic radiation.

Galactic radiation is being sent continuously towards the sun and towards the earth originating fromsources outside the solar system, such as stellar flares, super-nova explosions and pulsar accelerations.The energy of galactic particles reaching the earth is extremely high (exceeding 1020eV, which should becompared to the highest accelerators which reach 1013eV) and consequently galactic radiation penetratesdeeply into the atmosphere. Ultrahigh energy particles are however very rare with less than one percentury and per square meter). In comparison, the energy of solar particles is low and, with the exceptionof rare solar flares, solar radiation is stopped in the upper atmosphere. Particles also stem from lighterelements than those from galactic or extra-galactic origins do. In terms of radiation doses encounteredduring commercial flights, we are looking at energy levels of GeV (1 GeV = 109 eV) whose flux is of theorder of one particle per square cm and per second at the top of the atmosphere. At aviation altitudes,therefore, the cosmic radiation field is determined principally by the galactic component.

Figure 2: Interaction of Solar wind and Galactic Rayswith Earth’s Magnetic Field to result in TerrestrialMagnetosphere( from “Evaluation de l’Exposition au RayonnementCosmique à Bord d’Avion Long Courrier” by J-FBottolier-Depois,IPSN Feb.1997)

Figure 1: Cascading interactions ofCosmic Rays with the earth’satmosphere(from “Devenez Sorciers, DevenezSavants” by Georges Charpak, HenriBroch, Odile Jacob, 2002)

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Galactic radiation is really being produced when primary photons and very high-energy particles fromoutside the solar system, primarily the nuclei of atoms stripped of all electrons interact with componentsof the earth's atmosphere. These comprise 85% protons (hydrogen nuclei), 14% alpha particles or heliumnuclei, and 1% heavier covering the full range of elements, some of the more abundant being for exampleCarbon, Iron, Nickel, Calcium, Magnesium or Lithium nuclei.Travelling at close to the speed of light, particles from galactic radiation not only have huge energies(>GeV) but they also have been on their way through the galaxy for tens of million years beforeintersecting the earth. They are partly kept out of the earth’s magnetic field and have easier access at thepoles compared with the equator. Cosmic radiation is mostly absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere but it isalso moderated by the magnetic fields associated with the sun and the earth.

As can be seen on Figure 2 charged particles interact with the interstellar magnetic field and with theterrestrial magnetic field to form the Magnetosphere. These particles produce a pressure on the magneticfield exposed to the sun and generate a magnetosphereic trail in the back. This perturbation is importantat high altitudes but at lower altitudes the dipolar structure of the magnetic field predominates. Chargedparticles are hence deflected by the earth’s magnetic field resulting in the highest exposure rates at themagnetic poles and the lowest rates at the equator.

As shown on Figure 3, trapped particles constituted of electrons and protons form the so-called Van Allenradiation belts after the scientist who developed the first detector for Explorer I. A primary belt consists inelectrons and a secondary, more important belt is constituted of protons. During solar flares the sun’sperturbed magnetic field influences the galactic radiation intensity reaching the earth. The influx ofgalactic particles is more difficult as magnetic storms contribute to reduce their injection in the Van AllenBelts close to the magnetic poles.

Figure 3: The earth’s magnetic field traps charged particles and reflects them along the field lines withtrapped radiation belts (Van Allen) showing radiation doses for respective fluxes (from HumanSpaceflight, Mission Analysis and Design, edited by W.J. Larson and L.K. Pranke, Mc Graw Hill)

Cosmic radiation hence follows an 11-year cycle, with the intensity being inversely related to solaractivity. As pictured in figure 4, when solar activity is at its peak, galactic radiation is at its lowest. Theconverse is true when solar activity is lowest. The last solar maxima were in 1991 and 2002, maximumvariation of radiation being 20 %.

Figure 4: Cosmic radiation dependence of solar activitycycles from “Influence du Rayonnement Cosmique etdes éruptions solaires sur les doses reçues par lepersonnel navigant” by P.Lantos and N.Fuller(Observatoire de Paris-Meudon , Mars 1999)

Figure 5: Increase in solar flux asobserved during a solar flare byP.Lantos and N.Fuller (Observatoire deParis-Meudon , Mars 1999)


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Solar flares are sudden eruptions resulting in the emission of plasma from the surface of the sun (ejectionof coronal mass on the sun). Sporadically they may result in a rapid increase in cosmic radiation intensityin the Earth’s atmosphere usually lasting just a few hours. Major solar flares are rare but occasionally doparticles emanate and accelerate straight from the sun to cause increased radiation at aviation altitudes.As shown in Figure 5, Ground Level Enhancement Detectors can trace these happenings which do notexceed a few tens of GeV but may involve many more particles than galactic rays.

The level of cosmic radiation depends to some extent on the geographical position, but essentially on thealtitude above the ground level, the maximum radiation level occurring at about 20000 m/60000ft PolarRegions have a greater radiation intensity and exposure is more important at higher altitudes. Data on theparticle flux in a given space orbit can be useful but we are more interested by the radiation dose thatwould result from this flux. Because of the relatively low energy of the solar particles, solar flares haveonly a minor effect on cosmic radiation intensity at altitudes lower than 15 000m and so are of littlesignificance for the majority of commercial aircraft. For aircraft operating above this altitude, however, theincreases in radiation associated with flares must be taken into consideration when assessing dosesreceived by aircrew.The magnetosphere and the earth’s atmosphere both constitute strong protection shields against cosmicradiation. Without them, surface exposure on earth would well exceed a sievert per year.

1.1.4. Biological EffectsNeutrons are particles with no mass and no electric charge and can criss-cross the earth with less thanone chance in a billion to interact. Mesons on the other hand are charged and interact with matter andparticularly the human body. These energetic particles can deposit their energy into the crew or into aspace- or aircraft’s materials and subsystems, thereby degrading human and mechanical performance.The human body is on average being punctured by five mesons a second. A meson loses one hundredtimes more energy in our tissues than a radioactive product that we would have ingested. The overallintensity of radiation builds up to a maximum at the stratopause 20000 m and then slowly drops off to sealevel. At normal cruising altitudes the radiation level is several hundred times the ground level intensityand at 20000 m a factor three higher again: at mountain altitude, there are electrons, gamma rays, i.e.energetic X-rays, mesons, at Concorde cruise altitude there are protons, neutrons and pions.

1.2. Units of Measurement

The historical unit for radiation dose is the radiation absorbed dose, or simply called the rad. It is theamount of radiation that would deposit 0.01 J/ kg of material. The official unit for radiation dose under theInternational System of Units (SI) is the gray (Gy), which is defined as 1J/kg. The amount of energydeposited in a material depends on the radiation itself and the material in question. Figure 3 shows typicalconversions of flux to dose for silicon. Table 1 shows sensitivities to radiation doses. Structural elementsare least sensitive, whereas electronics and crew are most sensitive. Grays are related to biologicaldamage in terms of sieverts via the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) factor. As can be appreciatedfrom the following table the crew and electronics are most sensitive to radiation damage and dominatethe requirements for radiation shielding.

Figure 3: Convertingradiation doses for SiliconRadiation depends on thenature of the radiation, itsenergy, and the materialabsorbing the energy. Tocalculate doses for a flux ofenergetic particles, simplymultiply the flux by theappropriate conversionfactor(from Human Spaceflight,Mission Analysis andDesign, edited by W.J.Larson and L.K. Pranke,Mc Graw Hill)


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Material Damage Threshold (gray)Humans and animals 10-1 – 10°Electronics 100 – 104

Lubricants, Hydraulic Fluid 103 – 105

Ceramics, glasses 104 – 106

Polymeric material 105 – 107

Structural metals 107– 109

Table 1: Typical sensitivities to Radiation doses

As cited earlier sources of ionizing radiation include:• galactic cosmic rays (protons, alpha particles and heavy nuclei),• particles within the trapped radiation belts (protons, electrons, and other ions),• solar particle events (protons plus some alpha particles and heavy nuclei),• Neutrons that are being generated as other radiation interact with shielding.

Radiations have different effects even if the absorbed dose is the same. The International Commission ofRadiological Protection has studied the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of radiations and assignedthem a “quality” factor, Q.Q can be related to the linear energy transfer, or rate of energy deposition in keV/µm of radiation track intissue. If we multiply absorbed dose in gray (Gy) units (1 Gy = 100 rads= 1J/kg) times Q, the result is adose-equivalent expressed in rem or in sieverts (Sv) where 1 Sv = 100 rem.

Radiation Q Radiation Q Radiation QX rays and γ rays 1 Heavy nuclei 20 Protons, 0.1 MeV 10β particles, electrons 0.1 1and 1.0 MeV

Neutrons; thermal to 10 KeV 2-3 Protons, 1.0 MeV 8.5

α particles , 1 MeV 20 Neutrons, 20 KeV 5 Protons,>100MeV 8.5α particles , 1 MeV 15 Neutrons, 0.1MeV-20MeV 7-11

Table 2: Approximate Quality Factors (Q) for Radiation

Typically, Q values are based on serious, chronic effects for continuous low-dose exposures. Q values foracute doses at high exposure rates may be lower, and several Q values may be revised.

The standard unit of radioactivity is the Becquerel, which is defined as the decay of one nucleus persecond. The practical interest is in the biological effect of a radiation dose, and the dose equivalent ismeasured in Sieverts (µµµµSv) per hour or millisieverts (mSv) per year (1 mSv = 1000 µSv = 10-3 J/kg). Thebiological effect evidently also depends upon the length of time of exposure. Obviously, the effect onbiological tissue, or body cells depends not only on the total dose but also on the components of theradiation field.

Summary Units of Measurement for Radiation(from “Feux follets et champigons nucléaires” by G. Charpak, R.L.Garwin, Odile Jacob, August 2000)

1 Bq: the Becquerel is the activity of a radioactive source disintegrating once per second,1 Ci: the Curie is the activity of a radioactive source disintegrating 3.72 x 1010 per second, it is the radioactivity of 1gram of radium. The physical effect of radiation from ionizing substances can be measured through the quantity ofenergy deposited in one kilogram of living tissue,1 Sv: the Sievert corresponds to 1 Joule per kilogram; 1mSv = 1 thousandth of a SievertWith 1 Joule the temperature of 1 gram of water is elevated by 0,24°C;The biological effect of irradiation is linked to the relative biological effectiveness factor Q.The former irradiation unit was the Roentgen, the physical dosis received at 1m from the source of 1 Curie ofRadium in 1 hour.1 dari: annual irradiation undergone by a human being through the natural radioactivity emitted by its own bodysubstances and in total independence of professional activities.

The biological dosis (the rem, Roentgen equivalent man) was linked to the rad through:1 rem = 1 rad x Q 1 Gv = 1 gray = 100 rad 1 Sv = 1 Gy x Q1 rem = 10 mSv 1dari = 0,17 mSv 1mSv = 5,88 dariDose flux is the dose per unit of surface and time; dose debit is the dose per unit of time.


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1.3. Biological Risks

In contrast to high levels of radiation such as that from a nuclear explosion, it is more difficult to predictthe effects of low level doses of radiation from cosmic radiation or medical x-rays. In most cases any celldamage is repaired satisfactorily by the body's own mechanism. It is also not possible to predict amaximum safe threshold of exposure as individuals do vary in their biological response. Consequently, aminimum safe threshold of exposure is proposed. When ionizing radiation passes through the body,energy is transmitted to the tissues, which affects the atoms within the individual cells. This may result in:

(i) Development of cancer.In theory, small exposures to radiation can start off chains of events that may lead to cancer manyyears later. The body's repair mechanisms are usually able to fix the damage that is done before acancer develops. While no level of exposure to radiation can be described as safe, at the same time,no level is uniformly dangerous. The chance of a cancer occurring is generally believed to beproportional to the level of radiation exposure: the lower the exposure, the lower the risk. A cell maybe altered as a result of being irradiated and subsequently become cancerous. The likelihood of thishappening will depend on the dose received.

For an accumulated dose of 5 mSv per year over a career span of 20 years (more than the anticipatedannual exposure for long haul crew) the likelihood of developing cancer due to the radiation will be0.4%. This though needs to be put in perspective, as we know from national mortality data thatapproximately 23% of the population will die from some type of cancer and so the additional exposurewill increase the risk from 23% to 23.4%. Compared with all other risks encountered during theworking life, this is very low. The only effect that is known to be possible at this level of exposure is avery slight increase in the chance of a cancer occurring many years, even decades after the exposure.Other studies quote the chance of a fatal cancer occurring to be approximately 1% following 30 yearsof flying, at 1000 hours a year. Most people fly much less and the chance of a fatal cancer occurringwould also be much less. As we all have more or less a 25% chance of getting a fatal cancer, cosmicradiation represents a very small addition to the underlying cancer risk from all causes.

With regard to flight crew mortality independent analysis of the British Airways pension scheme dataand of British Airways own data for the period between 1950 and 1992 shows an increased lifeexpectancy for pilots of between 3 and 5 years when compared to the general population. Death ratesfrom heart disease and all cancers combined were considerably less than for the population ofEngland and Wales. Although rare, death from melanoma (which is directly associated with sunexposure) was the only cause of cancer in excess. Cancers such a leukemia, which may be linked toradiation exposure, was lower within the British Airways pilot population.

(ii) Genetic risk.A child conceived after exposure of the mother or father to ionizing radiation is at risk of inheritingradiation induced genetic defects. These may take the form of anatomical or functional abnormalitiesapparent at birth or later in life. The risk following an accumulated dose of 5 mSv per year over acareer span of 20 years will be 1 in 1,000. Again this needs to be considered against a backgroundincidence in the general population of approximately 1 in 50 for genetic abnormalities.

(iii) Risk to the health of the foetus.With regard to pregnancy, although the risks to the unborn child from cosmic radiation are minimalwhen compared with other risks during pregnancy, radiation exposure should be kept to a level 'as lowas reasonably achievable'. Individual passengers will therefore need to make their own assessment ofrisk taking into account the likely exposure. The major risks to an unborn child from exposure tocosmic radiation are structural abnormalities, mental retardation and an increased lifetime risk ofcancer.

1.4. Exposure levels encountered during space flight

As a matter of reference for exposure at very high altitudes, NASA limits radiation exposure based onmission duration and age at first exposure. But because astronauts are workers with occupationalhazards, NASA recognises these standards may still allow an increase of 3% in lifetime risk of cancermortality as shown in the following table. The table gives maximum allowable doses in sieverts (Sv) andblood-forming organs set the most restrictive standard. Career doses are more restrictive for all youngerastronauts and for women versus men.


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Exposure Period To Lens of Eye(0.3 cm depth)

To skin(0.01 cm depth)

To blood-forming Organs(5 cm depth)

30 days 1.0 1.5 0.251 year 2.0 3.0 0.50Career, from age 25 4.0 6.0 1.5(Male) 1.0 (Female)Career, from age 35 4.0 6.0 2.5(Male) 1.75(Female)Career, from age 45 4.0 6.0 3.2(Male) 2.5 (Female)Career, from age 55 4.0 6.0 4.0(Male) 3.0 (Female)

Table 3: NASA’s limits in Sieverts Exposure for a Nominal Low-Earth Orbit (from Human Spaceflight,Mission Analysis and Design, edited by W.J. Larson and L.K. Pranke, Mc Graw Hill)

Whatever the normal mission dose rates, crews need special protection at times, such as during solarparticle events. In particular, this danger leads to concepts of heavily shielded “safe havens” withinspacecraft or other facilities. If a crew had been hit by a particle event in August 1972, for example theycould have received more than 1.3 Sv to their deep organs, which would have seriously harmed them.One estimate of what it would take to provide a “safe haven” from such an event yields a sphericalaluminium enclosure 7.5 mm thick (20 g/CM2) and 2m in diameter, with a mass of 2.5 metric tons! Thismass highlights the value of using the spacecraft’s structure, lighter weight options (such aspolyethylenes) and supplies (such as water or propellant) as shielding. Astronauts on the ISS receiveabout 1 unit (‘millisievert’) of cosmic radiation per day.

On a short lunar mission, solar particle events are of greatest danger. An 8g/cm2 shield might reducegalactic cosmic rays to 0.25 Sv/yr and 50 g/cm2 to half that, while stopping many heavier nuclei withRBEs. Lunar soil has a density of 1 g/cm3 - 2g/cm3 and could serve as shielding. As applied to onesevere historical solar particle event, aluminium shielding of 8 g/cm2 would have limited the dose at thedeeper organs to only 0.25 Sv (the 30-day mission limit) and about 18g/cm2 would have reduced thedose to 0.1 Sv. Recommendations of 50g/cm2 shielding from lunar soil seem feasible and desirable.Based on conservative regolith density of 1g/cm3, this would yield shielding of about 0.5m. Some suggestup to 3-5m shielding for some missions, depending on risk assessments, especially with longerexposures having increased relative risks of galactic cosmic rays and with secondary radiationsgenerated in shielding material. In the case of a lengthy Mars mission a minimum shield thickness of 20g/cm2-25 g/cm2 of aluminium may be needed in transit to meet annual exposure limits.

1.5. Exposure levels encountered on ground

It is worth noting that natural radiation occurs also at ground level. Residents of the United Kingdom areexposed to a total overall background ionizing radiation level of approximately 2.6 mSv per annum. Forexample, in parts of Cornwall (UK) the natural radiation level is at about 6 mSv per year and in most ofFinland is around 8 mSv per year. Similar levels are reached in Denver and other parts of Colorado(USA).

Natural radiation is emitted by radioactive elements in both rocks and living tissues. Potassium-40, aradioactive isotope of stable potassium (present in a 1/10 000 proportion) has a live of 1.3 billion years. Itis hence still present just as Uranium-235, which was also produced since earth’s origin. This matter waspresent in death star’s dust, which gave birth to our solar system. Given the affinity of Potassium withmost of our human tissues, it is always present in living organisms just as other minerals have long liveisotopes. A human being of 70 kilograms contains radioactive substances which are the siege of some 10000 des-integrations per second, a small part of which can be detected, the remainder being absorbed bytissues. Natural radiation formed by mesons stemming from cosmic radiation and by beta and gammarays emitted by rocks hence constitutes the background noise against which live developed. Even if it ispossible for them to have caused genetic damage, living tissues did elaborate genetic repairmechanisms. What finally matters here is the sensitivity of the human body constituted as it is by 1028

atoms ,split over some 1014 cells and a rapid electron perturbs at most 105 atoms in a cells that containsup to 1014 .We simply have to into account that all along live, cells amass thousands of spontaneousdamages that are constantly being repaired through complex and marvellous processes endowed byliving tissues. Differences exist between radiation types’ capacities in destroying living cells depending onthe weight and speed of particles. Biologists characterise these through the relative biologicaleffectiveness (RBE) of radiations assigning a “quality” factor, Q.


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1.6. Exposure levels keeping other radiation sources in mind

Since there is background radiation at ground level from the Earth itself, any suspected issues must beexpressed relative to the background level to make any sense. In order to take this into account, twophysicists, i.e. Nobel laureate George Charpak and US National Academy of Sciences advisor Richard L.Garwin proposed to introduce a new unit of measurement, the DARI1, understandable by all who areprepared to relativize. Since the human body is naturally subject to radiation effects through itsradioactive components such as K40 and C14, it is being suggested to take as reference the effect of thesenatural radiations that have an intensity of 10 000 becquerels (10 000 nuclei decaying per second). Tothe extent of 90%, this radiation is due to this potassium 40,of mean life 1.3 billion years, that was presentin the cosmic dust from which earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The dari amounts to lessthan 10% of the natural radiation to which the body is subject, arising from external irradiation from rocksand from cosmic rays. Hence the dari is the annual irradiation undergone by a human being through thenatural radioactivity emitted by its own body substances and in total independence of professionalactivities. It corresponds to an effective dosis of 0,17 mSv.

0.1 dari Dosis received in France as a result of public use of nuclear energy for electricity generation

5 daris Ile-de-France soil

10 daris Bretagne soil

5 daris Cosmic radiation at sea level with a standard increase of 1 dari per 50m height variation

5 daris Average in France for medical radiology

40 daris Average for complete body scan (variable)

6 daris Tolerated limit for public effects of nuclear energy and all industrial sources with ionizing radiations

600 daris Maximal annual dosis for a nuclear industry worker for five consecutive years

30 000 daris Mortal Individual dosis

300 000 to

500 000 daris

Dosis delivered during local irradiation for cancer treatment

Table 4: Relative Importance of some well spread radiation sources (from “Le DARI: Unité de mesureadaptée à l’évaluation de l’effet des faibles doses d’irradiation” by Georges Charpak, Richard Garwin,

Bull. Acad. Natle Méd, 2001,185,n°6,1087-1096,June 19th2001)

The 600 daris (120 per annum) imposed upon nuclear industry workers corresponds to a reduction of lifeexpectancy as a result of smoking 10 cigarettes per month. It requires to be compared to specific risksassociated with a variety of professional occupations. For example, driving a car induces a potentiallygreater risk because of automobile exhaust fumes. A specific norm is being imposed: the dose of externalradiation should not exceed that associated with natural radioactivity by more than 2%, bearing in mindthat natural variations often exceed this amount by far. From the above table it appears that subsonic andsupersonic pilots would respectively be subject to the following doses: Concorde pilots would be subjectto 23 daris, subsonic pilots from 24 to 38 daris (95% confidence interval). This needs to be compared tothe average of medical radiology, which ranges from 1 to 40 daris and remains well below the maximalannual dosis for a nuclear industry worker, which stands at 120 daris in France.

A clearer understanding by a wider public of the health effects of materials of radioactive origins isessential if the public interest is to be served. As Charpak and Garwin are saying, clear and continuousinformation provided to the public about radiation doses from industry is inadequate to an intuitive andcorrect understanding of relative risk in part because radiation exposure is expressed in units that non-specialists find difficult to grasp. Hence the need to propose a unit of irradiation dose that is equal to thatprovided to a human being by the naturally occurring radioactivity of human tissue, the dari, after theannual dose stemming from internal radioactivity. It is about time to stop total irrationality surroundingnuclear matters as internal radioactivity is fundamentally linked with any living or inert tissue and asecological fussiness has finally termed these matters out of proportion with reality. That is why as fromnow on we will continue benchmarking with respect to the dari so as to put phenomena in the correctperspective. The use of this unit for expressing the individual’s radiation dose from an incident or anaccident involving radioactive materials will facilitate a proper judgment of its impact and would avoidunwarranted concerns. The adoption of the dari helps eliminate sterile debates with shear dis-informationor political maneuvering not taking into account scientific reality. 1 DARI: Dose Annuelle due aux Radiations Internes


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1.7. Exposure levels encountered during flight

Airlines and independent research organizations have performed in-flight measurements of cosmicradiation. Actual measurements in flight were performed both on the Concorde and on the Boeing 747-400 by British Airways Health Services and by the British National Radiological Protection Board. On thefirst aircraft type, Concorde, aircraft dosimeters measured an effective dose in the range of 12-15 µSv perhour, varying with the solar cycle. On the second aircraft type, the Boeing 747-400, an effective dose rateof 6 µSv per hour was measured on the Heathrow-Tokyo route, flown at relatively high altitude, albeitlower than on the first type. The effective dose on short haul, low altitude European flight was in the rangeof 1-3 µSv per hour. Based on the above it is grossly estimated that the maximal dose received by longhaul flight crewmembers would be less than 10 mSv per year, less than 59 daris.

Surveys were also performed by Air France and the Institut de Protection et de Sureté Nucléaire using a“Compteur Proportionel Equivalent Tissu” developed with the CNES (Centre National d’EtudesAérospatiales). Lowest mean doses measured on long-haul flights were observed for routes close to theequator during periods of maximal solar activity that correspond to minimal cosmic radiation on ground.By way of example the mean value per flight on the Buenos–Aires sector was about 3 µSv per hour.Values at highest latitude and in periods of minimal solar activity are higher: for a Paris-Tokyo flight viaSiberia, the mean measured dose reached 8,4 µSv per hour in 1996 as compared to 6,6 µSv per hour in1991/92. In 1997 and for the same flight a mean dose was measured slightly below at 7,5 µSv per hour,partly because of the smaller latitude flown (max 61°N versus 65°N in 1996). A cargo flight on the samecity pair but via Fairbanks displayed 5,7 µSv per hour. For a polar route the value is comparable asradiation is considered constant above the geomagnetic latitude of 65°N. The mean altitude is howeverlower on the polar and hence less exposed. With regard to supersonic flights altitudes flown beingmarkedly higher (up to 18000 m). For the entire Paris – New York flight and during a period of minimalsolar activity, the mean dose was 11,3 µSv per hour. Major events linked with solar eruptions can lead tomuch higher exposures. The maximal dose received by passengers during a solar eruption in 1956 whilston a flight at 10000 m and at high latitude, was estimated at 10mSv. Such events are very rare and veryshort-lived as they occur within a few hours. It is hence very improbable that a same person- even as acrewmember- would experience such an exposure twice in his or her life.

Concorde data recently received from Air France indicate an annual absorbed dose of 210 mRemmeasured on 41 crewmembers for the one-year period from end October 2001 to early November 2002with a standard deviation of 87mRem. Taking a 95% confidence interval this would amount to 384mRem/year or 3,840 mSv, which is 23 daris. This corresponds in France to the average of medicalradiology, which ranges from 1 to 40 daris and remains well below the maximal annual dosis for a nuclearindustry worker, which stands at 120 daris. Long-range data received from Air France on subsonic aircraftindicate an hourly dose between 5 and 8 µSv per hour covering Polar, North and South Atlantic routes.For a maximum of 800 flying hours per annum this would lead to an exposure of between 4 and 6,4 mSvper year or 24 to 38 daris, again equivalent to medical radiology exposure.

In conclusion, Air France and British Airways results are consistently showing average annual exposurerates of about 4 to 6 mSv per year for long haul crew. It is noted that these results include measurementstaken on Concorde, whose hourly received dose rate is higher than that with subsonic aircraft because ofits higher cruising altitude. But whose total annual flying hours are markedly less because of its muchhigher cruising speed. Other sources include the American Medical Association quoting 7mSv per annumon the New York Tokyo run for a total of 950 annual block hours and 9,1 mSv per annum on the AthensNew York route for the same amount of flying. The Association of European Airlines cites 8mSv perannum as a theoretical maximum for a total of 900 annual hours. German, Russian and Swedish sourcesquote between 3 and 10 mSv per year, Chinese 3 to 10 µSv per hour on all their measurements. IATAestimates 5,6 µSv per hour.

Radiation may be measured either directly using sophisticated equipment as in Concorde, or estimatedusing a computer software program. This program looks at the route, time at each altitude and the phaseof the solar cycle and calculates the radiation dose received by crew or passengers for a particular flight.British Airways, Air France and other airlines have compared actual measurements taken on board anaircraft with computer estimations and both are very close. The program British Airways set up wasvalidated with the NPRB to record and compute individual radiation exposure based on individual flyingrosters. When calculating individual dose rates, it is important to remember that crewmembers are at highaltitude for only a portion of the recorded flying hours. Computer models take into account climb anddescent profiles, as well as latitude, altitude, time of year and point in the solar cycle.


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Passengers can encounter the level of 1 mSv if they exceed 5 return antipodean flights per year.Nevertheless, if these passengers are business travelers, the applicable limit is the 100 mSv or 588 darisin consecutive 5 years (limit applicable to workers). This is equivalent to the maximal annual dosis fornuclear industry workers fixed at 600 daris.

To conclude conservatively, in-flight exposure will depend on the route, altitude and aircraft type.However, on average, dose rates received is in the order of:

• Concorde, 12-15 µSv (microsieverts) per hour;

• Long haul aircraft, 5 – 8 µSv (microsieverts) per hour;

• Short haul aircraft, 1-3 µSv (microsieverts) per hour dependent on the altitude reached.

2. RECOMMENDATIONS

Since it is not possible to predict a maximum safe threshold of exposure as individuals do vary in theirbiological response, a minimum safe threshold of exposure is proposed. But as will be seen in thefollowing recommended thresholds were properly and realistically recommended for no harm.

2.1. Evolving Recommendations

2.1.1. International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)In 1991 the ICRP recommended an occupational exposure limit of 20 mSv per year for exposure ofcrew to cosmic radiation in jet aircraft (118 daris).For passengers, the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommends a limit of 1mSv or 5,88 daris per year. This is marginally higher than the annual exposure at sea level and equatesto about 80 hours flying per year on Concorde or about 200 hours flying per year on subsonic trans-equatorial routes. Although the dose rate received on board Concorde is greater than that received onsubsonic aircraft because of its higher cruising altitude, the total dose for a transatlantic journey isapproximately the same because of the reduced time of exposure.

2.1.2. EURATOM Council Directive 96/292

The Council Directive Euratom (Reference 2) has entered into force for the EC Members States on May13, 2000. This Directive provides that:

Flight crews and others exposed workers shall not been exposed to more than 100 mSv ( 588daris) in a consecutive five years period (max effective dose not exceeding 50 mSv in any single yearor 294 daris ).

If crew exposure is more than 1 mSv in a year or 5,88 daris, the individual radiation exposure has tobe assessed, the crew have to be informed about the risks, and the working schedules have to beorganized in order to minimize the individual exposure.

Pregnant women should avoid being exposed at all to more than 1 mSv during this period.

Doses for passengers shall not exceed 1 mSv in a year or 5,88 daris ( the limit can be exceeded,provided the average doses do not exceed 1 mSv a year during 5 consecutive years).

Particular attention must be paid to Article 42, which specifically refers to the protection of air crew andstipulates:

Each Member State shall make arrangements for undertakings operating aircraft to take account ofexposure to cosmic radiation of air crew who are liable to be subject to exposure to more than 1 mSv perannum or 5,88 daris per year.

2 EURATOM Council Directive 96/29 requires member states of the European Union (EU) to comply withthe directive before 13 May 2000 (Article 55)


Chapter 12 Page 11

2.1.3. Institut de la Protection et de la Sûreté NucléaireThe French DGAC and the IPSN state that no study as of today showed any measurable effect ofradiation levels on crew health sustained in flight. Levels where radiation effects would start to bemeasurable are estimated to be around 120-150 mSv per year (706–882 daris). An extensive surveyon European flight crew health in connection with radiation was launched by the EC and will be availablenext year.

2.1.4. National Council on Radiation Protection and MeasurementThe NCRP of Britain has issued recommendations for a better protection of flight crew and of the flyingpopulation. They stress the necessity to increase at first our knowledge in solar radiation prediction athigh altitude, and in prediction of carcinogenesis under the solar cosmic radiation (neutrons and protons).The report does not make many references to the necessity of a protection through aircraft shielding.

2.2. FAA Requirements

In the advisory circular N° 120-52 the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) published estimates ofcosmic ray exposures for crewmembers on various subsonic flights. Doses in the range of 0.2 mSv to9.1 mSv per year were estimated with most of the higher doses on long haul routes at altitudes up to41000 ft. In the USA, the FAA has no plans to adopt regulations on cosmic-radiation exposure.A rule is not being planned since cosmic radiation is not being perceived as an immediate risk but just asan educational matter. The FAA therefore wants to ensure that passengers and crewmembers alike aregiven all the necessary information on cosmic radiation and its consequences.The FAA recommends that crewmembers and passengers be exposed to no more than 20 mSv peryear (118 daris) over a five-year period, with a maximum of 50 mSv (59 daris) in one given year.The FAA recommendations hinge on guidelines established by the International Commission onRadiological Protection (ICRP).

FAA’s recommended limit for a pregnant crewmember is 1 mSv or 5,88 daris. After that level has beenreached, FAA recommends that the crewmember not fly until after the child is born. ICRP recommendsthat pregnant crewmembers be reassigned to flight that are relatively short in duration and are conductedat relatively low altitudes, or be reassigned to ground duties for the remainder of the pregnancy. For apregnant crewmember, the effective dose is a reliable estimate of the equivalent dose received by theconceptus. An interactive Web version of CARI-6 can be run, at no charge, at the Radiobiology ResearchTeam Web site. This software is distributed without restriction.

http://www.cami.jccbi.gov/aam-600/610/600radio.html

Also, there are two versions of the CARI program that can be downloaded from the same site, CARI-6and CARI-6M. The downloadable version of CARI-6 is more sophisticated than the interactive Webversion. Both assume a great-circle route between origin and destination airports, but the downloadableversion allows the user to enter, store, and process multiple flight-profiles, and to calculate dose rates atuser-specified locations in the atmosphere. CARI-6M allows the user to specify the flightpath by enteringthe altitudes and geographic coordinates of waypoints.

Computer program CARI-6 developed at the FAA’s Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI) can be usedto calculate the effective dose of galactic cosmic radiation received by a crewmember flying anapproximate great-circle route (the shortest distance). Based upon the flux of primary particles linked withcosmic radiation, the software computes the transfer of secondary particles to flight altitudes taking intoaccount the interaction with atmospheric nuclei. And readily derives the effective doses (in µSv) receivedby the aircraft, in conformity with the recommendations of the IRCP3 60. It is hence possible to calculatethe effective dose for each altitude, longitude and latitude as a function of solar activity. For a given flightplan it is possible, point by point, to calculate the dose received in order to deduce the flight’s dosimetricprofile as well as to obtain total exposure. Taking the example in Figure 6 of a Paris- San Francisco flightthe effective dose received (in µSv) is based on monthly values of cosmic radiation.

3 ICRP : International Commission on Radiological Protection


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The solar spot index corresponds to the full line of Figure 6. Worth of note concerning the solar cycle isthat a variation of 20% in cosmic radiation flux corresponds to a variation almost equivalent to doublingthe effective dose received. Hence one has to take into account the solar cycle so as to estimate dosesand still with an accuracy of 10-20%. This parameter is called the “heliocentric potential” since itquantifies the difficulty for cosmic rays to reach the terrestrial heliosphere. Figure 7 offers a comparativeexample between measurements performed by J-F Bottolier-Depois in his IPSN studies of Air Franceflights (Evaluation de l’Exposition au Rayonnement Cosmique à Bord d’Avion Long Courrier, Feb.1997)and the computations by means of the CARI Software. Worth of note is that these flights corresponded tothe minimum in the 11 year solar cycle, i.e. when cosmic radiation is at its periodic strongest. The CARIprogram is based on monthly data for solar radiation.

2.3. Observatoire de Paris- Meudon Study

Hourly or daily data based on neutron monitors would hardly improve predictions, only just exceptionally.These exceptions would pertain to the following two cases:

• Solar eruptions evidenced with Ground Level Enhancements (GLEs) in Figure 8, and so called FDs• “Forbush decrements” (FDs) during the passage of an interplanetary shock wave closeby earth,

Figure 6 : Effective dose receivedduring the last 3 solar cycles

Figure 7 : Paris –New YorkConcorde flight of 21/08/1996

Figure 8: Cosmic Radiation plot for the very activeperiod of August 4th 1972 with GLEs anddecreasing FDs

Figure 9: Intensity of observed GLE s between1942 and 1992 using different monitors


Chapter 12 Page 13

GLEs are rare events generally linked with solar eruptions. Before the International Geophysical year(1957) only exceptional events would be recorded. Figure 9 shows that -on February 23rd 1956 - a factorincrease of 50 was recorded for particles detected by earth monitors, an augmentation of some 5000%.This includes important events on May 7th 1978 and on September 29th 1989, the former corresponding toan increase of 220%, the latter to 270%. Integrating the calculated dose on the whole event of February26th 1956 alone, one would have obtained a maximal cumulated dose of 10 mSv for a subsonic flight.

The GLE of September 29th 1989 is the only one corroborated with data measured on board theConcorde and is detailed on Figure 10. As calculated by O’ Brien et al, at the peak of the GLE thiscorresponded to:

• 12 µSv per hour at an altitude of 40000 feet (12,2 km / subsonic flight), for a total of 12 mSv ,• 32 µSv per hour at an altitude of 60000 feet (18,3 km / supersonic flight), for a total of 35mSv,

These aircraft were in flight at the moment of the eruptions as shown on the profile of Figure 10 observedby the monitor of Kerguelen. Concorde flights are shown at the bottom.The Paris – New York flight of Air France left CDG at 10h19 GMT and arrived in JFK at 13h43. The NewYork-London flight of British Airways left JFK at 13h56 and arrived at LHR at 17h19.The maximum GLE was recorded at 13h45.The Air France Concorde recorded an “amber alert” (fluxbetween 10 and 50 µSv/h) and an equivalent dose of 0,12 mSv in full agreement with O’ Brien’scalculations. The British Airways Concorde appears to have recorded a “red alert” (beyond 50 µSv/h).The equivalent dose being 0,14 mSv. For supersonic flights these detectors are indeed essential providedthese are reliable since red alerts call for a descent to an appropriate level where radiation is no longercritical.

The occurrence of very strong eruptions cannot be predicted with reasonable operational accuracy, i.e. tothe point of reasonably immobilizing aircraft on ground. However, once a GLE is declared, a neutronmonitor can provide valuable alerts. The GLE of 1956 surpassed the level of cosmic radiation by a factor10 for more than 2 hours. This warrants limiting flight’s exposure depending on the GLE’s duration. Figure11 compares the profile of 2 GLEs measured at Kerguelen, both of similar amplitude but of differentduration. Duration is quite variable and cannot be predicted at the moment.

The eruption of August 4th 1972 was one of the worst at lower energies (10 to 30 MeV), important fordoses received by astronauts (several sieverts an hour) but did not provide in terms of high energyprotons (energy > GeV), any noticeable GLE since it only reaches a mere 5%. The announcement of veryimportant GLE’s to commercial flights is hence subject to caution.

Figure 11: Comparison of the profile of 2GLE’s of similar maximal intensity

Figure 10: Plots of the September 1989 GLEwith mention of the 2 measured Concordeflights having been exposed to it


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This study confirmed the choices made for the calculation of effective doses concerning cosmic radiation,i.e.:

• the CARI program (with the calculation of the heliocentric potential) or any equivalent/future Europeansoftware that would help to adequately estimate doses,

• except for periods of very strong eruptions, neutron monitors are sufficient, with average monthlyreadings,

In the absence of adapted observation satellites, exceptional phenomena like the one of 1956 mandateusing all available neutron monitors on earth, so as to first calculate characteristics of an event (energiesinvolved) and only thereafter assess the impact of a GLE as a function of aircraft flight plans.Passive dosimeters installed in some commercial aircraft, like on the Concorde, can also contribute butpredictions are anyway bound not to be very reliable.

2.4. ICAO and JAR OPS

ICAO and JAR OPS rules require that aircraft intended to be operated above 49,000 [ft] have to beequipped with an instrument to measure and indicate (visible for the flight crew) continuously the doseequivalent radiation.

2.5. JAR Requirements

JAA in January 2001 amended Joint Aviation Requirements – Operations (JAR-OPS 1, the regulationsgoverning the operation of commercial air transport airplanes, to require operators to “take account ofthe in-flight exposure to cosmic radiation of all crewmembers while on duty (includingpositioning) and (and to) take the following measures for those crew liable to be subject toexposure of more than 1mSv per year, that is 5,88 daris (1.1390)” :

• Assess their exposure • Take into account the assessed exposure when organizing working schedules with a view to reduce

the doses of highly exposed crewmembers• Inform the crew members concerned of the health risks their work involves• Ensure that the working schedules for female crew members, once they have notified the operator

that they are pregnant, keep the equivalent dose to the foetus as low as can reasonably be achievedand in any case ensure that the dose does not exceed 1mSv for the remainder of the pregnancy;

• Ensure that individual records are kept for those crewmembers that are liable to high exposure.These exposures are to be notified to the individual on an annual basis, and also upon leaving theoperator.

Regulations prohibit operation of an aeroplane above 15 000m (49 000ft) unless the aircraft is equipped:

• with an instrument that measures and continually indicates the dosage of cosmic radiation beingreceived by crewmembers,

• and that provides the cumulative dosage for each flight; or unless the operator uses an approvedsystem for quarterly radiation sampling.

Regulations also require the pilot-in-command to begin a descent as soon as practicable when thecosmic-radiation-dose rate exceeds the limits specified in the company operations manual (JAR-OPS1.680(a))

Advisory material issued by the JAA cites one acceptable method for determining whether crewmembers will beexposed to more than 1mSv of cosmic radiation per year. The determination is conducted with reference to datashown in Table 5 and produced by a computer program.


Chapter 12 Page 15

Altitude (feet) Kilometre equivalent Hours at latitude 60o N Hours at equator27 000 8·23 630 133030 000 9·14 440 98033 000 10·06 320 75036 000 10·97 250 60039 000 11·89 200 49042 000 12·80 160 42045 000 13·72 140 38048 000 14·63 120 350

Table 5 - Hours exposure for effective dose of 1 millisievert (mSv)

Note: This table, published for illustration purposes, is based on the CARI-3 computer program; and may besuperseded by updated versions, as approved by the Authority. The uncertainty on these estimates isabout ± 20%.A conservative conversion factor of 0.8 has been used to convert ambient dose equivalentto effective dose.

Doses from cosmic radiation vary greatly with altitude and also with latitude and with the phase of thesolar cycle.Table 5 gives an estimate of the number of flying hours at various altitudes in which a dose of 1 mSvwould be accumulated for flights at 60o N and at the equator.Cosmic radiation dose rates change reasonably slowly with time at altitudes used by conventional jetaircraft (i.e. up to about 15 km / 49 000 ft).Table 5 can also be used to identify circumstances in which it is unlikely that an annual dosage level of 1mSv would be exceeded. If flights are limited to heights of less than 8 km (27 000 ft), it is unlikely thatannual doses will exceed 1 mSv. No further controls are necessary for crewmembers whose annual dosecan be shown to be less than 1 mSv.

Where in-flight exposure of crewmembers to cosmic radiation is likely to exceed 1 mSv per yearor 5,88 daris, the operator should arrange working schedules, where practicable, to keepexposure below 6 mSv per year or 35 daris. For the purpose of this regulation crew members who arelikely to be exposed to more than 6 mSv per year or 35daris are considered being exposed and individualrecords of exposure to cosmic radiation should be kept for each crew member concerned.

Operators should explain the risks of occupational exposure to cosmic radiation to their crewmembers.Female crewmembers should know of the need to control doses during pregnancy, and the operatorconsequently notified so that the necessary dose control measures can be introduced.

2.6. IFALPA Position

The revisions to IFALPA policy on cosmic radiation reflect some recommendations of the Council ofEuropean Union so as to regulate exposures down to levels comparable to the natural background.Within this context there is however no general agreement within the scientific community to support thisapproach. According to IFALPA extensive research is still necessary before any conclusions andrecommendations can be made as to the validity of the European approach.

The present recommendations include:

1) Radiation dosage assessment, either measured or mathematically modeled, for all aircraft operatedabove 8000m (26,00ft),

2) Revision of the current ICRP recommended annual cumulative dose rate of 20 mSv/year to6mSv/year, that is from 118 to 35 daris,-

3) Cumulative radiation dose assessment for all crewmembers (involved in operations over 8000m)should be recorded and monitored on a permanent basis,

4) Medical surveillance of all flight crewmembers (annual dose rate 1-6 mSv/year), (5,88 to 35daris)5) Warning of impending solar flares should be given to flight crews,6) Adjustment of current radiation exposure limits to pregnant flight crew members from 2mSv to

1mSv/year, (11,76 to 5,88 daris),7) Recommendation to legislate radiation exposure limits.


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Some technical objections however preclude the above:1)+3) There is no scientific support/agreement for evaluating ambient dose by means of the Tissue equivalent proportional counter as a reference instrument with large uncertainty in results calculated from passive dosimetry using existing measurement techniques.2) A flight crewmember working 700 block hours a year would receive an annual cumulative

occupational exposure of 3-5 mSv/year, which is 17 to 29 daris. When normalized to occupationalplus non-occupational natural radiation sources this crewmember has an annual effective dose of 5 to7 mSv or 29 to 35 daris, somewhere about 2 times higher than the annual dose (3 to 3.5 mSv whichis 17 to 21 daris) received by a member of the US or French population. Proposals advocatingchanging the tolerable cumulative dose rate from 20 mSv/year to 6 mSv/year (from 118 to 35 daris)appear unfounded and exaggerated, the 6 mSv figure lacking a funded basis.

4) Medical surveillance of all crewmembers is not feasible: even if damage were to be found inchromosomes, one could not assert that the problem would solely be related to ionizing cosmicradiation or that there even would be a biological problem. Also, the cost alone for medicalsurveillance of all flight crewmembers would be absolutely prohibitive.

5) Warning of impending solar flares may not even be possible even if NASA research attempts tocorrelate sun patterns with early warnings of approaching solar storms.

6) Adjustment of current radiation exposure limits to pregnant flight crew members from 2mSv to1mSv/year appears justified as the equivalent dose at depth of the conceptus is approximately thesame as the dose at the surface of the mother’s body.

7) The cumulative cosmic radiation research is far from conclusive that would justify a legislativeapproach at this point in time.

2.7. ALPA Position

The Air Line Pilot Association (ALPA), CAMI and the Medical University of South Carolina’s Departmentof Biometry and Epidemiology are conducting a two-phase study of harmful effects of cosmic radiation.The first phase of the study involves assessment of the incidence of cancer among pilots through asurvey of more than 11 500 active and retired pilots. As part of this project, an extensive database onexposure rates using a flight-history survey is being used. Phase 2 of the study will involve determinationof whether chronic low-dosage radiation can be detected from biological markers. A fourfold increase ofmelanoma (skin cancer) was found among pilots, compared to a standardized population. But amongpilots with a higher incidence of melanoma were those who fly at lower altitudes and at latitudes wherecosmic radiation is not a factor.

3. REVIEW AND AIRBUS PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY

3.1. Aircraft Protection

It is not physically possible to protect the aircraft from radiation. Such protection would require addition ofa protective shell to the fuselage, e.g. a thick layer of steel or lead. This solution is technically not feasibledue to weight repercussion. This is true for all aircraft and the new ultra long-range aircraft are no differentin this respect from any other aircraft. According to the “New Scientist” a cosmic-radiation-proof lining foraircraft is one (unproven) possibility for a new polymer material, say its developers.

3.2. Measurement in Flight

In accordance with JAR-OPS regulations, aircraft intended to be operated above 15 000 m or46 000 feet are required to be equipped with cosmic radiation detection and measurement equipment.Above this altitude increased cosmic radiation due to high levels of solar activity must be taken intoaccount when determining crew doses.Equipment capable of measuring cosmic radiation is installed in all Concorde supersonic transports,which entered commercial service in 1976. The monitoring equipment includes a rate meter that providesan instantaneous reading of total radiation dose equivalent. The readings are recorded at the beginningand end of each flight. The equipment also includes an alarm that activates if the dose equivalent reaches0.10 mSv per hour, (or 0,588 daris) which could occur from a solar flare. It appears that this equipmenthas a low reliability level and that it is out of production.


Chapter 12 Page 17

3.3. Dosimetric Assessment and Reporting

3.3.1. Route dose calculation programsWhere as a result of the above stipulations, it is shown that aircrew are liable to receive in excess of1mSv in any 12-month period, the operator must assess the doses received by the crew concerned. It isrecommended that aircrew doses be determined by combining route doses with crew roster data. Foraircraft operating below 15 000 m (46 000ft), where solar flares do not significantly influence the cosmicradiation dose to aircrew, route doses may be calculated using an approved computer code.

• SIEVERT is a program developed in 2002 by the DGAC in cooperation with others organisms (IRSN,IPEV, Observatoire de Paris-Meudon) to calculate the effective dose of cosmic radiation received bya person during a given flight. This program is for airlines use in order to apply the European Directive(EURATOM Council Directive 96/29, Art42) for the protection of air crew requesting to access theexposure and manage work organization when crews are supposed to be subject to exposure morethan 1 mSievert per year or 5,88 daris .

The program’s access rights have to be requested directly by the airlines to the DGAC.

www.irsn.fr/vf/04_act/04_act_2/04_act_21dossiers_irsn/pdf/dp_sievert.pdf

• FAA propose also a similar program called CARI-6M (and CARI-6) on their web site:


CARI is produced by the Radiobiology Research Team at the Civil Aeromedical Institute in the UnitedStates and can be downloaded free of charge. CARI calculates the effective dose of galacticradiation received by an individual on an aircraft flying a great circle route between any two airports.The program takes into account the altitude, geographic location and flight duration based on a userentered flight profile. CARI uses heliocentric potentials to adjust for changes in the galactic radiationintensity that occur with changes in solar activity. Before using the program, the user must enterheliocentric potential data for dates not already in the program database. These data are availableon the Civil Aeromedical Institute Website and an estimate for each month is normally available bythe 24th of the following month.

• The European Commission is currently developing a European route dose calculation code known asEPCARD. At the time of writing of this paper, this code was not yet available.

As a conclusion, the measurement of the cumulated radiation encountered by flight crews seems tediousto set up. As an alternative way, Airbus proposes to initiate airlines to the use of these programs.

3.3.2. Route ProfileRoute doses may be calculated using typical flight profiles rather than actual flight data. Typical flightprofiles must be defined individually for each route and should be based on historic flight data. Eachprofile will include:

• The origin and destination airports,• The number of en route altitudes,• The time to climb to the first en route altitude,• The en-route altitudes (with CARI up to en route altitudes can be specified),• The time spend at each en route altitude,• The time to descend to the destination airport,

Route profile information must be reviewed periodically by the operator and updated as necessary tobest reflect current practice.

3.3.3. Crew Dose AssessmentFor the purpose of calculating crew doses a distinction is drawn between two categories of aircrew.These are:- Firstly, either aircrew liable to receive in excess of 6 mSv in any 12-month period or female aircrew

on declaration of pregnancy and,



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- Secondly, any other aircrew liable to receive 1mSv and 6mSv in a year. For crew in the lattercategory, a simplified, calculation based on annual averaged route doses and group roster data maybe used.

For crew in the first category, the dosimetric assessment must be based on monthly averaged routedoses and individual roster data. Route doses must be calculated for each month using the heliocentricpotential for that month. The monthly route doses are then combined with aircrew roster data to derivethe doses to individual aircrew members. Each month, the operator must derive the cumulative exposureover the previous 12month period by summing the 12 monthly values. The assessment must becalculated individually for each crewmember taking into account the actual flying record for thatindividual.

For crew in the second category, the operator may opt to assess crew doses using a simplifiedcalculation based on annual averaged routes and group roster data. For such assessments the annualaverage route dose should calculated for the calculated for the calendar year using the annualheliocentric potential, which is usually. For such assessments the annual average route dose should becalculated for the calendar year using the annual heliocentric potential, which is usually availabletowards the end of January of the following year. Crew exposures are then calculated for groups ofaircrew likely to receive similar exposure, rather than for individual crewmembers. The groups must bedefined on the basis of similar work rosters. The operator must maintain a record of such groupings,which must be available to the aircrew concerned.

When the operator opts for group assessments, the calculation must be performed on the basis of themaximum dose to any individual member of the group and this figure must be recorded for each memberof the group.

Where, on the basis of the annual calculation it is shown that any individual or group receives in excessof 5 mSv, the operator must reassess the doses for the individuals concerned according to theprocedures set out above for the first category of aircrew. Traceability of dosimetric assessments mustbe properly secured to allow recalculation of any individual crew dose if necessary. Written proceduresshould be fully documented and operators must compile a summary of aircrew exposure on an annualbasis.

3.4. Information to be provided to aircrew

When crewmembers are susceptible of receiving more than 1 mSv in any 12-month period, the operatoris required to provide staff concerned with basic information about the risks associated with exposure tocosmic radiation as well as basic information to help them interpret their dose records. This is wheresome relativization is necessary through the notions of the daris. It is recommended that these notionsshould include the following questions:• What is cosmic radiation?• What is a millisievert, what is a dari and why does the dari put things into perspective?• What are the main sources of ionizing radiation (medical, background industrial)?• What is the annual dose received by a typical individual from background sources of ionizing

radiation?• What factors influence cosmic radiation intensity (latitude, altitude, solar cycle)?• How is cosmic radiation measured (direct measurement and assessment)?• What health risks are associated with ionizing radiation?• What is the legal framework for the protection of aircrew from cosmic radiation?• What radiation protection measures are relevant to cosmic radiation?• What protective measures are necessary for pregnant aircrew?

3.5. Effects on Avionics

Aircraft avionics are possibly at risk of computer failures due to cosmic radiation. Better error correctionor chips that are more radiation-proof are an answer.


Chapter 12 Page 19

4. CONCLUSION

• Measurements performed in long-range aircraft of many airlines concur and helped to estimate thespread of equivalent annual effective dose:- 2mSv (6 daris) for the less exposed flights (at low latitudes and maximal solar activity, e.g. Paris-

Buenos Aires),- 6mSv (35 daris) for the more exposed routes (high latitudes and minimal solar activity, e.g. Paris -

Tokyo via the Siberia or e.g. Paris- San Francisco),- The values observed on Concorde flights are in this overall range as the number of flying hours is

markedly less.

• The generally agreed dose of 20mSv/per year or 118 daris is hence well funded as a realisticbenchmark value to clear cosmic radiation threats and is in line with practical safety objectives.These values are off course above the limit fixed for the general public (1mSv per year) in the frameof European Directives and regulations. These stipulations also require evaluating crew exposure iftheir exposure exceeds 1mSv or 5,9 daris per year, measured or calculated.

• After investigations, the use of sensors on board the aircraft to measure the effective dose of cosmicradiation received by the crew appears not to be the right solution for the present.This can be performed using dedicated programs, knowing:- the inherent calibration difficulties of the sensors,- the low accuracy of sensors linked to the low level of cosmic radiation generally encountered,- that the route patterns flown per individual and corresponding dates need to be well bookkept,- that the actual measurement of cumulated radiation annually encountered by each crewmember

seems very difficult to be set up.

• Airbus proposes therefore the operational utilization of one of these programs to the airlines:- FAA offers a dedicated program called CARI-6M on their web site, to calculate the effective dose

of cosmic radiation received by a person during a given flight,


- SIEVERT hints towards a similar program developed in 2002 by the DGAC in cooperation withothers organisms (IRSN, IPEV, Observatoire de Paris-Meudon). This program is for airlines useto apply the European directive (EURATOM Council Directive 96/29, Art42) for the protection ofair crew requesting to access the exposure and manage the work organization when anycrewmember is supposed to be subject to an exposure superior to 1 mSievert per year. Accessright to the program has to be requested directly by the airlines to the DGAC.

www.irsn.fr/vf/04_act/04_act_2/04_act_21dossiers_irsn/pdf/dp_sievert.pdf

- The European Commission is currently developing a European route dose calculation codeknown as EPCARD. At the time of writing of this paper, this code was not yet available.

These tools all use mathematical models validated by atmospheric measurements which areregularly updated. The calculation of the effective dose of cosmic radiation received by a person isbased on the description of all the flights performed (date, departure airport, arrival airport,intermediate waypoints, etc…etc).

• A clearer understanding by a wider public of the health effects of materials of radioactive origins isessential if the public interest is to be served. As Charpak and Garwin are saying, clear andcontinuous information provided to the public about radiation doses from industry is inadequate to anintuitive and correct understanding of relative risk in part because radiation exposure is expressed inunits that non-specialists find difficult to grasp. This is why they are proposing the establishment ofthe dari, after the annual dose stemming from internal radioactivity. The dari (Dose Annuelle due auxRadiations Internes) corresponds to an effective dose of 0,17 mSv.

• The adoption of the dari helps eliminate sterile debates with shear dis-information or politicalmaneuvering not taking into account scientific reality. It appears that subsonic and supersonic pilotswould respectively be subject to 23 daris annually, subsonic pilots from 24 to 38 daris (95%


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confidence interval). This needs to be compared to the average of medical radiology, which rangesfrom 1 to 40 daris and remains well below the maximal annual dosis for a nuclear industry worker,which stands at 120 daris in France. The Ultra Long Range nature of A340-500 operation (includingflights over the poles as well as extended flight duty times in excess of 20 hours) will not exposecrews to radiation doses beyond the limits set by the various regulatory bodies. At most to 35 darisper year even not taking into account the more stringent duty time and rest regulations that maypertain to these flights. It is about time to stop total irrationality surrounding nuclear matters asinternal radioactivity is fundamentally linked with any living or inert tissue and as uninformedecological fussiness has confused these matters out of proportion with reality.

Documents

AIRBUS 12 Performance and Flight Operations … th Performance and Flight Operations Support & Line Assistance Operations Conference - Rome 2003