Aggression, Altruism, and Moral Development

Aggression, Altruism, Aggression, Altruism, and Moral and Moral

DevelopmentDevelopmentChapter 14Chapter 14

Instrumental aggression:Instrumental aggression: major goal is major goal is to gain access to objects, space, or to gain access to objects, space, or privilegesprivileges

Hostile aggression:Hostile aggression: major goal is to major goal is to harm or injureharm or injure

Both form and expression of aggression Both form and expression of aggression change with agechange with age

Figure 14.1 Trajectories of mother-rated aggression for children from age 2 to age 9 years. ADAPTED FROM NICHD EARLY CHILD CARE RESEARCH NETWORK, 2004.

Rough-and-Tumble vs. Rough-and-Tumble vs. Aggression?Aggression?

Does rough and tumble play Does rough and tumble play promote social development?promote social development?

rough and tumble could easily be rough and tumble could easily be misinterpretedmisinterpreted

Costabile et al. (1991)Costabile et al. (1991) Strength and type of blowsStrength and type of blows Facial expressionsFacial expressions Presence or absence of laughter and Presence or absence of laughter and

angry wordsangry words Presence or absence of a crowd Presence or absence of a crowd

watchingwatching Presence or absence of injury and Presence or absence of injury and

cryingcrying

Sex DifferencesSex Differences On average, boys more aggressiveOn average, boys more aggressive

– Not until 2 ½-3 years of age though!Not until 2 ½-3 years of age though! Biological differencesBiological differences Socialization differencesSocialization differences

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSIONAGGRESSION

Overt aggression declines from Overt aggression declines from middle childhood through middle childhood through adolescenceadolescence

Relational aggression in girls, and Relational aggression in girls, and indirect aggression in males indirect aggression in males increasesincreases

Individual Differences in Individual Differences in AggressionAggression

Aggressive toddlers Aggressive toddlers aggressive 5 aggressive 5 year oldsyear olds

Aggression between 3 and 10 Aggression between 3 and 10 aggression and antisocial behavior aggression and antisocial behavior later in lifelater in life

Figure 14.2. Aggression in childhood predicts criminal behavior in adulthood for both males and

females. FROM HUESMANN, ERON, LEFKOWITZ, & WALDER, 1984.

Individual Differences in Individual Differences in AggressionAggression

Few individuals are highly aggressiveFew individuals are highly aggressive 10-15% of classmates are abused by 10-15% of classmates are abused by

bulliesbullies Proactive aggressorsProactive aggressors Reactive aggressorsReactive aggressors

Social Cognition of Social Cognition of AggressionAggression

Dodge et al.Dodge et al.– Kindergarten to fifth gradeKindergarten to fifth grade– Given written descriptions of aggressive Given written descriptions of aggressive

and nonaggressive children, asked to and nonaggressive children, asked to name others in class who fit descriptionname others in class who fit description

– Aggressive = males…Aggressive = males…– Participants = aggressive and Participants = aggressive and

nonaggressive boysnonaggressive boys


Stories varied on:Stories varied on:– ActionsActions

Negative outcome vs. Ambiguous outcomeNegative outcome vs. Ambiguous outcome– Recipient of actionRecipient of action

Self vs. OtherSelf vs. Other– Instigator of actionInstigator of action

Aggressive vs. NonaggressiveAggressive vs. Nonaggressive– Task:Task:

Decide why event occurred, indicate how Decide why event occurred, indicate how they would respondthey would respond


ResultsResults– Hostile intent attributed more often when Hostile intent attributed more often when

aggressive boy was instigatoraggressive boy was instigator– Hostile intentions attributed to negative Hostile intentions attributed to negative

outcomes more than ambiguous outcomesoutcomes more than ambiguous outcomes– When imagined self as recipient, When imagined self as recipient,

aggressive boys attributed more hostile aggressive boys attributed more hostile intent, even in ambiguous situations intent, even in ambiguous situations ((hostile attributional biashostile attributional bias))


aggressive boys biasedaggressive boys biased may lead retaliationmay lead retaliation other children biasedother children biased This seems to be a characteristic of This seems to be a characteristic of

reactive aggressorsreactive aggressors


Proactive aggressors may have friends Proactive aggressors may have friends and do not feel as disliked as reactive and do not feel as disliked as reactive aggressors, so they may not be as aggressors, so they may not be as likely to have a hostile attributional biaslikely to have a hostile attributional bias

Proactive aggressors – plan an Proactive aggressors – plan an aggressive response to achieve an aggressive response to achieve an instrumental goalinstrumental goal– Expect positive outcomes Expect positive outcomes – Feel capable of dominating othersFeel capable of dominating others

Support for AggressionSupport for Aggression PeersPeers

– ReinforcementReinforcement– ElicitationElicitation

FamiliesFamilies– Coercive cyclesCoercive cycles

Origins of Coercive CyclesOrigins of Coercive Cycles Parental behaviorParental behavior

– Ineffective at controlling child, parent Ineffective at controlling child, parent loses controlloses control

– Indiscriminate use of Indiscriminate use of rewards/punishmentsrewards/punishments

Characteristics of childCharacteristics of child– Arrested developmentArrested development

Insensitive to social stimuliInsensitive to social stimuli

Prosocial Behavior and Prosocial Behavior and AltruismAltruism

Altruism – concern for the welfare of Altruism – concern for the welfare of others and willingness to act on that others and willingness to act on that concernconcern– 12 to 18 month olds offer toys to peers12 to 18 month olds offer toys to peers– Toddlers can express sympathyToddlers can express sympathy

Verbally rebuking children and physically Verbally rebuking children and physically punishing them reduces compassionpunishing them reduces compassion

Discipline based on affective explanation Discipline based on affective explanation increases compassionincreases compassion


Developmental Trends in AltruismDevelopmental Trends in Altruism– 2-3 year olds show 2-3 year olds show

sympathy/compassionsympathy/compassion– 4-6 year olds – more real helping acts, 4-6 year olds – more real helping acts,

fewer during pretend playfewer during pretend play


Sex Differences in AltruismSex Differences in Altruism– Girls are more likely to be helpful, Girls are more likely to be helpful,

generous, and compassionate than boys generous, and compassionate than boys (small difference)(small difference)

– Boys less cooperative and more Boys less cooperative and more competitive; more interested in looking competitive; more interested in looking good or attaining status/dominance over good or attaining status/dominance over othersothers

Prosocial ReasoningProsocial Reasoning Children with well-developed role-Children with well-developed role-

taking skills are more helpfultaking skills are more helpful Prosocial moral reasoningProsocial moral reasoning

– Preschoolers tend to be self-servingPreschoolers tend to be self-serving– Older adolescents are much more Older adolescents are much more

responsive to the needs of othersresponsive to the needs of others

One day a girl named Mary was going to One day a girl named Mary was going to a friend’s birthday party. On her way a friend’s birthday party. On her way she saw a girl who had fallen down and she saw a girl who had fallen down and hurt her leg. The girl asked Mary to go hurt her leg. The girl asked Mary to go to her house and get her parents so they to her house and get her parents so they could come and take her to a doctor. could come and take her to a doctor. But if Mary did, she would be late to the But if Mary did, she would be late to the party and miss the ice-cream, cake, and party and miss the ice-cream, cake, and all the games. What should Mary do?all the games. What should Mary do?

Prosocial ReasoningProsocial Reasoning Eisenberg found that responses formed an Eisenberg found that responses formed an

age-related sequenceage-related sequence– Hedonistic responsesHedonistic responses – motivated by – motivated by

consideration of selfish gainconsideration of selfish gain– Needs orientedNeeds oriented – consideration of others’ – consideration of others’

feelings and needsfeelings and needs– StereotypedStereotyped – try to gain approval – try to gain approval– Empathic orientationEmpathic orientation – judgments include – judgments include

sympathetic feelingssympathetic feelings– Internalized valuesInternalized values – based on internalized – based on internalized

valuesvalues

Prosocial ReasoningProsocial Reasoning Also observed behavior in classroom for 2 Also observed behavior in classroom for 2

months (4 and 5 year olds)months (4 and 5 year olds)– Hedonistic and needs-oriented were most common Hedonistic and needs-oriented were most common

responsesresponses– Needs-oriented reasoning = more likely to shareNeeds-oriented reasoning = more likely to share– Hedonistic = less likely to shareHedonistic = less likely to share

Empathy: an emotional experience in response Empathy: an emotional experience in response to another person’s emotional state or to another person’s emotional state or situation that is similar to that person’s situation that is similar to that person’s emotion and is accompanied by concern for emotion and is accompanied by concern for the other personthe other person

Socialization of Prosocial Socialization of Prosocial BehaviorBehavior

ModelingModeling Disciplinary techniques (Hoffman)Disciplinary techniques (Hoffman)

– Power assertionPower assertion– Love withdrawalLove withdrawal– InductionInduction


Zahn-Waxler & Radke-YarrowZahn-Waxler & Radke-Yarrow– Measured mothers’ reactions to events Measured mothers’ reactions to events

where their child caused distress or where their child caused distress or witnessed distresswitnessed distress

– Affective explanationAffective explanation– Neutral explanationNeutral explanation– No explanationNo explanation


AttributionsAttributions– Attribute a behavior to self…bowling Attribute a behavior to self…bowling

study…study…

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development How Developmentalists Look at How Developmentalists Look at

MoralityMorality– Affective component – stressed by Affective component – stressed by

psychoanalytic theorists – moral affectspsychoanalytic theorists – moral affects– Cognitive component – stressed by Cognitive component – stressed by

cognitive-developmental theorists – moral cognitive-developmental theorists – moral reasoningreasoning

– Behavioral component – stressed by social Behavioral component – stressed by social learning and social information-processing learning and social information-processing theorists – moral behaviortheorists – moral behavior

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development The Affective Component of Moral The Affective Component of Moral

DevelopmentDevelopment– Freud’s Theory of Oedipal MoralityFreud’s Theory of Oedipal Morality

Superego develops during phallic Superego develops during phallic stagestage

Identifies with same-sex parentIdentifies with same-sex parent Internalizes same-sex moral standardsInternalizes same-sex moral standards

– Girls have weaker superegos than Girls have weaker superegos than boysboys

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development– Evaluation of Freud’s TheoryEvaluation of Freud’s Theory

Pride, shame, guilt are important for Pride, shame, guilt are important for ethical conductethical conduct

Internalization of standards is vitalInternalization of standards is vital Details of theory unsupportedDetails of theory unsupported

– Harsh discipline = less moralityHarsh discipline = less morality– Boys not more moral than girlsBoys not more moral than girls– Underestimated when children Underestimated when children

begin expressing moralitybegin expressing morality

Story A.Story A. A little boy who is called A little boy who is called John is in his room. He is called to John is in his room. He is called to dinner. He goes into the dining dinner. He goes into the dining room. But behind the door there was room. But behind the door there was a chair, and on the chair there was a a chair, and on the chair there was a tray with 15 cups on it. John couldn’t tray with 15 cups on it. John couldn’t have known that there was all this have known that there was all this behind the door. He goes in, the behind the door. He goes in, the door knocks against the tray, bang door knocks against the tray, bang go the 15 cups, and they all get go the 15 cups, and they all get broken.broken.

Story B.Story B. Once there was a little boy Once there was a little boy whose name was Henry. One day whose name was Henry. One day when his mother was out he tried to when his mother was out he tried to reach some jam in the cupboard. He reach some jam in the cupboard. He climbed onto a chair and stretched climbed onto a chair and stretched out his arm. But the jam was too out his arm. But the jam was too high up, and he couldn’t reach it…high up, and he couldn’t reach it…While he was trying to get it, he While he was trying to get it, he knocked over a cup. The cup fell knocked over a cup. The cup fell down and broke.down and broke.

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development The Premoral PeriodThe Premoral Period Heteronomous MoralityHeteronomous Morality

– Objective responsibilityObjective responsibility– Immanent justiceImmanent justice

Autonomous MoralityAutonomous Morality

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Moving From Heteronomous to Moving From Heteronomous to

Autonomous MoralityAutonomous Morality– Cognitive maturation – decline in Cognitive maturation – decline in

egocentrism, increase in role-takingegocentrism, increase in role-taking– Social experience – equal status with Social experience – equal status with

peers is vitalpeers is vital Lessen respect for adult authorityLessen respect for adult authority Increases self and peer respectIncreases self and peer respect Shows rules are arbitraryShows rules are arbitrary

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Evaluation of PiagetEvaluation of Piaget

– Describes general direction of change in Describes general direction of change in moral judgment fairly wellmoral judgment fairly well

– Underestimates moral capacities of Underestimates moral capacities of young childrenyoung children

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Intentions – Nelson (1980)Intentions – Nelson (1980)

– Read story in which child threw a ball to Read story in which child threw a ball to playmateplaymate

– Motives were good or badMotives were good or bad– Consequences were positive or negativeConsequences were positive or negative– Acts ending in positive consequences judged Acts ending in positive consequences judged

more favorably than those ending in harmmore favorably than those ending in harm– Good intentions judged more favorably than Good intentions judged more favorably than

badbad

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development by age 4, recognize the difference by age 4, recognize the difference

between truthfulness and lyingbetween truthfulness and lying approve of telling the truth and approve of telling the truth and

disapprove of lyingdisapprove of lying evaluate personal injury more evaluate personal injury more

harshly than property injuryharshly than property injury more tolerant of immoral acts more tolerant of immoral acts

followed by an apologyfollowed by an apology

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Social Conventional Reasoning Social Conventional Reasoning

(Turiel)(Turiel)– 2 and 3 y/o interviewed about drawings 2 and 3 y/o interviewed about drawings

depicting familiar moral and social depicting familiar moral and social conventional transgressionsconventional transgressions

– By 34 months, saw moral transgressions By 34 months, saw moral transgressions as “more wrong”as “more wrong”

– By 42 months, said moral violations By 42 months, said moral violations would still be wrong if undetectedwould still be wrong if undetected

In Europe, a woman was near death from a In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that special kind of cancer. There was one drug that doctors thought might save her. It was a form of doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging $2000, or make, but the druggist was charging $2000, or 10 times the cost of the drug, for a small 10 times the cost of the drug, for a small (possibly life-saving) dose. Heinz, the sick (possibly life-saving) dose. Heinz, the sick woman’s husband, borrowed all the money he woman’s husband, borrowed all the money he could, about $1000, or half of what he needed. could, about $1000, or half of what he needed. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell the drug cheaper or to let him asked him to sell the drug cheaper or to let him pay later. The druggist replied “No, I discovered pay later. The druggist replied “No, I discovered the drug, and I’m going to make money from it.” the drug, and I’m going to make money from it.” Heinz then became desperate and broke into the Heinz then became desperate and broke into the store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have done that?have done that?

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Level 1: Preconventional MoralityLevel 1: Preconventional Morality

– Stage 1: Punishment-and-Obedience Stage 1: Punishment-and-Obedience OrientationOrientation Goodness or badness depends on Goodness or badness depends on

consequences of act – bad acts are punishedconsequences of act – bad acts are punished– Stage 2: Naïve HedonismStage 2: Naïve Hedonism

Conform to rules to gain rewardsConform to rules to gain rewards

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Level 2: Conventional MoralityLevel 2: Conventional Morality

– Stage 3: “Good Boy” or “Good Girl” Stage 3: “Good Boy” or “Good Girl” OrientationOrientation Moral behavior pleases, helps, or is Moral behavior pleases, helps, or is

approved of by othersapproved of by others– Stage 4: Social-Order-Maintaining Stage 4: Social-Order-Maintaining

MoralityMorality Right conforms to legal authority; rules Right conforms to legal authority; rules

maintain social ordermaintain social order

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Level 3: Postconventional (or Level 3: Postconventional (or

Principled) MoralityPrincipled) Morality– Stage 5: The Social-Contract OrientationStage 5: The Social-Contract Orientation

Laws should express will of majority, and Laws should express will of majority, and further human welfare; if not, challenge themfurther human welfare; if not, challenge them

– Stage 6: Morality of Individual Principles Stage 6: Morality of Individual Principles of Conscienceof Conscience Individual abstract moral guidelines that Individual abstract moral guidelines that

transcend lawstranscend laws Rare (a hypothetical construct)Rare (a hypothetical construct) No longer measuredNo longer measured

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Support for Kohlberg’s TheorySupport for Kohlberg’s Theory

– Are Kohlberg’s Stages an Invariant Are Kohlberg’s Stages an Invariant Sequence?Sequence? Individuals do proceed through Individuals do proceed through stages in orderstages in order

Stages are not skippedStages are not skippedStage 3 or 4 is highest level for Stage 3 or 4 is highest level for most peoplemost people

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Criticisms of Kohlberg’s ApproachCriticisms of Kohlberg’s Approach

– Issues with consistencyIssues with consistency– Ecological validityEcological validity– Is Kohlberg’s Theory Incomplete?Is Kohlberg’s Theory Incomplete?

Emphasizes moral reasoning, did not focus Emphasizes moral reasoning, did not focus on moral affect or behavior on moral affect or behavior

Thought mature moral reasoning would lead Thought mature moral reasoning would lead to moral behaviorto moral behavior

– Supported by research Supported by research

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Criticisms (con’t)Criticisms (con’t)

– Limited scopeLimited scope– Is Kohlberg’s Theory Culturally Biased?Is Kohlberg’s Theory Culturally Biased?

Some aspects of moral development vary Some aspects of moral development vary among societiesamong societies

– Cultural beliefs define moralityCultural beliefs define morality– Is Kohlberg’s Theory Gender Biased?Is Kohlberg’s Theory Gender Biased?

Morality of justice for males, versus morality Morality of justice for males, versus morality of caring for femalesof caring for females

– Not supported by researchNot supported by research

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Criticisms (con’t)Criticisms (con’t)

– Does Kohlberg Underestimate Young Does Kohlberg Underestimate Young Children?Children? Yes, as his focus was on legalistic conceptsYes, as his focus was on legalistic concepts Did not examine distributive justiceDid not examine distributive justice

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development Damon – distributive justice Damon – distributive justice

rationalesrationales– Level 0 (birth-5)Level 0 (birth-5)– Level 1 (5-6)Level 1 (5-6)– Level 2 (6-7)Level 2 (6-7)– Level 3 (8+)Level 3 (8+)

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Aggression, Altruism, and Moral Development