AGRO-WASTE MANAGEMNT BY …scientifictemper.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Magzine...Key words: Agro-waste, bedding, organic fertilizer, recycle, straw. The Scientific Temper VOL-IX,

The Scientific Temper Vol-IX, 2018 1

AGRO-WASTE MANAGEMNT BY VERMICOMPOSTING USING

EISENIA FETIDA AND PERIONYX SANSIBARICUS EARTHWORMS

Suresh KumarDepartment of Zoology, Govt. College, Sirohi-347001(Affiliated to Mohanlal Sukhadiya University, Udaipur)

E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Agro-waste like fennel straw blended with cow dung wasrecycled to analyze biochemical changes during composting processtreated with earthworms Eisenia fetida and Perionyx sansibaricus.Both the species of earthworms were separately inoculated incomposting substrate bedding for a period of 90 days. Fennel strawmixed with dry cow dung in 1:1 ratio was prepared as beddingsubstrate for earthworms in vermicomposting experiment. The changesin physical and biochemical parameters of vermicompost samplesduring decomposition progression were recorded at specific intervalof time. At different level of vermicomposting significant raise inelectrical conductivity, total N, available phosphorus and potassium,along with drop in pH, organic C and C/N ratio was recorded fromexperimental vermibeds. The result showed that vermicomposting offennel straw plus cow dung amended into nutrient rich material knownas organic fertilizer. In this vermicomposting experiment E. fetidashows better functional activity than P. sansibaricus. The resultssuggested that enriched compost obtained from decomposition ofwastes (agro and livestock waste) through vermicomposting withefficient worms will be utilized to enhance physico-chemical andbiological properties of soil; leading to better plant growth andproduction of crop.

Key words: Agro-waste, bedding, organic fertilizer, recycle, straw.

The Scientific TemperVOL-IX, NO.1&2; JANUARY-JULY, 2018

ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226

e-mail:[email protected]

Web: www.scientifictemper.com


INTRODUCTIONAgricultural waste and domestic animal

excreta can be naturally decomposed in anenvironment by helping of earthworms. The use ofearthworms in composting process decreases thetime of stabilization of the waste and produces anefficient bio-product called organic fertilizer. Theproduction of organic fertilizer from earthworms byusing organic waste as raw materials was calledvermicompost. Vermicompost is the most promisingbio-fertilizer which has been commonly used in cropcultivation. It increases growth and productivity ofplants providing nutrient supply. It is also profitableand eco-friendly. As a result of earthwormdegradation activity, the mineralization of nutrientsincreases, soil health recovers, crop productivityenhances and it also helps in pollution control.Vermicomposting is the process of conversion oforganic wastes by certain species of earthworms tovaluable humus like material which is used as naturalsoil conditioner (Dominguez & Edwards, 2004).Using of cow dung in vermin-compost provides abetter environment for earthworm functioning thanany other livestock dung and it produces higherquality of vermin-cast (Loh et al., 2005). Epigeicspecies of earthworm are commonly usedearthworms for vermicomposting. Due to theirnatural ability to feed organic wastes, highreproduction rate and short life cycle epigeic speciesare considered suitable for vermicomposting (Garget al., 2006).

Recycling of different waste in to anorganic fertilizer is one of most popular methodsfor waste management (Ostos et al., 2009). Suchtechnique can also be used to engender additionalrevenue. Barren land and land degraded throughmining could be engineered physically, chemicallyand biologically and made fertile by earthworms.Hence earthworms are termed as ecosystemengineers (Munnoli et al., 2010). Zularisam et al.(2010) observed various types of agricultural wasteconsumed by earthworms, such as vegetable waste,cattle dung, soybean meals, agricultural residue,sewage sludge and other industrial refuse.Physiochemical changes during composting andvermicomposting of spinach was evaluated by

Sharma et al. (2011). They observed variouschemical changes in raw organic compost leadingto change in percentage of nitrate, phosphate,sodium, magnesium, and potassium. This processproduces organic manure rich in plant nutrient andhumus. Vermicompost offers an attractive alternateto promote sustainable agriculture and secureagricultural, industrial, domestic and hospital wastesmanagement (Pathma & Sakthive 2012). Theapplication of vermicompost might be used inplantation fields in order to reduce chemicalfertilizer in environment (Chouhan & Singh 2013).Producing vermicompost could be adjusted to findsuitable and optimal conditions for earthwormcultivation to a high quality of fertilizer forplantations.

Generally, vermicompost with highmineral concentration was able to stimulate thegrowth of number of soil microorganisms inagricultural fields as well as providing nutrients forplant cultivation (Yan et al., 2013; Nweke, 2013).It contains a lot of macro and micro nutrients, suchas nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium andmagnesium. In addition, vermicompost is moreadvantageous than conventional organic compostin terms of being odorless, having adjustable pHand low electrical conductivity (Khommami et al.,2013). Mandel et al. (2014) carried out work onmunicipal solid waste management and indicatedfertilizing potential of compost. Recycling oforganic waste like cow dung by vermicompostingusing Eisenia fetida was performed andenhancement in compost competence with betterplant growth promoting activity was observed.(Kapoor et al., 2015). Manaig (2016) studiedvarious vermicomposting process and states thatefficiency may be measured by the worm numberor biomass and quality of vermicast. Chaulagain etal. (2017) also reported that the use of compostimproves the growth of plants. In the presentanalysis, common culture was used to find out thecomposting potential of epigeic earthworm species.

MATERIALS AND METHODSIn this experiment two epigenic earthworm

species i.e. Eisenia fetida (Savigny) and Perionyx


sansibaricus (Parrier) were used. E. fetida wereprocured from vermicompost unit of KanhaiyaGoashala, Pal Balaji Road, Jodhpur, and otherspecies P. sansibaricus was collected from studyarea (Sirohi district). For preparation of a beddingmaterial, fennel straw was mixed with cow dung.These bedding materials served as food recipe forearthworms. Different component of beddingsubstrate like, fennel straw agricultural waste wascollected from farmers of Sirohi district area andcow dung was gathered from livestock owners ofJodhpur city. Bedding for vermibeds designated intriplicate sets (each 3kg) in a ratio of 1:1 (fennelstraw waste plus cow dung) in plastic containers(30 cm diameter × 25 cm height) and moistened tostabilize within 48 hours. In the experimental sets25 worms of each species were inoculatedseparately. One set of control bedding material(without earthworm) was run jointly. The culturingplastic containers were perforated at 2-3 places toallow surplus water. The moisture level of vermibedswas maintained at 60-80% by spraying waterperiodically on vermibeds. The temperature ofvermibeds was 27±30 C and was sustained by usingwet jute cloths.

The experiment was conducted for 90 daysto estimate the decomposition potential ofearthworm species. The different physico-chemicalparameters of compost (without earthworm) andvermicompost produced during experiment wereanalyzed. Temperature was noted daily using athermometer, and moisture content was measuredgravimetrically. The pH and electric conductivityof samples were recorded by a digital pH meter andconductivity meter respectively. Total organiccarbon (TOC) was measured by Walkey-Blackmethod (1934); the total nitrogen was calculatedby Kjeldahl method as described by Jackson (1973);available phosphorus was estimated by extractionwith sodium bicarbonate (Olsen et al., 1954) as theexchangeable potassium cation was determined afterextracting the soil using ammonium acetate-extractable method (Simard, 1993). The C/N ratiowas calculated from the measured values of C andN. A one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) wascomputed using SPSS 20.0 programm to test the

level of significance of difference between thevermicomposts produced by the two earthwormsand compost samples with respect to nutrientparameters.

RESULTSFennel straw plus cow dung bedding

material with and without earthworm exhibitedsignificant changes (P<0.001) in physiochemicalproperties with respect to decomposition period. Inthe control, bedding the values of pH, organiccarbon and C/N ratio decreased. While the electricalconductivity, total nitrogen, phosphorus andpotassium increased significantly. In control beddingtotal nitrogen increased by 1.19 fold. In contrast,organic carbon and C/N ratio declined by 19.09%and 32.44% respectively.

Working of E. fetida in the beddingmaterials showed significant variation (P<0.001) inthe level of pH, organic carbon and C/N ratio,electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, phosphorusand potassium. The pH value declined to 12.26%.In the same way, organic carbon decreased by49.96%, and C/N ratio reduced by 77.59%. On thecontrary, vermiculture bedding showed 2.04, 2.23,1.84 and 2.49 fold rises in electrical conductivity,total nitrogen, phosphorus and potassiumrespectively after 90 days as compared to initialvalues (Table 1, Fig.1).

After 90 days of working of P. sansibaricusphysiochemical properties of the bedding materialschanged significantly (P<0.001). The vermibedsshowed gradual enrichment in electricalconductivity, total nitrogen, phosphorus andpotassium. But, the pH, organic carbon and C/Nratio decreased by 11.04%, 38.00% and 61.72%respectively within 90 days of decomposition. Onthe other hand, the compost showed 1.63, 1.62, 1.69and 2.19 fold increases in electrical conductivity,total nitrogen, phosphorus and potassiumrespectively (Table 1, Fig.1).

DISCUSSIONPhysiochemical properties of fennel straw

plus cow dung bedding materials showed differenttrends in control and experimental groups (Table 1,


Ta

ble

1.

Eff

ects

of

eart

hw

orm

s (E

. fe

tid

a/P

. sa

nsi

ba

ricu

s )

on

dec

om

po

siti

on

of

fen

nel

str

aw

plu

s co

w d

un

g b

edd

ing

ma

teri

als

at

dif

fere

nt

du

rati

on

s. E

ach

da

tum

is

the

mea

n±

SE

M o

f th

ree

rep

lica

tes.

Ph

ysi

co-

Gro

up

D

eco

mp

osi

tio

n p

erio

d (

da

y)

F-v

alu

e

P-v

alu

e

chem

ica

l

pro

per

ties

0

1

5

3

0

45

60

7

5

9

0

pH

Con

tro

l8

.14

±0

.00

88

.10

±0

.00

88

.06

±0

.01

28

.01

±0

.01

57

.95

±0

.01

27

.89

±0

.01

77

.83

±0

.01

47

5.0

4<

0.0

01

E.

feti

da

8.1

5±

0.0

12

8.0

6±

0.0

15

7.8

7±

0.0

46

7.7

9±

0.0

26

7.5

5±

0.0

26

7.3

1±

0.0

32

7.1

5±

0.0

20

18

2.1

3<

0.0

01

P.sa

nsi

ba

ricu

s8

.15

+0

.02

68

.07

±0

.03

08

.01

±0

.02

77

.88

±0

.04

37

.61

±0

.03

77

.42

±0

.00

87

.25

±0

.03

71

03

.68

<0

.00

1

EC

(dS

m-1)

Con

tro

l1

.40

±0

.02

01

.46

±0

.01

41

.55

±0

.00

81

.63

±0

.011

1.7

2±

0.0

13

1.8

1±

0.0

12

1.8

8±

0.0

14

16

3.0

7<

0.0

01

E.

feti

da

1.4

1±

0.0

20

1.6

5±

0.0

35

1.8

8±

0.0

42

2.1

4±

0.0

40

2.4

3±

0.0

37

2.7

5±

0.0

43

2.8

9±

0.0

37

22

2.7

6<

0.0

01

P.sa

nsi

ba

ricu

s1

.41

±0

.011

1.5

7±

0.0

33

1.6

9±

0.0

33

1.7

8±

0.0

43

2.0

1±

0.0

47

2.1

3±

0.0

37

2.3

1±

0.0

39

76

.47

<0

.00

1

OC

(g k

g-1)

Con

tro

l4

22

.33

±0

.88

40

2.6

7±

1.7

63

85

.00

±0

.57

36

6.3

3±

1.4

53

55

.33

±2

.33

34

5.0

0±

0.5

73

41

.67

±1

.45

65

2.8

9<

0.0

01

E.

feti

da

42

2.3

3±

0.6

63

82

.33

±3

.71

34

5.6

7±

3.5

23

19

.66

±4

.37

27

6.6

6±

3.8

42

39

.67

±4

.37

211

.33

±3

.71

43

5.7

3<

0.0

01

P.sa

nsi

ba

ricu

s4

22

.67

±1

.20

38

8.0

0±

4.0

43

48

.33

±3

.71

32

8.0

0±

4.0

42

85

.33

±3

.71

26

8.3

3±

3.8

42

62

.03

±1

.45

33

6.5

4<

0.0

01

TN

(g k

g-1)

Con

tro

l8

.01

±0

.01

78

.21

±0

.02

38

.48

±0

.02

98

.79

±0

.03

09

.07

±0

.03

79

.36

±0

.02

79

.59

±0

.02

44

56

.23

<0

.00

1

E.

feti

da

8.0

0±

0.0

23

9.7

2±

0.1

81

10

.55

±0

.15

21

3.9

0±

0.1

52

15

.42

±0

.17

51

6.7

8±

0.1

72

17

.86

±0

.18

55

35

.77

<0

.00

1

P.sa

nsi

ba

ricu

s7

.99

±0

.04

79

.32

±0

.16

51

0.3

8±

0.1

92

11.0

9±

0.2

00

11.7

8±

0.1

70

12

.66

±0

.18

51

2.9

6±

0.1

99

10

7.6

0<

0.0

01

C/N

rat

ioC

ontr

ol

52

.70

±0

.04

34

8.9

2±

0.1

21

45

.38

±0

.12

84

1.6

0±

0.0

50

39

.01

±0

.06

93

7.2

0±

0.1

25

35

.60

±0

.10

54

17

4.2

<0

.00

1

E.

feti

da

52

.75

±0

.16

13

9.3

4±

0.3

89

29

.93

±0

.10

22

2.9

6±

0.1

07

17

.93

±0

.05

01

4.2

8±

0.1

30

11.8

2±

0.0

84

67

85

.8<

0.0

01

P.sa

nsi

ba

ricu

s5

2.8

8±

0.2

05

41

.61

±0

.31

23

3.5

7±

0.2

67

29

.56

±0

.17

42

4.2

1±

0.0

35

21

.18

±0

.04

72

0.2

4±

0.2

18

33

94

.6<

0.0

01

P(g

kg

-1)

Con

tro

l4

.15

±0

.00

54

.21

±0

.01

54

.27

±0

.00

84

.34

±0

.01

24

.40

±0

.011

4.4

5±

0.0

15

4.5

3±

0.0

111

36

.44

<0

.00

1

E.

feti

da

4.1

5±

0.0

17

4.4

5±

0.0

43

5.1

4±

0.0

45

5.8

0±

0.0

50

6.3

9±

0.0

45

7.0

7±

0.0

50

7.6

5±

0.0

33

96

5.8

3<

0.0

01

P.sa

nsi

ba

ricu

s4

.15

±0

.01

24

.35

±0

.04

34

.99

±0

.04

75

.57

±0

.04

36

.03

±0

.04

76

.52

±0

.04

37

.03

±0

.04

06

89

.19

<0

.00

1

K(g

kg

-1)

Con

tro

l3

.25

±0

.00

83

.34

±0

.00

83

.47

±0

.01

43

.58

±0

.01

23

.64

±0

.00

83

.72

±0

.01

73

.77

±0

.01

72

16

.55

<0

.00

1

E.

feti

da

3.2

5±

0.0

17

3.6

0±

0.0

30

4.3

9±

0.0

60

5.5

4±

0.0

53

6.3

4±

0.0

56

7.3

4±

0.0

55

8.1

2±

0.0

80

91

4.1

6<

0.0

01

P.sa

nsi

ba

ricu

s3

.24

±0

.02

03

.42

±0

.05

34

.12

±0

.08

44

.69

±0

.05

25

.75

±0

.04

56

.59

±0

.04

47

.12

±0

.04

76

65

.17

<0

.00

1

EC

, E

lect

ric

con

du

ctiv

ity;

OC

, O

rgan

ic c

arb

on

; O

M,

Org

anic

mat

ter;

TN

, T

ota

l N

itro

gen

; C

/N r

atio

, C

arb

on

/Nit

rog

en r

atio

n;

K,

Pot

assi

um

; P,

Ph

osp

ho

rus;

Co

ntr

ol,

bed

din

g m

ater

ial

wit

ho

ut

eart

hw

orm

.


Fig. 1. Effects of earthworms (Eisenia fetida, Perionyx sansibaricus) on pH, electric conductivity (EC), organiccarbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) in fennel straw plus cow dung bedding material.


Fig.1). The results obtained indicated decline in pH,organic carbon and C/N ratio of vermicompostingas well as control compost at the end of composting.The value of pH showed 1.03%, 12.26% and11.04% decrease in control, E. fetida and P.sansibaricus bedding substrates respectively.Higher reductions were observed in E. fetidacontained bedding followed by P. sansibaricus andcontrol (without earthworm). During composting thepH level declined from alkaline to acidic and closeto neutral medium in the vermicompost. This maybe due to increasing decomposition, mineralizationand production of acids by earthworm from differentactivities. It can be supported by the findings ofothers (Hami & Hutha, 1986; Bentiz et al., 1999;Ndegwa et al., 2000; Sreenivasan, 2013) whodescribed shifting of pH towards acidic is attributedby bioconversion of the organic material into variousintermediate types of organic acids and highermineralization of the nitrogen and phosphorous intonitrites/nitrates and orthophosphate respectively.Hami and Hutha (1986), Elvira et al. (1998), Nathet al. (2009) postulated that the lower pH in thefinal vermicompost samples might have been dueto the production of CO

2 and organic acids by

microbial activity during the process ofbioconversion of different substrate in the feed givento earthworms. Most of the other works onvermicomposting (Albanell et al., 1988; Elvira etal., 1996, 1998; Mitchell, 1997; Easha et al., 2015;Daman et al., 2016) are in agreement to the presentstudies.

Organic carbon in E. fetida and P.sansibaricus contained compost declined sharplyas compared to their starting value by 49.96% and38% respectively. The control bed also showeddecrease in organic carbon while magnitude ofdecrease was lower than that of vermicompostingafter 90 days period of decomposting. The presentresults are in agreement to reports of Nath et al.(2009) who showed that total organic carbondeclined by 45-50% drastically as compared to theirinitial level. Easha et al. (2015) observed that a largeportion of the TOC was lost as CO

2 (between 27%

and 46%) by the end of the vermicompostingfeeding. Likewise, there was 20-30% loss of TOC

in the form CO2 during decomposition and

mineralization of industrial sludge and wastes(Elvira et al., 1998; Kaushik and Garg, 2003;Tripathi and Bhardwaj, 2004; Gupta & Garg, 2008).Findings of this work is also supported by Damanet al. (2016) who recorded that the organic carbongradually reduced during recycling of waste of roseflower (Rosa berberia) through vermicompostingusing earthworm species Eisenia foetida andEudrilus eugeniae.

On the other hand the value of electricconductivity of the bedding material increased ascompared to preceding days. The values of EC incontrol, E. fetida and P. sansibaricus increased by1.30, 2.04 and 1.63 folds respectively as comparedto 0 days of decomposition. Possibly it was due todecomposition of organic matter and release of saltsduring mineralization process. Seetha devi et al.(2012) and Arumugam et al. (2015) reported thatthe increase in EC might be due to the release ofdifferent mineral salts in available form such asphosphate, ammonium, potassium during thedegradation of organic matter. In contrast to this,Nath et al. (2009) and Kaur et al. (2014) recordeddecrease in EC during vermicomposting.

Amount of total nitrogen increased after90 days of composting of fennel straw plus cow dungbedding materials. The nitrogen content in controlbedding substrate was enhanced by 1.19 fold aftercompletion of composting. However, E. fetida andP. sansibaricus worked bedding indicates 2.23 and1.62 fold increase in nitrogen value respectively.The present study showed that organic wasteconversion efficiency of E. fetida was more than P.sansibaricus. Nitrogen content rising capacity ofboth worms was significantly higher than that ofcontrol after 90 days of composting period. Itindicated that E. fetida was more active and fedvoraciously on organic waste rich materials. Gunadiet al. (2002) documented that earthworms enrichthe nitrogen profile of vermicompost throughmicrobial mediated nitrogen transformation, as wellas through addition of mucus and nitrogenous wastessecreted by earthworms. Increasing trend of nitrogenin vermicomposting was also supported by Tripathiand Bhardwaj (2004), Nath et al. (2009), Joshi and


Sharma (2010), Ponmani et al. (2014), Chellachamyand Dinakaran (2015) and Daman et al. (2016).

Available phosphorus, potassium and C/N ratio are other generally used indicators formaturity of organic wastes. C:N ratio was radicallydeclined in vermicomposting as compared to controlsubstrate. The increase in earthworm populationmight be related with the decrease in C:N ratio withthe advancement of time (Ndegwa et al., 2000). Theloss of carbon as carbon dioxide through microbialrespiration and simultaneous addition of nitrogenby worms in the form of mucus and nitrogenousexcretory material lowered the C:N ratio of thesubstrate (Suthar, 2007). Pattnaik and Reddy (2010),Ponmani et al. (2014) and Chellachamy andDinakaran (2015) also reported decrease in C/Nratio during vermicomposting. Available phosphorusand potassium increased significantly (P<0.001) invermicomposting as compared to their starting level.Phosphorus content increased by 1.84 and 1.69 foldsin the bedding material with E. fetida and P.sansibaricus respectively in relation to advancementof time (0 days to 90 days) of composting. In thesame way, potassium level increased in compostinoculated with E. fetida and P. sansibaricus by 2.49and 2.19 folds respectively. This is probably due tothe decomposition of organic carbon by themicrobial biomass present in the compost (Mondiniet al., 2003). The presence of large number of microflora in the gut of earthworm might play an importantrole in increasing P and K contents in the processof vermicomposting (Sharma, 2008). Potassium andphosphorus content increased in composting due toreduction of organic matter by respiratory activityof earthworms. Some previous studies also indicateenhanced potassium content in vermicompost by theend of the experiment (Manna et al., 2003; Suthar,2007). According to Atiyeh et al. (2002) level ofpotassium was increased in vermicompost. Similarresults have been obtained by various researchers(Padmavathi, 2013; Ponmani et al., 2014;Chellachamy and Dinakaran, 2015; Daman et al.,2016; Sandeep et al 2017; Sharma & Garg, 2017).

CONCLUSIONSThe results of present vermicomposting

experimental study suggested that agricultural waste

like; fennel straw mixed with dry cow dung couldbe used as earthworm feeds for the production ofvaluable compost. In this experimentvermicomposting of a new composition of organicwaste using the two epigeic earthworm exhibitedsome very promising results. It caused somesignificant changes in bedding materials indicatingits utility in crop production. Thus, vermicompostfrom agricultural wastes has been a good source ofnutrients in addition to organic compost andchemical fertilizers. To achieve high efficiency oneof the keys is selection of proper substrate and whichis composed of bedding material and food sourcefor the worms and vise-versa.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author is thankful to the

Commissionerate of college education, Jaipur (Raj)for giving opportunity to complete Ph. D. Researchwork under UGC-TRF (UGC-CRO-Bhopal) facultydevelopment programme. He expresses his gratitudeto the research supervisor Professor G. Tripathi fortheir guidance and encouragement. He also extendshis gratitude to the department of Zoology, JNVUniversity, Jodhpur for providing lab facilities.REFERENCESAlbanell, E., Plaixats, J. and Cabrero, T. (1988). Chemical

changes during vermicomposting (Eisenia fetida) of sheepmanure mixed with cotton industrial wastes. Biol. FertilitySoil 6: 266-269.

Arumugam, K., Muthunarayanan V., Ganesan, S. and Vivek,S. (2015). Efficacy of vermicomposting for recyclingTectona grandis and Casuarina leaf litter for organicfertilizer production. Ind. J. Adv. Chem. Sci. 3:122-127.

Atiyeh, R. M., Lee, S., Edwards, C. A., Arancon, N. Q. andMetzger, J. D. (2002). The influence of humic acidsderived from earthworm-processed organic wastes onplant growth. Bioresour. Technol., 84:7-14.

Bentiz, E., Nogales, R., Elivira, C., Masciandaro, G. andCeccant, B. (1999). Enzymes activities is indicators ofthe stabilization of sewage sludge composting withEisenia fetida. Bioresour. Technol. 67:297-303.

Chauhan, H.K. and K. Singh, (2013). Effect of tertiarycombinations of animal dung with agrowastes on thegrowth and development of earthworm Eisenia fetidaduring organic waste management. Int. J. Recycl. Org.Waste Agric., 2:10.1186/2251-7715-2-11.

Chaulagain, A., Dhurva, P., Gauchan, and JanardhanLammichhane (2017) Vermicompost and its role in plantgrowth promotion. International Journal of Research


4(8):349-364.Chellachamy, V. and Dinakaran, S. (2015). A comparative study

on vermicomposting of epicarp of fruits (Pomegranateand Sathukudi) using earthworm Eisenia foetida. Intern.J. Rec. Scient. Res., 6:3125-3129.

Daman, R., Singh, K. K., Singh, B. and Nag, A. K. (2016).Recycling of waste rose flower (Rosa berberia) throughvermicomposting using earthworm species Eiseniafoetida and Eudrilus eugeniae. J. Applicable Chem., 5:809-815.

Dominguez, J. and Edwards, C.A. (2004). Vermicompostingorganic wastes: Soil Zoology for Sustainable Developmentin the 21st Century. MikhaTl, Cairo, Egypt.

Easha, N. J., Rahaman, Md. S., Zaman, T. and Uddin, Md. K.(2015). Feasibility study of vermicomposting of textilesludge mixed with cow dung and seed germinationbioassay for toxicity evaluation of the produced compost.Intl. J. Environ. Protec. Policy 3: 27-34.

Elvira, C., Dominguez, J. and Mato, S. (1996). The growthand reproduction of Lumbricus rubellus andDendrobaena rubida in cow manure mixed cultures withEisenia andrei. Appl. Soil. Ecol., 5:97-103.

Elvira, C., Sampedro, L., Benitez, E. and Nogales, R. (1998).Vermicomposting of sludges from paper mill and dairyindustries with Eisenia andrei: A pilot-scale study.Bioresour. Technol., 63:205-211.

Garg, P., Satya, S. and Gupta, A. (2006). Vermicomposting ofdifferent types of waste using Eisenia Foetida: Acomparative study. Bioresource Technology, 97(3):391-395.

Gunadi, B., Blount, C. and Edwards, C.A. (2002). The growthand fecundity of Eisenia foetida (Savigny) in cattle solidspre- composted for different periods. Pedobiologia 46:15-23.

Gupta, R. and Garg, V.K. (2008). Stabilization of primarysludge during vermicomposting. J. Hazard. Mater.153:1023-1030.

Gupta, C., Prakash, D., Gupat, S., and Nazareno, M.A. (2019).Role of vermicomposting in agriculture waste. In bookS. Shah et al. (eds): Sustainable green technologies forenvironmental management. pp 283-295.

Hami, J., Hutha, V. (1986). Capacity of various organic residuesto support adequate earthworms; biomass invermicomposting. Bio. Fertil. Soil., 2:23-27.

Jackson, M. L. (1973). Soil Chemical Analysis, Prentice Hallof India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Joshi, N. and Sharma, S. (2010). Physicochemicalcharacterization of sulphidation pressmud, compostedpressmud and vermicomposted pressmud. Report andOpinion, 2:79-82.

Kapoor, J., Sharma, S. and Rana, N.K. (2015).Vermicomposting for organic waste management. Internl.J. Rec. Scientific Res. 6(12):7956-7960.

Kaushik, P. and Garg, V.K. (2003). Vermicomposting of mixedsoil textile mill sludge and cow dung with the epigiecearthworm Eisenia fetida. Bioresour. Technol., 90:311-316.

Kaur, S., Kour, G. and Singh, J. (2014). Vermicomposting oftea leaves waste mixed with cow dung with the help ofexotic earthworm Eisenia fetida. Int. J. Adv. Res. Biol.Sci., 1:229-234.

Khomami, A.M. and Zadeh, M.M. (2013). Influence ofearthworm processed cow manure on the growth of Ficusbenjamnia. Int. J. Agric. Crop Sci., 6:361-363.

Loh, T. C., Lee, Y. C., Liang, J. B. and Tan, D. (2005).Vermicomposting of cattle and goat manures by Eiseniafoetida and their growth and reproduction preference.Bioresour. Technol. 96:111-4.

Mandal, P., Chaturvedi, M.K., Bassin, J.K., Vaidya A.N. andGuta, R.K. (2014). Qualitative assessment of municipalsolid waste compost by indexing method. Int J RecyclOrg Waste Agricult 3:133-139.

Manaig, E. (2016). Vermicomposting efficiency and quality ofvermicompost with different bedding materials and wormfood sources as substrate. Research Journal ofAgricultural and Forestry Sciences, 4(1):1-13. Retrievedfrom www.isca.in

Manna, M. C., Jha, S., Ghosh, P. K. and Acharya, C. L. (2003).Comparative efficiency of three epigeic earthworms underdifferent deciduous forest litters decomposition.Bioresour. Technol., 88:197-206.

Mitchell, A. (1997). Production of Eisenia fetida andvermicompost from feed-lot cattle manure. Soil Biol.Biochem. 29:763-766.

Mondini, C., Dell Abate, M. T., Leita, L. and Beneditti, A.(2003). An integrated chemical thermal andmicrobiological approach to compost stability evaluation.J. Environ. Qual., 32:2379-86.

Munnoli, P.M., Da Silva, J. A. T. and Saroj, B. (2010). Dynamicsoil, dynamic plant. In Dynamics of the soil-earthworm-plant relationship: A review pp 1-21.

Nath, G., Singh, K. and Singh, D.K. (2009). Chemical analysisof vermicomposting/vermivash of different combinationof animal agro and kitchen waste. Aust. J. Basic Appl.Sci., 3:3672-3676.

Ndegwa, P. M., Thompson, S. A. and Das, K. C. (2000). Effectsof stocking density and feeding rate on vermicompostingof bio solids. Bioresour. Technol., 71:5-12.

Nweke, I.A. (2013). Plant nutrient release composition invermicompost as influenced by Eudrilus eugenae usingdifferent organic diets. J. Ecol. Natural Environ., (5):346-351.

Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watanabe, F.S., Dean, L.A. (1954).Estimation of available phoshorus in soil by extractionwith sodium bicarbonate. USDA department circular 939,19.

Ostos, J.C., Lopez-Garrido, R., Murillo J.M. and Lopez R.(2008). Substitution of peat for municipal solid waste-and sewage sludge-based composts in nursery growingmedia: Effects on growth and nutrition of the native shrubPistacia lentiscus L. Bioresour. Technol., 99:1793-1800.

Padmavathi, M. (2013) Conversion of industrial waste in toagro wealth by Eisenia fetida. Res. J. Agri. Forest. Sci.,1:11-16.


Pathma, J. and Sakthivel, N. (2012). Microbial diversity ofvermicompost bacteria that exhibit use-ful agriculturaltraits and waste management potential. Springer Plus,1:26.

Pattnaik, P. and Reddy, M. V. (2010). Nutrient status ofvermicomposting of urban green produced by threeearthworm species Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae andPerionyx sansibaricus. Appl. Environ. Soil Sci. 10:1-13.

Ponmani, S., Udayasoorian, C., Jayabalakrishnan, R.M. andKumar, K.V. (2014) Vermicomposting of paper mill solidwaste using epigeic earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae. J.Environ. Biol., 35:617-22.

Sandeep, Singh, D., Yadav, J. and Urmila (2017). Assessmentof nutrient status of vermicompost leaf litter using Eiseniafetida. Journal of entomology and Zoology studies5(2):1135-1137.

Seetha devi, G., Karthiga, A., Susila, S. and VasanthyMuthunarayanan (2012). Bioconversion of fruit wasteinto vermicompost by employing Eudrillus eugeniae andEisenia foetida. Intl. J. Plant, Animal Environ. Sci. 2:245-252.

Sharma, K. A. (2008). A hand book of organic farming invermicomposting. Agrobios, India (ISBN 8177540998).

Sharma, D., Katnoria, J. K. and Vig, A.P. (2011). Chemicalchanges of spinach waste during composting andvermicomposting. Afri. J. Bitechnol. 10:3124-3127.

Sharma, K. and Garg, V.K. (2017). Vermi-modification ofruminant excreta using Eisenia fetida . Environ Sci PollutRes 24:19938-19945.

Simmard, R. R. (1993). Ammonium acetate extractableelements. In: Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis.(Martin, R. and Carter, S. eds.) Lewis Publishers, Florida,USA, 39-43.

Sreenivasan, E. (2013) Evaluation of effective microorganismtechnology in industrial wood waste management. Int. J.Adv. Engg. Tech./IV/III/21-22.

Suthar, S, (2007). Vermicomposting potential of Perionyxsansibaricus (Perrier) in different waste materials.Bioresour. Technol., 98:1231-1237.

Tripathi, G. and Bhardwaj, P. (2004). Decomposition of kitchenwaste amended with cow manure using epigiec species(Eisenia fetida) and an anecic species (Lampito mauritti).Bioresour. Technol., 92:215-218.

Walkley, A and Black, I.A. (1934). Determination of organiccarbon in soil. Soil Science (37):29-31.

Yan, Y.W., Azwady, A.N., Shamsuddin, Z.H., Muskhazli, M.,Aziz S.A. and Teng, S.K. (2013). Comparison of plantnutrient contents in vermicompost from selected plantresidues. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 12:2207-2214.

Zularisam, A.W., Zahirah, Z.S., Zakaria, I., Syukri, M.M.,Anwar, A. and Sakinah, M. (2010). Production ofbiofertilizer from vermicomposting process of municipalsewage sludge. J. Applied Sci., 10:580-584.

http://www.scientifictemper.com/



STRESS AND JOB SATISFACTION IN EMPLOYEES WITH TYPE- AAND TYPE- B PERSONALITY

Hema Khanna 1, Poonam Singh 2, Seema Rani Sarraf3, Shikha Gola2

1 Department of Psychology, Bareilly College, Bareilly, 243001 2 Department of Applied and Clinical Psychology, M. J. P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, 243006

3Department of Paediatrics, KGMU, Lucknow, 226003

ABSTRACT

The management of employee at work is an integral part oforganization. Stress at job place is a relatively common phenomenonnow a days. Job stress is the response of body to any job- relatedfactor that threatens to disturb the person’s equilibrium. Prolongedstress induced many physical and mental health issues, which becomescostly to the management in the terms of time lost due to frequentabsence and increased payments towards medical reimbursement.Personality always plays a critical role in perception of stress andsatisfaction towards job. So present study tried to explore stress andjob satisfaction in employees with A and B personality type.Significant differences were exhibited between the employees withType A and Type B personality regarding stress and job satisfaction.No gender differences were noted for stress in employees with TypeA and Type B personality while male employees with Type A andType B personality were found more satisfied in comparison to femaleemployees. So, we can partially accept the null hypotheses.

Key words: Stress, job satisfaction, Type A personality, Type Bpersonality


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe clusters of behaviours explained about Type Apersonality are: high level of competitiveness, astriving for achievement, aggressiveness that may

be strongly repressed, impatience, restlessness,hyper alertness, explosive speech stylistics andchronic sense of time urgency(Rose, 1987).Friedman (1996) suggests that boundless hostility,


precipitated by even minor incidents; time urgencyand restless, which causes irritation and annoyanceand a competitive drive, which causes stress and anachievement-driven mentality can express thebehaviour of a Type A personality. On the other sideof the measure lie Type B personality who are moreintrospective and will take time to reflectalternatives. They usually feel there is plenty of freetime(Frost & Wilson, 1983), live at a lower stresslevel. They work steadily, enjoying achievement butnot becoming stressed when they fail. Type Bpersonalities may be creative and enjoy exploringideas and concepts. The term job satisfaction is,generally held to designate a subject’s feeling ofbeing satisfied with his or her job (Hagihara et al.1999). Employee satisfaction is of most importancefor employees to be happy and also deliver theirlevel best. Satisfied employees are the ones whoare exceptionally loyal to their organization, stayto it even in the worst scenario, seldom have thetime to indulge in nasty office politics, spreadpositive word of mouth and always stand by eachother. Satisfied employees tend to adjust more andhandle pressure with ease when compared tofrustrated employees. Employee satisfaction in away is essential for employee retention, which everyorganizations required.Review of studies throughlight on a variety of results. The article fromKirkcaldy, Cooper and Furnham (1999) and anarticle by Al-Mashaan (2003) detailed thatindividuals with internal type A personality had highjob satisfaction. However, the result explained byBulboltz and Winkelspecht (2004) support nocorrelation with personality and job satisfaction. Inan investigation done by Kirkcaldy, Shephard, andFurnham (2002) on personality type, job satisfactionand occupational health, and locus of control foundthat the individuals who had the combination ofType A personality and an external locus of controlexperienced lower job satisfaction.Rather thanpersonality there are so many factors like physical(workplace environment and facilities), personal(responsibilities, role and goal conflicts etc.),interpersonal (relations with associates and seniors),and organizational (policies etc.) which were foundto be positively and negatively correlated with job

satisfaction (Archer teal.,. 1991, Abramis 1994,AbuAlRub 2004). The studies of last three decadessummarized meaningful relationships betweenwork-oriented low control, low job satisfaction, highdemands from job, low levels of psychological well-being, burnout and work-related psychologicalstress (Jamal, 1999; Van Der Doef&Maes, 1999).In today’s work environment stress is no longer achoice. Job stress is the response of body to anyjob- related factor that threatens to disturb theperson’s equilibrium. Prolonged stress inducedmany physical and mental health issues, whichbecomes costly to the management in the terms oftime lost due to frequent absence and increasedpayments towards medical reimbursement. Previousstudies entrenched the fact that Type A personalityis highly endangered to stress. Lazarus (1994), statedthat type- B’s also experience stress, however, theyare less perplexed when they are faced withobstacles and threats. Moreover, they differ fromthe Type-A’s in terms of their physiological feedback(Howard et.al., 1986).

Present study seeks to determine ifpersonality type, specifically Type A or Type B makeany significant difference in perception of stressandjob satisfaction. We hypothesize that individualswith Type A personality will report more stress andhigher job satisfaction than individuals with TypeB personality.

OBJECTIVESThe objective of this study was to shed light on thestatus of personal stress and job satisfaction inemployees with Type A and Type B personality.

HYPOTHESESThe following hypotheses have been formulated forpresent study:1. Employees with Type A and Type B personality

will differ significantly on stress and jobsatisfaction.

2. There will be significant difference betweenmale and female employees with Type Apersonality on stress and job satisfaction.

3. Significant difference will be found on stressand job satisfaction between male and female


employees with Type B personality.METHODS

Sample: In the present study, the requirementwas ensured by adopting purposive samplingtechnique. The participants with Type A and TypeB personality had been selected by using the tool.Eighty employees were selected from differentindustrial companies in New Delhi. The sampleconsist of two groups of employees: forty employeeswith Type A personality (20 males and 20 females)and forty employees with Type B personality (20males and 20 females).Informed written consentswere obtained from all participants. Participantsreceived no incentives for participation in the study.Instruments:

Type A Type B Behavioural Pattern Scale(ABBPS): ABBPS was developed by Upinder Dharand Manisha Jain in 2001.This scale is used to assessthe personality type of an individual under the sub-scale of tenseness, impatience, restlessness,achievement orientation, domineering andworkaholic as Type A, and complacent, easy going,non- assertive, relaxed and patience as Type B. Thetest consists of 17 statements suitable for Type Apersonality(form-A) and 16 statements in form-Bfor Type B personality. ABBPS is a 5- point scalehaving five categories; Strongly Agree (5), Agree(4), Uncertain (3), Disagree (2), and StronglyDisagree (1) for both forms. Sum of the scores ofForm A and Form B yields Type A score and TypeB score respectively. Individuals with very highscores on Form A may be considered as Type Apersonalities and individuals having very high scoreson Form Bmay be considered as Type Bpersonalities.The reliability coefficient of form-Aand form-B is 0.54. The validity of the test is 0.73for both the forms separately.

Personal Stress Source Inventory(PSSI):PSSI was developed by Arun K. Singh,Ashish K. Singh and Arpana Singh in 2004. Aset of35 items or personal source of events constitutedthe inventory for people aged 22 to 55 years. Thesevarious sources related to personal life events thatare likely to produce stress in a person. PSSI is a 3-point scale having three categories: Seldom (1),Sometimes (2) and Frequently (3). Unmarked items

are given a score of zero. Subsequently, scoresearned by the participant on every marked item areadded together to yield a total score. Higher scoreexhibits the higher magnitude of personal stresswhile lower score explainslower magnitude ofpersonal stress. The maximum score on SPSSI is105. The inventory is available both in Hindi andEnglish versions. The inventory has no time limitbut ordinarily 12 to 15 minutes are sufficient forcompletion of this inventory. The test-retestreliability is 0.792 and internal consistencyreliability by odd-even method is 0.784.PSSI alsopossessed a sufficient degree of content validity.

Job satisfaction scale (JSS): JSS scale wasstandardized by Amar Singh and T. R. Sharma in2006. The JSS comprises 30 items of which 24 arepositive and remaining 6 are negative statements.In the present scale, there are positive and negativestatements. Item number 4, 13, 20, 21, 27, and 28are negative the rest are positive. Positive statementsare to be scored as 4, 3, 2, 1 and 0 while negativestatements are to be scored as 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. Ithas lowest score of 47 or below which indicatesextremely dissatisfied and the high score of 74 orabove indicates extremely satisfied. Test-retestreliability of this scale was 0.97 8 (N=52). Thevalidity of the scale was 0.743 when it was comparedwith Muthaiya job satisfaction questionnaire.

Procedure: This study was conducted in2009- 10and for this purpose employees wereselected from different industrial companies in NewDelhi.Those who had interest in taking part in thisstudy were included in this study.First of all, goodrapport was established with the participants, keptrelaxed and pleasant in order to elicit the most frankor candid answers possible. Type A Type BBehavioural Pattern Scale was administered to getthe equal numbers of Type A (male and female) andType B personality (male and female). After gettingthe desired number of participants Personal StressSource Inventory and Job satisfaction scale weredistributed to them. Participants read the instructionssilently and carefullythat they had to response toeach item by making a tick on any one alternativeof each item.They were informed that there is noright or wrong answer to any item, and encouragedto respond rapidly and the way they really feel.Notime limit has been set for the test.Statistical Analysis: Mean and SD values were


calculated for the four groups of participants andthe data were analyzed by t- testto elucidateregarding the hypotheses.RESULTS

The mean, SD and t- values of stress and jobsatisfaction (the dependent variable) for type A andType B personality pattern are depicted in Table – 1.

Table 1: Showing the result of significantdifference between group of Type- A and Type-

B on Stress and Job SatisfactionTest Type- A, Type- B, t- value

n= 40 n= 40Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

Stress 57 9.4 55 11.8 3.38**Job Satis- 65.25 10.7 63.75 13.3 2.5*faction**Significant at 0.01 confidence level, *Significantat 0.05 confidence level

The means of Type A and Type B personalityon stress were 57.0 and 55.0 respectively and t-value was 3.38, which was significant. Resultsrevealed significant higher level of stress inemployees with Type A personality in comparisonto employees with Type B personality. On jobsatisfaction a significant difference was also foundbetween the employees of Type A and Type Bpersonality. Their respective means were 65.25 and63.75. Employees of Type A personality had greaterjob satisfaction in comparison to employees of TypeB personality as their t value was 2.5 which wassignificant at 0.05 level. The results explained inthis table accept the research hypothesis. The mean,SD and t- values of stress and job satisfaction (thedependent variable) for male and female employeesof Type A pattern are indicated in Table – 2.

Table 2: Showing the result of significantdifference between group of male and femaleemployees with Type- A personality on Stress

and Job SatisfactionTest Male, Female, t- value


Stress 57.0 7.0 56.5 11.2 0.53Job Satis- 67.5 11.80 54.5 9.6 12.14**faction**Significant at 0.01 confidence level

These results indicated that no significantdifference was found between male and femaleemployees of Type A personality regarding stress.Their respective means of male and femaleemployees were 57.0 and 56.5 and t value was alsononsignificant. On job satisfaction male employeesofType A personality scored higher (mean= 67.5)than female employees of Type A personality(mean= 54.5). Their t value was significant (12.14),which also verified the same. Thus, we can partiallyaccept the research hypothesis.Table 3 through light on mean, SD and t value ofmale and female employees of Type B personalityon stress and job satisfaction.

Table 3: Showing the result of significantdifference between group of male and femaleemployees with Type- B personality on Stress

and Job SatisfactionTest Male, Female, t- value


Stress 53 7.9 52 7.7 1.28Job Satis- 66.5 12.5 55 13.6 8.84**faction**Significant at 0.01 confidence level,

The male (mean= 53.0) and female (mean=52.0) group of employees of Type B personality didnot differ significantly from each other with regardto stress as their t value (1.28) found to be non-significant. The means of male and femaleemployees of Type B personality on job satisfactionwere 66.5 and 55.0 and t- value was 8.84, whichwas significant. Results revealed significant higherlevel of job satisfaction in male employees incomparison to female employee with Type Bpersonality. Thus, we can partially reject theresearch hypothesis.DISCUSSION

The objective of present study was to elucidatethe difference between Type A and Type Bpersonality in perceiving stress and their satisfactionwith job. The findings of present results go with theprevious research findings. Researches done inmedical field specially on heart disease found thatType-A behaviours are generally seen in individuals


who race with time and who are led by success. Theytry to do several things at once because they areimpatient. Person with Type A personality use“quantity” (Money, achievements, responsibilities,etc.) as an indication of their success, they valuequantity rather than quality (Mueser et.al.,. 1987,Bluen et.al., 1990) and highly competitive (Keenanand McBain 1979, Powell 1995). These particularcharacteristic of their behaviour leads them as beingstressful all the times. The need for highachievement makes them to achieve more and morein their career, which leads to job satisfaction. So,it is the personality characteristic which make TypeA personalities more stressful and more satisfiedwith their jobs in comparison to Type B personality.

In both groups of Type A and Type Bpersonality, no differences were exhibited betweenmale and female employees regarding stress.However, males were found more satisfied with theirjobs in both groups of Type A and Type Bpersonality. Liu & Ramsey (2008)studied onteachers and noted a variation with gender, years ofteaching, and career status in teachers’ jobsatisfaction level. Callister (2006) found the sameresult and explained thatfemale faculty membersreport significantly lower levels of job satisfactionand higher intentions to quit the job than malecounterparts. Other than researches in support wealso cited some diversions. In some studiesfemaleexhibited greater satisfaction in the overall jobsatisfaction and the accountable factors were: sub-aspects of working environment, remunerationcompared to workload, the chance of promotion,utilization of subjective initiative, and sense ofachievement (Miao, Li & Bian, 2017). Redmondand Mc Guinness (2019) explained that on average,women are more satisfied than men and the gapremains even when we account for a wide range ofpersonal, job and family characteristics.Women, onaverage, report greater job satisfaction than men(Bender et al., 2005). In a highly influential work,Clark (1997) suggested that this may be explainedby women having lower professional expectationsas a result of gender pay differences and reducedpromotion prospects. Therefore, despite occupyingjobs which may be objectively worse than men’s,

lower expectations may translate into higher jobsatisfaction for women.Financial support and sponsorshipThis work (dissertation) was done as courseworkfor the partial fulfilment of master degree so nofinancial support was provided to the scholar.Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTI would like to express my sincere gratitude to theHead of the Department, Applied and ClinicalPsychology and Vice Chancellor, M. J. P.Rohilkhand University, Bareilly for their valuablesuggestions and providing us the facility to conductthis work.

REFERENCESAbramis, D. J. (1994). Work role ambiguity, job performance:

Meta analyses and review. Psychol. Rep, 75(3): 1411-1433.

Abu Al Rub, R. F. (2004). Job stress, job performance, andsocial support among hospital nurses. J NursSchol, 36(1):73-78.

Al- Mashaan, O. S. (2003). Comparison Between Kuwaiti andEgyptian Teachers in Type A Behaviour and JobSatisfaction: A Cross-Cultural Study. Social Behaviourand Personality: An International Journal, 31(5), 523.Retrieved from EBSCOHOST.

Archer, L. R., Keever, R. R., Gordon, R. A., Archer, R. P. (1991).The relationship between resident’s characteristics, theirstress experiences, and their psychosocial adjustment atone medical school. Acad Med, 66(5): 301-303.

Bender, K. A., Donohue, S. M. and Heywood, J. S. (2005). Jobsatisfaction and gender segregation, Oxford economicpapers, 57(3), pp. 479-496.

Bluen, S. D., Barling, J. and Burns, W. (1990). Predicting salesperformance, job satisfaction, and depression by usingthe achievement strivings and impatience-irritabilitydimensions of type-A behavior. J ApplPsychol, 75(2): 212-216.

Buboltz, W. C., Thomas, A. &Winkelspecht, C. S. (2004). JobCharacteristics and Personality as Predictors of JobSatisfaction. Organizational Analysis, 12(2), 205-219.Retrieved from EBSCOHOST.

Callister, R. R. (2006). The impact of gender and departmentclimate on job satisfaction and intentions to quit forfaculty in science and engineering fields. Journal ofTechnology Transfer, 31, 367-375.

Clark, A. E. (1997). Job satisfaction and gender: Why arewomen so happy at work? Labour Economics, vol. 4, pp.341-372.


Dhar, U. and Jain, M. (2001). Manual for Type A/B BehaviouralPattern Scale. Lucknow: Ankur Psychological Agency.

Friedman, M. (1996). Type A Behavior: Its Diagnosis andTreatment. New York, Plenum Press (Kluwer AcademicPress), pp. 31 ff.

Frost, T. & Wilson, H. (1983). Effects of Locus of Control andA-B Personality Type on Job satisfaction Within theHealth Care Field. Psychological Reports. Vol. 53 Issue2.

Howard, J. H., Cunningham, D. A. &Rechnitzer, P. A. (1986).Role ambiguity, Type-A behavior and job satisfaction:Moderating effets on cardiovascular and biochemicalresponses associated with coronary risk. J ApplPsychol,71(1): 95-101

Jamal, M. (1999). Job stress, Type-A behaviour, and well-being:A cross-cultural examination. International Journal ofStress Management, 6, 57-67.

Keenan, A. & McBain, D. M. (1979). Effects of type-a behavior,intolerance of ambiguity, and locus of control on therelationship between role stress and work-relatedoutcomes. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 52: 277-285.

Kirkcaldy, B. D.; Shepard, R. J.; & Furnham, A. F. (2002). Theinfluence of type A behaviour and locus of control uponjob satisfaction and occupational health. Personality andIndividual Differences, 33, 1361-1371. Retrieved fromScienceDirect.

Krkcaldy, H. B. D.; Cooper, C. L., & Furnham A. F. (1999).The relationship between type A, internality-externality,emotional distress and perceived health. Personality andIndividual Differences, 26, 223-235. Retrieved fromScienceDirect.

Lazarus, R. (1994) Your way of dealing with stress: your friendis also your enemy (Trans. N. Rugancý). Coping withStress. A positive approach (Ed. N. Þahin),TürkPsikologlarDerneðiYayýnlarý: 2, p. 59- 63.

Liu, X. S., & Ramsey, J. (2008). Teachers’ job satisfaction:Analyses of the teacher follow-up survey in the UnitedStates for 2000–2001. Teaching and Teacher Education,24, 1173-1184.

Miao,Y.; Li, L. & Bian, Y. (2017). Gender differences in jobquality and job satisfaction among doctors in rural westernChina BMC Health Services Research volume 17,Article number: 848

Mueser, K. T., Yarnold, P. R. & Bryant, E. B. (1987). Type-Abehavior and time urgency: Perception of time adjectives.Br J Med Psychol, 60: 267-269.

Powell, L. H. (1995). Issues in the measurement of the Type Abehaviour pattern. Research Methods in Stress and HealthPsychology, SV Kasl, CK Cooper (Ed), England. JohnWiley and Sons Ltd., s. 231-282.

Redmond, P. and Mc Guinness, S. (2019). The gender wagegap in Europe: Job references, gender convergence anddistributional effects. Oxford Bulletin of Economics andStatistics. Vol. 81 (3), 564- 87

Rose, M. (1987). Type A Behaviour Pattern a ConceptRevisited. Canadian Medical Association Journal. Vol.136

Singh, A. K., Singh, A. K. and Singh A. (2004). Singh PersonalStress source Inventory. National PsychologicalCorporation, Agra

Singh, A. and Sharma, T. R. (2006). Job Satisfaction Scale.National Psychological Corporation, Agra

Van D. D., M., &Maes, S. (1999). The job demand-control(support) model and psychological well-being: A reviewof 20years of empirical research. Work and Stress, 13,

87-114.



BIOLOGY OF SUGARCANE WOOLLY APHID (Ceratovacunalanigera) UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS

Amod Kumar and Nalini BhardwajEx-Research Scholar, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar)Associate Professor, ZA Islamia PG College, Siwan (Bihar)

Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The Aphids are major pest for several crops includingsugarcane in tropical region of the world. There we studied SWAbiology. This pest deteriorating quality of sugarcane and economicloss predicted through infestation. The findings of the study might beuseful for both farmers and management planners. The comparisonof present findings may also provide scope for further investigations

in laboratory under varied abiotic and biotic interactions on the pest.

Keywords: SWA, nymphal instars, alate, apterous, morphometry.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe Sugarcane crop is attacked by several insectspecies as stem-borers, white grab, mealy bug, scaleinsect etc and previous study showed insects viz.tissue-borers, white grabs, mealy bugs, scaly insects,white clies etc. and previous study showed 20% and15% in cane yield and sugar recovery due to attackby various pests (David and Nandgopal, 1986;Awasthy, 1977). Among them, sugarcane woolyaphid (SWA) Ceratovacuna lanigera is a newseveral parts of oriental region. Some of the minorpests like sugarcane wooly aphid have attained the

status of major pests of sugarcane in India.The SWA was first recorded in West

Bengal and Bihar in different part of the North EastIndia as a minor port. The pest incidence in severefirm was recorded from the first time in Maharashtrain July 2000 and in Karnataka during September2002 (Joshi and Viraktamath, 2004). Sugarcane isthe primary host as reported by Hill (1993) andbamboo is the secondary host (Aoki et al, 1994).Gupta and Goswami (1995) reported 15%, whilePatil et al (2003) reported 7 to 39 percent reductionin cane yield, whereas reduction in sugar recovery


was 1.2 to 3.43 through heavy infestation ofSugarcane aphids. The attack of the pest is noticedon all the stages of the crop.

There is scarce study upon pest biologyon sugarcane under laboratory condition. Therefore,this study might provide clue for pest managementand planners to control pest population. The presentfinding gives insight about further investigations incontrolled and field environments.

METHODS AND MATERIALSThe SWA biology was studied in PG Department atZA Islamia College, siwan during 2017 under cagemade up by plastic of about 15 x 9.5 x 4.5 cmventilated through a small hole on the top surface.The cotton pad fixed to the cut margins of sugarcaneleaf to aphids establishment on the lower leafsurfaces suspended from stand inside box. Thesugarcane leaf continuously replaced and cotton padwetting maintained in 20 such boxes in thelaboratory. In such plastic boxes two freshly laidnymphs were released.

Freshly laid nymphs were detected andcollected and released on sugarcane leaf. The samemethod was employed to study the different instarsof SWA. Once in twelve hours the nymphs wereexamined to record the time to complete instars.

The time and date of release of nymphswere recorded. The summation of total nymphsperiod and adult period gave the total life cycle ofthe aphid. At an interval of twelve hours the adultswere examined to record nymphs laid by adult aphid.The viviparous potentiality was recorded until thedeath of adult aphid. The biology was studied indifferent months under laboratory condition. Themeteorological data were study period.

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS:The SWA biology was studied in laboratory duringthe months of November 2016 to may 2017 underlaboratory conditions.First instar nymph: The freshly laid nymphs ofapterous females were pale yellowish in colorwithout woolly matter cover and have elongatedovoid bodies; antenna was shorter than the totalbody length but, longer than the width of the body.

It has 4 segments and pale yellowish in color. Thecompound eyes were small, situated behind the baseof the antenna and are black in color. The rostrumextended up to foreleg coxae. The cephalic hornswere elongated and situated besides the antennae.Second instar nymph: The second instar nymphsof apterous were pale yellow to green in colorwithout woolly matter cover. Antenna was shorterthan the total body length but longer than head. Thecompound eyes were of similar in structure ascompared to first instar nymph and are blackish incolor. The rostrum extended up to foreleg coxae.The cephalic horns were smaller as compared tofirst instar nymph.Third instar nymph: The aphid was light brownin color. The waxy filaments were developed on thebody, which were compact and cover the entire bodyexcept head region. The compound eyes were roundand slightly bigger than those of the second instar.Rostrum extended just behind the foreleg coxae. Thecephalic horns were reduced compared to first andsecond instar.Fourth instar nymph: Fourth instar nymph wasbrown to dark brown in color with elongatedpyriform body. The woolly matter on dorsum wasloose thread like, densely covered the body and notso compact as compared to third instar. Antenna infour segmented and was smaller than total bodylength but as long as width of the head. Thecompound eyes were blackish in color. Rostrumextended up to fore-coxae. The cephalic horns ofthe fourth instar were smaller in size compared torest of the instars.

Figure 1. Biology of SWA under laboratoryconditions during 2014-2015.


Total nymphal duration: Total nymphal durationof the apterous aphid under laboratory conditionsranged from 18.00 to 23.50 days with an average of20.80 ± 1.55 days during July- August 2013 (Figure1) and 24.00 to 29.00 days with an average of26.91±1.17 days during July- August 2014 (Figure2).

The longevity plotted in figure 3 andseasonal developmental period in figure 1 and 2,respectively for all nymphs.Apterous adult: The apterous adult was elongatewith laterally depressed body and dark brown incolor. The densely covered filamentous woollymatter found throughout the body except headregion and woolly matter was dense at posterior ofabdomen. Antenna was four segmented. The rostrumextends up to first fore coxae.

The longevity of adult ranged from 1.60to 1.70 mm with an average of 1.66±0.02mm andwidth varied from 0.90 to 1.00mm with an averageof 0.94±0.05mm (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Biology of SWA under laboratoryconditions during study period.

Alate form: The body length and width of alateform ranged 2.6 to 2.70 mm with an average of 2.63± 0.05 mm and width ranged from 0.90 to 1.20 mmwith an average of 1.09 ± 0.10mm, respectively. Thewings were transparent and the vein was green incolor. The forewing was large and had three obliqueveins emerging from sub costal vein. First andsecond oblique veins almost join at their bases. Thestigma was large and dark green. The length offorewing ranged between 2.60 and 2.70mm with amean of 2.63±0.05mm and width of 0.90 and1.20mm with a mean of 1.09±0.10mm at its widest

part. Hind wing was small with two oblique veins,which were run parallel and almost join at theirbases. Hind stigma was large and dark green.

DISCUSSIONS:The bio-ecology of SWA was studied both inlaboratory and field during the months of July-November 2013 and 2014 for all life stages ofsugarcane wooly aphid. There is paucity of pertinentliterature on first instar SWA to avoid criticaldiscussion. However, Patil et.al., (2004) reportedthat first instar nymphs are yellowish or greenishyellow in color and are very active and move faston lower surface of leaf, under Indian conditionswhich is closer to the present observations.

The present observations about differentnymphal periods are comparable with those ofTakano (1941) who reported that nymphal stagesoccupied 23 to 32 days. Similarly, studies conductedby Patil et al (2004) indicated that nymphal stageranged from 6 to 22 days. Although there is a slightdeviation in present findings from that of Takano(1941) and Patil et al. (2004) which might be dueto variation in the weather parameters underlaboratory and field conditions.

The present findings about apterous adultsare consistent with Takano (1941), who reportedthat the average longevity of apterous adults was36 days. This variation may be due to the climaticfactors.

The alate form of SWA was black in colour.The longevity of alate form in laboratory rangedwith an average of 7.88 ± 0.58 days during July-August 2013 (Figure 3). Different findings slightlyare in agreement with Takano (1941) from Japan,who reported that longevity of alate aphid was 8.3days, this variation may be due to topographical andweather parameters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr Equabal Jawaid, HOD

Zoology, for their kind support to complete study

and to provide laboratory facility.


REFRENCES1. Aoki S, Kurosu U and Usuba S (1984): First instar larvae

of the sugarcane woolly aphid, Ceratovacuna lanigeraZehntner (Homoptera Pemphigidae) attack, its predators.Kontyu 52: 458-460.

2. Awasthy PN (1977): Integrated Control of Sugarcane Pestsand Diseases. Sugarcane News 9:72-74.

3. David H and Nandgopal V (1986): Pests of Sugarcane:Distribution, Symptomatology of attack and identificationin Sugarcane Entomology in India (Ed: David et al.),Sugarcane Breeding Institute, CVoimbatore, pp 1-29.

4. Hill DS (1993): Major tropical crop pests (description,biology and control), In: Agricultural Insect Pests of theTropics and their control (2nd edition) CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 209.

5. Joshi S and Viraktamath CA (2004): The sugarcane woollyaphid, Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehntner (Hemiptera:Aphididae): Its biology, pest status and control. CurrentScience, 87: 307-316.

6. Patil RK, Ramegowda GK, Rachappa V, Lingappa S andTippannavar PS (2003): Record of woolly aphid,Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehntner (Homoptera:Pemphigidae) on sugarcane in Northern Karnataka. InsectEnvironment, 9: 57-58.

7. Patil AS and Nerkar YS (2004): Status report of woollysugarcane aphid, Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehntner, a newpest of sugarcane in Maharashtra state. Vasantdada SugarInstitute, Pune, Maharashtra, 8.

8. Takano S (1941): On the biological control of sugarcaneinsects in Formosa. Report of Japanese Association of

Advanced Sciences 15: 231-233.



PESTICIDE TOXICITY AND BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES INFRESHWATER FISHES

Nagendra Kumar YadavEx-Research Scholar, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar)

Email ID:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The modern organic pesticides have increased in agricultureto enhance crops yield with low labour and effort. These chemicalsaffect almost each system of environment especially aquaticecosystems. These residues enter in non-targeted animals via foodchain threatening the ecological balance and biodiversity of the nature.Fishes serve as important bio-indicators for aquatic contamination toaccess the changes caused by human activities effectively and reliablemonitoring bio-system to recognize and predict hazardous effects ofpollutants. Therefore, the protection of aquatic ecosystem and waterquality will be possible only with the judicious and rationalizedapplications of pesticides.

Key words: Pesticide toxicity, biochemical, fishes.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe pesticides are very extensively used inagriculture and quite in generalization due to theirability to control weeds, pests including insects,plant diseases, aquatic weeds and aquatic snails(Naeem et al, 2010). The major pesticides that areusually being applied in fields are organophosphate,carbamates, organochlorine, pyrethroids, trizole,and necotenoides (Srivastava and Singh, 2014).

Pesticides has credited with economic potential toenhance production of food and fibers andameliorated in vector-borne diseases, the long-termuse has caused effects on human health and theenvironment including aquatic ecosystem thatevolved new branch of aquatic toxicology (Akhtaret al, 2009).

Pesticides have been found to be highlytoxic not only for fish but also to the other organisms


which constitute the food chain. Agricultural run-off near water bodies is the major cause ofdeposition of pesticides in aquatic ecosystem.Bioaccumulations of these pesticides threat the long-term survival of fishes by disrupting the ecologicalrelationships between organisms and loss ofbiodiversity (Abedi et al, 2013). Long-termexposure of pesticides induces physiologicaldisturbance, behavioural changes, histopathologicaldamages, haematological alterations, biochemicalchanges, immune-suppression, hormone disruption,diminished intelligence, reproductive abnormalitiesand cancer (Pandey et al, 2014 and Mishra et al,2008).

Fishes serve as important bio-indicators foraquatic contamination. Recent studies indicated thatfishes are quickly becoming scarce owing theincreasing use of chemical pesticides in fields. Sincefishes are important sources of proteins and lipids,health of fishes is very important for human beings.The potential toxic hazards resulting from exposureto different levels of chemical pesticides have beendiscussed in this communication which may usefulin environmental risk assessment of freshwater andmarine organisms.

PESTICIDES IN INDIAIndia is now the second largest manufacturer ofpesticides in Asia after China and ranks twelfthworldwide (Mathur, 1999). The primary benefits ofthe pesticides being the direct gains from their use(Mathur, 1999). In year 2000, the pesticides demandfrom agriculture sector was reached up to 97,000tons, out of these, 60 technical grade pesticides aremanufactured indigenously and 500 units aremaking pesticide formulations (Singh, 2002).

There are 234 pesticides registered inIndia, out of these, 4 are WHO Class I(a) pesticides,15 are WHO Class I(b) pesticides and 76 are WHOClass II pesticides together constituting 40% of theregistered pesticides in India. In terms ofconsumption too, the greatest volumes consumedare of these poisons.

BIOCHEMICAL CHANGESAmmonia is toxic for an organism even in trace

amount, while excretory material in the fish body.There ammonia produces during metabolismthrough deamination process of several amino acidslike as histidine, serine, asparagine and glutamine.These chemicals and pesticides have disturbed thebalance between production and excretion ofammonia. This resulted in most cases significantlyincrease of ammonia levels in the blood andconsequently in an ammonia autointoxication(Svobodová et al, 1986).

Blood is the indicator of pathologicalchanges induced by the pollutants in fishes. The fishblood shows remarkable pathological changes.Hematological parameters are important fortoxicological research and as indicators ofenvironmental stress and disease in fish (Kumar etal, 2004) during any environmental toxicity insurrounding water. Das and Mukherjee (2003)reported that total leucocytes were elevated fromday 15 to day 45 under cypermethrin exposure. Theyalso found that haemoglobin percentage and totalerythrocytes decreased in fish blood by thecypermethrin exposures.

Pesticide pollutions resulted in RBCreduction (Johal and Grewal, 2004; Gautam andKumar, 2008). The haematopoietic system of fishis also located in intercellular cell spaces of kidneyas also existed in mammals. Therefore, the reductionin haematological parameters may be due tomalfunctioning of haematopoietic system whichleads the morphological alteration in renalinterstitium (Dutta et al, 1992).

The blood cell indices like meancorpuscular volume (MCV) mean corpuscularhaemoglobin (MCH) and mean corpuscularhaemoglobin concentration (MCHC) and totalleukocytes differential seem to be changed that aremore sensitive and can cause reversible changes inthe homeostatic system of fish (Kumar et al, 2004).Fluctuations in these indices correspond with valuesof RBC count, haemoglobin concentration andpacked cell volume (Kumar et al, 2004). Differentblood parameters are often subject to changedepending upon stress condition and various otherenvironmental factors.

Shrivastava and Sriwastva (1980)


observed cellular and nuclear hypertrophy, changein shape, agglutination and bursting of erythrocytesin Cirihinus mrigala fingerlings treated with urea.Similar findings in fish treated with pesticides andchemicals have been reported (Joshi and Deep,2002). The reason may be release of immature cellsfrom haemopoietic tissue into the blood as well asdisruption of iron metabolism that lead to a defectivehaemoglobin synthesis (Tavares et al, 1999).

Increases in WBC count establish

leucocytosis which is considered to be of an adaptive

value for the tissue under chemical stress. Presence

of foreign substances or under pathological

conditions leucocytosis in fish may be the

consequence of direct stimulation of immunological

defense (Marti et al, 1996). The increase in WBC

count can be correlated with an increase in antibody

production which helps in survival and recovery of

the fish exposed to lindane and malathion (Joshi

and Deep, 2002). Various pesticides showed lethal

effect on haematology such as changes in WBCs

and RBCs, haemoglobin contents and packed cell

volume of different freshwater fish species.

REFERENCES1. Abedi Z, Hasantabar F, Khalesi M K and Babaei S (2013):

Enzymatic activities in common carp, Cyprinus carpioinfluenced by sublethal concentrations of cadmium, leadand chromium. World J. Fish. Mar. Sci. 5, 144-151.

2. Akhtar W, Sengupta D and Chowdhury A (2009): Impactof pesticides use in agriculture: their benefits and hazards.Interdiscip. Toxicol. 2, 1-12.

3. Dutta H M, Dogra J V V, Singh N K, Roy P K and NasarS S T (1992) Malathion induced changes in the serumprotein and hematological parameters of an Indian catfishHeteropneustes fossilis (Bloch). Bull. Environ. Contam.Toxicol. 49, 91-97.

4. Gautam R K and Kumar S (2008) Alteration inhaematology of Channa punctatus (Bloch). J. Exp. Zool.India. 11, 309-310.

5. Johal M S and Grewal H (2004) Toxicological study onthe blood of Channa punctatus (Bloch) upon exposureto carbaryl. Poll. Res. 23, 601-606.

6. Joshi P and Deep H (2002) Effect of lindane andmalathion exposure to certain blood parameters in afreshwater teleost fish, Clarias batrachus. Poll. Res. 21,55-57.

7. Kumar K, Patri P and Pandey A K (2004) Haematologicaland biochemical responses in the freshwater air-breathingteleost, Anabas testudineus (Bloch) exposed to mercury.J. Ecophysiol. Occup. Hlth. 4, 97-108.

8. Marti H H, Wenger R H and Rivas L A (1996)Erythropoietin gene expression in human, monkey andmurine brain. Euro. J. Neurosci. 8, 666-676.

9. Mathur S C (1999) Future of Indian pesticides industryin next millennium. Pesticide Information 24 (4), 9-23.

10. Mishra D K, Bohidar K and Pandey A K (2008) Effect ofsublethal exposure of cartap on hypothalamo-neurosecretory system of the freshwater teleost, Channapunctatus (Bloch). J. Environ. Biol. 29, 917-922.

11. Naeem M, Salam A, Tahir S S and Rauf N (2010)Assessment of the essential element and toxic heavymetals in hatchery reared Oncorhynchus mykiss. Int. J.Agric. Biol. 12, 935-938.

12. Pandey A K, Mishra D K and Bohidar K (2014)Histopathological changes in gonadotrophs of Channapunctatus (Bloch) exposed to sublethal concentration ofcarbaryl and cartap. J. Exp. Zool. India 17, 451-455.

13. Singh R (2002) Driving Force of Chemical Industry.Pesticides Manufacturers and Formulators Association ofIndia (PMFAI), Andheri (West), Mumbai.

14. Srivastava P and Singh A (2013) In vivo study of effectsof dithiocarbamates fungicide (Mancozeb) and itsmetabolite ethylenethiourea (ETU) on freshwater fish,Clarius batrachus. J. Biol. Earth Sci. 3, 228-235.

15. Srivastava P and Singh A (2014) Fate of fungicides onfish, Clarias batrachus- a complete study. LAPLAMBERT Academic Publishing, Germany. 134 p.

16. Svobodová Z, Faina R and Groch Máchová J (1986) Studyon the etiology of the toxic necrosis of carp gills. Bul.Vúrh. Vodany 22, 3-13.

17. Tavares D M, Martins M L and Nascimento K S (1999)Evaluation of the haematological parameters in Piaractasmesopotamicus Holmberg (Osteichthyes, Characidae)with Argulus sp. (Crustacea, Branchiura) infestation andtreatment with organophosphate. Rev. Bras. Zool. 16, 553-555.




FURADAN EFFECT UPON HISTOPATHOLOGY OF OVARY IN THEFRESHWATER FISH Channa punctatus (Bloch)

TulikaResearch Scholar, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar)


ABSTRACT

The furadan exposure with sub-lethal concentration affects upon

ovary of freshwater fish, Channa punctatus were investigated. There ovarymorphology and anatomy changed in minor and major exposure resulted asreduction in size of mature oocytes, disruption, vacuolization in cytoplasmin acute and complete loss of normal configuration of ovary, necrosis,elongated ovarian follicles, and fragmented ova with abnormal shape underchronic exposures during chronic exposures observed during study period.

Keywords: Histopathology, Oocyte, Channa pucntatus, furadan, Sublethal.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTION

The freshwater ecosystem is presently

being contaminated with toxic chemicals fromindustrial, agricultural and domestic disposalsystems. The water resources are generally pollutedwith a variety of chemicals as fertilizers andpesticides. Pesticides are the chemicals, which haveposed potential health hazard not only to livestockand wild life but also to fish, birds, mammals andeven human beings (Naeem et al, 2010). Thesechemicals ultimately resulted into accumulation ofundesired materials in the aquatic system whichreaches also in fish tissue (Bondarenko et al, 2009)in certain instances where it can reduce reproductive

success by direct interaction with the gonads andgerm cells. Aquatic organisms, including fish,accumulate pollutants directly from contaminatedwater and indirectly via food chain1.

The histopathology deals with thepathological changes induced in the fine structureof body tissue. The abnormal tissue morphology andanatomy is either indication of disease oraccumulation of toxic substances like heavy metalsand pesticides.

The histopathological is described asimportant tool for estimating the profound effectsof any toxicant at tissue level (Sprague, 1993) .There tissue level changes are used as indicators


about various anthropogenic pollutants onorganisms and gives insight of overall health at alltrophic levels in the ecosystem. These biomarkersare resulted through stress as several pollutants arisemetabolic activation in order to maintain cellularchange in the affected organism (Muhammad,2009).

Furadan is a carbamate pesticide widelyused as systematic poison and widely used for thecontrol of sucking pests, thrips, mites and soil-pests(Bondarenko et al, 2009). The carbamate interferesin the normal synaptic transmission and reaches tocholinergic site for the hydrolysis ofneurotransmitters. There Acetylcholine inhibitionleads to its storage at nerve endings, which causedisruption of nervous activity resulting in excitation,paralysis, and finally the death of fishes.

This insecticide is crucial to aquaticorganisms and causes severe metabolic disturbancesin non target species like freshwater fishes(Srivastava et al, 2008). The present study wasundertaken to evaluate the changes induced inovarian tissues of Channa punctatus exposed tosublethal concentration of furadan for short term (4days) and long term (15 days) periods.

METHODS AND MATERIALSThe adult Channa punctatus fishes were procuredfrom local fish market and carried to laboratory inbuckets where treated with terramycin solution(15mg/l), potassium permagnate (2 mg/l) andacclimatized for 10 days with nutrient supply. Waterin the aquaria was also changed once in every day.

The LC50 value was estimated as 4ppmmalathian for 96 hours on the basis of previousmethods (Finney, 1971; Sprague, 1993). Then sub-lethal concentration treated to 4 and 15 days upon10 fishes, and, separate control groups weremaintained for further study. Thereafter, both controland treated fishes

The control and furadan exposed fishesafter 4 days and 15 days were removed from waterfor ovary dissection and fixed into Bouin’s solutionto 24 hours. This material was washed to discardpicric acid and then 6 µm thick paraffin blocks

prepared following dehydration and clearingprocesses through microtome machine. Thesesections were taken on slides after staining withhematoxylene and mounted in DPX. Then sectionswere observed under microscope and photographed.Results and DiscussionIn normal condition, the ovary is paired structureconsisting ovarian wall, oogonia and oocytes atdifferent maturation stages. Each ovary issurrounded by follicular epithelium. Theasynochronous development give rise cystovariantype as large nucleus and small cytoplasm in earlystage, while nucleoli number increases duringoocyte development and yolk nucleus near thenucleus in first appearance and later migarated toperipheral region where it breaks and disappears inlast stage. The nucleus reduced due to vitellogenesis.The egg membranes are poorly developed withpresence of atretic follicles in which granulose cellsplay an important role in phagocytosis. Thegranulose cells are likely source of strogen and thecacells may be associated with steroid synthesis. Thefollicular atrwesia may be due to lack of sufficientendogenous gonadotropins (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Ovary of control fish channa punctaus (N-

Nuclus, O- Oocyte, FI- Follicular lining)

The histopathological changes in the ovaryof furadan-exposed fishes showed comparativelyless number of maturing and matured oocytes withmore atretic follicles rather than control conditiondepending upon exposure periods. The excessatretic follicles appeared due to lack of gonadotropinstimulation which is further confirmed through less


number of gonadotrophs in the pituitary-gonadalaxis. Also, the presence of inter-follicular spaces, agradual shrinkage of oocytes, arrest of folliculardevelopment, simultaneous arrest of vitellogenesisultimately resulted into smaller oocytes.

Figure 2: Ovary of Channa punctaus with 4 days

furadan exposure (Reduced oocyte, V- Vacuolation)

Figure 3: Ovary of Channa Punctatus fish with 15days furadan exposure

(FO- Fragmented ova, N- Necrosis, EOF- Elongated

ovarian follicles)

The acute exposure (for 4 days) showedreduction in oocytes size and cytoplasmicvacuolization during study (Figure 2). The previousstudy showed alteration in ovary structure due toexposure ( Kulshrestha et al, 1984).

The complete loss of ovary structurethrough necrosis, elongated ovarian follicles, and

fragmented ova with abnormal shape were reportedin Figure-3. Hazarika and Das (1998) suggestedtoxicological impact of BHC on ovary of airbreathing cat fish Heteropneustes fossilis withdifferent exposed concentrations also consistent topresent findings. In similar study, marked damagein germinal epithelium, atresia of oocyte, stromalhemorrhage, vacuolization of oocytes and generalinflammation were reported (Pandey and Shukla,1985; Giri et al, 2000). The gonadal impairment ina freshwater fish Channa punctatus (Bloch) wasreported due to chronic exposure of Devicyprinexposure in the similar laboratory conditions(Srivastava et al, 2008).

This study showed gonadotoxic impact offuradan on ovarian histology of Channa punctatuswhich results in reduced reproductive performanceand lastly affecting fish potential in freshwaterecosystems. The abnormal ovary after exposure isnot capable to reproductive success and evenaffecting fish population.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to my supervisor, Dr Ashok

Kumar to help in experimental settings and also

Principal, Ganga Singh College to provide

Laboratory facility for this investigation.

REFERENCES1. Bondarenko S, Gan J, Haver DL and Kabashima JN

(2004): Persistence of selected organophosphate andcarbamate insecticides in waters from a coastal watershed,Environmental Toxicology and chemistry, 23(11), 2649-2654.

2. Finney DJ (1971): ‘Probit analysis’ Third edition,Cambridge University Press.

3. Giri AN, Srivastava DK and Trivedi SP (2000): Insecticidebasathrin induced histoanatomical insult of ovarian tissueof Indian catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis. Biol.Memoirs.,26, 20-24.

4. Hazarika R and Das M (1998): Toxicological impact ofBHC on the Ovary of the Air-Breathing CatfishHeteropneustes fossilis (Bloch),Bull.Env.Contom.Toxicol., 60, 16-21.

5. Kulshrestha SK and Arora N (1984): Impairments inducedby sublethal doses of two pesticides in the ovaries of afresh water teleost Channa striatus Bloch. Toxicol.Lett.,20, 93-98.

6. Muhammad Ismail, Rahat Ali., Tayyaba Ali, Usman


Waheed and Khan QM (2009): Evaluation of acutetoxicity of profenofos and its effect on behavior patternof fingerling common carp (Cyprinus carpio. L.) 1758:Bull. Envi. Contom. Toxicol., 82, 569-573.

7. Naeem M, Salam A, Tahir S S and Rauf N (2010)Assessment of the essential element and toxic heavymetals in hatchery reared Oncorhynchus mykiss. Int. J.Agric. Biol. 12, 935-938.

8. Pandey AK and Shukla L (1985): Ovarian recrudescencein a fresh water teleost Sarotherodon mossambicus, J.

Env.Biol., 6, 195-204.9. Sprague JB (1973): The ABC’s of pollutant bioassay

using fish. In: biological methods for the assessment ofwater quality, Am. Soc. Test. Mater. Tech. Publ., 528, 6-36.

10. Srivastava RK, Yadav KK and Trivedi SP (2008):Devicyprin induced gonadal impairment in a fresh waterfood fish, Channa punctatus (Bloch), J. of Env.Biol.,

29(2), 187-191.



ECOLOGY AND PARTIAL RESTORATION OF MONE WETLANDFOR FISH PRODUCTIVITY

Naghma Khatoon and Equabal JawaidResearch Scholar, Jai Prakash University, Chapra (Bihar)

Department of Zoology, ZA Islamia PG College, Siwan (Bihar)Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACTShatiya wetland, a threatened water body of eutrophicated nature

in the Gopalganj district of Bihar was studied for its degradation and possiblerestoration practices. There high rate of sedimentation and agriculturalactivities causing significant changes in water quality and local bioticpopulations. Agricultural activities have led to high input of N and Pfertilizers along with pesticides being used by the farmers. The positivesresponse of restoration practices was observed with partial improvement infish-productivity due to hindrance factors acting upon severe fish species.

Keywords: water quality, sediment analysis, restoration practices.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTION

Small rivers and several floodplains are commonin north Bihar. In recent years, rapid populationgrowth resulted in pollution of water bodies bydomestic, industrial sewage and agriculturaleffluents containing fertilizers and pesticides. Thefact that wetland values are overlooked has resultedin threat to the ‘Kidneys of the landscape’ (Mitschand Gosselinls 1986). Hydrologic conditions andman induced preturbances can modify physical andchemical quality of water resources. These changeshave direct impact on the biotic component of thewater body. The study of ecological parameters in

such resources may provide clue for appreciatingthe key relations which are relevant for restorationstrategies.

The Shatiya wetland is a floodplainwetland connected with Gandak River. Theanthropogenic activities in last two decades pollutedthis wetland so exclusively that several places holdwater only in flood time during winter.

Restoration requires reconstruction ofantecedent physical conditions, chemical adjustmentof soil and water; and biological manipulation(Zedler, 1996). A survey of is essential forrestoration of any open system like rivers. This


means that a functional ecosystem can be constitutedfrom an arbitrary set of species from the speciespool that could occupy a given site. Restorationpractice typically begins with a different goal, whichis to accomplish specific objectives. The restorationproject needs re-establish a species in a place,reduce rates of within its natural range, re-establisha natural environment, eliminate an invadingspecies, or create vegetation that will providenesting habitat for a species of interest. Besides otherrestoration tools bused on ecological theory, publicco-operation is important for fast recovery ofdegraded ecosystems.

The main objective of this research was todetermine the ecological status of Shatiya wetlandprior and after restoration in terms of fishproductivity.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe water samples were collected repeatedly during2019 at three sites in washed bottles of 2 litrecapacity to cover spatial variation for physic-chemical analysis of water. The temperature, PHelectrical conductivity and do were analyzed

immediately after sampling. Various physic-chemical parameters Viz. DO, Total hardness,alkalinity, COD, TDS, nitrate and phosphate weredetermined as per the standard methods describedin APHA (1998).

This research was conducted to restorefunctional ecology with adopted measures asenhanced water storage through excavation, debrisjam removal and macrophyte enrichments.Restoration of spawning site of fishes accomplishedwith plant-species growth, stone-bolder dipping andside-channel preferences to Gandak river. Thevegetative methods for bank stabilization wereapplied. The fish assemblage was also determinedon the basis of ecological (Schiemer andWeidbacher, 1992) and balance of fish assemblageaccording to Balon (1975).

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONSIn general, data on water quality is indicative ofpollution prior to restoration with extremetemperature variation is due to differential amountof light incidence over the water surface, in differentseasons prior and after restoration (Table 1).

Table 1. Physicochemical Characteristics of Shatiya wetland at selected Sites.Sl. Parameters Site- I Site- II Site – IIINo. Min Max Min Max Min Max1. Water Temp. (ºC) 12.6 28.3 11.7 27.6 13.6 29.62. pH 7.4 8.2 7.6 8.4 8.2 8.93. TDS (mg/L) 1230.60 1410.0 1310.0 1520.0 1460.0 1580.04. Total hardness (mg/L) 620.30 770.10 660.20 810.10 710.30 840.105. Chloride (mg/L) 470.40 560.10 520.30 610.0 620.10 680.606. Alkalinity (mg/L) 380.10 732.60 410.30 840.20 530.0 910.607. DO (mg/L) 3.10 4.20 3.70 4.80 4.30 6.108. COD (mg/L) 110 170 140 210 170 2409. Nitrate (mg/L) 1.30 1.70 1.60 2.30 1.80 2.5010. Phosphate (mg/L) 0.60 0.90 0.70 0.90 1.10 1.40

The mean value of total alkalinity graduallydecreased from March to July and increased inAugust. The values are comparatively high in coldmonths may be possible due to dissolution ofcalcium carbonates at lower temperature (Table 1).Hardness of wetland water decreased from Augustto November due to the abundance of floodwater,

while higher values in dry months due to thedischarge of water through outlets and evaporation(Table 1). TDS value was maximum at station inJune and minimum at station in July due to largeinflow of rainwater (Table 1). Variation in salinitywas notable with maximum and minimum value inMay and August related with amount of organic


deposition at different sites (Table 1). The patternof variation in dissolved oxygen followed closelywith changes in temperature and biomass ofplanktons and macrophytes (Table 1). Total nitrogenand phosphorus value showed higher concentrationprior to restoration, while adjusted after restoration(Table 1 and 2). Less COD value were observed afterrestoration, perhaps due to low amount of organiccompounds in this river (Table 1). Also same trendwere visible in the case of total chloride in thiswetland. There is considerable changes in all physicalparameters after restoration might be adaptive forgrowth and survival of fishes ( Table 2).

showed hindrance. The plantation was suitable withsoil moisture, available sunlight for competingspecies and potential for food traffic.

The colonization of the adult fish occurredwith restoration in 2018. The fishes were alwayspresent in side-channel occasionally connected tothe river. Species occurrence varied only aspredatory fishes were dominated during summer andfollowed months. The herbivore species was alsooccurred during rainy season. The relativeabundance increased mainly due to high occurrenceof 1

+ and 2

+ fish in assemblage after restoration at

different studied sites rather than polluted state ofShatiya wetland (Figure 1).

Table 2: Physicochemical characteristics of Shatiya wetland after restoration.Sl. Parameters Site- I Site- II Site – IIINo. Min Max Min Max Min Max1. Water Temp (ºC) 13.1 29.4 12.9 28.8 13.3 29.62. pH 6.1 6.3 6.4 6.7 6.5 6.83. TDS (mg/L) 478.10 530.20 524.20 560.10 540.10 570.604. Hardness (mg/L) 180.20 210.10 200.0 230.0 220.0 240.05. Chloride (mg/L) 470.40 560.10 520.30 610.0 620.10 680.606. Alkalinity (mg/L) 90.60 130.0 110.0 160.10 120.10 168.207. DO (mg/L) 6.10 6.70 5.80 6.40 5.60 6.208. COD (mg/L) 25.20 32.10 26.10 32.60 28.0 34.109. Nitrate (mg/L) 0.60 0.90 0.70 1.0 0.80 1.1010. Phosphate (mg/L) 0.20 0.35 0.25 0.40 0.32 0.48

The assessment of migration barriers wasbest performed after restoration scheme in studiedwetland. Barriers to fish migration have evaluatedat various flow conditions, and observed that barrieronly prevent fish movement during low flow regimeof water. The majority of migration barrier wasassociated with vertical drops in life-stage of targetspecies. In addition, the ability to jump a verticaldrop is also related to water depth from which afish could leap. A pool depth of at least 1.25 timesthe length of the barrier provides ideal leaping oflargest fishes.

The construction of spawning site wasprimarily a reflection of prevailing hydrologicalconditions with review of conditions during typicalspawning season and peak flow of water to assesshabitat stability. Introduced vegetation was costeffective and self-sustainable appliance forimprovement of bank stability. However, selectedspecies at studied sites with specific requirements

In January 2013, the abundance andbiomass were 3-4 times higher than prior torestoration suggested possible adaptive changes ofenvironmental condition after restoration in Shatiyawetland and there is great difference in speciesabundance ( Figure 2).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Site- I Site- II Site – III

Kg/Year Polluted River

Restored Rivers

Figure 1: Fish assemblage Analysis at differentsites of study.


05

1015202530354045

Puntius

sarana

Wallago attu

H.fossilis

Rita rita

Channa

punctatus

Anabas

scandens

Clarias

batrachus

Kg/Year

Pollution periodRestoration Period

Figure 2: Fish guilt abundance Analysis.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Kg/Year Yield under

pollution

Yield After Restoration

Figure 3: Seasonal Fish Catchment Analysis.The contribution of herbivore fishes were linkedonly in flood time. The fish abundance showedseasonal variation in fishes similarly in both casesof pollution and restoration (Figure 3). However,predatory fish remains dominated in river. Appliedvegetative method improved the aesthetic qualitiesof the riparian zone. The plantation of graminaceousgrass and road creeper reduced surface erosion andstructural integrity of wetland sides has enhancedwith root spreading in soil. The road creeper wasalso observed as fish access and spawning site offishes. The herbaceous ground grasses providecontrol of erosion during flood time.

DISCUSSIONSThis study is in agreement with Nazneen (1980)reported the influence of hydrological factors onthe seasonal temporal changes of fish assemblage.The elevated temperature through fast biochemicalreactions affects upon growth and survival of fishesin this study showed consistency with Harshley et

al (1982) who reported close relation between watertemperature and fish productivity.

The variation in pH was related with freecarbon dioxide and carbonate, and, less valueobserved after restoration due to limitedphytoplanktons. This type of observation has alsoreported by Das and Srivastava (1956). Also gradualdecrease of alkalinity from March to July and afterrestoration is attributed to low rate of nutrientcycling in the wetland. High concentration of totalhardness during summer in polluted state of wetlandand gradual decrease in hardness after restorationis probably related with organic deposition in wateras also reported by Singhal et al (1986). Thevariation in salinity and TDS as pH was observedand consistent with study of Kumar et al (2002).Kulshreshtha et al (1992) also reported high CODin polluted river as findings of this study. Naturalwater generally contains low chloride level asresulted after restoration practice. Amount ofchloride prior to restoration as a consequence ofmacrophyte decomposition is also reported bySauver (1987). The present study support findingsof Elser et al (1990) as high level of nitrogen resultedwith growth of planktons and agricultural effluents.The phosphate amount showed similar trend asnitrogen through fertilizer effluents in wetlands.

This research hold relation between waterquality and fish productivity was consistent withstudy of Downing et al (1990). The fish yield wasvariable for existing species and showed Gaussiancurve for productivity. There is effect ofunconventional diets on growth and survival offishes as reported in the case of Clarias batrachusas reported by Tiwary et al (2013). The higher bedloads are beneficial in terms of their role in thecreation of spawning, rearing and over-winteringhabitat.

The entrapment of spawning gravel wasnecessary during restoration due to lack of riparianvegetation. The study showed that restorationsupported fish assemblage increment as reported insimilar case by Penaz and Jurajda (1993). The fishhabitat has been achieved with improvement inwater quality. A lower ratio of predatory fishes afterproject was partly caused by increased occurrence


of herbivore than previous years. During the study,initial land limiting fish migration was observed.This study confirms that restoration provide newchances and enriched habitat scale of the freshwatersystems for local populations as reported bySchiemer and Weidbecher (1992) in the similarconditions.

CONCLUSIONThere is direct relationship between fish yield andwater quality. However, restoration of Shatiyawetland with limited approach and economyresulted in partial backwater and there are severalhindrance factors encountered due to specific needof all fish species. Thus, further researches may beneedful during restoration for particular fish speciesfor local population.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe are thankful to Principal, ZA Islamia PGCollege, Siwan (Bihar) to provide laboratory facilityand Swaminathan Science Research SocietyGopalganj for their grant and technical support to

furnish this investigation.

REFERENCES 1. APHA (1998). Standard methods for the examination of

water and waste watershed. Washington, USA. 2. Balon EK (1975) Reproductive guilds of Fishes: A

proposal and definition. J. fish Res. Board (Canada),32:821-864.

3. Das SM and VK shrivastava (1956). Quantitative studieson plankton. Part 2, Correlation between Plankton andHydrological factors. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. India, 26 (4):243-253.

4. Downing JA, Plante C and Lalonde S (1990). Fishproduction correlated with primary productivity, not themorpho-edaphic index. Can J. Fish aquat. Sci, 47:1929-1936.

5. Elser JJ, ER Marzolf and CR Goldman (1990).Phosphorus and Nitrogen limitation in the freshwaters ofNorth America; A review and critic of experimentalenrichments. Can. J. Fish aquat Sci., 47:1468-1477.

6. Harshley DK, SG Patil and DF Singh (1982).Limnological studies on a tropical freshwater fish tankof Jabalpur, India. Geobios, 1 (2): 98-102.

7. Kulshreshtha SK, MP George, R Saxena M Johri and Mshrivastava (1992) Seasonal variations in the limno-chemical characteristics of Mansarovar reservoir ofBhopal, Aquatic Ecology, 7:275-295.

8. Kumar A, Bohra C and A.K Singh (2002). Ecotechnologyfor limnological project of kawar lake with specialreference to biogeochemical cycle, In: Ecology andEthology of Aquatic biota, Daya Publishing House, Delhi(India) 1:149-199.

9 Verma JP and Mohanty RC (1994). Primary productivityand its correlation with certain selected physico-chemicaland community parameters. Environment and ecology 12(3): 625-629.

10 Nazneen S (1980). Influence of hydrological factors onthe seasonal abundance of phytoplankton in keinjer lake.Ine. Rev. hydrobiol., 65 (20): 269-282.

11 Penaz M and Jurajda P (1993). Fish assemblage of theMorava river: Longitudinal Zonation and Protection. FoliaZool, 42:317-328.

12 Scheimer F and waidbacher H (1992). Strategies forconservation of Danubian fish fauna, In:Boon PJ, CalowP and Petts GJ (Eds.): River Conservation andManagement. John Wiley Sons Ltd. Chichester. 363-382.

13 Singhel RN, J Swarn and RW Davis (1986). The physico-chemical environment and the plankton characteristicsof unregulated rural ponds in Haryana, India. Trop Ecol.,26:43-53.

14 Sarwar SG (1987). Species composition and seasonalvariation of periphyton on Ceratophyllum demersum inwaskur lake, Kashmir, Geobios, 6: 114-118.

15 Tiwary CB, KK Thakur and SK Tiwari (2013). Effect ofUnconventional diets on Growth and Survival of Clariasbatrachus (Lin.). Journal of Inland Fisheries Society India,45(1): 53-56.

16 Zedlar JB (2005). Restoring wetland plant diversity: Acomparison of existing and ablaptine approaches,wetlands ecology and management, (13 (1) : 5-14.




GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION OF Daphnia carinata IN LOWAND HIGH DENSITY CULTURE UNDER LABORATORY

CONDITIONS

Chandra Bhushan TiwaryGuest Teacher, Vidya Bhawan Mahila Mahavidyalay, Siwan (Bihar)


ABSTRACT

The effect of population density on the Daphnia carinata

individuals were investigated at two different densities with similar foodmedium. There is no difference in age at first reproduction, low-significantchanges in carpace length and the number of neonates produced after 15days to AFR, however, egg diapauses only visible in high density cultures.These findings suggest that high population density depresses both growthin adult instars and parthenogenesis to induce ephippial egg under enrichedculture medium.

Key words: crowding effect, Daphnia, growth, reproduction,

parthenogenesis


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe cladocerans are thriving in freshwaterecosystem. The population dynamics of Daphniaunder field study reveals a striking transition froma low density spring population with a large broodsize to a high density summer population withfrequent low egg production (Kerfoot et al, 1985).There past studies (Hebert , 1978; Burns, 1995) alsoconcluded that small brood size in a high populationwas resulted with limited food supply. In laboratoryconditions, a similar relationship has been observed

(Kleiven et al, 1992). However, some studies havebeen shown that growth and reproduction indaphniids to be affected by high population densitiesor by addition of water from crowded cultures, evenunder sufficient food concentrations. (Hebert, 1978;Burns, 1995).

There have been no studies on the effectof high population density on the growth andreproduction of cladocerans. In the present study,Daphnia carinata individuals were reared at twodifferent densities in the laboratory to examine the


crowding effect on their growth and reproductionunder enriched medium conditions. During theexperimentation, parameters like somatic growthfrom hatching to adulthood, days of firstreproduction and number of neonates produced bythe individuals were monitored.

METHODS AND MATERIALSDaphnia carinata clone was established by a singlefemale isolated from the culture maintained in thezoology department laboratory with used watercollected from nearby pond filtered through a glass-fibre filter. The stock cultures were maintained onScenedesmus spinosus with >5×105 cells ml-1 at20ºC grown on the medium (Ichimura, 1971) atsimilar temperature. The cells from 7 day old culturewere washed with filtered pond water and then cellconcentration was calculated prior to addition in theexperimental cultures.

The series of experiments for low and highpopulation densities (1 and 20 individuals in 50 ml

-1

) respectively were made at 200

C temperature and12 hour sunshine day within the range ((e.g. up to1000 indiv. l

-1) that can be observed in natural

environments (Barker and Hebert, 1990) and havebeen used for laboratory studies (Urabe, 1988). Inthe low density experiment, a neonate born withina 24 hour period in the stock culture and 20neonates for high density experiment of similarstock were placed in 50 ml jar with 50 ml filteredpond water with food alga at 10

5 cells ml

-1 and

5×105

cells ml-1

respectively. The lowest foodconcentration for maximum egg production can bemaintained by Daphnia of 2-mm length is at about2.4× 10

4 cells ml

-1 of Chlamydomonas (Lampert

and Schober, 1980).The growth and reproduction of the

cladocerans in both density cultures were monitoredat 24 hour intervals. The animal was placed on aslide to measure carpace length with an opticalmicrometer attached to a microscope. The numberof newly born neonates or ephippial eggs was alsocounted until 15 days after first reproduction andcarpace length was measured over a period of 25days. There are 20 and 10 replicates were usedrespectively for low and high density cultures.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe animals about 7 days to mature in bothconditions and no significant differences wasobserved in age at first reproduction (AFR) underthe different density cultures (Table 1).Table 1: Reproductive performance on 15 days AFR at each

population densityReproductive performance Density Indiv. (50ml)-1

2 20 t- ValueAFR (days) 8.15±1.01 8.72 ± 1.25 -1.45Neonates (Female)-1 69 ± 11.40 30 ± 6.30 11.63

Ephippial eggs (Female)-1 NF 1.0 ± 0.10 -

The similar body size in juveniles and AFR betweenthe both densities suggests that growth andmaturation of Daphnia carinata neonates are notaffected by the population density in culturemedium. The gross pattern of the increase in carpacelength of the cladocerans was similar under bothdensity conditions, however, the significant highercarpace length in high density than low densityvenue observed up to 10 days of period (t-test,p<0.05) (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Carpace length of Daphnia carinata atculture densities.

The mean cumulative number of neonatesincreased with age and reached about 72 indiv.female

-1 after 15 days in comparison of 20

individual female-1

under the high density condition(Table 1, Figure 2). Although smaller adultsproduced a small number of neonates and largerones were more productive in both conditions, twoto three fold more neonates were produced in lowdensity compared to those produced by the samesized female in the high density experiment (Figure3).


Figure 2: Prediction after first reproductionand cladoceran population.

Figure 3: Carpacae length and reproductionrate in cladoceran population.The ephippia were found only in the high

density condition (Table 1) and cumulative numbersof ephippia produced during the 15 days variedamong replicates ranged from 0 to 9. This highvariability might affect the number of producedneonates with several protective membranes overbrood chamber during production of ephippial eggsand probable hindrance in egg production.

DISCUSSIONSUrabe (1988) has been shown that growth andmaturity in Daphnia to be affected by foodconcentration, but both cultures in this study wouldbe under similar nutrition at least during the juvenileinstars. Growth in the adult instars was slightlydepressed in the high density condition even underexcess quantity of food. This implies that thecrowding effect on growth in Daphnia carinata

could ontogenetically changes and probably relatedto egg production.

The number of produced neonates byfemales with similar carpacae length was lower inthe high density culture. The reproductive rates ofcladocerans are affected by temperature (Bottrell,1975), food concentration (Urabe, 1988; Vijverberg,1976) and population density (Barker and Hebert,1990). There was no change in temperature andphotoperiod, and the food concentration wassufficient. Therefore, high daphniid populationdensity only has depressed the production ofneonates. The past study as crowded Daphnia pulexat 270 indiv l

-1 fed more slowly than at 30 indiv l

-1

(Hebert, 1978) and similar study for 30 hours withreduced feeding (Lampert and Schober, 1980)suggesting that crowding might be able to changegrowth and reproductive patterns also reducemetabolic rate and/or assimilation efficiency inDaphnia resulted in reduced reproduction in thecase of high population density.

There was weak correlation between thenumber of neonates and ephippia among replicates(Spearman’s rank correlation test, Á = -0.45, p =0.08) and thus the number of neonates would nothave been significantly affected by ephippial eggproduction in the present study. Previous studieshave implied combined density-dependent factorsas starvation, limited food or short photoperiod withhigh population density (Matveev, 1993). Thepresent study suggesting that Daphnia carinataindividuals may produce diapause eggs in highdensity conditions even under enriched foodmedium and a normal photoperiod. The species-specific differences in daphniid response topopulation density may depend on their body sizeand small sized depends may be more sensitive inthe same condition.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI appreciate immense role of Dr Ashok Kumar (Ex-Dean, Jai Prakash University Chapra) for review ofmanuscript and instructions which were needful toshape this study and Principal, Vidya BhawanMahila Mahavidyalay, Siwan (Bihar) for kindsupport during research period.


REFERENCES1. Barker DM & Hebert PDH (1990): The role of density in

sex determination in Daphnia magna (Crustacea,Cladocera). Freshwat. Biol, 23:373.

2. Bottrell HH (1975): Generation time, length of life, instarduration and frequency of molting and their relationshipto temperature in eight species of Cladocera. Oecologia,19: 129.

3. Burns CW (1995): Effects of crowding and different foodlevels on growth and reproductive investment of Daphnia.Oecologia, 101: 234.

4. Hebert PDN (1978): The population biology of Daphnia(Crustacea, Daphnidae). Biol. Rev, 53: 387.

5. Ichimura T (1971): Sexual cell division and conjugation-papilla formation in sexual reproduction of Closteriumstrigosum. Proc. 7th International Seaweed Sym, 208.

6. Kerfoot WC, WR De Mott & Levitan C (1985):Nonlinearities in competitive interactions: Componentvariables or system response? Ecology, 66: 959.

7. Kleiven OT, P Larsson & Hobaek A (1992): Sexualreproduction in Daphnia magna requires three stimuli.Oikos, 65: 197.

8. Lampert W & Schober U (1980): The importance of“Threshold” food concentrations. Am. Soc. Limnol.Oceanogr. Spec. Symp, 3: 264.

9. Matveev V (1993): An investigation of allelopathic effectsof Daphnia. Freshwater Biol, 29: 99.

10. Urabe J (1988): Effect of food concentrations on the netproduction of Daphnia galeata: Separate Assessment ofgrowth and reproduction. Bull. Plankton Soc. Japan, 35:159.

11. Vijverberg J (1976): The effect of food quantity andquality on the growth, birth-rate and longevity of Daphnia

hyalina (Leydig). Hydrobiologia, 51: 99.



SEASONAL ZOOPLANKTON COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OFSHATIYA WETLAND IN GOPALGANJ DISTRICT OF BIHAR

Dharmendra Kumar and Equabal Jawed

Research Scholar, Jai Prakash University, Chapra (Bihar)

Associate Professor, ZA Islamia PG College, Siwan (Bihar)

E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The selected sites of Shatiya wetland were studied for aperiod of one year for regular physico-chemical parameters andzooplankton community structure. This study is related to seasonalvariation in zooplankton populations. There community consist o8Cladocera, 03 Copepoda and 02 rotifera and 01 ostracoda species inwhich cladocerans were dominant throughout the study period. Therechanges in quantitative and qualitative community structure were

found directly correlated with abiotic factors during study period.

Keywords: Physico-chemical parameter, zooplankton, Correlation,

biodiversity and Shannon-Wiener index.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONZooplankton plays an important role in aquaticecosystem. They link the primary producers,phytoplankton with higher trophic level organisms.These crustacean populations respond to variety ofanthropogenic disturbances including nutrientbudget and play a role in the wetland ecosystem(Sharma, 1998). The fishes are completely orpartially depend on zooplankton for their bodyrequirements.

The importance of zooplankton as fishfood both for adults and fry has been stressed bydifferent workers (Fontaine and Revera, 1986).Thepresence and dominance of zooplankton speciesplay a significant role in the functioning offreshwater ecosystems. Therefore, zooplanktons areconsidered indicators of water quality (Geiger,1983). Zooplankton responds quickly to aquaticenvironmental changes (e.g., water qualitycharacteristics, such as pH, colour, odour and taste,


etc.) for their short life cycle and is therefore usedas indicators of overall health or condition.

This study was performed to analyzezooplankton population both qualitatively andquantitatively and the results are correlated withphysico-chemical factors to get vital information forfuture references and better understanding of thestructure and function of this important aquaticecosystem.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe selected sites of Shatiya wetland were mostlyinfested with weeds. This wetland was selected forstudy of zooplanktons with four sites due to differentmorphometric and aquatic weeds availability, and,samples were collected between 9.00 to 11.00 AMin consequent months from June 2011. The sub-surface water was collected with the help of bucket.Zooplankton samples were taken by 50 liter waterfiltered with nylon bolting conical sampler and lowerend of net were transferred to separate polyethylenetubes for 30 ml sub-sample after sedimentation.

The zooplanktons were preserved in 4%formalin and 4-5 drops of glycerene. Then,zooplanktons were identified with help ofmicroscope and systematic literature (Edmondson,1992 and APHA, 1998) for qualitative study. Thequantitative study was carried with help ofSidgewick rafter cell (50 mm long, 20 mm wideand 1mm deep) and each sample was counted atleast five times for average value. Then number ofeach zooplankton species was calculated followingWelch (1948) and total number with the help offormula as:

N (org L-1) = a×b VWhere N= Number of zooplankton per liter, a=Average number of zooplankton in all counts in acounting cell of 1 ml capacity, b= The volume oforiginal concentrate in ml (30 ml), V= Volume oforiginal water filtered (50 litres).

Diversity index H (Shannon and Reid,2003) was calculated for zooplankton using thefollowing formulae-

Shannon-Wiener index: H = -£ pi In piPi = n/N, n = diversity of individual andN = total density

RESULTS AND OBSERVATION This wetland presents a total of 18 zooplanktonspecies belonging to zooplanktons as Cladocera(08), Copepoda (03), Rotifera (02) and Ostracoda(01) during the study period. The species rich classCrustacea was represented by eleven species oflarge, medium and small-sized Cladocera, threespecies of Copepoda viz. Cyclops scutifera and C.bicuspidatus, two species as Brachionus bidentataand Keratella valga and only one species ofOstracoda i.e, Cypris subglobosa.Although 18species have been identified at various sites in theShatiya wetland, but Centropyxis aculeata,Keratella cochlearis, K. Valga, Alona affinis,Daphnia magna, Chydorous sphaericus,Macrothrix rosea and Cyclops bicuspidatus werecommon species at all sites.

Fig.1: Seasonal variation of zooplanktons atselected sites of Shatiya wetland.Averages of all sites taken together have

shown a bimodal peak, bigger peak was observedin spring months and the other smaller one wasobserved in summer months. The abundance ofzooplankton at various sites followed a sequence:Site I:Cladocera>Copepoda>Rotifera>OstracodaSite II:Rotifera > Cladocera > Copepoda > OstracodaSite III:Cladocera> Copepoda> Rotifera>OstracodaSite IV:Cladocera > Rotifera > Copepoda > Ostracoda

The overall abundance of zooplankton inthe river follows a sequence as under: Rotifera >Cladocera > Protozoa > Copepoda >Ostracoda.There, Rotifera showed peak density 1080 org l

-


100 during the summer season, 600 org l

-100 during

the autumn season, 60 org l-100

during the winterseason and 980 orgl

-100 during spring season

(Figure 1). Cladocera showed maximum density 990org l

-100 during summer season, 560 org l

-100

during autumn season, 240 org l-100

during winterseason and 830 orgl

-100 during spring season.

Copepoda group exhibited maximum density 260org l

-100 during summer season, 180 org l

-100

during autumn season, 40 org l-100

during winterseason and 190 org l

-100 during spring season.

Ostracoda group showed maximum density 40 orgl-100

during summer season, 20 org l-100

duringautumn season, 15 org l

-100 during winter season

and 50 org l-100

during spring season in this studyas a whole.

DISCUSSIONS The trophic status of the system must be evaluatedthrough zooplankton and other abiotic factorsinteract with organisms. There annual and seasonalcycle of zooplanktons is variable and playsfunctional response (Pennak, 1946). In general,zooplankton growth was registered during moderatetemperature conditions, which may be due toregeneration and availability of minerals, being anoutcome of decomposition of organic matter insediments, and the algal food during this period arein consonance with Davis (1964).

The zooplankton population of Shatiyawetland was found to be composed of Rotifera,Copepoda, Cladocera and Ostracoda. The groupCrustacea which included Cladocerans, Copepodsand Ostracoda also showed uni-modal curve for theirpopulation though present study during moderatetemperature conditions. The crustacean groupshowed maximum numerical surge during warmperiods and minimum during colder periods.Zooplankton diversity of Shatiya wetland in villageside with 08 species of rotifers and 04 species ofeach of protozoans cladocerans and copepods hasbeen observed (Kumar et al., 2007).

Temperature is the major factor relatedwith freshwater zooplankton abundance wherebottom layer exhibit fluctuations in temperature,especially during the summer season (Moitra and

Bhattacharya, 1965). In the present study, a positivecorrelation between zooplankton numbers andtemperature was recorded. Temperature has beenreported to affect zooplankton abundance in twoways. It acts directly to hasten growth rates resultedin the increase of population densities; secondly itstimulates the growth of phytoplankton populationsby providing nutrients and adequate light in theenvironment (Taylor, 1974).

The rotifers were the most dominant groupwith (35%) followed by Cladocera (31%), Protozoa(24%), Copepods (8%) and Ostracods (2%) in thisstudy. The abundance of rotifers in general andbrachionids in particular has been attributed to hardand alkaline water (George, 1961). Previously inGwalior region, Saksena and Sharma (1981) havereported thirty species of rotifers from differentwater bodies. Eutrophication also affects the speciescomposition, biomass and structure of zooplankton.In Shatiya wetland, rotifers, cladocerans andcopepods also showed moderate positive correlationwith total hardness, free carbon dioxide andchlorides but high negative correlation was foundwith depth and electrical conductivity. Thedistribution of various species of zooplanktonicorganisms was not homogenous at all the sites, andthere was clear cut seasonal variation of zooplanktonand various physico-chemical characteristicsinfluenced their occurrence.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe thanks Principal, ZA Islamia PG College, Siwan(Bihar) for kind support to laboratory works inZoology Department laboratory and State Watertesting Board, Patna for valuable reports in regard

of water quality to furnish tis study.

REFERENCES1. APHA (1998): Standard Methods for Examination of

water and wastewater. 20th Ed. American Public HealthAssociation, Washington, D.C.

2. Davis CC (1964): Evidence for the eutrophication of LakeErie from phytoplankton records. Limnol.Oceanogr. 9:275-283.

3. Edmondson WT (1992): Ward and Whiple FreshwaterBiology.2nd Ed. Intern. Books and Periodicals SupplyServices, New Delhi.


4. Fontaine CT and DB Revera (1986): The mass culture ofrotifers, Brachionus plicatalis, for use as food stuff inaquaculture. Proc. World Mariculture Soc. 11:211-218.

5. Geiger JG (1983): A review of ponds zooplanktonproductions fertilization for the culture of larval andfingerlings. Aquaculture 36: 353-360.

6. George MG (1961): Diurnal variations in two shallowponds in Delhi. Hydrobiologia, 18 (3): 265-273.

7. Kumar V, Qureshi TA and Shukla JP (2007): Ecologicalstatus and zooplankton diversity of Sikanderpur reservoir,Basti (U.P.). J. Ecophysiol. Occup. Hlth. 7: 79-85.

8. Moitra SK and Bhattacharya BK (1965): Somehydrological factors affecting plankton production in afresh pond in Kalyani, West Bengal, India.Ichthyologica.4: 8-12.

9. Pennak RW (1946): The dynamics of freshwater planktonpopulations. Ecol. Monogr.16: 339-356.

10. Sharma BK (1998): In: Faunal diversity of India (Eds. J.R. B. Alfred, A. K. Das and A. K. Sanyal). ZoologicalSurvey of India, Environmental Centre: 57-70.

11. Shannon CE and WJ Reid (2003): The mathematicaltheory of communication. University of Illinois Press,Illinois, USA.

12. Saksena DN and Sharma SP (1981): Zooplanktonic faunaof some lentic waters of Gwalior. I. GovindSagar, Chhatritank, Savarkar Sarovar. Environ. India, 4:13-17.

13. Taylor WW (1974): The planktonic crustaceans ofMoncove lakes, Monroe Country. Proc. West Virgiria,Acad. Sci., 46: 223-229.

14. Welch PS (1948):.Limnological Methods. McGraw Hill

Book Co., Ltd. New York.



CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY IN NARAYANI RIVERECOSYSTEM AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Prem Yadav and Prashant Kumar

Research Scholar, Department of Zoology, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar)

Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, Ram Jaipal College, Chapra (Bihar)


ABSTRACTThe global climate change results from the rise in greenhouse

emission within the atmosphere through anthropogenic activities. Thedissolution of carbon dioxide is much more compared to the other gaseswithin the river water change affects changes with warming. The climatechange and temperature increase have shared to indicate negative impactson all aquatic organisms. Thus, it is needful to manage greenhouse dischargein atmosphere for safe ecosystem with biodiversity.

Key Words: Climate change, atmospheric concept, Carbon dioxide,

Biodiversity, Aquatic ecosystem.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe intense increase in greenhouse gases within theatmosphere occurs due to anthropogenic activitiescausing warming within which rise of temperatureheld with alteration in climate. The global warminghas been affecting temperature of water resources,and, also hydrological events that cause a changein physical and chemical characteristics of water.The temperature rise in water-body affects the lifecycle, physiology and behaviors of aquatic livingbeings.

Climate change impacts on inland aquaticecosystems will range from the direct effects of theincrease in temperature and carbon dioxideconcentration to indirect effects through alterationswithin the hydrology resulting from the changes inthe regional or global precipitation regimes and alsothe melting of ice cover.

There have been several researches on theconsequences of climate change on terrestrial,marine and freshwater ecosystem within the last twodecades. Despite this increase of research on the


subject, we still lack a comprehensive understandingof climate change and predictive capability of itseffects on biodiversity in various organism groupsand ecosystems. The current review was aimed toenhance the existing information within speciesvariance and combine this to major anthropogenicstressors on aquatic biodiversity.Mechanism of Climate change on Physicalenvironment: Global climate change directlyaffects the water parameters by changing run-offpatterns, increasing the frequency and intensity ofutmost activities, and changing groundwaterrecharge rates. The India has a high-risk climate witha low conversion of rainfall to run-off and reallyhigh year-wise variability.

The rivers with main-flow because ofsurface run-off are more liable to changes in climatecompared to rivers with high base-flow indicesbecause of groundwater support. Also, a riseflooding frequency is probably alters many riverecosystems, although the extent to which thishappens will depend on deviation from backgroundconditions and through non-structural floodmanagement. The groundwaters recharge certainlysuffering from changes in the amplitude, frequencyand timing of extreme events. Projected changes inrecharge into groundwater stores are different formedian, dry and wet years.

The combined effect of high temperatureand low flow is deleterious to aquatic organismswith reduction in the dissolved oxygen quantity. Thepredicted change in air temperature causes increasein water temperature is a complex process dependsupon insulators and buffers such as solar radiation,groundwater input and shading. Other water qualityvariables likely to increase in response to moreintense rainfall events include turbidity andnutrients, with sediment washed in from thecatchment or in the case of nutrients from theriverbed.Mechanism of Climate change on PhysicalHabitat: Any changes in amount, seasonaldistribution and intensity of rainfall may affectchannel geomorphology, longitudinal and lateralconnectivity, and aquatic habitat. Bunn et al (2002)reported that loss of spatial and temporal linkage

can give rise to community isolation, species barrierand endemism.

There connectivity is typically reducedthrough flow disturbances by dams and is oftencombined in respect of other morphologicalmodifications such as channel formation (Ward etal., 1995). Flow is also a major determinant of bioticcomposition.Climate change and Biotic composition: Thermaland hydrological regimes are key variables duringriver ecosystems (Poff et al, 2009). The climatechange will affect aquatic assemblage at species tocommunity level. Susceptibility of aquaticorganisms to climate change varies between speciesand will in part depend on their biological traits.

Biodiversity in freshwater ecosystemsshows substantial impacts from land use, bioticexchange and climate (Sala et al, 2000). Threats toglobal freshwater biodiversity can be grouped asoverexploitation, water pollution, flow modification,degradation of habitats and invasion by exoticspecies (Dudgeon et al, 2006). These threats arelikely to be further exacerbated by predicted climatechange, leading to greater loss of aquaticbiodiversity.

The reduced individual flow within meta-population and increased homogenization ofcommunities favored generalist or opportunistspecies (Eady et al, 2013). The spawning behaviorof fishes may triggered by high temperature andwater level or flooding in rivers. A combination oftemperature and the flow regime was shown toinfluence the seasonal pattern of changes incommunity assemblage of insects (Rectliffe, 2011).Certain species may act as winners or losers withclimate change will result in a shift in communitystructure and possibly lea to change in trophic status.

The key climate changers -temperature andflow-are likely to determine the invasion and successof exotic and induced species in rivers (Bunn et al,2002). There, shift of community balance makesmore vulnerable to invasion by alien species.Changes in species pattern could also lead todevelopment of indigenous pest species of particularamong dipterans.


The Impact of Climate change on AquaticOrganisms: The change in precipitation regimecauses nourishing load in the river and excessaccumulation of organic material in river catchmentidentified by living beings. Also, plankton drift ispossible on the bottom with decreasing fishconsuming organic materials in the system and risein hydrogen sulphide layer.

Water temperature plays an important rolefor the reproduction of fish species and provide idealliving environment. The fishes are quite susceptibleto changes in temperature in larva and juvenile stageof their life cycle. If the population members areunable to adjust in the response of sudden and strongchange in temperature, disturbances in partial orcomplete metabolism may cause mass mortality. Thehorizontal local and northern migration is result ofclimate change to ensure reproduction and survival.Also, a decrease in pH level may effects hatchingand emergence of normal juveniles.Approaches for maintenance of appropriateClimate: The guiding principles includes focus onwater quantity with maintenance of appropriateenvironmental flows, integration of climate changeinto water quality management, conservationplanning for freshwater biodiversity, the promotionof ecosystem resilience, and extending climatechange science into policy and public discourse.

It is recognized that a naturally variableflow regime is required to sustain freshwaterecosystem rather than a static low flow in rivers.The flowing rivers without any disturbances mayrespond to changes in soil use and climate throughdynamic movements and are thus more resilient(Palmer et al, 2008). The retrofit dams with outletvalves to allow release of environmental flow andinstalling fish-ways to facilitate fish passage is moreresilient. In addition, an evaluation should beundertaken of the appropriateness of inter-basinwater transfers and vulnerability of donor andrecipient riverside biota to climate change.

The conservation planning has key pointsfor selecting ecosystems as high integrity,connectivity, incorporation with important areas forpopulation persistence and identification ofadditional processes that can be mapped. Aconservation target is minimum area needed to ensurerepresentation and persistence. Connectivity must be

planned in spatial and temporal dimensions, to counterdisrupted hydrological and thermal time-series eventsresulting from dam construction, water abstractionsand land-use changes (Richter et al, 1996).

Resilience is the capacity of reduced orimpacted populations or communities to recoverafter a disturbance (Hildrew et al, 1994). It reflectsthe capacity of natural systems to resist fromenvironmental change and thus persist into thefuture. The resilience of freshwater ecosystem maybe enhanced through restoration practices for smallrivers and wetlands. The vulnerability of freshwaterrivers to climate change depends on watermanagement ultimately and this options have thepotential to lessen its consequences. Engagementat a local scale is the scale at which climate changeis going to be felt, it is as important as institutionalsupport.

REFERENCES1. Bunn SE, Arthington AH (2002): Basic principles and

ecological consequences of altered flow regimes foraquatic biodiversity. Env Manag. 30: 492–507.

2. Dudgeon D, Arthington AH, Gessner MO, Kawabata Z,Knowler DJ, Lêvêque C (2006): Freshwater biodiversity:Importance, threats, status and conservation challenges.Biol Rev81: 163–182.

3. Eady BR, Rivers-Moore NA, Hill TR (2013): Relationshipbetween water temperature predictability and aquaticmacroinvertebrate assemblages in two South Africanstreams. Afr J Aquat Sci 38:163–174.

4. Hildrew AG, Giller PS (1994): Patchiness, speciesinteractions and disturbance in the stream benthos. In:Hildrew AG, Giller PS, Raffaeli D, editors. Aquaticecology: Scale, pattern and process. London: BlackwellScience.

5. Richter BD, Baumgartner JV, Powell J, Braun DP (1996):A method for assessing hydrologic alteration withinecosystems. Conserv Biol 10:1163–1174.

6. Ractliffe SG (2009): Disturbance and temporal variabilityin invertebrate assemblages in two South African rivers[PhD thesis]. Cape Town: University of Cape Town.

7. Sala OE, Chapin IFS, Armesto JJ (2000): Globalbiodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science.287:1770–1774.

8. Ward JV, Stanford JA (1995): Ecological connectivity inalluvial river ecosystems and its disruption by flowregulation. Regul River. 11:105–119.




SOME PLANT EXTRACTS AGAINST ANTHRACNOSE INFECTIONIN PAPAYA (Carica papaya)

Dimpal KumariEx-Research Scholar, JaiPrakash University Chapra (Bihar)


ABSTRACTWherever the papaya is grown, the foremost post-harvest

disease is Anthracnose through Colletotrichum gloeosporioidesinfection. The current research was conducted to evaluating plantextracts activity against to manage infection in hold on fruit in eachlaboratory and field conditions. Plant specimens were collected fromnative area. The wood alcohal extract of Echinops sp. of 10 ¼L fromthe concentration of 50 mg/ml resulted within the highest inhibitionzone of 13.5 mm against mycelial growth of C. gloeosporioides.

Spore germination of C. gloeosporioides was reduced by97.6%, 96.8% and 96.2% over the management by extracts ofEchinops sp., Thymus serrulatus and Ocimum lamifolium, severally.Among four botanicals evaluated in vivo as 10% and 25% binarycompound extracts, Echinops sp. at 25% concentration showed diseaseseverity score at 1.3 out of 5 and maintained quality of papaya fruitthroughout 14 days experimental period. Further study is critical on

sensory analysis and developing botanicals as natural fungicides.

Key words: Papaya anthracnose; Colletotrichum gloeosporioides;

Plant extracts; Echinops sp.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe most widespread and devastating diseases ofpapaya, particularly throughout storage isAnthracnose (Tasiwal et al, 2009). It is a serious

problem to papaya production and additionally ariseconstraints to market supply. Its infections areatypically predominated within the field at earlystages of fruit development; however the infectious


agent remains quiescent til the fruit reaches theripening stage.

There anti-fungal agent applied typicallysuppresses disease however additionally toxicanteffects area persistent during consumption and thenis also neglected due to metabolic disturbanceswithin the human body. Therefore, plant extractsare rising as safer alternatives to traditionalfungicides for the management of plant diseases(Tripathi and Shukla, 2007). This natural fungicidehas the flexibility to decompose speedily, therebyreducing their risk to human health and also theenvironment (Fokialakis et al, 2006).

The antifungal activities of various plantspecies and also the importance of plants as potentialsources of natural fungicides are well established.The past researches have demonstrated the anti-fungal potentials of plant extracts againstpostharvest fungi (Bautista-Banos et al, 2000). Theanti-fungal potentials of plant extracts particularlyon Anthracnose infection were additionally studied(Peraza-Sanchez et al, 2005). There is a need tofuture research regarding effective and economicaldifferent ways for the management of papayadisease.

This research conducted on some plantspecies had such secondary substances that ensuretheir antimicrobial properties and are toxic tophytopathogens (Tripathi and Shukla, 2007: Amare,2002). Papaya anthracnose is one among theforemost diseases of the crop in India (18).However, restricted studies are accessible regardingpapaya, and, thus this paper envisages impact ofplant extracts against infection under laboratory andfield conditions.

METHODS AND MATERIALS The fungal agent (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)isolated from papaya fruit lesions and grown inGlucose agar culture tubes at 4°C was used as stockculture throughout the study.

The plant leaves and twigs collected fromnative area were processed and extracted with woodalcohal. There 50 grams of processed plantspecimens were extracted with 250 ml methylalcohal by stirring for 2 hour on magnetic stirrer.

This extract was filtered through filter paper into a500 ml spherical bottom flask and reduced todryness at 40°C water bath temperature. Thereforth50 mg of the methyl alcohol extract of every plantwere re-dissolved in 1 ml of the extract solvent andthen tested for antifungal activities.

The paper disc assay for anti-fungalactivity was additionally performed. For this, 10 ¼Lof the extract solution employing a capillarymeasuring device impregnated to filter paper disc.Then pre-cooled disc was allowed to sporesuspension of fungi (105 conida/ml) and whenevaporation of carrier solvent incubated to 4 daysfor reaction. The experiment was arranged inCompletely Randomized Design (CRD) with 3replications. The diameter of inhibition zone wasmeasured in mm, and also the degree of inhibitionof fungal growth was recorded on a 0-4 scale(Amare, 2002).

The conidial suspension of targetinfectious agent was mixed with solvent served ascontrol to check its germination. The experimentwas arranged in CRD with 3 replications. A drop oflactophenol was added to the depression slide andalso thought of the mount was observed undermicroscope for spore germination. Theregermination was thought of once the length of thegerm tube exceeded its diameter. The quantity ofconidia germinated was counted and expressed aspercentage of germination.

The anti-fungal plant extracts impact uponharvested papaya in field condition was additionallyevaluated at concentrations of 10 and 25% (w/v)throughout study. The papaya fruits sterilized andthen incubated with pathogen spore suspension from10-day old culture and adjusted upto 105 conidia/ml. These fruits were then treated to plant extractsto 15 hour, whereas the control fruits were dippedinto sterile distilled water (Mohmmed et al, 2009).Carbendazim was used as positive control. Fivereplications (i.e. 5 fruits) were used for each of thetreatments. The experiment was laid out in CRD.

The disease severity was rated on 1 to 5scale, wherever 1=0% infection, 2=1-20%, 3=21-45%, 4=46-70%, and 5=71-100% fruit area affected(Bautista-Banos et al, 2002). Fruit quality


parameters of the fruits were measured followingthe methods utilized by Mahmud et al. (2008).

There titrated acid quantity in fruit tissues(10 g) were evaluated through homogenisation withwater (40 mL) exploiting thinner. Then 5 mL of thefiltrate was titrated using 0.1 N NaOH to an endpointpink through 1 to 2 drops of phenolphthalein (1%)as indicator. The results were expressed aspercentage of citric acid per 100 g fresh weight.Ascorbic acid was determined exploiting the dyetechnique and expressed as mg 100 g-1 of recentfruits (Ranganna, 1977).

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) wasdistributed with the minitab software. Leastsignificant difference (LSD) at 5% probability levelwas used for mean comparison. Disease severityratings were square root transformed whereaspercent spore germination was arcsine transformedprior to statistical analysis.

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONSEffect of plant extracts on mycelial growth andspore germination of target pathogen:The Mycelial growth of C. gloeosporioides wasconsiderably (P<0.05) inhibited by wood alcohalextracts of tested plant species (Table 1).

The impact of the extracts ranged fromweak to strong (shown on 0-4 scale). Strongantifungal activity was exhibited by each leaves andtwigs methanol extracts of Echinops sp. and Thymusserrultus. Growth inhibition score of four was

recorded for extracts of these plants, indicatingcomplete inhibition of growth and sporulation ofthe fungus. Echinops sp. had the highest inhibitionzone diameter of 13.5 mm, which was then followedby that of Thymus serrultus, Vernonia amygdalinaand Zingiber officinale (Table 1). There weresignificant differences among mycelial growth andspore germination in the presence of anti-microbialplant extracts (P<0.05). Among the six methanolextracts, Echinops species and Thymus serrultusshowed strong inhibition with only 1.1% and 2.3%spores germinated, accounting for 98.7 and 97.3%inhibition of spore germination over the control,respectively (Table 1).Effect of plant extracts on anthracnosedevelopment and quality of papaya fruitAll the four liquid extracts tested considerablyreduced anthracnose severity on papaya fruit thathad been artificially inoculated with C.gloeosporioides (Table 2). The severity ofanthracnose on a 1-5 scale was 1.3 (e” 1% fruit areainfection) in fruits treated with Echinops sp. extractat a degree of 25% that was statistically at par withthe positive control (carbendazim) after 14 days ofincubation.

Fruits treated with 25% liquid extract ofEchinops sp. had pH and TSS values of 5.57 and7.8, severally, that are statistically at par with thecarbendazim treated fruit. The highest TSS wasrecorded from the untreated control. There was nodistinction in terms of TA among fruits treated with

Table 1: Antifungal activity of Methyl alcohol extracts of some plant species against C. gloeosporioides(DI= Differential Inhibition and IE=Inhibition efficiency).Plant species Plant family DI (MM) IE SporeGermination (%)Zingiber officinalis Zingiberaceae 5.8 2 12.5Vernonia amygdalina Asteraceae 6.0 1 32.4Thymus serrulatus Lamiaceae 6.7 4 1.9Ruta chalepensis Rutaceae 6.7 3 7.2Ocimum sp. Lamilaceae 2.1 1 47.3Ocimum lamifolium Lamilaceae 3.7 3 2.1Lantana viloumoides Verbenaceae 2.1 1 18.7Ethiops sp. Asteraceae 13.2 4 1.0Artemisia afra Asteraceae 4.2 3 10.4Control -NA 0.0 0 85.8LSD (0.05) NA 1.26 NA 3.70


totally different concentrations of V. amygdalina,R. chalepensis and Thymus serrultus. However,Echinops sp. at a degree of 25% resulted in TA valuecomparable to the fruits treated with carbendazim.In general, fruits treated with liquid extracts of plantshad higher titrable acidity and ascorbic acid contentthan the untreated control (Table 2). Fruits in theuntreated control ripened quickly and this led to thereduction of titrable acidity and ascorbic acidcontent and increase in the pH and total soluble solidcontents of papaya fruits.

DISCUSSIONS The result incontestable that compounds extractedfrom plants vary in their effictivity in control for C.gloeosporioides growth that is probably due tovariability on the provision and solubility of activecompounds. The findings of this study are inagreement with previous reports on the antifungalactivity of Echinops sp., Ruta chalepensis, Thymusserrulatus and Artemisia genus (Amare, 2002:Ademe et al, 2013). Previous phytochemicalresearch of Ruta chalepensis resulted in isolationof various alkaloids and coumarins and thereforethe active ingredients of this plant have antifungalproperties that might prove useful to agriculture(Ojala et al, 2002).

Crude extracts of Vernonia amygdalinaexhibited antifungal activity and therefore thecompounds as glycosides, saponins and tannins were

identified as responsive to anti-fungal activity(Nduagu et al, 2008). Additionally, extract ofThymus vulgaris and Zingiber officinale oil arereported to inhibit mycelial growth ofphytopathogenic fungi (Lee et al, 2007). Similarly,complete inhibition of Helminthosporium solani,Aspergillu niger, Penicillium digitatum and Mucorpiriformis was reported by extract Z. officinale at25% concentration. The phytochemical analysis ofextracts confirmed the presence of tannins,phlobatannins, steroids, tarpenes, saponins,flavonoids and alkaloids (Cheijina and Ukeh, 2012).

The extracts of tested plants showed highinhibition on spore germination in comparison topapaya. This is in agreement with the report ofBarrera-Necha et al. (Barrere-Necha et al, 2008)which reported the inhibition of C. gloeosporioidesspores with essential oil of Ruta chalepensis.Similarly, Anand and Bhaskaran (2009) indicatedthat in stem ginger extract solely 38.9 and 28.8% ofspores of C. capsici and Alternaria alternateseverally germinated. It is noteworthy that inhibitionof spore germination by the extracts is fascinatingtowards the management of papaya anthracnose.

Increased in incidence and severity of thedisease resulted in fruit softening and rot thatsuccessively results in reduction within themarketability of the fruits (Gamagae et al, 2004).An identical trend was observed in this study. Theorganic acids in papaya are famous to be largely

Table 2: Impact of plant extracts on Anthracnose disease severity and quality of papaya fruit(TSS=Total soluble solids; TA=Titrable acidity and AA=Ascorbic acid).

Treatments Disease Quality Parametersseverity pH TSS TA AA

V. amygdalina (10%) 2.4 5.76 9.24 0.156 58.26V. amygdalina (25%) 3.1 5.56 9.75 0.184 64.61T. serrulatus (10%) 2.3 5.73 9.54 0.149 52.87T. serrulatus (25%) 2.5 5.73 9.13 0.145 54.96R. chalepensis (10%) 2.6 5.73 9.42 0.159 55.42R. chalepensis (25%) 2.7 5.72 8.73 0.164 58.32Echinopus sp (10%) 1.3 5.84 9.44 0.144 53.04Echinopus sp (25%) 2.1 5.72 9.56 0.1500 60.97 Control 4.6 5.89 12.46 0.126 39.72Carbendazim -1.2 5.46 7.36 0.18 63.56LSD (0.05) 0.68 0.19 0.96 0.017 7.12


are citric and malic acids, and therefore the increasein pH throughout ripening and storage can be dueto the metabolic processes of the fruit that lead todecrease of those organic acids (Mahmud et al,2008).

The reason for increased TSS contentduring storage is mainly due to conversion of starchinto soluble sugar with advances in ripening(Mahmud et al, 2008). Likewise, decrease in aciditythroughout storage incontestable fruit ripening (AlEryani-Raqeeb et al, 2009). Earlier, Selvaraj et al.(1982) and Mahmud et al. (Mahmud et al, 2008)reported that the ascorbic acid and measurablepapaya acidity first increases then decrease, whereaspH and therefore the TSS values increase throughoutsenescence. In last, extract of Echinops sp. strangledgrowth and spore germination of C. gloeosporioideslikewise anthracnose development by artificiallyinoculated papaya fruits and will be used for sensiblemanagement of papaya infection.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI am grateful to the Head, Botany Department ofJai Prakash University Chapra for laboratory facility

required to this research.

REFERENCES1. Ademe A, Ayalew A and Woldetsadik K (2013):

Evaluation of Antifungal Activity of Plant Extracts againstPapaya Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides).J Plant Pathol Microbiol 4: 1-4.

2. Al Eryani-Raqeeb A, Mahmud TMM, Omar SRS, ZakiARM and Al Eryani AR (2009): Effects of calcium andchitosan treatments on controlling anthracnose andpostharvest quality of papaya (Carica papaya L.).International Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 53-68.

3. Amare AM (2002): Mycoflora and mycotoxins of majorcereal grains and antifungal effects of selected medicinalplants from Ethiopia. Doctoral Dissertation. Georg-August University of Gottingen.

4. Anand T and Bhaskaran R (2009): Exploitation of plantproducts and bio-agents for eco-friendly management ofchilli fruit rot disease. Journal of Plant ProtectionResearch 49: 195-203.

5. Barrera-Necha LL, Bautista-Banos S, Flores-MoctezumaHE and Estudillo AR (2008): Efficacy of essential oilson the conidial germination, growth of Colletotrichumgloeosporioides (Penz.) and control of postharvestdiseases in papaya (Carica papaya L.). Plant PathologyJournal 7: 174-178.

6. Chiejina NV and Ukeh JA (2012): AntimicrobialProperties and Phytochemical Analysis of MethanolicExtracts of Aframomum melegueta and Zingiberofficinale on Fungal Diseases of Tomato Fruit. Journal ofNatural Sciences Research 2: 10-15.

7. El Sayed K, A-Said MS, El-Feraly FS and Ross SA (2000):New quinoline alkaloids from Ruta chalepensis. J NatProd 63: 995-997.

8. Lee SO, Choi GJ, Jang KS, Lim HK and Cho KY. (2007):Antifungal activity of five plant essential oils as fumigantagainst postharvest and soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi.Plant Pathol J 23: 97-102.

9. Mahmud TMM, Eryani-Raqeeb A, Omar SRS, Zaki ARMand Al Eryani A (2008): Effects of different concentrationsand applications of calcium on storage life andphysicochemical characteristics of papaya (Caricapapaya L.). Am J Agri & Biol Sci 3: 526-533.

10. Mohammed Y, Wondirad M, Eshetu A, Girma A andDereje T (2009): Review of Research on fruit cropdiseases in Ethiopia. (Abraham Tadesse edn), Increasingcrop production through improved plant protection-Volume II. Plant protection society of Ethiopia.

11. Nduagu C, Ekefan EJ and Nwankiti AO (2008): Effect ofsome crude plant extracts on growth of Colletotrichumcapsici (Syd.) Butler and Bisby, causal agent of pepperanthracnose. Journal of Applied Biosciences 6: 184-190.

12. Nguefack J, Leth V, Amvam Zollo PH and Mathur SB(2004): Evaluation of five essential oils from aromaticplants of Cameroon for controlling food spoilage andmycotoxin producing fungi. Int J Food Microbiol 94: 329-334.

13. Ojala T, Remes S, Haansuu P, Vuorela H and Hiltunen R(2000): Antimicrobial activity of some coumarincontaining herbal plants growing in Finland. JEthnopharmacol 73: 299-305.

14. Ranganna S (1977): Manual of Analysis of Fruit andVegetable Products. McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.

15. Tasiwal V, Benagi VI, Hegde YR, Kamanna BC and NaikKR (2009): In vitro evaluation of botanicals, bioagentsand fungicides against anthracnose of papaya caused byColletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz). KarnatakaJournal of Agricultural Sciences 22: 803-806.

16. Selvaraj Y, Pal DK, Subramaniam MD and Iyer CPA(1982): Changes in the chemical composition of fourcultivars of papaya during growth and development. JHortic Sci 57: 135-143.

17. Tripathi P and Shukla AK (2007): Emerging non-conventional technologies for control of postharvestdiseases of perishables. Fresh Produce 1: 111-120.

18. Wilson CL, Solar JM, El Ghaouth A and Wisniewski ME(1997): Rapid evaluation of plant extracts and essentialOils for antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea. Plant

Dis 81: 204-210.




IMPACTS OF MALATHION ON BIO-CHEMICAL CHANGES IN

FRESHWATER FISH CHANNA PUNCTATUS UNDER

LABORATORY CONDITIONS

Nagendra Kumar Yadav

Ex-Research Scholar, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar)


ABSTRACTThe fresh water fish Channa punctatus was exposed to

malathion in the laboratory to study its toxicity. The acute toxicitytests were conducted during certain intervals in various concentrationsof malathion. The physical and chemical analyses of water were carriedout by following APHA methods. The lethal and sub-lethalconcentration of malathion were found to be LC100 (25 mg/L) andLC0 (5 mg/L), respectively. The antioxidant enzyme activity in theliver, muscle and gill, respectively increased during the accumulationof malathion, whereas it decreased respectively during depurationperiod. The effects of malathion resulted in the gradual decrease ofnucleic acids, protein, free amino acids (FAA) and glycogen. Duringrecovery period, the levels of biochemical components progressivelyincreased indicating a probable recovery from the disruption of internalorgan. Hence, the pesticide intoxication has made defectiveconsequences in the normal metabolic pathways which led increasingthe rate of mortality in fish population.

Key words: Labeo rohita, Malathion, Protein, Nucleic acids andAntioxidant enzymes


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226




INTRODUCTION

The malathion contamination of ponds is a potentialproblem for aquaculture in tropical countries. Thepesticide, on reaching to aquatic systems, greatlyinfluences the non target organisms such as fish andbirds. Histological studies on fish have revealed thatvarious toxicants have produced pathologicalchanges in the tissues such as macrobiotic changesin the liver, tubular damage of kidneys, gill andlamellar abnormalities (Ramalingam, 2000). Due togrowth of agriculture in and around fresh waterbodies the pesticides are used abundantly duringthe cultivation season and found their way into waterbodies.

The degree of toxicity produced by thepoisonous substance is dose independent uponenvironmental conditions such as temperature, pH,oxygen content and presence of residue molecules(Singh and Mishra, 2009). It is well known thatprotein, carbohydrates and lipid play a major roleas energy precursors in fish under stress conditions.Enzymes play significant role in food utilization andmetabolism. The proteolytic enzymes participate inthe breakdown of protein molecules into amino acidsand these amino acids are in turn oxidized to giveenergy for body function (Saravanan et al., 2000).Pollutants can produce metabolic changes at cellularlevels by a way of influencing enzyme systems.

The present study has been made toinvestigate the biochemical changes followed bymortality in the fresh water fish Channa punctatusinduced by sub lethal dosages of the pesticide.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe collected Fishes were fed daily and acclimatizedin laboratory for 30 days. The physical and chemicalanalyses of the water were carried out (APHA,2005). Fish were divided into seven groups (eachcontaining 10 fish) where six were experimental andone group as control. Acute toxicity study wascarried out using the standard guidelines todetermine the lethal (LC100), median (LC50) andsafe sub lethal (LC0) levels of malathion in variousconcentrations (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 & 30 mg/L). Themortality of fish (%) was assessed during the interval

of 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours. The 1/3rd of medianlethal concentration (5 mg/L) was taken to studythe effect of malathion on the biochemicalconstituents and detoxifying ability of fish.. The water was renewed freshly every dayto produce constant effect of malathion on fish. Atthe end of 15 days exposure, the tissues such as liver,muscle and gill were collected by dissecting theanimal and stored at - 20ºC for biochemicalparameters studies. The remaining fish released intofreshwater for 15 days to know the detoxifyingability of the fish. At the end of 30 days, tissueswere collected again and one gram of muscle, liverand gill samples were suspended in 5mL of 0.1 Mphosphate buffer of pH=7 and homogenized. Thesehomogenates were stored for further studies at -20ºC. The Catalase activity assay was performedaccording to Beaumont et al (1990) by followingthe H

2O

2 dismutation at 240 nm in a reaction mixture

composed of 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH=7, 50–100 mg protein and 18 mM H

2O

2. GST activity was

measured at 37°C using 1 mM l-chloro-2,4dinitrobenzene (CDNB) as substrate.

The activity of acid phosphatase andalkaline phosphatase were assayed with the methodof TennisWood et al (1976). Proteins levels wereestimated by the method of Lowry et al (1951) usingbovine serum albumine as standard. Homogenates2 ml (w/v) cold distilled water was prepared in 30%TCA; values are expressed as mg/100 mg wet wt oftissue. Free amino acids (FAA) were estimated usingthe ninhydrin method (Moore and Stein, 1954)..FAA was expressed as mg/100 mg wet wt of thetissue.

The values were expressed as mean ±SEM. Statistical analysis was performed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed byLSD tests using the computer package SPSS 18.0 vand the significance of difference was set up at (p<0.05).

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONSThe percentage of mortality of Labeo rohita exposedto malathion in 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 mg/L for24h, 48h, 72h and 96h was assessed (Table 1).


Table 1: Mortality of Channa punctatusexposed to Malathion.

S Concen- Exposure period (hours) LC50

No. tration(mg/l) 24 48 72 96

1 5 N N N N 15 mg/l2 10 N 10% 10% 10%3 15 10% 20% 30% 50%4 20 20% 50% 70% 90%5 25 60% 100% N N6 30 10% N N N

The median lethal concentration wasobserved as 15mg/L since it is caused 50% mortalityin 96 h using the “Maximum likelihood method”(Finney, 1971). 1/3rd of median lethal concentration(5 mg/L) was taken to study the effect of malathionon the biochemical constituents and detoxifyingability of fish.

Table 2: Anti-oxidant enzyme activity in the tissues of Channa punctatus during accumulationand de-purination periods

Accumulation study (µmole of Phenol liberated/min/100 mg Protein)S. Anti-Oxidant enzyme Liver Muscle GillNo. Control Day 15 Control Day 15 Control Day 151 Catalase 13.6±1.13 42.8±2.1 6.8±0.10 16.2±0.54 6.7±0.13 23.4±0.152 Glutathione 5-transferase 19.5±1.12 269.8±0.14 92.9±0.12 142.9±1.04 119±0.52 214.8±0.70

Accumulation study (µmole of Phenol liberated/min/100 mg Protein)1 Catalase 38.03±1.03 16±1.42 10.3±0.72 7.9±0.23 21.9±0.84 9.7±0.642 Glutathione 5-transferase 251.9±1.40 218.8±1.10 134.9±0.16 107.8±0.32 17.9±0.27 158.2±0.44

The activity of antioxidant enzymes in the liver,muscle and gill of Labeo rohita exposed to LC0concentration of 5 mg/L malathion duringaccumulation were observed as showed in Table 2.

Depletion on biochemical parameters like Protein,Glycogen and Free amino acid were evaluatedduring various periods of exposure (Table 3).

Table 3 : Sub-lethal effects of Malathion on Protein, Glycogen and Free amino acid in the tissuesof Channa punctatus.

S Organs Biochemical Control Sub-lethal ConcentrationsNo. parameters 24hr 48 hr 72 hr 96 hr1 Liver Protein 225.3±1.42 206.68±1.20 180.2±0.44 178.86±0.42 142.2±0.78

Glycogen 11.2±0.32 10.4±0.16 9.6±0.15 8.7±0.22 6.2±0.16FAA 28.4±0.15 27.4±0.15 35.4±0.26 33.1±0.22 28.2±0.42

2 Muscle Protein 189.3±0.3 172.4±0.42 140.24±0.26 134.8±0.12 127.3±0.14Glycogen 9.6±0.3 9.2±0.3 7.4±0.16 6.7±0.26 5.2±0.16FAA 217.4±1.13 213.4±0.52 28.4±0.52 24.4±0.10 20.4±0.24

3 Gill Protein 198.3±0.32 162.6±0.54 125.3±0.63 96.9±0.12 86.3±0.15Glycogen 11.2±0.23 9.46±0.02 9.2±0.04 6.8±0.11 5.2±0.17FAA 22.4±0.15 22.2±0.48 21.6±0.46 20.4±0.12 19.8±0.25

Reduction on macro and micromoleculesare directly proportional to the concentration ofmalathion and exposure periods. The values wereexpressed as mean ± SEM and the significance ofdifference was set up at (p< 0.05).

DISCUSSIONSThe fish were seen to exhibit several behaviouralresponses, such as fast jerking, frequently jumping,erratic swimming, spiraling, convulsions andtendency to escape from the aquaria during study.


Rao et al (2005) reported that abnormal changes inbehavior in mosquito fish Gambusia affinis inresponse to the sub-lethal exposure to chlorpyrifos.

The fish exhibited unrest and a peculiartumbling motion before they died. Moreover, theherbicide butachlor persists in the aquatic systemfor a long period of time. The liver, muscle and gilltissues showed decreased level of acid phosphatase(ACP) and Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) activities.Shakoori et al (1992) have suggested the decrease(or) inhibition of ACP and ALP activities are due toincreased necrosis in the tissues like hepatocytes.

The protein, glycogen and free amino acidswere decreased gradually compared to control, whenthe period of exposure increased. The depletion ofprotein may also be attributed to spontaneousutilization of amino acids in various catabolicreactions inside the organism in order to combatthe stress condition (Borah, 1996). Increase of totalfree amino acids (TFAA) is an induction of steppedup proteolysis or fixation of ammonia into keto acidsresulting in amino acid synthesis. Generally, thesetwo processes contribute to the amino acid pool(Mohapatra and Noble, 1992). The carbohydratereduction suggests the possibility of activeglycogenolysis and glycolytic pathway to provideexcess energy in stress condition (Reddy et al(1993).

The present investigation shows biochemicalchanges due to sub lethal concentration of Malathionin total proteins, free amino acids (FAA) andglycogen in target organs and tissues significantly.Thus the pesticides intoxification has disturbed thenormal functioning of cells with the resultantalterations in the fundamental biochemicalmechanisms in fish. This would in turn result in themortality of fish on chronic exposure to thepesticide.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI am thankful to Head, PG Department of Zoology,JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar) to providelaboratory facility for this investigation.

REFERENCES

1. APHA (2005). Standard Methods for the examinationof water and waste water. Standard Methods for theexamination of water and waste water. 21st Ed.Washington DC.

2. Borah S and Yadav RNS (1996a). Effects of rogor (30%w/v dimethoate) on the activity of lactate dehydrogenase,acid and alkaline phosphatase in the muscle and gill offresh water fish Heteropneustes fossilis. J. Environ. Biol.,17(4): 279-283.

3. Finney DJ (1971). Probit Analysis. 3rd Ed. CambridgeUniversity Press, London, 330 pp.

4. Lowry O.H., Oserrought, MJ and Randoll, RJ (1951)Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagents. J.Biol. Chem., 193:265-275.

5. Mohapatra BC and Noble A (1992). RNA-DNA ration asindicator of stress in fish. Com. Physiol & Ecol., 17(2):41-47.

6. Moore S and Stein WH (1954). A modified ninhydrinreagent for the photometric determination of amino acidsand related compounds. J. Biol. Chem. 211: 907-913.

7. Ramalingam V, Vimaladevi V, Narmadaraji R andPrabakaran P (2000). Effect of lead on haematologicaland biochemical parameters in freshwater fish Cirrhinamrigala. Pollu.Res., 19:81-84

8. Rao JV, Ghousia B, Pallela R, Usman PK. and NageswaraRao R (2005). Changes in behavior and brainacetylcholinesterase activity in mosquito fish, Gambusiaaffinis in response to the sub-lethal exposure tochlorpyrifos. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health., 2(3):478-483.

9. Reddy MM, Kumar VA and Reddy SNL (1993). Phenolinduced metabolic alteration in the brain and muscle offresh water fish Channa punctatus during sublethaltoxicosis. J. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Monit., 3(1):7-1

10. Saravanan TS, Aneez Mohamed M and .Harikrishnan R(2000). Studies on the chronic effects of endosulfan onblood and liver of Orechromis mossambicus. J. Ecol. Res.Biocon.,1:24 -27.

11. Shakoori AR, Alam J, Aziz F, Aslam F and Sabir M (1992).Toxic effect of bifenthrin (Talstar) on the liver of Gallusdomestics. J. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Monit., 21(1): 1-11.

12. Singh S and Mishra RN (2009). Occurrence oforganochlorine pesticides residues in Kuano river ofeastern Uttar Pradesh. J. Environ. Biol., 30:467-468.

13. Tennis Wood MC, Bind E and Clark AF (1976).Phosphatases antigen dependent markers of rat’ prostate.Can. J. Biochem., 54: 340-343.



EFFECT OF FUNGAL INFECTIONS ON NUTRITIONAL VALUE OFPAPAYA FRUITS

Dimpal KumariEx-Research Scholar, JaiPrakash University Chapra (Bihar)


ABSTRACTThe nutritional value of fruits chiefly depends on the quality

& quantity of nutritive substances. Various fungi give rise rots in fruitsof papaya. The fungi are very selective in their nutritionalrequirements. They either colonize on fruit surface or breaks enrichedcomplex nutrients. In this study, five fungus were isolated from papayawhich are responsive to great loss in nutrients especially proteins andcarotenoids. Also, sugar content reduced, while quantity of simplesugars is interestingly increased during fungal infection.

Key words: Papaya fruit, fungus, nutrition, biochemical.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe papaya fruit has worldwide economicimportance. The papaya fruits are mostly used inthe case of liver problem, infection, constipationand neural disorders. This is an important tropicalfruit rich in protein, vitamins and minerals. It hashigh level of vitamin-C.

Postharvest losses due to fungal infectionsare significantly high in papaya fruits. Raymond(1989) and Ishaku (1989) estimated the post harvestlosses of tropical fruits to the extent of 25% of theproduction in Nigeria. Such a numerous studiesconducted during the last few decades haveestablished the fact that both qualitative and

quantitative changes occurs in infected fruits. The fungi influenced the stored substances

by absorbing them or by converting some of thesubstances into simpler ones. The quantity of variousfree and bound amino acids and organic acids isaltered and gradual decrease in sugar and vitamin-C content is observed with the advancement ofdisease. Such biochemical changes in fruits reducetheir market value considerably. In presentinvestigation, the effect of fungal infections onprotein, nitrogen, free amino acids, total sugars,reducing sugars and ash content of papaya fruitswere studied.


METHODS AND MATERIALSInfected papaya fruit samples collected in cleanpolythene bags from different locations, and broughtto the laboratory, swabbed in 70% ethanol for 2 min,washed with several changes of sterilized distilledwater and blotted dry with sterile filter papers. Thenature of spots, rots and extent of tissue damage infruits were carefully estimated. Isolations were madefrom infected fruits on PDA medium in 9cmpetriplates and incubated at 28± 1ºC for 3 days. Pureculture obtained from emerging mycelial colonieswere maintained on PDA slant and later identifiedby morphological examination, referring to Gilman(1971); Smith(1960); Tilak(1998) and with otherstandard literature. The pathogenicity of variousfungi isolated from infected papaya fruits wascarried out in laboratory by following Koch’spostulates.

Healthy and apparently uninjured ripenedfruits of uniform size were washed with distilledwater. Surface sterilized with 95% alcohol and airdried. Surface sterilized fruits wounded to2×2×2mm. Spore suspension of Rhizopus stolonifer,Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium digitatum,Curvularia lunata and Fusarium moniliforme wereinoculated to papaya fruits separately. Then the fruitswere incubated at 28± 1ºC for 8 days.

The healthy fruits without inoculationserved as control. The healthy and inoculated fruitswere analyzed for nitrogen, protein, total sugar,reducing sugar, total free amino acids, non reducingsugar and ash content. The nitrogen content wasestimated by conventional Microkjedalh’s methodand multiplied by factor 6.25 to determine theprotein percentage. Free amino acids were estimatedby the method of Jayaraman (1984). The changesin total suger and reducing sugar were estimated byfollowing the method of Dubols et al. (1956) andMiller (1959) respectively. The ash content wasestimated by following the method of Hart andFisher (1971). The estimation of ascorbic acid hasdone by following the method described bySadasivam and Manickam (1992).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSPathogens responsible for the postharvest diseases

of papaya are mostly fungi. Losses due topostharvest diseases are enormous in tropics andsubtropics. Keeping this view the importance of fruitin our diet, the efforts are required to minimize thelosses which can save at least 20% of our fruitproduction. In present investigation there is decreasein total sugar and increase in reducing sugar wasobserved in infected papaya fruits.

Table 1: Essential biochemical changes due toinfection in papaya fruits.

Fungal Nitrogen Protein Amino Total Reducing Vit C TotalPathogen (%) (%) acids Sugar Sugar (%) Ash(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)R. stolonifer 0.20 1.30 3.90 5.05 4.80 1.30 0.24F.moniliforme 0.19 1.24 3.78 4.98 4.92 1.15 0.66C.lunata 0.18 1.17 3.31 4.90 4.75 1.25 0.56P. digitatum 0.25 1.61 3.90 4.83 4.78 1.30 0.48A.flavus 0.22 1.42 4.10 4.87 4.95 1.24 0.54

Control 1.12 7.00 10.7 10.6 4.00 2.25 2.18

Generally it is observed that the quantityof the amino acids in free as well as bound formsincreased in infected fruits. Increase in free aminoacid may be due to proteolysis of fruit proteinscatalyzed by the fungal enzymes (Arya, 1993). Theincrease in protein bound amino acids to be due tothe association of fungal mycelium with fruit tissues.Vitamin-C of both healthy and infected fruits declineas fruits are stored but the decline is morepronounced in the infected fruits. Healthy fruits arevery rich in mineral content while in papaya infectedwith R.stolonifer; there is decrease in mineralcontent heavily due to the secretion of cell walldegrading enzymes and by toxin produced bypathogen.

CONCLUSIONIt is concluded from above investigation that thepostharvest infectional changes in papaya fruitsdiscussed here clearly showed that the significantbiochemical changes reduced nutritive value ofpapaya fruits and ultimately renders them unfit forhuman consumption and reduces their market value.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI am grateful to the Head, Botany Department ofJai Prakash University Chapra for laboratory facilityrequired to this research.


REFERENCES1. Arya Arun (1993). Tropical Fruits- Diseases and Pests,

Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.2. Dubols, M.G. Hariltan, K. A., Robers, P. A. and Smith, F.

(1956). Analytical chemistry 28:350-356.3. Gilman, J.C. (1971). A manual of soil Fungi, 2nd edn,

Iowa. State College Press, Ames, Iowa, 450p.4. Hart, D.L. and Fisher, H.J. (1971). Modern food analysis.

Springler-Verlarg, New Delhi.5. Ishaku, B. C. (1989). Two post-harvest fungal infection

of the carica papaya. Fruits in Ibadan. M.Sc. dissertation,University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

6. Jayaraman, J. (1984). Laboratory Manual of Biochemistry.Willey Eastern Ltd. New Delhi.

7. Miller,G. L. (1959). Analytical chemistry 31:426-428.8. Raymond, W. D. (1966). The importance of moulds on

the deterioration of Tropical food and feeding stuffs. SCIMonograph No. 23, pp: 21-30.

9. Sadasivam, S. and Manickam, A. (1992). Biochemicalmethods for agricultural sciences. Willey Eastern Ltd.

10. Smith, G. (1960). Industrial microbiology; Fungi;Industrial applications. 5th edn. Arnold, London.pp 399.

11. Tilak, S.T. (1998). Aerobiology, Satyajeet Prakashan.Pune, India.pp.504.




BIOLOGY OF SUGARCANE LEAFHOPPER UNDER LABORATORYAND FIELD CONDITIONS

Nikendra KumarEx-Research Scholar, Jai Prakash University, Chapra (Bihar)


ABSTRACTThere are several sugarcane insects in which Pyrilla

perpusilla recently emerged as a challenge for farmers and researchersto control infestation in sugarcane fields. This pest causes stuntedgrowth and also loss of sugar content in infected fields. The pestbiology showed different periods in laboratory and field conditionsduring study period. This comparative study in laboratory and naturalcondition showed that field conditions are more favorable to theirreproduction, growth and survival.

Key Words: Pyrilla perpusilla, endemic, survival, incubation, larvalstages


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe Sugarcane leaf-hopper, Pyrilla perpusilla Wlk.(Lophopidae: Homoptera) has recently become anendemic pest and is posing a great threat to the sugarindustry in India. Pyrilla perpusilla is a serious pestof the sugarcane where both nymphs and adults, feedon it as well as on other secondary host plants, bysucking the cell-sap that extensively affects itsproduction (Kumar and Sharma, 2008). The pestremains active throughout the year with 3-4 numbersof generations with optimum activity from July toSeptember and survives on wheat, barley and oat

etc. during winter (Shah and Saleem, 2002) .The adults as well as the nymphs inflict a

heavy damage to the plant and excrete a thicktransparent liquid, which ultimately makes amedium for black mould. P. perpusilla causes directand indirect losses. The cane juice becomes high inglucose, tunes insipid and if used, for making gur,gives a soggy mass, which does not solidify properly(Chaudhry and Ansari, 1988). An early infestationduring the grand growth period of cane adverselyaffects the yield while the late-infestation fromSeptember onwards mostly affects the sucrose


content of sugarcane (Puri and Sidharth, 2001).The biology and the behaviour of P.

perpusilla were first described by Fletcher (1914)in Bihar, India. A large number of workers haverecorded basic biological data on P. perpusilla, butmany studies are incomplete and of little generalapplicability. For instance, studies of the insect’sdevelopment rate have been made under semi-controlled temperature conditions and humidities(sometimes without the temperature/humidity rangebeing given) and the sugarcane cultivar used is oftennot stated (e.g. Gupta & Ahmad, 1983; Dhaliwal etal., 1987).

METHODS AND MATERIALSThe first instar hatched from each egg cluster wastransferred to potted plant placed inside cage. Thesenymphs were left undisturbed to feed and eventuallymetamorphose into adults. The adults were carefullyobserved and sexed using morphological features.The pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods were studied under laboratoryconditions.

The adult males and females were collectedfrom the rearing cages within 24 hours of last moult.Batches of the three males and a female were placedseparately in twenty rearing jars (10cm dia x21cmheight). A 2.5cm thick layer of plaster of pairs waslaid at bottom of each jar in order to providesufficient moisture for sugarcane leaf from wilting.The mouth of each jar was covered with a muslincloth allowing aeration to the adults. Fresh leaveswere supplied daily while removing the old leaves.Insects in the rearing jars were monitored daily untilall the insects died. The pre-oviposition, ovipositionand post-oviposition periods were recorded. Inanother separate experiment, newly emerged adultmales (n=20) and females (n=20) were collectedfrom the rearing cages and places separately inrearing jars described earlier with 10-12cm longpiece of sugarcane leaf and monitored daily untilall the insects died in order to determine thelongevity of adults.

The sex ratio, mating and ovipositionbehavior of the P. perpusilla were studied under bothlaboratory and field conditions. To determine the

sex ratio, adult P. perpusilla present on every plantunder experimental plot were sexed and countedonce a week. Sex ratio of adults was determinedusing x2-test.

Preliminary observations of mating andegg laying behavior were carried out in the field.Focal animal sampling was applied. The totalnumber of egg clusters found on the adaxial andabaxial surfaces of leaves in each plant in theexperimental pest was counted once a week. At thesame time, the total numbers of egg clusters foundon the luxuriant plants and scraggy plants were alsorecorded. Data were analyzed using simple t-testfor oviposition site selection.

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONSThe biology and reproductive behavior in Sugarcaneleafhopper were studied under both laboratory andfield conditions. There was no evidence that anylife stages of P. Perpusilla were present on the stemof sugarcane rather than leaves. The experimentalplot was the result of the buildup of naturallyavailable population of this insect.

P. perpusilla was established throughoutthe study period since there was no use ofinsecticides, herbicides or fungicides. Subsequntly,P. perpusilla found in the experimental plot wereidentified by comparing their morphologicalcharacters with voucher specimens from thelaboratory. Newly emerged adult female were readyto mate two days after emergence from the fifthnymphal instar males and females began to copulateabout two days after their last moult and matingoccureed usually during the day males and femalemated multiple times usually with different partnerswith each mating episode lasting 1-2 h femaletypically mated multiple times during a 1weekperiod before starting to oviposit mating continuedthroughout the oviposition period

Female carried an egg cluster for about 60-90 min at the tip of their abdomen before depositingit on a leaf. The females oviposit mainly during theday however, in same cases it was observed thatfemales oviposit even at night. The female have apre- oviposition period which range from 7-11 days,with a mean of 8.8±1.0 days. The maximum,


minimum and mean values for the ovipositionperiods are 22, 10 and 15± 1.4 days, respectivelywhile the same values for post-oviposition phasesare 8, 2 and 5±2.0 days respectively (Table 1).Table 1. Duration of various life parameters of

Pyrilla perpusilla during study period.Life History Laborato- Field AverageParameters ry (Days) (Days) (±SD)Pre-oviposition Period 7.85 9.40 8.20±1.00Oviposition Period 16.30 19.70 16.00±1.40Post-oviposition Period 4.30 7.50 5.00±2.00Male Longevity 27.40 30.85 25.00±3.10Female Longevity 31.20 35.70 33.10±1.80Incubation Period (In Lab) 7.30 8.50 6.80±0.81First Instar Nymphs 9.40 11.30 9.50±1.60Second Instar Nymphs 8.60 10.80 10.91±1.06Third Instar Nymphs 7.80 10.60 8.26±1.03Fourth Instar Nymphs 9.20 12.20 12.26±0.80

Fifth Instar Nymphs 9.50 12.40 11.20±0.95

A female during her lifespan produces 2-5egg clusters with an average of 3.3±1.1.the numberof eggs in a cluster obtained from rearing cageranged from 17-56 with mean of 33.0±10.3 whileeggs in a cluster obtained from the experimentalplot ranged from 18-57 with mean of 32.0±10.8 thedifference in means between eggs in a cluster laidin rearing cages and in the experimental plot is notstatistically significant (t-test, p>0.05 ) the totalnumber of eggs laid by a female during her lifetimeranged from 47-200 with a mean of 133±10.2.

DISCUSSIONSUnder laboratory conditions the incubation periodranged from 6-8 days with a mean of 6.8±0.81 daysand under field conditions it ranged from 6-9 dayswith a mean of 6.9±0.87 days (Table-1) thedifference between incubation period underlaboratory and field condition is not significantlydifference (t-test:p>0.001) Egg viability recordedfrom egg clusters collected from the rearing cageswas found to be 89.79% while that of egg clusterscollected from experimental plot was 87.22% therewas no significant difference between viability ofeggs laid in rearing cages and in the experimentalplot (t-test; p>0.001). Kumarasinghe andRanasinghe (1985) have stated that the mean numberof eggs in an egg cluster of P. perpusilla in kantale

(in dry zone) Srilanka was 35. The mean number ofeggs in a cluster at kelaniya (in field) was found tobe 33.05± 10.39 Despite the differences in climaticconditions between Kelaniya and kantale the meannumber of eggs in a cluster in both places isapproximately the same this indicated that thenumber of eggs in a cluster is an inherent traitunaffected by climatic differences which exist.

Longevity of the adult females wassignificantly greater (t-test; p< 0.01) than that ofthe males female lived for 31-37 days with a meanof 33.15±1.81 days, whereas the longevity range ofthe males was 21-31 days with a mean of 25±3.13days (Table 1). The viability of eggs appears to beaffected by the ambient relative humidity especiallywhen it shows drastic fluctuations (Mogal et al,1983). They reported that the viability of eggs was49% at 7.03% Rh and it gradually increased withincreasing relative humidity reaching a maximumof 92% at 82.26% Rh meteorological data recordedduring this study showed that the relative humidityat Gopalganj had a narrow range of fluctuationbetween 70 and 87% with a mean of 81±3.2% andthat the viability of eggs remained high throughoutthe study period since the mean viability of eggsrecorded in the study (89.74%) is very close to themaximum percentage viability (92%) recorded byMogal et al (1983). It is likely that the range ofrelative humidity prevailing at Kelaniya is optimalfor the hatching of P. perpusilla eggs.

Records of adult males and femalecounted in the field showed that there is noappreciable departire from the male: female ratioof 1:1(Chi2 test p>0.05) Absolute counting of malesand female was carried out this sex-ratio study.Sampling of an animal population is necessary onlywhen the population is large since counting ofindividuals is time consuming and costly. Howeverwhen a population is small and individuals couldbe conveniently counted a census of the populationmay be carried out this gives a true value of theabsolute population size within limits of human errorand wherever possible is preferable to sampling. Itwas observed that a low population level of P.perpusilla remained throughout the study period inthe study area Principle factors responsible for a


low level of abundance of P. Perpusilla in the wetzone of Sri Lanka have been described byGanehiarechchi and Fernando (2000)

There was no overlap of adults of differentgenerations of P. perpusilla during the present studysince the maximum lifespan of adult female wasmuch shorter than the developmental period fromegg to adult and there were no other sugarcane fieldsin the neighborhood, the study plot was sufficientlyisolated and immigration was unlike.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI am grateful to the Head, Zoology Department ofJai Prakash University Chapra for laboratory facilityrequired to this research, and, Umesh Kumar formutual support during study period.

REFERENCES1. Chaudhary NA and Ansari MA (1988): Insect pests of

sugarcane in Pakistan. Progressive Farming 8: 10-18.2. Dhaliwal ZS, Bal RS and Bains SS (1987): Lethal effect

of high temperature on various life stages of Pyrillaperpusilla (Walker) and its important parasitoids. IndianJournal of Ecology 14: 266-272.

3. Fletcher TB (1914): Report of the imperial entomologist.Report of the Agricultural Research Institute & College,Pusa, 1913-14: 62-75.

4. Ganehairmachehi GASM and Fernando IVS (2000):Population Dynamics of the Sugarcane PlanthopperPyrilla perpusilla in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka: TropicaScience 40(3): 144-153.

5. Gupta M and Ahmad I (1983): The Effect of Temperatureand Humidity on Different Nymphal Instars of Pyrillaperpusilla Walker Entomon, 8(1): 19-22.

6. Kumarasinghe, NC and Ranasinghe MASK (1985): Lifehistory and monthly incidence of sugarcane leaf hopperPyrilla perpusilla singhalensis (Homoptera: Lophopidae)in Kantale. Proceedings of the 41st Annual Session ofthe Sri Lanka Association of Advancement of Science,1985: 38.Kumar S, Khan MA and Sharma K (2008): The Sugarcanelophoid Planthopper Pyrilla perpusilla (HomopteraLophopidae): A Review of Its Biology, Pest Status andControl: Bul Entomol Res. 86: 485-498.

7. Mogal BH, Rajput SG and Mali AR (1983): Effect ofrelative humidity on hatching of sugarcane Pyrilla (Pyrillaperpusilla perpusilla Walker) eggs. Indian Sugar 32: 773-774.

8. Puri KD and Sidharth K (2001): Effect of Pyrila Epidemic(1999-2000) on Sugarcane Yield and Sucrose Proc. 63rd

Ann. Conv. Sugar Tech. Assoc., India, 25th to 27th August2001: A60-A68.

9. Shah HA and Saleem MA (2002): Applied Entomology(2nd Ed.) Izhar Sons Printers, Lahore, pp. 92.



ECOLOGICAL STATUS AND PERFORMANCE THROUGH PONDECOSYSTEM WITH PERSPECTIVES FOR FUTURE

CONSERVATION

Nilam Priyadarshini and Prashant KumarResearch Scholar, Department of Zoology, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar)Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, Ram Jaipal College, Chapra (Bihar)

[email protected]

ABSTRACTPonds perform diverse roles within the biosphere as an

integral component of the hydrological system. However, studies onpond ecosystems are often neglected due to its present aquaculturepotential. There are only very limited research work and no reviewon pond ecology in India. There is lack of government initiative onpond conservation in Indian context, therefore, an attempt has beenmade in this review paper to evaluate the ecological status andecosystem functioning of ponds affected with pollution andencroachment with perspectives of conservation in future.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe ponds are significant, as it prevail ecosystemservices that play major role in our life. However, itis a indisputable fact that ponds are relevant resourceto outcome global issue, but are ignored in nearlyall important processes like carbon processing andtransport. The ponds are component of theenvironment and also the interacting network ofmetabolically active sites (Downing, 2010). Theestimate suggests that ponds occupy over 90% ofthe worldwide water resources (Cereghino et al,2014). The ponds were discussed for sustainable

solutions to major problems of global climatechange, such as, nutrient retention, rainfallinterception, and carbon sequestration providedthrough ponds. This signifies ponds as small wetlandfeatures with its substantial ecological roles andlandscape values.

Ponds are a crucial freshwater resourcewhich play critical role in maintaining biodiversity,but seriously susceptible to degradation (Keeble etal, 2009). The ponds management can beneficiaryto the biodiversity, pollution alleviation, flood relief


Environment Policy, 2008) as special habitat for adiverse range of aquatic species (Fairchild et al,2005). Ponds located even in close proximity toevery other display quite different hydrologicbehavior and different environment related to eachpond (Lee et al, 2015). This can be because smallwater bodies, like ponds, are more easily formedduring a kind of landscapes. Local conditions whichinclude geology, altitude and land cover of theborder area greatly influence characteristics of theponds. Thus, ponds tend to indicate differentcharacteristics during a region, whether or notthey’re relatively near one another (Science forEnvironment Policy, 2008).

The previous research indicating specialecological features in ponds than other freshwatersystems evidenced through more aquatic insects thanrivers and interestingly represents regional diversity(Biggs et al, 2005) provide shelter to several typefish species. There both individual site pondnetworks provide biodiversity as provide alsoshelter to amphibians, fishes, plant species, avianand small mammals (Keeble et al, 2009). The pondshaving low catchment than other freshwater systemsand confers both positive and negative aspects totheir security, and, we see major degradation processwith severe anthropogenic disturbances in one sidebut also complete protection from land derivedpollutants on other side in present and next future.A pond may show combinations of three differentfood cycle components as algae, periphytrons anddetritus plants. The presence of this wide selectionof food sources is one among the explanations forthe presence of an oversized number of species ofanimals in ponds (Dubey, 2013).Ponds display carbon sequestration: Pondsprovide sustainable solutions to problems like globalclimate change and management of scarce waterresources (Cereghino et al, 2014). Ponds display amajor role within the global carbon balance also inperiod of climate change (Miracle et al, 2010). Theponds are more heterotrophic than large ecosystems,processing large amounts of atmospheric carbonstorage. It also hold low oxygen quantity than largewater resources, which enhances their carbonsequestration capacity. There more organic carbon

and global climate change. Moreover, the pond’secosystem connects directly with the communitypeople. Presently ponds are increasingly arise asthreatened freshwater habitat (EPCN, 2008). Properpond water management can mitigate climatechange impact; provide water for populationthrough recharge aquifers and capture heavy rainfallevent (EPCN, 2008). The active processes in pondshave global significance and therefore their role andcontribution in global ecosystem processes shouldbe emphasized (Downing, 2006).

There is no review paper on ecologicalstatus and ecosystem services related with smallwater reservoirs like ponds initiated problems abouttheir current status in India. There a preliminaryattempt have tried to compile the fragmented reportson ponds to clarify their present status andecosystem services with certain measures forperspective conservation of this important aquaticecosystem.Ponds as instruments for water security: Pondsare a serious asset which provides vast opportunitiesin water security sector (EPCN, 2008). The globalclimate change is probably to amplify rainfallvariability in all sites with scarcity or maximumrainfall (McCartney and Smakhtin, 2010).This change in rainfall pattern will recharge allfreshwater resources and groundwater in whichponds are also possible water storage options forwater security through storage of vital small volumesand being increasingly appreciated as a majorcontributor to the event of local human and livestockpopulations. The similar is case in urban area asspecial part urban water resources necessitate theirproper sustainable management (Ray andMajumdar, 2005). The pond network cansignificantly reduce water loss by rainfall wateraccess prior to groundwater storage (Cereghino etal, 2014). Thus ponds are essential receptors forharvesting rainwater and in maintaininggroundwater levels (Ray and Majumdar, 2005).Ponds as biodiversity hotspots: Pond harborsnutrients and preserve biodiversity through theglobal processes of biosphere (Miracle et al, 2010).The ponds are important in supporting biodiversitylike other freshwater resources (Science for


invested in ponds rather than large aquatic systems(Downing, 2010).Ponds as pollution alleviation factors: Ponds canbe used as structures to manage water quality(Downing, 2006). It can remove pollutants includingnitrogen, phosphorous, and sediments in uppersurface to reduce the nutrient load of the next waterresources

In this technique of nutrient retention,ponds are strategically located in such the simplestway to intercept water from the drainage systemsbefore they reaches into rivers or wetlands(Cereghino et al, 2014).Other miscellaneous services: Ponds also performother beneficial effects such as regulatingtemperature and humidity referred to asmicroclimate regulation. Ponds may modify therates of groundwater infiltration and evaporativeloss of water (Smith et al, 2002). The action of pondsdon’t seem to be limited to their local and regionalscales.

The ponds are also important as theycontribute immensely in the atmosphericbiogeochemical cycles (Miracle et al, 2010). It canbe treated as model ecosystems to check scientificaspects of ecology, conservation biology, globalclimate change modeling and evolutionary biology(EPCN, 2008). They are available to maintain andprovide link between human and forest animals(Dubey, 2013).Measures for pond conservationIt is essential to take care of the water quality ofponds at the required level as less managementpractices applied in respect of other large waterresources. It can provide multiple services atregional populations. The ponds are traditionalstructure to store rainwater in most parts of India.These work as water reservoir may be used forvarious activities like alternate drinking watersource, bathing, washing clothes, irrigation,aquaculture and non-secular activities. However,Indian ponds are under threat to acceleratingpollution rate and disappearance due to filling upand encroachment.

There is also scarce research due toconsideration of small system and funding inability

contributed to dearth of fine pond researches inIndia. This resulted in threatened ecosystemalthough play substantial roles in ecological stability.It hold great necessity to research for conservationand sustainable development in future.In India, evenhigh rainfall areas have water scarcity problemduring summer months and, therefore, it may bevaluable to harvesting rainwater and in maintaininglocal groundwater levels (Ray and Majumdar,2005). Ponds are important to the life and prosperityof the agricultural ecosystem in India. It also storewater for sustainable use in future rural and urbanregions (Ray and Majumdar, 2005).

Ponds as decentralized water resources aremore helpful against droughts and floods and,moreover, are less expensive water structures (IndiaToday, 2014). It seems that a network of communityponds have lost within previous periods. Ponds canplay very significant roles as sustainable waterresources, in India, especially as sources of drinkingwater, domestic use and aquaculture.

CONCLUSIONThis paper provides information on ponds in contextof their conservation and management planning inIndia. The available studies showed threatenedstatus due to increase in pollution rates andencroachment. There is a need of government policyto deliver the plan on the ground. There is a need topromote future research and development on ponds.There is also scope to develop water red data list(WARD) as IUCN red data list for extensive surveyand development of these water reservoirs in India.There is also need of systematic analysis of pondsas optional storage options in relation to their localservices and adaptation to climate change in India.It is a fact that ponds provide practical waterconservation solutions.

REFERENCES1. Downing JA (2010): Emerging Global Role of Small

Lakes and Ponds: Little Things Mean a Lot. Limnetica,29(1): 9-23.

2. Céréghino R, Boix D, Cauchie HM, Martens K and OertliB (2014): The Ecological Role of Ponds in a ChangingWorld. Hydrobiologia, 723: 1-6.

3. Downing JA, Prairie YT, Cole JJ, Duarte CM, TranvikLJ, Striegl RG, McDowell WH, Kortelainen P, Caraco NF,


Melac JM and Middelburg JJ (2006): The GlobalAbundance and Size Distribution of Lakes, Ponds, andImpoundments. Limnology and Oceanography, 51(5):2388-2397.

4. Keeble H, Williams P, Biggs J and Reid N (2009):Important Areas for Ponds (IAPs) and other SmallWaterbodies in Northern Ireland. Report prepared by PondConservation and the Natural Heritage ResearchPartnership, Quercus for the Northern IrelandEnvironment Agency, Northern Ireland, UK.

5. EPCN (2008): European Pond Conservation Network.The Pond Manifesto.

6. Ray MK and Majumdar S (2005): Evaluating EconomicSustainability of Urban and Peri-urban Waterbodies: ACase Study from Kolkata Ponds (Ed: Biodiversity andQuality of Life), Macmillan, New Delhi, 135-146.

7. Dubey TP (2013): The Biodiversity of the Ponds. Waterand Biodiversity, Uttar Pradesh State Biodiversity Board,30-36.

8. Biggs J, Williams P, Whitfield M, Nicolet P and WeatherbyA (2005): 15 Years of Pond Assessment in Britain: Resultsand Lessons Learned from the Work of PondConservation. Aquatic Conservation: Marine andFreshwater Ecosystems, 15: 693-714.

9. McCartney M and Smakhtin V (2010): Water Storage inan Era of Climate Change: Addressing the Challenge ofIncreasing Rainfall Variability. International Watermanagement Institute, Colombo.

10. Science for Environment Policy (2008): The Importanceof Ponds for Wildlife in Agricultural Landscapes.European Commission DG Environment News AlertService, Edited by SCU, The University of the West ofEngland, Bristol.

11. Miracle MR, Oertli B, Céréghino R and Hull A (2010):Preface: Conservation of European Ponds-CurrentKnowledge and Future Needs. Limnetica, 29(1): 1-8.

12. Smith SV, Renwick WH, Bartley JD and Buddemeier RW(2202): Distribution and Significance of Small, ArtificialWater Bodies across the United States Landscape. TheScience of the Total Environment, 299: 21-36.

13. Fairchild GW, Anderson JN and Velinsky DJ (2005): TheTrophic State ‘Chain of Relationships’ in Ponds: DoesSize Matter? Hydrobiologia, 539: 35-46.

14. Lee SY, Ryan ME, Hamlet AF, Palen WJ, Lawler JJ andHalabisky M (2015): Projecting the Hydrologic Impactsof Climate Change on Montane Wetlands. PLoS ONE,10(9):23-27.

15. India Today (2014): 10 Ponds Were Vanished for T3Terminal of Delhi Airport.



ECOLOGICAL SCREENING OF SHATIYA WETLAND IN RELATIONTO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

Rajesh Kumar Sharma and Amrendra JhaResearch Scholar, Botany Department, Jai Prakash University, Chapra (Bihar)

Associate Professor, Botany Department, Jai Prakash University, Chapra (Bihar)Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACTWetlands are such natural habitats that performing valuable

ecosystem services such as flood protection, water qualityenhancement, food chain support and carbon sequestration. Thewetlands may be extensively used without resolving drastic conditionsand without chemicals might results in crop production with otherwetland services with intact biodiversity.

This paper related to ecological screening of Shatiya wetlandwith the scope of its perspective use and sustainability of cropproduction. It also provide insight about recent anthropogenicdisturbances which will lead sequential pressure to reclaim and lossof natural existing crop fields and the increasing cultivation of energycrops.

Key words: Wetlands, sustainable agriculture, floodplains, rice fields,water use, irrigation.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThere is several human settlements primarilyoccurred in fertile areas along rivers as primarysettlements have occurred near water resources.Such river-connected wetlands are recognized asvaluable site for agricultural works from the primaryhuman settlements worldwide, because they havefertile soils resulted through regular sediment

deposition during flood events (Chew, 2003). Thewetlands are reclaimed for agriculture in many partsof the universe with ever simple drainage and landamelioration measures within the course ofcivilization. The natural wetland ecosystems withagricultural activities leading to reducedbiodiversity (Hassan et al., 2005; Mitsch and


Gosselink, 2007). It is certain that substantialwetland areas affected by drainage and developmentare only available for different regions mostlythrough agriculture (Millennium EcosystemAssessment, 2005).

The expected growth of the universepopulation within the next 25 years, the necessityfor food products will increase 50% by 2030(Hassan et al., 2005). Additionally, there’s agrowing trend to grow energy crops to be utilizedin bio-fuel production (Smeets et al., 2007). Also,some measures to boost neutral climate will lead toa greater pressure to natural areas for agriculture.This might mean that wetlands run an increasinglyhigher risk of being drained and destroyed. Anotherconsequence is that the active exploration of moreflood-tolerant and salt-tolerant crop varieties whichwill grow successfully under limited periods ofwater logging or drought-associated salt stress. Thismight lead to agricultural activities in wetlands thatleave the water regime of the wetland intact but stilldisturb the wetland ecosystem by adding fertilizeror pesticides.

The aim of this review is to measure theimpacts of the agricultural use of wetlands fromdifferent perspectives, with special attention to theresults of past and current developments of land-use dynamics and new agricultural approaches forwetland functions and their benefits worldwide.Agriculture in WetlandsFloodplains in river basins in many parts of theuniverse are used for agriculture with their naturalfertility. Floodplain sediments are regularlydeposited by flooding with river water in very wide,flat areas, with subtle height gradients from naturallevels with their relatively coarse sediments. Themost important areas of those floodplains are highlysuitable for growing crops, while the lower partsare wetter but are often suitable for grazing. Theselarge ‘land amelioration’ works in floodplains haveparticularly deprived them of their wetland characterin many parts of the planet (Nienhuis, 2008). Insemi-irrigated regions, the appliance of freshwaterfor irrigating crops has also created major problemsfor wetland conservation.

The river floodplains also provide a big

benefit to river fisheries. Many river-dwelling fishspecies spawn in aquatic vegetation on floodplainsand also the fish larvae take advantage of thefloodplains (Welcomme et al., 2006). There aremany initiatives to restore natural flooding and toorder environmental flows to boost floodplainfertility and river fisheries and similarly protect riverfloodplain biodiversity (Coops et al., 2006;Welcomme et al., 2006).Current Trends in AgricultureThe global food production has doubled within thepast 40 years are enough to increased humanpopulation (Hassan et al., 2005) at the expense ofmajor losses in biodiversity, disruption of worldwideelement cycles, problematic eutrophication andtoxification of our freshwater resources, and lossof regulating ecosystem functions. The challengefor the next 25 years to food production (FAO, 2003)also have another trend is able to create additionaldemands for agricultural land and increasingproduction is that the increasing use of firstgeneration bio-fuels as another energy source tofossil fuels (Smeets et al., 2007). The latest, moreflood-tolerant crop varieties may help to sustainablesolutions within the context of agriculture, wetlandecosystem services and biodiversity.Flood-Tolerant crop varieties and their use inAgricultureIt remains questionable whether major crop speciesmay be made suitable for growth in wetlandenvironments. Research in crop science has showna spread of crop varieties that have better waterlogging tolerance than the regular cultivars. Itprovides an outline of the range of flood tolerancesof cultivars of wheat, barley, oats, triticale, maizeand rice, at the vegetative stage, within the sectoror in flood-prone soils from target environments.

The timing, duration and intensity of theflood events clearly affected plant responses in thesepreliminary experiments. It should be stressed herethat the circumstances investigated are very brinkon this commercially used agricultural environmentsand means representative for wetlands. The well-drained wetland soils and also the flood periods werevery short as compared with those of natural wetlandenvironments. There some crop varieties have some


extent of flood tolerance. It is essential to searchflood tolerant strains which could provide scope inwetland productivity.

There is no systematic research whethernew variety of crop species apart from rice will begrown in wetland environments. Plant breeding andgenetic modification is ongoing to develop cultivarsthat are more flood-tolerant and salt-tolerant. Itwould be worthwhile to live success and part of thesedevelopments and specifically seek for opportunitieswhere such new cultivars could be utilized inselected wetland environments.

In view of the importance of wetlandecosystem services, it would be preferable topractice agriculture in wetland environmentswithout the requirement of forced drainage measuresthat basically transform wetlands to dry soils. Riverfloodplain systems are more suitable forexperimental use of flood-tolerant crops.Wetlands for Agriculture alongwith otherwetland servicesMany wetlands are currently subject to extensiveland uses, during which food production is typicallycombined with other functions like water qualityenhancement, flood detention or biodiversity. Thissort of land uses are traditional crop cultivationmethods without chemical fertilizers or pesticides,grazing schemes involving livestock, or traditionalwater management schemes to boost fish catches.At the current, such extensive land uses are oftenfound in regions with subsistence agriculture wherelocal communities produce food on a short scale,mainly for personal or community level (Waters,2007). Combinations of local crop growing, fishproduction and grazing are being practiced duringa semi-natural setting.

These systems could be optimized tosupply more food per unit of wetland area whileconserving the wetland, leaving its hydrology intactthe utmost amount as possible and protecting itsfunctions, including its biodiversity. It is importantto agronomists, environmental scientists and localstakeholder groups cooperate to strive for the mosteffective combinations of land uses and othermeasures and for its actual implementation.

CONCLUSIONIt is crucial to guard our remaining naturalecosystems from anthropogenic disturbances ascater demand of over-population in regions underprocess of development within the present universe.The floodplains and rice fields has proven to besustainable through past periods with minimalrequirement of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.The wetland systems could be considered forgrowing flood-tolerant crop varieties. These are justthe conditions often found in wetlands connectedpartially to rivers. Such agricultural activities inwetlands could also be tested in floodplainrestoration projects.REFERENCES:1. Chew OM (2003): Conflicts and integration between

wetlands and agriculture in Asia. International Journal ofEcology and Environmental Sciences 29: 79–84.

2. Coops H, Tockner K, Amoros C, Hein T and Quinn GP(2006): Restoring lateral connections between rivers andfloodplains: lessons from rehabilitation projects: (InVerhoeven JTA et al Ed: Wetlands and natural resourcemanagement). Berlin: Springer, 15–32.

3. FAO (2003): World agriculture: towards 2015/2030. AnFAO perspective. London: Earthscan Publications.

4. Hassan R, Scholes R and Ash N (2005): Ecosystems andhuman well-being: Current state and trends. Washington,DC: Island Press.

5. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005): Ecosystemsand human well-being: wetlands and water synthesis.Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.

6. Mitsch WJ and Gosselink JG (2007): Wetlands, 4th edn.Hoboken, NJy: John Wiley.

7. Nienhuis NH (2008): Environmental history of the Rhine–Meuse Delta: an ecological story on evolving human–environmental relations coping with climate change andsea-level rise. Berlin: Springer.

8. Rijsberman F and De Silva S (2006): Sustainableagriculture and wetlands: (In Verhoeven JTA et al Ed:Wetlands and natural resource management). Heidelberg:Springer, 33–52.

9. Smeets EMW, Faaij APC, Lewandowski IM andTurkenburg WC (2007): A bottom-up quick scan andreview of global bio-energy potentials to 2050. Progressin Energy and Combustion Science 33: 56–106.

10. Waters T (2007): The persistence of subsistenceagriculture: life beneath the level of the marketplace.Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

11. Welcomme RL, Brummet RE and Denny P (2006): Watermanagement and wise use of wetlands: enhancingproductivity. (In Verhoeven JTA et al Ed: Wetlands andnatural resource management): Berlin: Springer, 155–182.




POND EUTROPHICATION AND FOOD TYPE AS DETERMINANTOF GROWTH AND SURVIVAL IN Clarias batrachus (LINN.)

Kumar Sanu and Equabal JawaidEx-Research Scholar, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar)

Department of Zoology, ZA Islamia PG College, Siwan (Bihar)Email ID:[email protected]

ABSTRACT There was a significant different (P<0.05) in weight gain and totallength increase for treatments with the control condition. The resultof this study has show variation in water parameters, but diet Icontained the richest nutrients gave rise to the best growth and sizeincrement. Fish mortality was nil for diet I, 30.0% for diet II and 60%for diet III. Diet I was the cheapest, hence its usage may be encouraged.

Key words: Zooplankton, Maggot, Growth, Survival, Water quality.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONFish is most generally accepted food source andprovides vitamins, calcium and unsaturated fats tohuman population. Enriched nutrient supply inaquaculture enables the expansion and survival offishes (Dutta Munshi et al., 1990). The low supplyof fish protein within the country has been increasedmalnutrition especially among low income groups.Fish like other animals require essential nutrientsto larval stages for maximum production. Thenutrient can be supplied from plankton (Adigun,2005), worm’s maggot or supplementary diet forculture success. The planktons within the foodcomposition of predatory fishes could reduce thehigh cost related to artificial diet. Survival andincreased availability of fries and fingerlings were

better supported in combination with plankton, thanthe result with artificial diet alone within thehatchery (Ovie, 1996) High cost of fish feed has been a majorproblem to fish farmers in India. Artificial feed issometimes expensive because the feed ingredientscompete for its consumption by human andlivestock. There is have to identify, explore andutilize cheaper natural feeds which are easilyavailable with less competition. The maggot grownon poultry waste was reported to possess largepotential for fish production (Giri et.al., 2002).Fishes have used protein efficiently as energysource; hence they convert protein to energy betterand faster than livestock. The current study will


Data were subjected to one way analysis ofvariance (ANOVA) at 5% level of significance.Duncan Multiple Range Test was used to determinethe difference among means.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe water quality parameters were different for diets(Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3) showed varied metabolicnature of fingerlings during study period. Thisobservation confirms influence of water qualityupon fish survival and adequate growth performance(Games et al., 2000).

Fig. 1. Fluctuation of dissolved oxygen(mg l-1)in the larvae tanks.

There was a major difference (P<0.05) inthe body weight of the fingerlings in comparisonwith standard condition (Table 3). However, visualobservation of the treatment combination in diet Irevealed that it was richer than diet II (Coppens45.0% crude protein, 12.0% lipid and 9.5% ash).According to Gomes (2000), fingerlings are alwaysable to convert the protein components in naturalmeals more efficiently than those found in artificialfeed. This observation is in step with the currentstudy where maggot meal fortified with cultured

determine the worth of zooplankton as natural feedwith low cost, easy availability, less compatible andmost easily reproducible source for the expansionand survival of Clarias batrachus. We also studiedvariation in water parameters for various diets underexperimental period which also affects upon biologyof fishes.

MATERIALS AND METHODSFour weeks old fingerlings of Clarias batrachuswere obtained from the breeding stock ofKushinagar (U.P.) hatchery plant and conveyed inplastic bucket to tanks of 5.60 m2. theacclimatization was done in tank and food suppliedafter 24 hours of starvation. Ten specimens eachwere selected randomly from the pool and stockedinto tanks with different dietary components. Theexperimental diet analysis was as: 40% maggot indiet I, 41% coppens with artificial food in diet IIand only common ingredients (22% maize, 32.50%soybean, 3.60% blood meal as feed and .50%premix vitamins) in diet III.

The proximate analysis of first diet, maggotgrown from poultry waste contained 44.5% of crudeprotein, 10% of ash and 24% of lipid. The culturedzooplankton contained 60.8 crude protein, 9.05%ash and 13.4% lipid, while coppens contained45.00% of crude protein, 9.05% of ash and 12% oflipid. Each treatment was applied in duplicate. DietI contained maggot meal fortified with zooplankton,Diet II composed of coppens alone Diet IIIcontained only zooplankton as control condition.The zooplanktons were cultured as described byOvie (1996) and screened through mosquito nettingto get rid of wastes.

The fingerlings were fed twice daily forfive days at 9 h and 15 h and food quantity adjustedin accordance with their weight. Batch measurementof weight was taken with the help of an balance andrecorded at weekly intervals, while total lengthmeasurements recorded with the help of a measuringboard every week. Water temperature, dissolvedoxygen, nitrate and chlorophyll were observedroutinely (APHA, 1989). Growth and survival offingerlings were monitored for each treatment.

Dis

solv

ed o

xy

gen

(

mg

l-1

)

Number of Weak

Dis

solv

ed o

xy

gen

(

mg

l-1

)

Number of Weak

Fig. 2. Fluctuation of nitrate ( g l-1) of larvaetanks.


zooplanktons, provided adequate protein, lipids,fatty acids, minerals and enzymes for the fingerlings.However, both combinations enhanced bettergrowth of fingerlings as well as minimized problemsassociated with artificial diets (Ovie, 1996).

Fig. 3: Fluctuation of Chlorophyll (g l-1) of thelarvae tanks.

Again, the present observations werecorroborated with the finding of Fasakin et al.(2003) who opined that natural organisms in largequantity and high quality guaranteed goodperformance of fry and fingerlings in aquaculture.Lan and Pan (1993) reported that the nutritive valueof natural feed promotes better growth and higheryield in fish than from artificial feeds.Table 1: Biochemical composition of variouszooplanktons(%): MOIS=Moisture, CP=CrudeProtein, CF=Crude fiber, CHO=Carbohydrate,ASH=Ash, P=Phosphorus, C= Carbon.Zooplankton MOIS CP CF CHO ASH P CDaphnids 88.3 68.9 12.09 - 6.47 1.44 0.18Daphnia 90.7 53.5 7.00 25.9 11.40 1.09 0.34carinataRotifera spp. 89.3 63.9 14.0 - 9.9 1.00 0.16Copepoda spp. 89.6 56.8 19.6 0.50 9.43 - 0.26Average 89.47 60.7 13.17 13.7 9.5 1.17 0.17

Composition

Table 2: Weakly variation in body weight forall treatments (g): time in weeks.

Diets/Weak 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Diets-I 3.56 5.45 7.70 8.10 10.20 11.85 12.48 14.40Diets-II 3.33 3.94 4.95 5.90 7.00 8.24 8.90 9.51

Diets-III 3.13 3.40 4.50 5.57 5.78 6.49 6.69 7.38

Table 3 : Weakly variation in total length forall treatments(mm) : time in weeks.

Diets/Weak 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Diets-I 76.5 82.0 85.5 95.0 100.0 106.0 110.0 118.5Diets-II 76.6 79.7 82.5 85.5 90.5 91.5 93.5 101.0

Diets-III 75.5 78.5 81.0 81.0 85.0 86.9 88.0 90.5

This may have been the reason why diet Ifortified with zooplankton resulted in the bestgrowth performance and fish survival. Althoughartificial feeds are specially made to meet thenutritional needs of fingerlings; their nutritionalbenefits were better realized in combination withzooplankton. Diet III gave rise to the highestrecorded mortality probably due to the nutrientcomposition became insufficient could no longersustain to satisfy the growing fingerlings. This hasoften been the situation over time when fishes aregrown alone on natural feed. There was a significant difference(P<0.05) in the total length increase of thefingerlings when compared with the controltreatment (Table 4). According to Fasakin et al.(2003), fishes reared on qualitative natural mealsas diet I achieve adequate growth because theyutilized the nutrient from such feeds better and fasterthan from artificial feed coppens, diet II. In thisregard, the present study is consistence with earlierresearchers (e.g., Fasakin, 2003). The methods usedfor collecting, processing, drying storing andadministrating of feeds have been almost similarwith previous researches. The slight variation mayhave arisen from differences in the dung used formaggot production, rate and frequency of feedapplication. An overall survival of 70% was recorded atthe end of this study. Fish mortality was nil in diet I,30.0% in diet II and 60.0% in diet III. Thefingerlings depend solely on zooplankton in diet IIIresulted in highest mortality. This event may havearisen because as the fingerlings advanced in sizeover time, the nutrient composition of diet IIIbecome insufficient and inadequate diet resulted inthe weakness and subsequent death of thefingerlings. Again the quality and quantity of thezooplankton may have varied or become insufficientfor fast growth and sustenance over time. Suchobservation is in agreement with the report ofWedemeyer (2001). The mortality recorded for dietII may have emanated from depleted water qualityarising from the use of artificial diet. Thisobservation is similar with opinion of Ovie (1986)reported that the use of artificial diet along provided

Dis

solv

ed o

xy

gen

(

mg

l-1

)

Number of Weak


insufficient nutrients and could induce some effectswhich will result to fish mortality. The high survivalrate of fingerlings used for this study could becompared with 75% and 95% survival for artificialand natural feed revealed from study of SBUpadhyaya(1998). The uniformity in the resultsobtained in both studies may have emanated fromcareful handing of fingerlings which minimized thedegree of stress experienced during weakly fishmeasurement exercises by different researchers.

The study revealed that diet I proved to bethe most conductive for rearing Clarias batrachusjuvenile in this research. It was the best alternativein comparison with diet II and III, because it gaverise to the best growth rate and size increment. Itwas richer in crude protein, crude fiber and lipidsnecessary for adequate growth and survival offingerlings. The diet was also not compatiblebecause low cost of production, easily accessible,easily reproducible and economically viable. Incontrast, the use of coppens (artificial diet) resultedin laborious water quality monitoring, lesseconomically viable and not easily affordable to fishfarmers.

CONCLUSIONThis study has shown that diet I was the bestalternative for the rearing of Clarias batrachusfingerlings. The diet resulted in the best growth/totallength increase with highest fish survival. Thus, itmay be concluded that the cost of fish productionwas greatly reduced, the growth rate of fishimproved and survival of the fingerlings enhancedwhen maggot meal was fortified with culturedzooplanktons may be used as food.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe are grateful to Principal, ZA Islamia PG College,Siwan (Bihar) for facilities provided for completionof this work in Department laboratory.

REFERENCES1. APHA. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of

water and waste water, 17th edition, APHA, WashingtonD.C. page. 10-203.

2. Adigun, B.A. 2005. Water quality management inagriculture and freshwater zooplankton production for usein fish hatcheries. National Institute for Freshwaterfisheries research P.26.

3. Dutta Munshi, J.S., Singh, D.N. and Singh, D.K. 1990.Food and feeding relationship of certain aquatic animalsin the Ganga ecosystem. Tropical Ecology, 31: 138-144.

4. Giri, S.S., Sahoo, S.K., Sahu, B.B., Sahu, A.K.Mukhopadhayay, P.K., Mohanty, S.N., and Ayyappan,S.S. 2002. Larval survival and growth in wallago attn(Bloch and Schneider) : Effects of light, photoperiod andfeeding regime. Aquaculture, 213:151-161.

5. Gomes, L.C., Baldisserotto, B. and Senhorini J.A. 2000.Effect of stocking density on water quality, survival andgrowth of Brycon cephalous (Characidae) in ponds.Aquaculture, 183 (1-2): 73-81.

6. FAO. 2008. Food and Agricultural Organization :Fisheries Report No. 12: 05.

7. Fasakin, F.A., Balogun, A.M. and Ajayi, O.O. 2003.Evaluation of full fat and defatted maggot meals in thefeeding of Clariid catfish (Clarias gariepinus).Aquaculture Research, 34(9): 733-738.

8. Lan, C.C. and Pan, B.C. 1993. In vitro digestibilitystimulating the proteolysis of feed protein in the midgutof grass shrimps (Penaeus monodon). Aquaculture, 10:59-70.

9. Ovie, S.I. 1986. Some notes on the cultivation of livefish food. Annual conference of the Fisheries society ofNigeria (FISON) pp 11-76.

10. Ovie, S.I. 1996. Raising zooplankton for larvae and postlarvae stages of fish in hatcheries. NIFFR Extension GuideSeries (5): 9.

11. Upadhyaya, S.B. 1998. Nutrient utilization of Clariasbatrachus for different diets. Ph.D. Thesis, VaranasiHindu University.

12. Wedemeyer, G.A. 2001. Fish hatchery management,American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland 2nd

Edition.



HYDROBIOLOGY AND PHYTOPLANKTON POPULATION INCERTAIN PONDS OF NORTH BIHAR

Sony Kumari and Prashant KumarResearch Scholar, Jai Prakash University, Chapra (Bihar)

Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, Ram Jaipal College, Chapra (Bihar)

ABSTRACTThe hydrobiological parameters influencing indirectly to the

trophic composition in any water reservoirs. A hydrobiological studyconducted in three ponds in Gopalganj district of Bihar showed that waterparameters are within the permissible level in water quality standard forfishery. The water quality parameters were estimated by standard methods.The micronutrients showed higher iron content in most of the ponds. Thisstudy concludes aquaculture potential in ponds and its conservation isessential.

Keywords: Hydrobiology, chemical factors, phytoplankton


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTION The world’s water resources are under pressure andmust be managed for human survival. It is, therefore,necessary to have most relevant information forarriving at rational decisions that will result in themaximum benefit to most people. The real andreliable water management is vital for sustainableutilization in next future.

The small ponds have been also used earliertimes as a traditional source of water supply in India.However, the pollution in local water resources areresulting through sewage disposal, soil organics,detergents, fishing operations and agriculturalchemicals (Usha et al., 2006; Hasan et al., 2007). In

recent years, their importance has somewhatdeclined due to technological advancements leadingto more centralized water supply systems. There isa similar attitude among ecologists and planners toconserve ponds as perspective water resource inrural populations (Park and Park, 2005). The presentstudy is an effort about the water quality of selectedponds for their sustainable exploitation for multi-purpose task in future.

METHODS AND MATERIALSThe study was carried out in three different selectedponds in Gopalganj district. Water samples werecollected fortnightly from February to April, 2017


from the upper surface of ponds in PVC and BODbottles (for estimating dissolved oxygen).

The trace elements like Ca, Mg, Fe, Cuand Zn were also estimated (Gupta, 1996) by atomicabsorption spectro-photometer. The detection limitsfor Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu and Zn were 1.0, 0.1, 3.0, 1.0and 0.8 μgl,-1 respectively. The plankton samplingwas performed by filtering a known volume of waterthrough plankton net. These planktons were fixedin formalin and sedgewick rafter used forquantitative determination. Statistical analysis wasdone by using window based minitab software.

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONSThe water quality variables in studied ponds showedalso diverse phytoplankton, zooplankton and fishpopulations. There are different phytoplanktongroups in these ponds due to variation in waterparameters.

Figure1. Dominant Phytoplankton groups instudied ponds

Table - 1: Variation of chemical parameters inponds.

Variables Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3DO 6.37(1.01) 8.19(1.07) 5.91(2.38)Free CO

212.47(3.36) 13.27(4.68) 23.47(16.66)

TA 20.00(3.60) 11.00 (3.6) 47.87(56.23) pH 7.40 (0.34) 7.47(0.25) 7.5(0.21)Cnd. 123.8 (8.26) 29.63(1.7) 114.3(36.96)TDS 56.30 (3.79) 14.00(1.0) 52.67(16.56)Nitrate 0.720 (0.38) 0.210(0.11) 0.38(0.32).Phosphate 0.850 (0.01) 0.00 2.56(0.25)Calcium 0.013 (0.01) 0.03(0.01) 0.14(0.001)Magnesium 5.15 (0.05) 2.05(0.05) 3.37 (0.01) Iron 1.13 (0.01) 0.71(0.045) 0.49 (0.01)Copper 0.081 (0.01) 0.07(0.01) 0.09 (0.02)Zinc 0.820 (0.03) 0.39 0.30 (0.01)

Correlation coefficients computed among thechemical parameters of three ponds showed anumber of significant relationships (Table 2).

DISCUSSIONSThe quality of an aquatic ecosystem is dependenton the physicochemical qualities of water as alsoon the biological diversity of the system (Tiwari andChauhan, 2006).

The ponds 1 and 3 were previously usedfor washing and bathing and so Cyanophyceae andEuglenophyceae also encountered during the studywhich are generally seen to appear near sewageoutfall (Pandit, 2002). The highest dissolved oxygenvalue and nearly neutral pH in pond 2 can beattributed to the diversified plankton population. Allponds have been found to be favorable for fishproductivity as nitrate value of these sites rangedbetween 0.1-2.56 mgl-1. The low range of phosphatevalue in all the ponds is due to high temperature(Manna and Das, 2004).

In this study, it has been observed that ironis below limit in pond 1 and pond 3, whereas inpond 2 comparatively lower iron value is associatedwith moderate abundance of Euglenophyceae. Thisconfirms that magnesium also has a great role instimulating and maintaining Euglena blooms (DuttaGupta, 2004). This is possible because calciumincreases the availability of other ions andmagnesium acts as a carrier of phosphorus (Wetzel,1984). The concentration of copper and zinc in theseponds are very low.

The classical inverse relationship betweendissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide was found tobe significant (Wetzel, 1984), however, it alsoconfirmed in this study with low nitrate value exceptpond 2 which ultimately resulted in phytoplanktonvariation. Significant positive correlations ofconductivity with phosphate and magnesiumindicate that they are the key factors governing theconductivity regimes of the ponds investigated.

Calcium and magnesium are significantlycorrelated which can be attributed to the fact thatboth are integral part of plant tissue and contributeto the hardness of water (Wetzel, 1984). Further theyplay an important role in neutralizing the excess acid


produced in the system (Das, 2002). This alsojustifies the significant positive relationship ofcalcium with alkalinity. Iron showed significantpositive correlation with copper and zinc. These areessential micronutrients for plants and manyanimals, required in trace amounts, and thus vitalin the molecular architecture of various proteins,enzymes and vitamins.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe are thankful to Principal, Ram Jaipal College,Chapra (Bihar) to provide laboratory facility andPrem Kumar for mutual support during study period.

REFERENCES:1. Das, A.K.(2002): Limno-chemistry and productivity of

upper Ganga complex. Poll. Res., 21: 157-168.2. Dutta Gupta, S., S. Gupta and A. Gupta (2004): Euglenoid

blooms in the flood plain wetlands of Barak Valley,Assam, North-Eastern India. J. Environ Biol., 25: 369-373.

3. Gupta, A. (1996): Heavy metals in water, periphytonicalgae, detritus and insects from two streams in Shillong,Northeastern India. Environ. Monit. Assess, 40: 215-223.

4. Hasan, G.O., Paul P. Mathisen and Don Pellegrino (2007):Distribution of heavy metals in vegetation surrounding

the Blackstone River, USA: Considerations regardingsediment contamination and long term metals transportin freshwater riverine ecosystems. J. Environ. Biol., 28:493-502.

5. Manna, R.K. and A.K. Das (1984): Impact of the rivermoosi on river Krishna 1. Limno-chemistry. Poll. Res.,23: 117-124. Michael, P.: Ecological Methods for Fieldand laboratory Investigations. Tata Mcgraw Hill, NewDelhi.

6. Pandit, A.K. (2002): Algae as a component of Dal lakeecosystem in Kashmir Himalaya. In: Ecology andconservation of lakes, reservoirs and rivers (Ed.: ArvindKumar). A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.

7. Park, Bae Kyung and Seok Soon Park (2005): Effects ofstream hydraulic conditions on foraging strategies of falsedace, Pseudorasbora parva in the lentic ecosystem. J.Environ. Biol., 26: 635-643.

8. Ramesh, R. and M. Anbu (1996): Chemical methods forenvironmental analysis: Water and sediment. MacmillanIndia Ltd., Madras.

9. Tiwari, A. and S.V.S. Chauhan (2006): Seasonalphytoplankton diversity of Kitham lake, Agra. J. Environ.Biol., 27: 35-38.

10. Usha, R., K. Ramalingam and U.D. Bharathi Ramjam(2006): Freshwater lakes-A potential source foraquaculture activities-A model study on Perumal lake,Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu. J. Environ. Biol., 27: 713-722.

11. Wetzel, R.G. (1984): Limnology, Saunders College

Publishing, New York. pp. 760.




STUDY ON DIVERSITY OF RICE FIELD BLUE-GREEN ALGAEFROM RICE FIELD OF CHAPRA IN BIHAR

Sachi Kumari and Amrendra Kumar JhaResearch Scholar, Botany Department, Jai Prakash University, Chapra (Bihar)

Associate Professor, Botany Department, Jai Prakash University, Chapra (Bihar)Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACTThe blue-green algae are primitive but the fortunate and sustained

organism during the course of evolution. They are emerging candidates forefficient conversion of solar energy into chemical energy. The cyanophytesystem in rice field produces oxygen as a by-product and agricultural practicesin such fields produces biomass to decrease carbon dioxide and accomplishnitrogen fixation. The blue-green algal diversity was investigated in localrice fields through soil samples from sites having spatio-temporal differencesduring the study period. The study revealed 17 genera and 21 species ofblue-green algae population as a major nutritive material in rice fields.

Keywords: Cyanobacteria, Diversity, Rice fields, North Bihar, Species

richness


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe algae are either unicellular or thalloid plantsthat contain characteristic photosynthetic pigmentsand channelize oxygen throughout thephotosynthesis. The cyanobacteria are major partsof the micro-flora in rice fields and play an importantrole among the requirement and expression limitsof soil fertility, consequently increasing riceproduction (Song et al, 2005). They have animportant role among the biological process,especially within the rice fields (Hazarika et al,

2012). The rice fields are suitable site enriched withalgal diversity (Dey et al, 2012). It constitutesenough favorable ecosystems for the expansion andreproduction of these microscopic creatures toadequate requirements for light, water and highertemperature (Whitton and Potts, 2000).

The cyanobacteria in turn offer adequateamount of nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorusrequirement for rice cultivation (Singh et al, 2014).Most rice fields have a natural population of blue-green algae which provides a sustainable source of


mineral cycling. There are many widespread generain crop field soils that considerably contribute totheir fertility (Rao et al, 2008; Choudhary et al,2011). The studies on algal diversity have receivedwide attention within the recent times (Thajuddinand Subramanian, 2005). Thus rice fields aresuitable habitat for algal population.

The serious ecological imbalance withinthe soil caused by pesticides indirectly affects theproductivity of the rice fields. The agrochemicals,besides dominate over pests, harm an over-sizedvariety of non-target useful micro-organisms as theypersist among the soil of such ecosystem (Kapoorand Arora, 2000).

The rice field researches on algal florawere additionally assigned in Indian rice ecosystems(Dasgupta and Ahmad, 2013; Singh et al, 2014).However, data on species diversity and its role inrice field productivity is restricted throught the lastdecades (Nandi and Rout, 2000). The agro-climaticcondition of rice fields of Chapra (Saran) districtfavors the growth of several rice cultivars inconjunction with luxuriant algal population. Thisstudy provides an insight into various aspects ofalgal population in this agro-ecosystem.

METHODS AND MATERIALSThe study was conducted in four rice fields ofChapra District to explore existing algal diversity.The soil samples from rice fields were air dried,homogenized and mixed for experimentation. Nowtrace soil sample carried from different rice fieldswere kept in 5 petriplates with 40 ml sterilized algalmedium under optimum condition of light andtemperature in the laboratory. The quantity of eachspecies (CFU) in appeared algal colonies on theplates after 10-12 days of incubation were recordedafter microscopic examination. The microscopicstudies were performed about morphology and finestructure of algal population. Identification ofcyanobacteria was done using the keys given byDesikachary (1959) and J Komarek (2005). Thedata collection was performed about abundance,density, frequency with the help of existingformulae. The relative abundance of a selected algae

was calculated by using the formula: RA = Number

of samples containing the species/Total No. of

occurance of all the species × 100; whereas algal

diversity has been calculated by Shannon’s Diversityindex.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe cyanobacteriae are acting as bio-fertilizer toimprove soil fertility with eco-friendly manner andso there is need of extensive researches to managesoil quality for enhanced productivity. The regionalalgal isolates can be simply more effective due topre-adaptation to the existing natural conditions.The composite pure culture from specific regionsmight suitable as nitrogen fixing algae are beingcultured for their demand as natural fertilizer inIndia (Venkataraman, 1981). However, only rareculture may established promptly in any specificarea and this feature create gap for local biodiversitystudies to derive optimum edges from endemicstrains. There regional diversity documentation mayhelp in screening of suitable algal inoculants to beapplied as bio-fertilizer in crop fields likewise alsoto search new strains with alternativebiotechnological potentials.

There algal isolates from soil samples ofthree different sites were examined undermicroscope for salient feature and identified inaccordance with key provided by Desikachary(1959) and J Komarek (2005). The observationrevealed Nostocalesare as abundant genera in thelocal rice fields. The total colony is abundant inirrigated fields rather than rain-fed rice fields. Therice fields near saryug river, while rain-fed regionwith CFU below 50% confirms low rate of nitrogen-fixation with low productivity.

The species abundance comprised Aulosirafertilissima and Nostoc carneumis as maximum(Table 1) followed by three species Anabaenavariabilis, Nostoc punctiforme and Nostocopsislobatus during study. Relative density of N.lobatus and Nostoc carneum is more than othercyanobacterial strains. Relative abundance ofN.lobatusiae supports the finding of Nayaket al2007. N. lobatus, A. fertilissimia, N. carneum, A.variabilis, N. punctiforme, are the dominating


species of the tropical rice fields of this region. Manycompetent Nostocsp (Nilsson et al 2002), andAnabaena sp. (Adhikary, 2002) was able to colonizerice in root surfaces and intercellular spaces havinghigher nitrogenase activity compared to their free-living species.Table 2: Abundance and distribution of Blue-

green algae in various locations of Chapradistrict.Collection site Number Species Hs

of Genus RichnessDoriganj 12 21 3.40sonepur 10 19 3.25Ishuapur 07 14 2.10Marhowra 04 12 2.00Masarakh 03 10 1.80

Diversity index of algal population in theRice field of selected sites of Chapra were calculatedby Shannon-Wienner Method (Table2). It alsorevealed more diversity index in rice field withriverine water supply rather than rain-fed rice fields

through intoxication due to excessive use ofchemical fertilizers and pesticides (Adhikary 2002).The earlier study (Deep et al., 2013) confirms thaturbanization adversely affects the wetland algalpopulations. An extensive study is needed usingthese organism as inoculums for their use as bio-fertilizer as they are pre-acclimatized in all thecollected sites.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe are thankful to Head of PG Department ofBotany, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar) toprovide laboratory facility during study period.

REFERENCES1. Adhikary SP (2002): Utilization of region specific

cyanobacteria as biofertilizer for rice-a case study fromOrissa; Conference paper.BiotechnolMicr SustainableUtilization 47-56.

2. Choudhary KK (2011): Occurance of nitrogen fixingcyanobacteria during different stages of paddy cultivation,Bangladesh J.Plant taxon. 18(1): 73-76.

3. Deep PR, Bhattacharyya S and Nayak B (2013):Cyanobacteria in wetlands of the industrialized

Table 1: Diversity parameters of blue-green algae in selected rice fieldsSl no. species FO RF RD RA1 Anabaena doliolum var. Bhardwaja 100 5.36 5.64 4.422 Anabaena oryzae Dixit 100 5.42 6.20 4.503 Anabaena variabilis Kutzing 100 5.38 5.82 4.864 Anabaena oscillatroides 80 4.32 4.46 4.145 Aulosira prolifica Bhardwaja 80 3.80 3.92 3.206 Cylindrospermum majus Kutzing 80 3.60 3.80 3.407 Nostoc puctiformi (Kutzing) Hariot 80 3.40 3.60 3.008 Anabaenopsis amoldii var. Ramanathan 60 2.86 5.24 3.169 Anabaena fertilissimia CB Rao 60 2.56 2.12 1.4210 Anabaena orientalis Dixit 60 2.22 3.10 2.3211 Cylindrospermum licheniformis Born and Flah 60 2.86 2.70 2.2012 Cylindrospermum stagnata Born and Flah 60 2.49 2.76 1.9613 Nodularia spermagina Mertens 60 2.40 2.60 2.1014 Nostoc calcicola Brebsson 60 2.20 2.40 2.0015 Nostoc sps Born and Flah 60 2.00 1.94 1.8016 Nostoc hatei SC Dixit 60 2.10 2.00 1.7017 Aphanizomenon volzi Komarek 60 1.90 1.80 1.6018 Anabaena sphaerica Bhardwaja 40 1.70 2.10 1.4019 Cylindrospermum indendatum CS Rao 20 1.60 1.80 1.5020 Anabenopsis circularis var. Javanica wolosz 20 1.50 1.70 1.3021 Aulosira fertilissimia CB Rao 20 1.40 1.60 1.20


Sambalpur district of India.Aquatic Biosystem, Biomed9,14.

4. Desikachary TV (1959):Cyanophyta, Indian Council ofAgricultural Research, New Delhi, 686 pp.

5. Dey HS, Tayung K and Bastia AK (2010): Occvurence ofnitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria in local rice fields of Orissa,India. Ecoprint, 17: 77-85.

6. Hazarika D, Durrah I and Barukial J (2012): An ecologicalassessment of algal growth with particular reference toblue-green algae from upper Brahmputra valley of Assam.Ind Fund Appl Life Sci, 2 (3): 29-35.

7. Nandi B and Rout J (2000): Algal flora of differenthabitats of Dorgakona area, Silchar (South Assam).Phycos 39 (1 &2): 43-49.

8. Kapoor K and Arora L (2000): Influence of somepesticides on Cyanobacteria in vitro condition. Ind JEnv Ecoplanning 3 (2): 2-19.

9. Komárek J and Anagnostidis K: Cyanoprokaryota- 2.Teil/2nd Part: Oscillatoriales. In: Büdel B, Krienitz L, GärtnerG and SchagerlM(ed.), SüsswasserfloravonMitteleuropa19/2. Elsevier/Spektrum, Heidelberg 2005.

10. Nilsson, M., Bhattacharya, J., Rai, AN., Bergman, B.,2002, Colonization of roots of rice (Oryza sativa) bysymbiotic Nostoc strains, New Phytologist159:517-525.

11. Rao DB, Shrinivas D, Padmaja O and Rani K (2008):Blue-green algae in rice fields of south Telangana region,Andhra Pradesh, India. Hydrobiology, 11 (1): 79-83.

12. Shannon CE and Weaver W (1964): The Mathematicaltheory of Communication. University Illinois Press, USA.

13. Singh SS, Kunui K, Minj RA and Singh P (2014):Diversity and distribution pattern analysis ofcyanobacteria isolated from paddy fields of Chhatisgarh.Indian Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity, 7:462-470.

14. Song T, Martensson L, Erikson T, Zheng W and RamussenU (2005): Biodiversity and seasonal variation of thecyanobacterial assemblage in a rice paddy field in Fujian,China. FEMS Microbial Ecology, 54: 131-140.

15. Thajuddin N and Subramanian G (2005): Cyanobacterialbiodiversity and potential applications in biotechnology.Current Science, 89:47-56.

16. Venkataraman GS (1981): Blue-green Algae: A possibleremedy to nitrogen scarcity. Current Science. 50: 253-256.

17. Whitton BA and Potts M (2000): Soils and Rice fields(In: BA Whitton and M Potts Ed). The Ecology ofCyanobacteria. Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp 233-255.



CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:

STRUCTURE AND DISEASE

Suman Saurabh and Prashant Kumar

Research Scholar, Jaiprakash University, Chapra(Bihar)


ABSTRACT

Climate change is projected to cause significant alterations to

aquatic biogeochemical processes, (including carbon dynamics), aquatic foodweb structure, dynamics and biodiversity, primary and secondary production;and, affect the range, distribution and habitat quality/quantity of aquaticanimals. Nutrient and carbon enrichment will enhance nutrient cycling andproductivity, and alter the generation and consumption of carbon-based tracegases. Consequently, the status of aquatic ecosystems as carbon sinks orsources is very likely to change. The magnitude, extent, and duration of the

impacts and responses will be system and location-dependent.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONClimate change is very likely to have both directand indirect consequences on the biota and thestructure and function of tropical freshwaterecosystems. Changes in key physical and chemicalparameters at the landscape scale as described byAllison et al (2007) are very likely to affect aquaticcommunity and ecosystem attributes such as speciesrichness, biodiversity, range, and distribution, andconsequently alter corresponding food webstructures and primary and secondary productionlevels. The magnitude and extent of the ecologicalconsequences of climate change in freshwaterecosystems will depend largely on the rate and

magnitude of change in three primary environmentaldrivers: the timing, magnitude, and duration of therunoff regime; temperature; and alterations in waterchemistry such as nutrient levels, DOC, andparticulate organic matter loadings (Barange, 2009).

The key threats to natural resourcesincluding aquatic resources and fisheries have beencategorized as over-exploitation, invasive species,habitat change and pollution (Loh, 2008).Freshwater ecosystems and organisms are believedto be susceptible to climate variability and change.Fluctuations in precipitation are manifested inquantity of rainfall, floods and drought. Flood eventscan increase productivity as nutrients are washed


into aquatic systems but may also enhance siltation,displace communities and destroy infrastructure.Climate change will probably produce significanteffects on the biodiversity of freshwater ecosystemsthroughout the tropical and possibly initiate varyingadaptive responses. The magnitude, extent, andduration of the impacts and responses will besystem- and location-dependent, and difficult toseparate from other environmental stressors.Biodiversity is related to, or affected by, factorsincluding: the variability and availability of localresources; disturbance regimes in the area; the localspecies and their dispersal opportunities or barriersand biotic interactions with flexibility inreproductive and life-history strategies for certainaquatic organisms (Brucet, 2009). There is growingevidence, however, that climate change willcontribute to accelerated species losses at regionaland global levels and that the effects of alterationsin the biodiversity of ecosystem structure andfunction are likely to be more dependent on givenlevels of functional diversity than on the totalnumber of species (Dembski, 2009). Moreover, boththe number and type of functional units present in acommunity largely affect ecosystem resilience andvulnerability to change (Brucet, 2009).

A second major effect of climate changewill probably be alterations in the geographic rangeof species, thereby affecting local and regionalbiodiversity. As climate change effects becomemore pronounced (e.g., degree-day boundaries ormean temperature isotherms shift northward), themore ecologically vagile species are likely to extendtheir geographic ranges (Hecky, 2006). In NorthAmerica, for example, the distribution of yellowperch (Perca flavescens) is projected to expandnorthward beyond its current, primarily subarcticdistribution.Impacts on Aquatic Productivity ProcessesChange in fish community structure resulted byphysic-chemical alteration leading to increasedproportions of smaller-bodied individuals (Jepssenet al., 2010 and Murisa Ndebere et al 2011)associated with climate warming is expected toimpact other lake processes, such as nutrientdynamics and mobilization. Aquatic productivity

processes are affected through changes inphytoplankton composition and primary production,invertebrate composition and production, and food-webs.Impacts on composition, distribution,abundance, fishery yield and life history of fishes Climate factors modify biological cycles of fishwhich are adapted to certain hydrological conditionsespecially seasonal patterns such as in riverinespecies. Climate change will modify distribution offreshwater species through shifts in distribution ofplankton, invertebrates and fishes. Changes intiming, intensity and duration of floods will affectmigration especially of riverine fish species and willaffect spawning and transport of spawning products. Fishes are cold-blooded organisms andtheir metabolic rates are strongly affected bywarming. Increasing temperature affectedphysiology of fishes because of limited oxygentransport to tissues at higher temperatures.Temperature mediated physiological stress andtiming may affect recruitment success, abundanceand populations and changes in abundance and canalter composition and growth rate.

Changes in timing of floods may triggerproduction at the wrong time from plankton toinvertebrates and fish may be considered asconsequence of climate change. Shifts in speciesphenology including spring advancements anddelays of annually recurring life cycle events areamongst the most severe consequences of globalwarming (Durant et al., 2007). These shifts are oftenunequal amongst species and trophic levels, causinga mismatch between the phenology of organismsand their food.

Climate change may shift speciesdominance. It may provoke sudden andunpredictable responses as ecosystems shift fromon state to another. Regime shifts in fish stocks havebeen observed to be mediated not only by over-fishing and pollution but also by climate change.

There is close relationship between lifehistory parameters and temperature. Cool waterspecies are more affected by slight temperaturechange than warm water fish (Parmesan, 2006). Across-comparison of fish populations in temperate


lakes has shown that lower-latitude fish species areoften not only smaller, but also grow faster, matureearlier, have shorter life spans and allocate lessenergy to reproduction than populations at higherlatitudes (Blanck & Lammouroux, 2007).Impacts on parasites and disease incidences infishTemperature is one of the key driving forces behindmany ecological processes that affect the life-cycleof parasites. Global increase in average temperaturesis expected to affect productivity of capture fisheriesand aquaculture systems by increasing thevulnerability of fish species to parasite attacks anddiseases (Marcogliese, 2001). Climate changeincreases susceptibility of fish to disease as theirimmune function is compromised in the presenceof stressors like high temperatures and crowding.

High temperatures and reduced oxygenconcentrations are also expected to lead toproliferation of gill parasites, thus causingrespiratory problems and even death of infected fish(Pojmanska et al., 1980). A climate change is alsoexpected to indirectly affect parasites and their hostsin aquatic systems through alteration in water levels,eutrophication and ultra violet radiation(Marcogliese, 2001; Cochrane et al., 2009).Conclusions and recommendationsClimate variability and change is a majorenvironmental and socio-economic problem whichposes a major challenge to natural resources suchas fisheries and livelihoods. The international,regional and national governments and institutionsare increasingly recognizing this challenge. Thereis need to understand the impacts of climatevariability and change on different productionsectors and on livelihoods. The capacity, knowledge,policies, regulations, awareness are all still weakand need to be built to maturity if the challengesposed by climate change are to be adequateaddressed to reduce their effects on livelihoods.Policies to address climate change issues atinternational, regional and national levels have beendeveloped and there are some international, regionaland national legal instruments which can be appliedto address climate issues but putting these in practicestill remains a challenge.

REFERENCES1. Allison EH, Andrews NL, & Oliver J. (2007). Enhancing

the resilience of inland fisheries and aquaculture systemsto climate change. Journal of Semi-Arid TropicalAgricultural Research (4):1.

2. Barange M, & Perry RI. (2009). Physical and ecologicalimpacts of climate change relevant to marine and inlandcapture fisheries and aquaculture. In K.Cochrane, C. DeYoung, D. Soto & T. Bahri (eds.). Climate change implicationsfor fisheries and aquaculture: overview of current scientificknowledge. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper,No. 530, Rome FAO. P 7-106.

3. Blanck A, & Lammouroux N. (2007). Large-scale intra-specific variation in life-history traits of Europeanfreshwater fish. Journal of Biogeography 34: 862–875.

4. Brucet D, Boix S, Gascan J, Sala XD, Quintana A, BadosaM, Søndergaard TL, Lauridsen & Jeppesen E. (2009).Species richness of crustacean zooplankton and trophicstructure of brackish lagoons in contrasting climate zones:north temperate Denmark and Mediterranean Catalonia(Spain). Ecography 32: 692–702.

5. Cochrane K, De Young CD, Soto & Bahri T. (2009). Climatechange implications for fisheries and aquaculture: overviewof current scientific knowledge. FAO Fisheries andAquaculture Technical Paper. No. 530. Rome FAO. 212p.

6. Dembski SG, Masson D, Monnier P, Wagner & Phan JC.(2006). Consequences of elevated temperatures onlifehistory traits of an introduced fish, pumpkinseedLepomis gibbosus. Journal of Fish Biology 69: 331–346.

7. Durant JM, Hjermann DO, Ottersen G, & Stenseth NC.(2007). Climate and the match or mismatch betweenpredator requirements and resource availability. ClimateResearch 33: 271–283.

8. Hecky RE, Bootsma HA, & Odada E. (2006). Africanlake management initiatives: the global connection. Lakesand reservoirs: research and management 11:203-213.

9. Jeppesen E, Meerhoff M, Holmgren K, Gonza´lez-Bergonzoni I, Teixeira-de Mello F, Declerck SA J, DeMeester L, Søndergaard M, Lauridsen TL, Bjerring R,Conde-Porcuna JM, Mazzeo N, Iglesias C, ReizensteinM, Malmquist HJ, Liu Z, Balayla D & Lazzaro X. (2010).Impacts of climate warming on lake fish communitystructure and potential effects on ecosystem functionHydrobiologia 646:73–90.

10. Loh, J. (2008). 2010 and Beyond: Rising to theBiodiversity Challenge. WWF-World Wide Fund forNature, Gland, Switzerland.

11. Marcogliese, D. J. (2001). Implications of climate changefor parasitism of animals in the aquatic environment.Canadian Journal of zoology 79: 13331-1352.

12. Ndebele-Murisa, M. R., E. Mashonjowa and T. Hill,(2011). The implications of a changing climate on theKapenta fish stocks of Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe.Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 66(2),105–119.

13. Parmesan, C., (2006). Ecological and evolutionaryresponses to recent climate change. Annual Review ofEcology, Evolution and Systematics 37: 637–669.




EFFECT OF FURADAN ON HAEMATOLOGY OFChanna punctatus (BLOCH) IN CULTURE MEDIUM UNDER

LABORATORY CONDITIONS

TulikaResearch Scholar, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar)


ABSTRACT Haematological studies of Channa punctatus of local reservoirs inSiwan district within the present study includes the erythrocyte count,hemoglobin concentration and haematocrit value or packed cellvolume of blood and subsequently absolute values of MCV, MCHand MCHC were also calculated by the respective formulae. The keyeffects of butachlor on blood parameters are concerned with totalRBC count, their size and differential count of WBC. The importanceof this study is worried with pesticide pollution of paddy field in localarea and therefore the effect of butachlor on the hematological profileof the exotic carp, Channa punctatus.

Keywords: Hematological, Paddy field, Channa punctatus.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONSiwan district located in north Bihar with

Daha river in India. The local farmers used furadanin paddy fields for control of weeds, and, withinthe last decade tremendous change has occurred inthe crop fields ecology with use of insecticides andchemicals to regulate weeds and increase the yield.A significant quantity of this chemical finally findsway within the rivers (Sangeeta and RK Agrawal,2003).

The most icthyofauna of the river consists

of Channa punctatus and other small fishes. Channapunctatus is an endemic fish species of local paddyfields.

Pestcide pollution has proved to be veryhazardous for the final fauna and specifically forthe icthyofauna of crop fields. Heavy inflow offuradan is extremely common in Daha river whichbrings general morphological and physiologicalchanges in aquatic biota generally and to Channapunctatus specifically. Effect of heavy pesticidepollution on hematological parameters ofvarious


fishes has been studied by many workers. In thisstudy, the effect of furadan on the hematologicalprofile of Channa punctatus has been discussed.

MATERIALS AND METHODSLive specimens of the fish Channa punctatus werecollected from the local fishermen of Siwan district.The fishes of same size and body weights (20-25g)were taken for experimentation with prior 10 daysacclimatization within the laboratory conditions.Than 10 fishes were selected for control andexposed conditions. Three glass aquaria wereutilized in which the fishes were exposed to thesublethal concentrations of furadan for 10, 20 and30 days. Preliminary bioassays showed that 12 ppmof furadan was the sublethal concentration for thisfish in chlorine free water.

Blood was collected from each control andexperimental fish after 10, 20 and 30 days from thecaudal region. The erythrocyte count/mm3 throughNaubar double hemocytometer, hemoglobinconcentration in g/100mL followed Sahli’sHemometer and haematocrit value or packed cellvolume (%) through microhematocrit pipette wereevaluated during study.

Absolute values of M.C.V., M.C.H., andM.C.H.C. were calculated by following formulae:MCV=Hematocrit value (100 ml blood)/RBC count(Million/mm3), MCH=Hemoglobin in gm (100 mlblood×10)/RBC count (Million/mm3) andMCHC=Hemoglobin in gm (100 ml blood×10)/Haematocrit value (100 ml blood)

The size of RBC, their nuclei and theirsurfaces were measured on air-dried methyl alcoholfixed blood films. The area was measured by theformula: Surface Area=GD×LD/2×2, Where GD =Greater diameter of RBC/their nuclei, and, LD =

Lesser diameter of RBC/their nuclei. The WBCswere counted on morphological basis through L.M.and on the idea of morphological differences.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIt is clear that furadan has a good influence on theblood parameters as results are given (Table 1) upto the mark and furadan exposure after different daysof investigation.Table 1: Changes in Channa punctatus blood

parameters up to the mark medium.

Parameters After 10 days After 20 days After 30 daysControl Control Control(Exposure) (Exposure) (Exposure)

RBC length 11.68 (11.24) 11.80 (11.64) 11.38 (11.76)RBC width 9.72 (9.60) 9.56 (9.50) 9.62 (9.67)RBC nucleus 4.62 (4.66) 4.52 (4.56) 4.50 (4.58)lengthRBC nucleus 4.24 (4.26) 4.12 (4.09) 3.98 (4.08)breadthTEC×10/mm 2.86 (2.57) 2.78 (2.40) 2.56 (2.40)Hb (%) 15.21 (13.56) 14.62 (13.64) 14.24 (13.86)PCV (%) 30.62 (26.34) 31.42 (25.24) 29.96 (27.42)MCV (µm3) 109.36 (102.28) 114.22 (107.41) 112.10 (109.98)MCH (pg) 52.24 (51.10) 55.12 (55.04) 54.98 (55.12)

MCHC (%) 49.06 (50.36) 46.34 (50.32) 48.46 (50.34)

It is clear that butacholar TEC, Hb contentand PCV (%) showed a decrease during all the threeperiods. The length breadth ratio of the erythrocyteand their nuclei is sort of as regards to the controlvalues altogether the cases of exposure showing nochanges in shape. In some cases the hypochromasiaand eccentrically placed nucleus were observed.Significant alteration in absolute values like MCH,MCHC and MCV were also noticed. The TLCincreased in number after butachlor treatment.Significant increase in LL count and insignificantincrease in monocytes and neutrophils wereobserved.

Table 2: Differential WBCs count.

Differential WBC Control Exposure Control Exposure Control Exposure(10 days) (10 days) (20 days) (20 days) (30 days) (30 days)

Large lymphocyte 27.50 32.46 30.12 36.22 27.32 33.42Small lymphocyte 57.32 43.12 58.00 44.00 59.40 46.86Monocyte 6.12 8.94 7.52 8.24 6.64 7.18Neutrophyl 1.62 3.18 1.60 4.36 2.15 2.64Eosinophil 1.72 1.46 4.24 4.74 5.26 5.32Basophil 5.96 5.72 2.64 4.26 2.18 3.24


Histological studies are important from thepollution load, stress and disease point of view.Effect of furadan on blood parameters has beenproved to be a burning issue. The increase in RBCcount and Hb concentration suggests enhancederythropoiesis. PCV is directly correlated with totalerythrocyte count (TEC) in fishes. Significantalteration in absolute values like MCH, MCHC andMCV were also observed (Goel et al. 1985).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe are thankful to Head of Zoology Department,Ganga Singh College, Chapra (Bihar) to providelaboratory facility during study period.

REFERENCES1. Goel KA, Gupta K, Sharma ML (1985): Haematochemical

characteristic of Heteropneustes fossilis under the stressof zinc. Ind J Fish, 36:186-188.

2. Kumari I (2002): Effect of water pollutants on someaspects of physiology of teleost, C. fesciatus. PhD thesisMagadh University, Bodh Gaya, Bihar.

3. Sangeeta, Agarwal RK (2003): Drainage of waterpollutants to rivers. Bionotes. 2003; 5(4):103.

4. Samuel KM (1980): Notes on clinical laboratorytechniques. Hyderabad.

5. Srivastava PN, Narian AS (1982): Effect of weed pesticideupon freshwater fishes. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1982;50:13-21.

6. Santha Kumar M, Balaji M, Ramudu K (2000): Pesticidecontamination in water influences non-target aquaticorganisms. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 2000; 64:398-

405.




STABILITY IN THE EQUILIBRIUM POSITION OF ANEXTENSIBLE CABLE-CONNECTED TWO SATELLITE SYSTEM

UNDER PERTURBATIVE FORCE IN CIRCULAR ORBIT

Arvind Kumar TiwariEx-Research Scholar, Jai Prakash University Chapra (Bihar)


ABSTRACTOne stable position of equilibrium must exist for a system of

two satellites connected by extensible string whether perturbative forcesact on it or not. In this paper we have obtained an equilibrium point forthe system when perturbative force like air resistance acts on it and hasbeen shown to be stable in the sense of Liapunov.


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThis paper is devoted to examine the stability ofthe equilibrium point of the centre of mass of thesystem when air resistance as perturbative forceacts on it. Singh; R.B. and Sharma; B are thepioneer workers in this fields.

EQUATIONS OF MOTIONThe equation of motion of one of two satellitesmoving along Keplerian elliptical orbit inmechvill’s coordinates with air resistance can beobtained by using Lugranges equations of motionof first kind in the form :

and Air resistance

force parameter

Where ;

v = True anomaly of the centre of mass of thesystem.

Natural length of the string.

Here dashes denote differentiation w.r.to true anamoly v. The condition of constraint isgiven by

(2)

For circular orbit of the centre of mass of thesystem, we have e = 0


Putting in (1), we get the equations of

motion for two dimensional case in the form

(3)

where

The condition of constraint given by (2) takes theform

(4)

We find that the equations of motion (3) do notcontain time to explicitly. Hence Jacobian integralfor the problem must exist. Multiplying the firstequation of (3) by 2x’ and the 2nd equation of(3) by 2y’ and adding them together and thenintegrating, we get Jacabian integral as

(5)

Where n is the constant of integration.Equation (5) can be rewritten as

(6)

The curve of zero velocity can be obtained in theform

(7)

Hence, we conclude that the satellite of mass m,

will move inside the boundances of differentcurves of zero velocity represented by (7) of (6)for different values of Jacobian constant h.

EQUILIBRIUM POINT OF THEPROBLEMSWe have obtained the system of equations givenby (3) for the motion of the system in rotatingframe of reference. It has been assumed that thesystem is moving with effective constraints andthe connecting cable of two satellites of massesm

1 and m

2 respectively will always remain tight.

The equilibrium position of the systemis given by the constant values of the coordinatesin the rotating frame of reference.

Now, let x = xo and y = y

o give the

equil ibr ium position where xo and y

o are

constants-

Hence 0 0x x and y y

Thus, equations given by (3) take the form

(8)

Where

From (8), we get the equilibrium point as

2

0 2, ,9 33

f fa b

(9)

Stability of the equilibrium point [a,b] of the

system

We have

2

0 2 3 9 3

f fand ba

Let and denote variations in the coordinates

for this position of equilibrium. Then

(10)

Using (10) in (3) , we get

(11)

Where (12)

As the original system of equations

admits Jacobi’s integral, so there must exist a

Jacobi’s integral for the system of equation(11).

Moreover, it is not different to deduce the Jaobi’s

integral for (11) in the form :

(13)

Where is the constant of integration.

Now, (13) can be put in the form :

2

0 2

0

3

0

9 3

f

x x a

fand

nd y y

a b


+0(3) = h1 (14)

Where 0(3) stands for 3rd and higher of

terms in . To test the stability in the sense

of Liapunov, we take Jacobian integral given by

(14) as Liapunov’s function and

applying Liapunov’s theorem on stability it

follows that the only anterior for given

equilibrium position [a,b] to be stable is that V

must be positive definite and for this the following

conditions must be satisfied :

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

Putting the values of a and b for (9) in (15), it

can be easily seen that all the four conditions in

(15) are identically sat isfied. Hence the

equilibrium position [a,b] of the system is stable

in the sense of Liapunov.

REFERENCES :1. Singh, R.B. : The three dimensional motion of two

connected cable connected bodies in the elliptical orbitBulletin of Moscow state University MathematicalMechanics No. 4; 82-86; 1973 (Russian)

2. Sharma; B. : The motion of a system of two cable-connected satellites in the atmosphere. Ph.D. thesis,submitted to B.U.; Muz in 1974




NITROGENOUS FERTILIZATION LEVELS AND ROOTMYCORRHIZAL COLONIZATION ON PLANT GROWTH AND

PRODUCTIVITY IN WHEAT CROPS

Basant Narain SinghEx-Research Scholar, Jai Prakash University, Chapra


ABSTRACTIn a two-year study (2002-2003), mycorrhizal treatments in

conjunction with three nitrogen fertilization levels of 0, 50, 100 kg of N/hawere tested on durum wheat in continuous cropping. The study took placein the Province of Foggia, a semi-arid area of the Mediterranean Basin insouthern Italy, with silty-clay soil classified as Typic Chromoxerert. Seedsof cultivar Simeto were inoculated at sowing, and a completely randomizedblock design with three replications with and without inoculation wasadopted. Plant samples were taken during the vegetative cycle of the durumwheat, and the root mycorrhizal colonization was examined. In all treatments,the percentage of colonised root length was significantly higher in theinoculated plants than it was in the control. The plants inoculated andfertilized with 50 kg N/ha showed a significant increase in grain yield.

Keywords: Triticum durum, mycorrhizal, nitrogen


ISSN 0976 8653, E ISSN 2231 6396

UGC SR NO 2535; JR NO. 47226



INTRODUCTIONThe need to preserve soil fertility and protect theenvironment from detrimental agronomictechniques has brought about a revision ofproductive systems in agriculture. Recently, theemployment of beneficial microorganisms hasgained popularity (Pearson V. and Read D.J., 1973;Giovanetti and Gianinazzi-Pearson, 1994; Perotti

et. al., 1996).The mutualistic association between roots

and mycorrhizal fungi can improve a plant’snutritional state since it facilitates the absorption ofthe main elements in the soil (N, P, K), increasesthe volume of soil explored by the root system,improves the plant’s resistance to some diseases,


and increases its production of dry matter (Barber,1995; Smith and Read, 1997; Giovanetti and Sbrana,1998). The effects of mycorrhizas seem to increasein nonoptimal nutritional conditions. Inenvironments with scarce precipitation, the presenceof these fungi can make the plants more resistant towater stress and strengthen their ability to use thenutrients naturally occurring in the soil (Staddonet. al., 2002; Koide and Dickie, 2002).

Low levels of precipitation are commonin lower Mediterranean Basin areas such as theApulian plain known as the Tavoliere Pugliese insouthern Italy, a region where cereal crops dominate.The rainfall levels in this area limit the effect offertilization on durum wheat crops. The results ofstudies on the application of mycorrhizas in cerealcrops vary and appear to be frequently influencedby the environmental conditions in the trial area(Baon et. al., 1993; Thompson, 1990; Hetric et. al.,1995). To better understand these interactions, theIstituto Sperimentale Agronomico of Bari and theDipartimento di Biologia e Patologia Vegetale atthe University of Bari carried out a study on theeffects of mycorrhizas in durum wheat cultivation.The goal was to evaluate the possibility of improvinga plant’s nutritional state through alternativetreatments or in association with selected dosagesof chemical fertilizers.

METHODS AND MATERIALSThe study was carried out in 2002 and 2003 ondurum wheat cultivar Simeto in continuous croppingin the Apulian plain Tavoliere, a cereal growing areaof southern Italy. The soil of the experimental plots,which are part of the Istituto SperimentaleAgronomico, is a deep alluvial vertisol, silty-claytextured. It is classified as Typic Chromoxerert bythe Soil Taxonomy-USDA (Gee et al., 1986) andhas an acceptable agronomic fertility. The mainanalytic parameters are: pH on 1:2 soil watersuspension = 8.12; organic matter by the Walkley-Black method = 2.32%; available P by Olsen andSommers method = 77 mg/kg, exchangeable K byThomas method = 1685 mg/kg.

The climate in the area is hot and dry inthe summer and relatively cold in the winter. It is

classified as “accentuated thermo-Mediterranean”on the FAO-UNESCO Bioclimatic Maps of theMediterranean area. During the two-year study, thetemperatures as well as the rainfall levels were bothwithin the norm for the area. The precipitation was455 mm in the first year and 670 mm in the second(Figure 1).

The difference, with respect to the averageprecipitation over the last 49 years, was -95 mm inthe first year and +118 mm in the second. Duringthe most important months for growing wheat inthis area, November through May, the rainfall levelspeaked at 262 mm in the first year and 368 mm inthe second.Experimental design and treatmentsA completely randomised block design with threereplications was used, with 50m2 plots (5x10m) aselementary experimental units. Six treatments werecompared: 0, 50 and 100 Kg of N/ha (N0, N50,N100) with and without mycorrhizal application to


the seeds. The pre-established quantities of fertilizerwere administered in two equal applications at thebeginning of tillage and shooting. The inoculationtook place just before sowing the seeds; a fungalcompound in the ratio of 50 kg per 2 t of seeds perhectare gram per kg of seed was thoroughly mixedinto the seed bulk by turning it several times, up toreaching a uniform mycelium dispersal. The funguspreparation was made of topsoil and peat containingbacteria (Pseudomonas spp., Bacillus spp.,) at theapproximate concentration of 1x107 CFU/g (ColonyForming Unit) and about 50% of spores and myceliaof endo-mycorrhizal fungi of the genus Glomus(Glomus mosseae (Nicolson & Gedermann)Gedermann & Trappe, G. caledonium (Nicolson &Gedermann) Gedermann & Trappe, G. viscosum(Nicolson), G. intraradices Schenck & Smith, G.coronatur Giovannetti).AnalysisSamples of the soil and of the mycorrhizal funguswere collected and analysed to determine theconditions before sowing. For each m2, 350 seedswere sown. During the cultivation cycle, the mainvegetative phases (sprouting, tillage, shooting,flowering and grain maturation) were recorded. A10-plant sample from each elementary plot wascollected at the end of tillering, stem extension (lastleaf just visible) and flowering. These samples wereremoved with their roots and most of the attachedsoil to analyse the extent of mycorrhiza formation.After washing the roots free of soil, representativefresh samples were cleared for 10 minutes in KOH(10% w/v solution) in a pressure chamber at 121°C,and were stained with trypan blue (5% w/v inlactoglycerol solution, i.e. 1:1:1 lactic acidglycerol-water) (Phillips and Haymann, 1970). Thepercentage of mycorrhizal root length was assessedusing the grid-line intersect method (Brundrett etal., 1996; Giovannetti and Mosse, 1980; Newman,1966). At harvest, the yield and the main biologicalparameters were recorded. In the second year, eachplot underwent the same treatment as in the previousyear. The experimental data were analysedstatistically by a one-way analysis of variance afterARCSIN transformation and the means wereseparated by Duncan’s test (SAS, 1993).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe mycorrhizal fungi demonstrated a good abilityto interact with the root system of wheat. Withinthe treatments with mycorrhiza, the percentage ofcolonised root length was slightly higher withoutfertilization than with fertilization (N50 and N100)(Figure 2).

Figure 2: Wheat root mycorrhiza and percentcolonization.

This result could indicate that the colonisation ofroots by fungi suffers a slight decline in the presenceof nitrogen fertilizer. However, this phenomenondoes not have a negative effect on the plant yield aswill be presented below.

A comparison of the average grain yields(Figure 3) of the nitrogen-fertilized plots with thosehaving had mycorrhizas added to them reveals thatthe latter had a productivity increase of 0.15 t/ha.Indeed, the mycorrhizas positively influenced thegrain yield only in the presence of nitrogenapplications. In the plots without fertilization, the


yield from the treatment with mycorrhiza evenshowed a slight yet not significant decline inproductivity of 0.20 t/ha.

In combination with N50 fertilisation, thepositive effect of the treatment with the bio activatoron grain yield was evident and demonstrated asignificant difference of 0.41 t/ha with respect tothe equivalent plot in which only nitrogen wasadministered. In combination with N100fertilisation, the production increased in comparisonto the lower nitrogen treatment and the positiveinfluence of the mycorrhizas continued. However,in this case the increase in grain yield was 0.23 t/haand, thus, was not significant with respect to theequivalent N100 treatment without the seed fungalapplication. The straw yield shows trends similarto those of the grain yield. In absence of fertilization,there was a significant effect of reduction in the plottreated with mycorrhizas. Likewise, the combinationof mycorrhiza+fertilization effectively increased theyield compared with the treatments withoutfertilization (Figure 3).

Among the biometric parameters (Table 1),the 1000-seed weight was higher in the mycorrhiza-treated plots. Additionally, there was a significantdifference between the results in these plots andthose in the plots with only nitrogen added. Anexception to this, however, can be seen in the N50plot which had a 1000-seed weight similar to thevalue from the corresponding treatment plus the bioactivator (M+N50). The combination of

mycorrhiza+fertilization acted positively inreducing the percentage of yellow berry seeds. Thedecreases were 38% and 28% in the N50 and N100plots, respectively. This result is of great importancesince it represents an improvement in the quality ofthe grains. Instead, no influence was noted on thepercentage of stunted kernels in the two-year trial.For the parameter of plant height, the onlysignificant difference was the higher value in theplot with mycorrhiza and N100 fertilisation. Incomparison with the other treatments, this increasedvalue seems to be the consequence of the greaternitrogen fertilization.

CONCLUSIONThe treatment with mycorrhizal fungi interactedpositively with nitrogen fertilization. In absence offertilization, even though the percentage of wheatroots colonised with fungus was greater in the plotstreated with mycorrhizas, the grain yield, the 1000-seeds weight, plant height as well as the incidenceof yellow berries and stunted kernels remainedconstant, while the straw yield decreased. In thepresence of mycorrhizal fungi and nitrogenfertilization, the trends for grain and straw yield aswell as those for yellow berry improved significantlywith respect to both controls and the correspondingtreatments with nitrogen only. These increasesoccurred without changes in other parameters suchas the 1000-seeds weight or plant height. Thepositive effects observed can be interpreted ashaving the potential for improving the durum wheatcultivation techniques in semi-arid environments.The best increases were obtained from thecombination of mycorrhizas and 50 kg of N/ha. Itcan be concluded that mycorrhizas improve theability of durum wheat to take advantage of nitrogenfertilization, thus, having a positive effect on bothcrop yield and the environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe are thankful to Head of PG Department ofBotany, JaiPrakash University, Chapra (Bihar) toprovide laboratory facility during study period.


REFERENCES1. Barber S (1995): Rhizosphere Microorganisms,

Mycorrhizae and root hairs. In: Soil NutrientBioavailability, 157-179.

2. Baon JB, Smith SE and Alston AM (1993): Mycorrhizalresponses of barley cultivars differing in P efficiency.Plant and Soil, 157, 97-105.

3. Brundrett M, Bougher N, Dell B, Grove T and MalajczukN (1996): Working with Mycorrhizas in Forestry andAgriculture. Australian Centre for InternationalAgricultural Research Monograph 32, Canberra, 374 pp.

4. Giovanetti M and Mosse B (1980): An evaluation oftechniques for measuring vesicular-arbuscularmycorrhizal infection in roots. New Phytol., 84, 489-500.

5. Giovannetti M and Gianinnazzi-Person V (1994):Biodiversity in arbuscular mycorrihizal fungi.Mycological Research, 98, 705-715.

6. Giovannetti M and Sbrana (1998): Meeting a non host:behaviour of AM fungi. Mycorrhiza, 8, 123-130.

7. Hetrick BAD, Wilson GWT, Gill BS and Cox T (1995):Chromosome location of mycorrizhal responsive genesin wheat. Can. J. Bot., 891-897.

8. Newman EI (1966): A new method of estimating the totallength of root in a sample. Journal of Applied Ecology,3, 139.

9. Pearson V and Read DJ (1973): The biology of mycorrhizain the Ericacea. I., The isolation of the endphyte andsynthesis of mycorrhizas in aseptic culture. New Phytol.,72, 371-379.

10. Perotto S, Actis-Perino E, Perugin J and Bonfante P(1996). Molecular diversity of fungi from ericoidmycorrhizal roots. Mol. Ecol., 5, 123-131.

11. Phillips JM and Haymann DS (1970): Improvedprocedures for clearing roots and staining parasitic andvesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi for rapidassessment of infection. Transactions of the BritishMycological Society, 55, 158-160.

12. Smith SE and Read DJ (1997): Mycorrhizal symbiosis.London: Academic Press, 605.

13. Staddon PL, Heinemeyer A and Fitter AH (2002):Mycorrihizas and global environmental change: researchat different scales. Plant and Soil, 244, 253-261.

14. Koide RT and Dickie IA (2002): Effects of mycorrhizalfungi on populations. Plant and Soil, 244, 307-317.

15. SAS (1993): SAS/STAT, User’s Guide. SAS Institute Inc.,Cary, NC, Vol. 2.

16. Thompson JP (1990): Soil sterilization methods to showVa-mycorrhizae aid P and Zn nutrition of wheat invertisols. Soil Biol. Biochem, 22, 229-240.


Documents

AGRO-WASTE MANAGEMNT BY …scientifictemper.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Magzine...Key words: Agro-waste, bedding, organic fertilizer, recycle, straw. The Scientific Temper VOL-IX,