4. Coup d'etat (1799). Napoleon ousted the Directory by a coup d'etat (a swift overthrowof a government by force). He prepared a new constitution, and it was approved by a plebiscite(a "yes" or "no" vote of the people). The constitution retained the form of a republic butconcentrated governmental power in the First Consul.. Napoleon ruled France officially as FirstConsul, but in reality as military dictator.

5. Proclamation of Empire (1804). Napoleon changed the republic into an Empire andcrowned himself Emperor Napoleon 1. Impressed by Napoleon's military and governmentalachieveinertts~ tlie:'p~opfe again:Voted:overwneiriiing ~approval. TneFren6h'Revoltlti6h :llifd:"thuJled to an undisguised dictatorship.

NAPOLEONDONUNATESEUROPE

In 1799, when Napoleon seized the government by his coup d'etat, France was at warwith the Allies, a coalition of Europe's hereditary rulers who were determined to crush theFrench Revolution. Napoleon took command ofthe French forces, won significant victories, andin 1802 ended the war favorably for France,

After a brief peace, Napoleon and the Allies resumed the conflict. The Allies wanted tooverthrow Napoleon and destroy French power; Napoleon wanted to dominate Europe. From1803 to 1809 Napoleon achieved great triumphs, defeating Austria and Russia at the Battle ofAusterlitz, Prussia at the Battle of Jena, and Russia at the Battle of Friedland. Only England,with her powerful navy, remained safe, for Napoleon lacked the sea power to invade the BritishIsles.

From 1810 to 1812, at the height of his power, Napoleon dominated continental Europefrom the Atlantic coast to Russia. Napoleon (1) ruled a France enlarged by the annexation ofneighboring lands, (2) appointed relatives and generals to rule various territories: Spain, northernItaly, Naples, and parts of Germany, (3) controlled the newly created dependencies, the GrandDuchy of Warsaw (part of Poland) and the Confederation of the Rhine (an organization ofwestern German states), (4) reduced to minor status his defeated enemies, Prussia and Austria,and (5) formed an alliance with his former enemy, the only other continental power, Russia.Napoleon's domination ofEurope faced serious challenge only from England.

NAPOLEON'S DOWNFALL: REASONS

1. Personal Weaknesses. Napoleon's ambition caused him to overreach himself. Inconquering most ofEurope, he created an Empire too complex to be ruled efficiently by one man.His lust for territory and power was limitless. And as he grew older, he became stubborn andunwilling to accept advice.

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2. England's Opposition to Napoleon

a Napoleon was a symbol of the excesses of the French Revolution. The Englishgovernment, a limited monarchy controlled by the upper classes, feared the shattering of traditionand the violence that had been generated by the Revolution.b. Napoleon sought to unite Europe under his rule, whereas England wanted no onecontinental nation to be all-powerful. In a divided Europe, England could shift her support fromone nation to another and thereby wield the balance of power. (For centuries before Napoleon,

.Britairrs:continental-policy,chadc.been guidedbythis.eoncept.r-. . " , ~ ; . .... ". ". .. " ',''.'c. Napoleon aided French merchants and manufacturers in capturing continental marketsfrom the British. Britain, the leading industrial and trading nation, suffered economic hardshipand could not tolerate this blow at her economic well-being.d. Napoleon planned to restore French colonial power. In the Seven Years' War (1756­1763), France had lost her major overseas territories, and England had become the leading colonialnation. Now England considered the colonial ambitions of Napoleon as a threat to herpossessions.

3. England's Control of the Seas. Napoleon dominated on land, but England was"mistress of the seas." Under Admiral Nelson, the British navy overwhelmed the French fleets atthe Nile (1798) and the Battle of Trafalgar (1805). Naval supremacy saved Britain frominvasion and shattered Napoleon's dream ofan overseas empire. I

(Weakness on the seas forced Napoleon to give up his largest overseas possession, theLouisiana Territory in North America. By treaty in 1800 he had acquired this territory fromSpain. In 1803, perhaps realizing that he could not defend it against British sea power, Napoleonsold the Louisiana Territory to the United States .)

4. Napoleon's Continental System. Unable to invade the British tales, Napoleon struck atEngland economically by the Continental System. In the Berlin and Milan Decrees, Napoleonordered the European continent closed to English trade. Russia, his ally, at first agreed to thisboycott ofBritish goods. Napoleon despised England as a "nation ofshopkeepers" and expectedthe Continental System to effect England's ruin.

England retaliated by the Orders in Council, which barred neutral nations from tradingwith France and her allies. Thus, England not only deprived the Continent of essential products,but also interfered with neutral trade. (England's seizure of American merchant ships bound forthe Continent was one cause ofthe War of1812 between the United States and England.)

Throughout Europe, people blamed Napoleon for (a) a decline in trade, (b) an increase inbusiness failures and unemployment, and (c) shortages ofcloth, machinery, and foodstuffs.

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In place of hard- to-get imports, Napoleon proposed less popular substitutes: beet sugar (for canesugar) and chicory (for coffee). Nevertheless, smuggling became widespread.

Although England suffered economically from the Continental System, Napoleon washarmed perhaps more by the resentment of the European people against his rule.

5. Russia's Opposition to Napoleon. As Napoleon achieved domination over Europe, tsarAlexander I feared that Napoleonic power threatened Russia. Also, the Russians sufferedeconomic loss under the Continental System, which kept their grain from English markets.

. . When; in 1812; the tsarresumed-tradewithEngland-Napoleon-invsdedRussia (see below).

6. Rising Spirit of Nationalism. Inspired by French example, other European peoplesbecame nationalistic. Spaniards, Prussians, Austrians, and other peoples could no longer tolerateFrench domination and were ready to fight for liberation. Napoleon now faced the opposition,not ofhereditary monarchs and mercenary armies, but ofentire nations.

7. Exhaustion of France. After many years of warfare, France had depleted her manpowerand resources.

NAPOLEON'S DOWNFALL: IDGHLIGHTS

1. Peninsular War (1808-14). The nationalist-minded people of Portugal and Spainrebelled against French rule. By guerrilla warfare, they greatly sapped France's military strength.To aid the rebellion, England sent a British force under Sir Arthur Wellesley, who later becamethe Duke of Wellington. This Peninsular War resulted in the defeat of the French and theirexpulsion from Portugal and Spain.

2. Invasion of Russia. (181Z) Leading a huge army, Napoleon invaded Russia to enforcethe Continental System. As the Russians at first refused battle and retreated, Napoleonoverextended his lines. Then, after a costly victory at the Battle of Borodino, Napoleoncaptured Moscow, but fires, probably set by the Russians, destroyed the city. Lacking shelter,food, and clothing to survive the oncoming winter, Napoleon began a long retreat. Napoleon'sretreat became a rout as his forces were harassed by Russian guerrilla attacks and by the bittercold of "General Winter." Napoleon lost three-fourths of his army in suffering his first greatmilitary defeat.

3. Wars of Liberation (1813-1814). Heartened by the success of Russia, encouraged byfinancial subsidies from England, and inspired by nationalism, Prussia and Austria again declaredwar on France. In 1813 the armies of Russia, Prussia, and Austria defeated Napoleon at theBattle of Leipzig, in central Germany (known as the Battle ofthe Nations) . The following year,the Allies invaded France and captured Paris. Napoleon abdicated his throne and was exiled tothe Mediterranean island ofElba.

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co,. " 4. The Hundred Days (1815). Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France - areturn that lasted only 100 days. As he regained control of France, the Allies marshalled theirforces against him. At the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon met final defeat by Allied armies underthe Duke of Wellington. Napoleon was again exiled, this time to the South Atlantic island of St.Helena. Until his death, in 1821, Napoleon. wrote his memoirs, in which he tried to justify hisregnne.

NAPOLEON'S ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN FRANCE

As Emperor, Napoleon exercised the powers of an absolute monarch. He made the laws,decided on war and peace, censored speech and press, ordered arbitrary arrest and imprisonment,and utilized a secret police. Nevertheless, he claimed to be a "son of the Revolution." Heprovided efficient government, furthered the Revolutionary principle of equality, andaccomplished noteworthy reforms.

1. Centralization of Local Government. Napoleon subordinated local government tonational authority. Be appointed local governors (prefects), mayors, judges, and police heads,thereby strengthening his control over the country. To this day, France retains a highlycentralized, or unitary, government.

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2. Furtherance of Public Education. Napoleon organized a system of state-controllededucation under the University of France. This was a government agency , not an institution ofhigher learning . It (a) controlled all levels of education from primary grades to college, (b) builtnew schools, (c) improved educational standards and made them uniform throughout France, and(d) prepared courses of study to extol Napoleon and stimulate French nationalism. As a result,public education progressed in France at the expense of Church schools. (The University oftheState ofNew York, directed by its Board ofRegents, resembles the University ofFrance.)

3. Settlement of Religious Matters. Napoleon restored friendly relations between Franceand the Catholic Church, thus healing a rift that had taken place during the French Revolution.The Concordat of 1801, a religious agreement, provided that (a) the State pay the salaries of theFrench clergy, (b) the Church surrender claims to lands confiscated during the Revolution, and (c)bishops be nominated by the State but confirmed by the Pope. By this agreement, Napoleonprotected the peasant owners of former Church lands and pleased the French people,overwhelmingly Catholic. Although Napoleon later annexed the Papal States and wasexcommunicated, the Concordat remained in effect. Napoleon also gained the support of non­Catholics. He guaranteed religious freedom and gave financial aid to Protestant and Jewish faiths .

4. Legal Reform. To establish uniform and just laws throughout France, Napoleon revisedthe legal system, emphasizing the Revolutionary principle ofequality. The Code Napoleon (a)

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provided equal treatment before the law, (b) abolished what remained of serfdom and feudalism,and (c) guaranteed religious toleration and trial by jury. To this day, the Code Napoleon is thebasis of law in France, most western Europe, parts of Asia and Latin America, and the state ofLouisiana.

5. Legion of Honor. Napoleon created a society, the Legion of Honor, for publicrecognition of distinguished military and civilian service to France. In accordance with theprinciple ofequality, Legion membership was open to all persons regardless of social status. TheLegien.of'Honorstill.exists-todayr.- '. ..:';:. .

6. Improvement of Finances. By collecting taxes fairly and efficiently, paying the debts ofthe government promptly, and creating the Bank ofFrance , Napoleon restored the government tofinancial health. The Bank of France, the government's financial agent, maintained soundcurrency and promoted economic prosperity. Napoleonic financial measures pleased thebourgeoisie and encouraged business enterprise. The Bank ofFrance has headed France's bankingsystem to this day.

7. Public Works. Napoleon instituted extensive public works: building roads, bridges, andcanals; dredging harbors; and beautifying Paris.

~ NAPOLEON'S INFLUENCE UPON EUROPE

1. Map Changes. Of Napoleon's many map changes, two survived his downfall: (a) theabolition of the Austrian-dominated Holy Roman Empire, and (b) the reduction in the number ofGerman states, which aided German unification.

2. The Legacy of the Revolution. Throughout Europe, Napoleon and his armies (a) spreadFrench Revolutionary doctrines, especially equality, (b) ended Old Regime abuses of feudalismand serfdom, (e) introduced the Code Napoleon, and (d) encouraged state-controlled education.

3. The Legacy of War and Empire. Napoleon, through his armies and puppetgovernments, (a) promoted the growth of militarism, (b) aroused nationalism among theconquered peoples, (c) caused widespread destruction and a terrible loss of lives, (d) dislocatedEurope's economy, (e) placed a heavy tax burden on conquered peoples, and set an example ofdespotic rule - the first modem dictator.

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