forAgricultureDevelopment

No. 34, Summer 2018

Special Issue on Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) CEA: what is it, and how is it applied?

Global applications of CEADoes Africa need CEA?

Large-scale CEA globally, and its potential for AfricaA CEA application for small-scale producers in Africa

CEA in Africa: benefits, challenges and political economyINMED aquaponics: cultivating farmers of the future

The way forward for CEA in Africa

Guidelines for AuthorsAgriculture for DevelopmentThe editors welcome the submission of articles for publication that aredirectly related to the aims and objectives of the Association. These may beshort communications relating to recent developments and othernewsworthy items, letters to the editor, especially those relating to previouspublications in the journal, and longer papers. It is also our policy to publishpapers, or summaries, of the talks given at our meetings.

Only papers written in English are accepted. They must not have beensubmitted or accepted for publication elsewhere. Where there is more thanone author, each author must have approved the final version of thesubmitted manuscript. Authors must have permission from colleagues toinclude their work as a personal communication.

Papers should be written in a concise, direct style and should not normallyexceed 3,000 words using Times New Roman font, 12-point size for the textbody, with lines single spaced and justified and pages numbered. Tables,graphs, and photographs may take a further 1 page plus, but we try to keepthe total length of each paper to 3-4 pages of the Journal. Good qualityphotographs are particularly welcomed, as they add considerably to theappearance of the contents of the Journal. We prefer high resolution digitalimages.

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• An informative title not exceeding 10 words.• Authors listed, usually with first name and surname.• A short biographical note about the author(s) is included, preferably with a photograph of the author(s). If still working, indicate your position and email address. If retired, your previous job (eg formerly Professor of Agriculture, ABC University).• For papers longer than 1,500 words, a short abstract (summary) of 150- 200 words.• A short introductory paragraph is useful describing, succinctly, the current state of work in the relevant field.

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• Key references should be quoted, but these should be kept to a minimum.• Only papers accepted for publication or published may be cited.• If at one point in the text it is necessary to cite two or more references, list them in chronological order, eg Walker (2009), Sims (2011), Harding (2016).• At the end of the paper, give full details of references, in alphabetical order, and in the journal style, as per the examples below.• Personal communications in the text should be cited as: initials, name, brief address, personal communication.

Journal (article): Bajželj B, Allwood JM, Cullen JM, 2013. Designing climatechange mitigation plans that add up. Environmental Science &Technology, 47(14), 8062-9.

Journal (online): Osborne K, Dolman AM, Burgess S, Johns KA, 2011.Disturbance and the dynamics of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef(1995–2009). PLoS ONE http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10

.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0017516

Book: Brammer H, 2012. The physical geography of Bangladesh. Dhaka,Bangladesh: University Press Ltd.

Book (edited): Fuglie KO, Sun Ling Wang, Ball E, eds, 2012. Productivitygrowth in agriculture: an international perspective. Wallingford. UK: CABInternational.

Book (chapter): Warner K, 1997. Patterns of tree growing by farmers ineastern Africa. In: Arnold JEM, Dewees PA, eds. Farms, trees & farmers:responses to agricultural intensification. London: Earthscan Publications, 90-137.

Conference proceedings (published): McIntosh RA, 1992. Catalogues of genesymbols for wheat. In: Miller TE, Koebner RM, eds. Proceedings of theSeventh International Wheat Genetics Symposium, 1987. Cambridge, UK:IPSR, 1225–1323.

Agency publication: Grace D, Jones B, eds, 2011. Zoonoses (Project 1)Wildlife/domestic livestock interactions. A final report to the Department forInternational Development, UK.

Dissertation or thesis: Lenné JM, 1978. Studies of the biology and taxonomyof Colletotrichum species. Melbourne, Australia: University of Melbourne,PhD thesis.

Online material: Lu HJ, Kottke R, Martin J, Bai G, Haley S, Rudd J, 2011.Identification and validation of molecular markers for marker assistedselection of Wsm2 in wheat. In: Plant and Animal Genomes XIX Conference,abstract W433. [http://www.intl-pag.org/19/abstracts/W68_PAGXIX_433.html]. Accessed 20 April 2012.

Tables

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• Number with arabic numerals, eg Table 2.• Refer to tables in the sequence in which they are presented.• Use lower-case letters, eg a, b and c, for footnotes to tables.

Figures

• Self-explanatory with an appropriate legend below the figure, without abbreviations

• Number in a separate series from the tables.• Use arabic numerals in the text, eg Figure 2.• Subdivisions within figures should be labelled with lower-case letters, eg a, b and c

Submission

Your paper should be submitted ready for editing and publication.Accepted text file types: Word (.DOC or .DOCX), Rich Text Format (.RTF)or Postscript (.PS) only.Accepted figure file types: .TIF, .EPS or .PDF.No lecture notes or PowerPoint presentations, please. If the paper is apresentation from a TAA meeting, please let us have this or as soon aspossible afterwards so that there is no last minute rush in trying to meetthe next publication deadline.

Send submissions via e-mail to coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.ukpreferably in an attached file.

Copyright

Agriculture for Development holds the copyright of all publishedarticles, but the authors retain the right to publish all or part of an articleelsewhere, with due acknowledgements.

Cover images

High quality colour images, suitable for the cover of Agriculture forDevelopment, are welcomed and should be sent to the CoordinatingEditor (coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.uk)

Cover photograph: “Perfectly Homegrown”, an illustration by Richard von Kaufmann (inspired by the work of Lubaina Himid). Richardis a start-up entrepreneur and occasional artist (www.richardvonkaufmann.com).

The picture depicts the kind of opportunity that CEA can create for residents of high density urban areas to make best use of their scarceresources. The depicted house owner is using the sun, rainwater and her compound’s walls to produce and sell high quality freshvegetables and herbs to local consumers.

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The TAA is a professionalassociation of individuals andcorporate bodies concerned withthe role of agriculture fordevelopment throughout theworld. TAA brings togetherindividuals and organisationsfrom both developed and less-developed countries to enablethem to contribute to internationalpolicies and actions aimed atreducing poverty and improvinglivelihoods. It grew out of theImperial College of Tropical Agriculture (ICTA) Association,which was renamed the TAA in1979. Its mission is to encouragethe efficient and sustainable useof local resources and technologies,to arrest and reverse the degradationof the natural resources base onwhich agriculture depends and,by raising the productivity ofboth agriculture and related enterprises, to increase family incomes and commercial investment in the rural sector.Particular emphasis is given torural areas in the tropics andsubtropics and to countries withless-developed economies intemperate areas. TAA recognisesthe interrelated roles of farmersand other stakeholders living inrural areas, scientists (agriculturists,economists, sociologists etc),government and the privatesector in achieving a convergentapproach to rural development.This includes recognition of theimportance of the role of women,the effect of AIDS and othersocial and cultural issues on therural economy and livelihoods.

Publications and Communications Committee

Paul Harding (Chair and Coordinating Editor Ag4Dev)Brian Sims, ElizabethWarham, Andrew Ward,Michael Fitzpatrick, CharlesHowie, and Alastair Taylor(Technical Editors)Amir KassamGeoff HawtinAntony Ellman, James AldenKeith Virgo (Webmaster)contact:coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.ukeditor_ag4dev@taa.org.ukTel: 01694 7222897

ISSN 1759-0604 (Print)ISSN 1759-0612 (Online)

ContentsIFC Guidelines for Authors2 Editorial2 A special issue on controlled environment agriculture | Ralph von Kaufmann4 Article 14 Controlled environment agriculture: what is it, and how is it applied? | Helen Mytton-Mills8 Newsflash 18 Green Tech 2018, Amsterdam | Ralph von Kaufmann10 Article 210 Global applications of controlled environment agriculture | Ralph von Kaufmann16 News from the Field 116 The Association for Vertical Farming | Josephine Favre19 Newsflash 219 Vertical Farming Workshop, World Agri-Tech Innovation Summit, San Francisco |

Elizabeth Warham20 Article 320 Does Africa need controlled environment agriculture? | Namanga Ngongi, Pat Pridmore,

Pay Drechsel and René van Veenhuizen24 Article 424 Large-scale controlled environment agriculture globally, and its potential for Africa |

Henry Wainwright 28 News from the Field 228 Controlled environment agriculture applications for Africa | Ralph von Kaufmann31 Article 531 A controlled environment agriculture application for small-scale producers in Africa |

Jason Hawkins-Row34 News from the Field 334 Going vertical in Kenya | Louise and Henry Wainwright35 International Agricultural Research News35 International research on controlled environment agriculture | Geoff Hawtin38 Article 638 Controlled environment agriculture in Africa: benefits, challenges and political economy |

Nicholas Ozor, Cynthia Nwobodo, Paul Baiyeri and Anselm Enete48 Article 748 INMED aquaponics: cultivating farmers of the future | Linda Pfeiffer 52 Bookstack52 The vertical farm: feeding the world in the 21st century | Dickson Despommier (Ralph von

Kaufmann) Plant Factory: an indoor vertical farming system for efficient quality food production | Toyoki Kozai et al (Ralph von Kaufmann) Controlled agriculture and ecosystem economies: a thought leadership piece on using vertical farming systems to feed each other and create greener urban spaces | Association for Vertical Farming (Ralph von Kaufmann) Future food-production systems: vertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture | Kurt Benke and Bruce Tomkins (Brian Sims) A review of vertical farming technology: a guide for implementation of building integrated agriculture in cities | Fatemeh Kalantari et al (Brian Sims) Smart controlled environment agriculture systems | EU project final report (Brian Sims)

56 Article 856 The way forward for controlled environment agriculture in Africa | Ralph von Kaufmann62 TAA Forum

Web manager’s update | Keith VirgoPublications and communications committee update | Paul HardingCall for nominations for 2018 Honours | David Radcliffe

63 TAAF News63 TAAF News | Antony Ellman and James Alden68 News from the Regions68 TAA East Anglia branch visit to Aponics | Bill Thorpe69 Upcoming EventsBC How to become a member of the TAA BC Executive Committee members

Special Issue on Controlled Environment Agriculture

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

Editorial Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

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Ralph has progressed from dairy cattle and rangeland research, through agricultural finance, project development, international agricultural research, resource mobilisation and capacitystrengthening, into agribusiness incubation. He has served on the Programme Advisory Committeeof the Global Livestock Research Support Programme; the Executive Committee of the AfricanLivestock Project; the Secretariat of the Coalition for African Rice Development; and the AdvisoryCommittee on Science and Technology for Africa, Caribbean and Pacific. He is presently an Associate Consultant of the African Agribusiness Incubators Network and a member of the Boardof the African Technology Policy Studies Network. Ralphvonkaufmann@gmail.com

EditorialA special issue on controlled environment agricultureRalph von Kaufman

Guest editing this special issue of Agriculture for Development(Ag4Dev) on controlled environment agriculture (CEA) hasbeen an exciting task. Over the years, I have witnessed someremarkable agricultural research and development successes.However, in recent years I have become concerned that all thesuccesses put together are not going to defeat hunger andmalnutrition, especially among the urban poor. As a resourcemobiliser, I know the importance of projecting optimism.However, I fear that focusing attention on individual successesis tending to mask the overall failure to produce more food inthe face of reduced yield gaps, decreasing farmland,competition for scarce freshwater, and climate change. That isespecially concerning for the food and nutrition security of thegrowing number of landless low-income people. Over time thatelephant looms ever larger, but the agricultural communitycontinues to project food production targets based on increasesin demand without adequate explaination of how that will beachieved.

Reading Despommier’s book The vertical farm: feeding theworld in the 21st century was my eureka moment. Itsuggested that Malthus would again be proven wrong. Excitingadvances in CEA seem to emerge almost daily, and that hasbeen a great challenge for the contributors to this special issueof Ag4Dev. In her article “Controlled environment agriculture:what is it, and how is it applied?”, Helen Mytton-Mills sets thescene with a succinct explanation of what is encompased bythe term ‘controlled environment agriculture’, which goesbeyond vertical farming. Its ability to control environmentsenables year-round food production under almost anycondition. It is not limited to plants and opens opportunitiesfor the circular economy with clean-tech and insect husbandry.The rate of advances in CEA are highlighted by the Newsflashreports on the recent World Agri-Tech Innovation Summit inSan Francisco, reported by Elizabeth Warham, and theGreenTech 2018 exhibition in Amsterdam that I was fortunateto attend; as well as the News from the Field on the Association

for Vertical Farming. It is evident that CEA innovations areadvancing rapidly into ever more imaginative spaces, as mypaper “Global applications of controlled environmentagriculture” attempts to illustrate. This emphasises thediversity of applications that are being adapted to every regionof the planet and indeed also to space.

The technologies may be intellectually exciting but the driversof innovation in CEA are urgent humanitarian demands forbetter nutrition, especially in the urban communities describedby Pat Pridmore in her contribution to the article “Does Africaneed controlled environment agriculture?” In the same article,the present circumstances of urban vegetable producers inAfrica are revealed by Pay Drechsel and René van Veenhuizen,and the role of advanced technology in Africa’s quest for socialand economic development is set out by Namanga Ngongi.

Any misconception that Africa is not taking advantage of theadvances in CEA should be dispelled by the News from theField on “Controlled environment agriculture applications forAfrica”. The potential for large-scale CEA in Africa is discussedby Henry Wainwright in his article “Large-scale controlledenvironment agriculture globally, and its potential for Africa”;and Jason Hawkins-Row affirms the relevance of an advancedbut simple aeroponic system for small-scale producers in “Acontrolled environment agriculture application for small-scaleproducers in Africa”. A further example of a small-scale CEAapplication for Africa is provided by Henry Wainwright in hisNews from the Field item “Going vertical in Kenya”.

In his International agricultural research news contribution,Geoff Hawtin discusses the role of publicly fundedinternational agricultural research institutions and explainsthat, to date, they have not been very interested in CEA,leaving what has been ‘disruptive’ research to the privatesector. In her inspirational article “INMED aquaponics:cultivating farmers of the future”, Linda Pfeiffer reveals thatthe private sector is also playing a leading role in developing

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Editorial

the capacity of children and young people in Africa and beyondto benefit from being able to produce food with minimum landand water.

In their article “Controlled environment agriculture in Africa:benefits, challenges and the political economy”, Nicholas Ozor,Cynthia Nwobodo, Paul Baiyeri and Anselm Enete note thatdespite its potential social and economic benefits, CEA is stillnew to many African countries. As a result their policies andinfrastructure planning are not sufficiently conducive to theuptake of CEA technologies. They argue that greaterinvolvement by research and extension institutions is requiredto widen and accelerate uptake. They call for public-privatepartnerships and greater investment underpinned by sustainedcapacity and infrastructural development.

It was difficult to select just a few books on CEA for review inBookstack, but The vertical farm: feeding the world in the 21stcentury was an obvious choice because it covers the topic sowell. At GreenTech 2016, the author Dickson Despommier saidthat whereas he once had difficulty answering questions aboutwhere practical vertical farming enterprises could be found, hecan now respond by asking the questioners to name the citythey are interested in and he can usually identify a localenterprise for them to visit.

The review of the document entitled Controlled agricultureand ecosystem economies: a thought leadership piece onusing vertical farming systems to feed each other and creategreener urban spaces, produced by the Association for VerticalFarming, is included because it places CEA at the heart of thecurrent move towards circular – waste less – economies. Itreveals how food waste can be used for growing mushroomsand for feeding insects that can be fed to fish. Fish excretionscan fertilise plants that feed humans, who generate food waste,and so the circle continues. Insects can also be turned intohigh-quality protein feed for livestock and also food forhumans. In contrast to broad-acre food production there isminimal, if any, need for chemical weed-killers and pesticidesand there are no nitrogenous products emitted to theatmosphere or runoff into precious freshwater resources.

The third book review, on Plant factory: an indoor verticalfarming system for efficient quality food production, editedby Toyoki Kozai, Genhua Niu and Michiko Takagaki, waschosen because it is an excellent exposition of the technicalaspects of advanced vertical farming systems. Japan’scontinuing ambitious innovation in CEA is highlighted in thereport on the World Agri-Tech Innovation Summit.

The drift of young people off the land is leaving the future foodproduction in Africa to ageing and increasingly female farmers.Linda Pfeiffer provides an example of how training inaquaponics is attracting young people back into foodproduction. My closing article, “The way forward for controlledenvironment agriculture in Africa”, attempts to answer the “sowhat?” question arising from the other contributions to this

special issue. It encourages the hope that CEA will createopportunities for young people in Africa to find employmentor even to establish their own businesses.

The articles in this special issue reveal a huge diversity of CEAtechnologies that can support food production in almost anynook or cranny, however small or large. Applications can befound all the way from the Arctic to the hottest deserts. Sinceseawater can now be used for irrigation, a supply of freshwateris no longer a killer assumption for farming. Produce from CEAcannot be classified as organic but it should be free of chemicalherbicides and pesticides, and it does not dischargenitrogenous products into the air or water. As noted above,CEA technologies open pragmatic opportunities for creatingtruly circular sustainable food-production systems.

Despite all its virtues CEA is not a panacea. It will never bemore than an adjunct to broad-acre farming and there are stillmany technical and financial issues to be resolved. However,with the world’s population set to increase by over 20 percentin just three decades, CEA promises to make a very significantcontribution to global food and nutrition security.

Readers of this special issue of Ag4Dev who want to continueto be informed about advances in CEA and horticultureglobally are referred to the superb Hortidaily electronicnewsletter (hortidaily.com), which has been one of my bestsources of information. I thank Paul Harding, coordinatingeditor of Agriculture for Development, and all the contributorsto this special issue for helping to raise awareness of an on-going revolution in global food production.

Article 1 Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

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Controlled environment agriculture: what is it, andhow is it applied?

Helen Mytton-Mills BA, IBFE, ACMA, CGMA is the Chief Financial Officer of Aponic Ltd and AgriGrub Ltd.Helen comes from a farming family that has embraced pastoral, arable, mixed and diversified farmingpractices over recent generations. She is formally trained in business management and as a managementaccountant, with extensive experience in public sector finance and in healthcare innovation. She co-founded Aponic Ltd (a vertical aeroponic growing-system business) with a world class engineer in orderto deliver controlled, resource-efficient growth in a modular, scalable format to the global market. Shehas more recently co-founded AgriGrub Ltd (a black soldier fly-rearing business) with a specialist entomologist to tackle the global issue of agricultural and commercial food waste and to deliver high-quality animal feed and insect frass to a variety of domestic, commercial and agricultural markets.helen@aponic.co.uk; helen@agrigrub.co.uk

Helen Mytton-Mills

Abstract Controlled environment agriculture (CEA) is an intensive,technology-based approach to food production. Through thespecific management of naturally varying environmentalfactors, a consistent, optimised growing environment can bemanaged and maintained in order to produce profitable, year-round harvests. Approaches vary from basic biosecurity, withminimal intervention, to fully managed and contained growspaces. Vertical farming approaches suit CEA environments,and they often work together. The scope of CEA is usuallylimited to plants, but there are opportunities to broaden thehorizons and capture benefits from the circular economy withclean-tech and insect husbandry.

Controlled environment agriculturedefinedControlled environment agriculture aims to provide protectionand maintain optimal growing conditions throughout thedevelopment of the crop through exacting technological andhuman controls. Production takes place within an enclosedgrowing structure such as under fleece or in a polytunnel,greenhouse, or building. The entire process of CEA focuses onreducing the incidence of pests and diseases, increasing overallefficiency, saving resources, and making the most of space,labour, water, energy, nutrients and capital required to operate,while producing a bountiful harvest (MaximumYield, nd).

Variables controlled under a CEA applicationThe controlled environment allows the grower to maintain theproper light, carbon dioxide, temperature, humidity, water, pH,and nutrients levels to produce crops year-round, often withthe support of computer-operated systems.

Limiting exposure to pests is a key control in any CEA system inorder to guarantee crop yields and health more effectively.

Biosecurity is achieved by creating a barrier between the externalenvironment and the growing environment. Different levels ofbiosecurity are possible: a fleece covering of a crop limitsinterference by birds and flying insects, but crawling and soil-based plant predators and pathogens would be unimpeded. Atthe other end of the spectrum a fully enclosed grow room, withsteam-sterilised growing media, specific antibacterial andfungicidal seed treatments, and fully automated processes, wouldensure a sealed environment and has unrivalled biosecurity.Different applications are relevant for different types of economicmodel. The advantages of biosecurity measures are greaterguarantees of crop yields and health, and reduced need forchemical measures to poison pests or treat bacterial or fungaldiseases. Additionally, over-sowing in expectation of predictablecrop losses to biological factors is unnecessary.

Nutritional inputs are fundamental in any crop cycle.Controlled environment agriculture takes a more nuancedapproach to nutrition. Stepping away from broad-brushfertilisation in slow-release forms, CEA targets tailorednutrition to either leaves or roots of crops at specified intervals,and in sophisticated systems makes dosing adjustments tomaintain a specified electrical conductivity and pH within thegrowing media as the plants take up nutrients from the feed.

Knowledge about optimal quantities of nutrition can be appliedat different growth stages to increase growth for leaf cropswithout pushing towards flower; and flowering and fruitingplants can support greater yields to harvest. By specifyingnutrient diets over the lifetime of the crop, there is less wastageof nutritional inputs, and imbalance in the growing mediafrom salinity build-up of unused nutrients is avoided. Splittinga lifetime of feed into regular intervals encourages plants todevelop their oils, sugars and fruit more fully, by avoidingnutritional stresses of feast and famine.

Maintaining a pH and alkalinity appropriate to the crop is vitalto enable plants to take up important nutrients. In more acidicsoils, manganese, iron and aluminium become morebioavailable to plants, and also more toxic (Cornell University,nd), whereas the more commonly desirable nutrientsmagnesium, calcium and phosphorous are less available to betaken up. Neutrality in pH is generally preferable, although the

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018) Article 1

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slightly acidic pH 6.5 is considered optimal for a wide varietyof plant crops. There are other factors, in conjunction with pH,such as soil moisture, temperature, texture and cationexchange capacity that can affect volatilisation of nutrients(Government of Alberta, nd).

Water quality is a basic parameter. While pH and alkalinity arekey variables in aligning plant needs for adequate hydrationwith specific water qualities, there are other factors that CEAmanages. Soluble salts are an important dynamic as they formthe specific nutrients that plants require. Excess soluble saltsimpair root function, which can lead to diminished wateruptake and nutrient deficiencies (UMassAmherst, nd).Electrical conductivity testing for soluble salts is an effectiveway of monitoring the water’s salinity level and adjustingdilution of the water to maintain plant health.

Waterborne pathogens and parasites are a concern togrowers using non-treated water. If there are such concerns,it is possible to treat the water with ultraviolet light in order topurify the reservoir. Filtration systems are another method ofwater treatment, removing pollutants, oils, detergents andsuspended solids. Suspended solids can be a particularchallenge to CEA applications with pumped irrigation as theycan cause clogging in pipes and nozzles, which can rapidlyaffect a crop if not remedied.

Carbon dioxide can be artificially augmented within CEAapplications in order to speed up photosynthesis, or tocompensate for the diminished CO2 levels in a closedenvironment, as plants use it up in photosynthesis. Maximisingphotosynthesis is an excellent driver of growth; however, itcannot occur if there is insufficient supply of either light or CO2.There are also limits to the rate of photosynthesis that takes placein a light- and CO2-rich environment, so management is requiredto keep both variables within set ranges.

Temperature is one of the most expensive elements to controlin CEA. Energy to heat, or to cool, must therefore be usedeffectively to maintain crop-specific temperature preferences.Mismanagement not only may stress the plants, but will alsoeat into the financial margins for the resultant yield.

Humidity and temperature go hand in hand, as warm air canhold more water vapour than cold air. Relative humidity is ameasure of how much moisture is held in the air compared withthe total amount of water that the air could hold at thattemperature. Relative humidity falls if the temperature rises andno moisture is added to the air. As humidity rises, the rate oftranspiration slows. Transpiration helps plants draw nutrients upfrom the roots, so managing humidity is paramount tosustaining consistent growth conditions for the crop. Wholeindustries have built up to manage a collection of air-relatedvariables: humidity, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC).

Maintaining good airflow is essential to ensure evendistribution of CO2, temperature and humidity, and can becost-effective in assisting their regulation in CEA. Ventilationmeasures may be as simple as vents to provide airflow or a fanto distribute air, or as complex as an automated air-conditioning unit with thermostat and hydrometer sensors. Intall, dense foliage, air movement can be provided by usingperforated polyethylene film ducts to discharge air within thecrop. To assure relatively uniform distribution, total fan

capacity should be equivalent to moving about a quarter of thegreenhouse volume per minute (Jensen, 2010). Airflow alsobenefits plants by assisting in transpiration. Plants in windyconditions have increased transpiration rates compared withthose in still-air environments, as the greater airflow increasesmovement of the water from the leaf surface into theatmosphere (Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary, nd). If thetranspiration can be scavenged, there exists an opportunity foroptimal water-use efficiency.

Light exposure, especially in a grow room or containerisedenvironment, is a key consideration for effective management.The type of light and the timing of lighting are important bothfor plant husbandry and for economic reasons.

There have been great leaps in lighting technology, especiallywith the advent of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which can bemanufactured to a desired wavelength. LEDs have reduced thecost of lighting significantly by increasing product longevityand lowering manufacturing costs, but importantly for a CEAgrow, they have also reduced the heat output compared withsimilar lumen-producing filament grow lights. Less heat todissipate makes HVAC management a simpler task in every litgrow. Much has been made of blue spectrum lighting for thegrowth of leafy plants and red spectrum lights for fruitingcrops; however, there is value to the plant in the wholespectrum, so a weighted balance towards either blue or redmay yield a healthier plant in a fully artificial environment.

Shading and darkness are crucial in any grow. Replicating cloudcover and nocturnal darkness is intrinsic to the health of theplant. Cloud cover or daytime shading reduces foliar burn andalleviates the plant stresses that cause early bolting. Night-timeis when photosynthesis and, in most plants, transpiration cease,and energy created during that process is converted towardsgrowth. Most plants grow more quickly at night than they doduring the day (Hangarter, 2000). Many temperate CEA growssupplement the light during the autumn, winter and spring toreplicate the longer summer days, as the greater energy gainedduring the day translates to faster plant growth rates, even in aconsistently shorter night period. This can be done either byusing basic timer controls or via a complex, tailored algorithm.It is a false economy to light perpetually, both for the sake of theplant and for the financial return of the crop.

Human interference in the grow is an interesting variable forCEA applications. Labour will tend to be the most significant costof an operation and, for a managed environment, the hardest tocontrol in terms of consistency. Many technologies, from timedirrigation to predictive automation through analysis of sensoractivity, reduce the physical labour elements of CEA, althoughthese require different skill sets to maintain. There are alsoconsiderable process and technological applications to removeany biosecurity risk posed by humans. These include washingstations, protective or disposable barrier clothing and masks,through to robotic controls that entirely remove human accessto the grow environment. Naturally, each level of interventionneeds to be suited to the economic model of the crop and therisk to the viability of the yield from contamination.

Investment in computer-aided automation is increasinglymore affordable as time passes. As the financial barriers fall andcomputer literacy rises, these systems represent an increasing

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

opportunity to a wider range of growers.

Chemical additions beyond nutrients and fertilisers, includingherbicides, fungicides and pesticides, are an optionalapplication to be used as necessary. Rather than a broad-acreapplication, these can be targeted if required at specific partsof the grow. As the physical structure of CEA is designedpredominantly to minimise the risks that these chemicalinputs treat, they are not usually regular parts of a CEA grow.In broad-acre agriculture they are often a significant portionof the operational expenditure. Minimising these inputs notonly improves the financial viability of CEAs, but has follow-on advantages for the consumer by producing better qualityproduce without high levels of chemicals. By maintainingbiosecurity measures, CEA systems can also reduce thecontribution of pesticide applications to the demise of valuableinsect pollinator species.

CEA application: a range of approachesThe term ‘controlled environment agriculture’ applies to anymeasure taken to manage variable factors experienced withinthe grow. The most basic approach is the addition of fleece overa field crop to protect it from frost damage and aerial pests.Other approaches centre around a dedicated building forgrowing crops. These can still be effective with a low capitalinput. Unheated, unlit polytunnels, with or without electricfans and pumps, can allow basic biological and environmentalcontrols, and can free up capital expenditure for vertical,soilless growing equipment to improve the efficiency of inputs.

Basic controls in greenhouses can consist of ceiling vents fortemperature adjustment and airflow. Unless there is steamsterilisation of soil and seed treatment, adding meshes to ventssupports biosecurity of pesticides targeting soil pathogens andbacterial and fungal infections. Soilless growing methods canreduce the need to monitor such issues as the ability forpathogens to arrive and to exist. However, the greateradvantage that drives the widespread use of soilless growingsystems in CEA, utilising either aeroponic, hydroponic, oraquaponic technology, is to ensure that the plants receiveoptimal nutrients and water in efficient quantities, in order toproduce an ample crop, producing a continual monocropwithout detrimental effects on either the growing medium orthe crop yield and quality.

Growing within HVAC controlled biosecure greenhouses employsa more complete level of controls without sacrificing the benefitsof the environment’s natural resources: sunlight, and also the heatand cool of the diurnal cycle. Aside from the use of sunshine inplant photosynthesis, management of the heat generated in agreenhouse during the day is a consideration for CEA controls.One method of counteracting this cost-effectively would be to holdwater reservoirs within the greenhouse, utilising their superiorthermal mass properties by storing the day’s heat for dissipationduring the night, and the cooler night temperatures for utilisationduring the heat of the day. Having curtains in place at night to trapheat within the greenhouse can decrease energy loss significantly.In conjunction with an HVAC system, this would supportoptimising the energy required to thermo-regulate the grow.

White-walled buildings and containerised growing represent afully controlled environment with the absence of externalinfluences on the crop. Such buildings can be completelybiosecure, with automation to seal the environment fromexternal conditions; or can be managed with lighting and anHVAC system maintained by employees. Naturally, it is moreexpensive to recreate the required environmental conditionsfor the plants, so these applications are most advantageouswhere the external environment is hostile (such as in desert orarctic conditions); crops require conditions foreign to theexternal environment; crops need more security from theft orsabotage; or crops require complete control over biosecurity(such as pharmacological plants). In each scenario, the cropneeds to be valuable enough to justify the investment.

Researchers frequently use CEA facilities to isolate specificplants and study their production in a maintained setting. Insuch an area, all aspects that affect the growth of a plant canbe monitored so that precise data may be collected for scientificstudy (MaximumYield, nd).

In regions where there are regular, intense tropical storms,grows within buildings or containers can be advantageous asstronger structures may ensure longevity of the operation andsafeguarding of the return on capital investment and ongoingmanagement.

A celebrated demonstration of the ability to recreate a desiredenvironment completely is the CEA facilities on theInternational Space Station, where astronauts have grown leafygreens both for food and to advance scientific knowledge(NASA, 2015).

Vertical farmingVertical farming is the practice of growing crops in verticallystacked layers or on vertically inclined surfaces. Both approachesincrease the quantity of plants that can be grown in any givenfootprint, and substantially raise the yield that any productivefacility can output using more traditional methods. Verticalfarming makes the most of space, which is a key factor in a CEA.In any defined operating space, the environmental controls willhave to manage the whole internal volume. In order to maximisethe financial efficiency of operating environmental controls,maximising the growing space within a building is essential todelivering good returns on investment.

Investment needed for vertical farming is often low comparedwith the barriers of entry to traditional farming, predominantlydue to the smaller land requirements, without high-grade soilrequirements. Also, the return on investment is often shorterthan for other types of agricultural capital expenditure. Theeconomic advantage of vertical farming is partly due to its regularcollaboration with CEA environments. It also offers existinglandowners a viable diversification model that can incorporatetheir existing skill base, capital equipment, buildings and labourforce without a significant opportunity cost.

Vertical farming commonly uses aeroponics and hydroponics,creating a consistency of plant viability, growth through tomaturation and predictability of harvest. This means thatplanting does not need to account for the usual levels ofpredicted crop losses for plants within crops that mature too

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quickly or succumb to disease, or those that grow poorly onmargins. By aligning planting more closely with the requiredharvest, the acreage to be purchased is significantly reduced.As plants never come into contact with the soil in thesemethods, the land does not need to be of any particular quality,other than being without subsidence risk.

CEA application across global climatesControlled environment agriculture can be used globally atdifferent intensities for a variety of economic and agriculturalbenefits. The more basic approaches have a universal appealfor cost-effective pest reduction in order to guarantee aminimum yield requirement.

The most complex of the applications have greatest applicationin temperate latitudes for the extension of the peak growingseason environments. By investing in CEA techniques, out-of-season crops can be grown locally, rather than losing the marketto imported produce. The higher price for out-of-season producejustifies the capital investment. Competition is with importedproduce – but without import barriers, with proof of husbandryprovenance at locally desired standards, and with a reducedcarbon footprint from global to local transportation. These factorscan all drive value in the final selling price.

Globally, the human population centres around urbanenvironments. The CEA applications that utilise soillesstechnology can operate effectively on peri-urban and urbanbrownfield, contaminated, or unproductive sites. Sites on thesetypes of land are often cost-effective to purchase and save ontransportation costs to the end consumer. In developedcountries, the localisation of food sources is becoming anincreasingly marketable trend, adding value to crops. In lessdeveloped countries, it offers better opportunities to accessconsumer markets with inconsistent access to transportation,as well as access to developing power grids for anytechnological controls.

By extension, there is an application for CEA, especially with asoilless technology, to be applied in aid situations, where watersupplies need to be used effectively, the land may becontaminated or dangerous to cultivate, food security ischallenged, food crops are required quickly, and transport linksare compromised.

Full environmental controls may be unsuitable for operation inmany developing countries unless mitigated with off-grid powercollection and storage, but they create an opportunity for foodsecurity within arctic and desert environments where plantconditions can be created without being affected by, or creatingan effect on, the surrounding environment. Refrigeratedcontainer farms have a unique application in desertenvironments for maintaining an environment that is cooler andmore humid than the surrounding conditions in order to growleafy and fruiting temperate and tropical crops. This approach isconsiderably more ecologically sustainable than intensiveirrigation of the desert for short-term shifting agriculture.

The tropics represent a particular opportunity for CEA. Withouttemperate seasonality, the controls required for indigenous cropsare light-touch in terms of supplemental lighting; containedenvironments offer biosecurity benefits as the tropics experience

year-round threat of infestations, without winter temperaturesto break pests’ life cycles (Jensen, 2010). Soilless technologiesrepresent an opportunity for efficient energy and clean waterusage, as well as significant reductions in chemical inputs fornutrition, herbicides and fungicides. A dedicated structure wouldboth provide biosecurity advantages and protect crops fromheavy rain. Fully controlled indoor farming is useful in areas ofregular severe weather events, and robust polycarbonategreenhouses are cost-effective to repair. However, the increasedcosts of operating a complex CEA may not be economically viableexcept when re-creating temperate environmental conditions tocompete with imported food, especially for the tourist industry.

Circular economy within CEAA circular economy is an alternative to the traditional lineareconomy which is characterised by making, using and disposing.In a circular economy, resources are kept in use for as long aspossible, the maximum value is extracted from each resourcewhilst in use, and then products and materials, at the end of eachservice life, are recovered and regenerated (WRAP, nd).

The rationale and methodology of the circular economy fitsneatly with CEA, as management of the environment alignswith the most efficient use of all resources and inputs. A goodexample is scavenging the heat from grow lights andcirculating it throughout the grow space with fans, rather thanadding specific heating based on a wall-based thermostat. Inthis example, the temperature will be less varied throughoutthe environment, which will support consistency of planthealth and growth, and the grower will save money by notadding additional, unnecessary energy into the grow.

Vertical farming CEA often maximises the methodology of thecircular economy through recycling water and nutrients, usingonly what is required. This creates greater benefits to thesystem than just economics and plant husbandry. The carbonand expense that goes into creating potable water, and thecomposition of the nutrients, is minimised by not wastingeither through overuse and disposal. The benefit to the externalenvironment from not having waste water (or nutrient-richwaste water) discharged into water courses and aquaticenvironments is also of note, as remediation to either cleanthe water for drinking or to restore the affected naturalenvironment is expensive and complex.

The circular economy approach also addresses the limitationsand drawbacks of CEA. In order to be effective, CEA needs toaddress its sustainability. By using resources in their mosteffective manner, the total effect of the installation andoperation of a CEA application can be at its most positive.Using existing buildings; sourcing sustainable, recycled, orrecyclable materials; and creating build structures withlongevity, all add to the sustainability and financial viability ofan enterprise. Sourcing operational inputs sustainably andutilising them fully, as with chemical interventions, is anotherpoint of consideration.

CEA’s derivation of utility from the circular economy can befurther enhanced by considering its waste products and itsinputs. The advent of solar greenhouses to mitigate energy useby harvesting natural resources is a good example of an

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economic, environmentally positive approach to growing.Shading from roof-mounted solar cells can give plants someprotection from the fiercest sun, and the energy collected canbe used to power supplemental lighting, pump irrigation,ventilation, or other electrical or computerised controls.

Using waste to feed insects such as the ecologically famous blacksoldier fly is a productive way to dispose of the non-yielding partsof plants after harvest, as well as local food waste streams. Aconsistent source of waste for insect feed means that insect larvaecan be produced as a food source for poultry and fish; in addition,the insect droppings (frass) can be used to provide somenutritional inputs, to replace fertiliser use. Insect production,unlike other animal husbandry, thrives in an intensive,environmentally controlled situation, so it is compatible withCEA techniques, supporting a move towards the circulareconomy in conjunction with high-level technology.

ConclusionsControlled environment agriculture techniques can be applied toa wide range of agricultural situations to improve the use ofinputs and control the variables that affect yield. The higher thelevel of control, the more predictable the crop harvest becomes,and the opportunity to grow higher-value crops increasesthrough manipulating environments to correspond to optimalgrowth conditions on a year-round basis. The maximal usage ofinputs in CEA aligns with the principles of harnessing the circulareconomy to make the most of the inputs and outputs of anysystem. There are economic and environmental benefits of using

CEA techniques across the world to produce better crops, withmore financial consistency for the farmer.

References

Cornell University, nd. Competency area 5: Soil pH and liming.[https://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/nutrient/CA5/CA0539.php]. Accessed 2 July2018.

Government of Alberta, nd. Soil pH and plant nutrients.[https://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex6607].Accessed 2 July 2018.

Hangarter RP, 2000. Plants-In-Motion: Pumpkin fruit growth. IndianaUniversity. [http://plantsinmotion.bio.indiana.edu/plantmotion/movements/leafmovements/pumpkingrowth/pumpkin.html]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Jensen MH, 2010. Controlled environment agriculture in deserts, tropics andtemperate regions – a world review. Paper I-125933-03-00, University ofArizona, USA. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0aab/d349a9011acaa2881f7867abcd7960c938b6.pdf]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

MaximumYield, nd. Controlled environment agriculture (CEA).[https://www.maximumyield.com/definition/1546/controlled-environment-agriculture-cea]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

NASA, 2015. Meals ready to eat: Expedition 44 crew members sample leafygreens grown on Space Station, 7 August.[https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/meals_ready_to_eat]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary, nd. Transpiration – water movement throughplants. [https://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1092853841&topicorder=6]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

UMassAmherst, nd. Water quality for crop production. Center for Agriculture,Food and the Environment. [https://ag.umass.edu/greenhouse-floriculture/greenhouse-best-management-practices-bmp-manual/water-quality-for-crop].Accessed 2 July 2018.

WRAP, nd. WRAP and the circular economy. [http://www.wrap.org.uk/about-us/about/wrap-and-circular-economy]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

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NewsflashGreenTech 2018, AmsterdamGreenTech (greentech.nl) is an annual three-day horticulturalfestival encompassing the GreenTech Summit, the GreenTechAmsterdam exhibition and associated tours and special events. Thisyear (12-14 June) it was combined with The Organic Farmers Fair(greentech.nl/toff). The overall theme was: The future ofhorticulture: insights for the next decade. In view of the dynamicinnovations in the horticultural industry these promised to beexciting events, and they did not disappoint.

The GreenTech Summit was, as stated in the catalogue, “a meetingof experts and visionaries travelling to the year 2028”. It wasintended for growers, investors and suppliers who want to beinformed about the trends and innovations that may be relevantto their businesses. It involved leaders in all aspects of horticultureand related industries who have expert knowledge of topics suchas innovation in greenhouse design, construction and operation;urban farming; production systems for different climates; plantresearch; business strategy and marketing; data control andblockchain (a continuously growing list of records, called blocks,

which are linked and secured using cryptography) applications;human-technology interactions; and smart services. The paneldiscussions could be followed up individually in business-to-business meetings.

Figure 1. The author at GreenTech 2018 (Photo: Robert von Kaufmann).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

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Newsflash 1

The GreenTech Amsterdam exhibition provided an opportunity forthose interested in any aspect of horticulture to see and learn fromover 450 exhibitors. The stands were organised around commonthemes in a number of pavilions, with one dedicated to verticalfarming (Figure 2), which had over 100 exhibitors. Prominentamong them was the Association for Vertical Farming’s café, whichin addition to one-on-one interactions with visitors also hostedlively panel discussions.

In this short report it is not possible to do justice to so manyexhibits, but a notable feature was the increased participation ofproducers of robotic equipment who are motivated by theperception that human labour will become scarce and tooexpensive. This trend was reflected in the winners of the GreenTech2018 awards (https://www.greentech.nl/press-releases/article/winners-of-greentech-innovation-awards-2018-announced).

The GreenTech Innovation Award was won by the producers of anautomated system for planting cuttings that solves the problem ofrecruiting and training workers by being able to plant up to 12,000cuttings per hour. The GreenTech Awards Jury’s citation statedthat it is:

“A new, unique way of planting cuttings using excellently designedhigh tech combined with sustainable materials. Visser HortiSystems’ Autostix has it all: it is a commercially successfulinnovation, featuring strong technology developed in closepartnership and a real game changer using smart product design.”

The robotic theme was continued by the GreenTech InnovationConcept Award 2018, which was awarded to the inventors ofequipment with cameras, a gyro sensor and sensors for relativehumidity, temperature, carbon dioxide, crop head temperature anda photosynthetically active radiation sensor for automateddetection of pests, diseases and nutrient deficiencies. The Jury’scitation read:

“Managing crops using highly sensitive, precise technology ismodern horticulture’s future. Although Metazet-FormFlex’sScoutrobot has only just been launched, the jury believes that thisvery sophisticated technology has enormous potential and suitsmodern crop management perfectly.”

The GreenTech Impact Award is for innovation in enablingworldwide acquisition of knowledge on horticulture and controlledenvironment agriculture. The training is by no means robotic, buta main objective in its design is to avoid having to physically bringtrainers and students together by providing electronic access toexpert information and learning tools whenever and wherever

convenient to the learner. Jury citation:

“Successfully exporting new technology to growers around theworld not only entails providing the latter with new tools, but alsothat you take responsibility for training and educating them onhow to use these tools in the best way possible. The jury believesthat with Priva Academy, Priva has taken on that responsibilitybecoming an example to many others.”

The GreenTech Sustainability Award was won by a system fortaking sodium out of wastewater while retaining the useful plantnutrients. Jury citation:

“Water quality is an issue of increasing importance to thehorticulture sector. The Van der Ende Groep’s unique Poseidontechnology is a clear example of how to manage water verysustainably. The jury is of the opinion that rising demand for cleanwater will give Poseidon technology a bright future.”

Another notable feature of GreenTech Amsterdam 2018 was theincrease in the number of Chinese exhibitors. Their remarkableinnovations were responses to rapidly growing home markets thatthey now want to market globally. Conversely, there was a notabledearth of African exhibitors and visitors, which, in the light ofinformation presented elsewhere in this special edition, indicatesan important lost opportunity. This brings to mind the admonitionby Professor Henry Bwisa, Chair of the African AgribusinessIncubators Network, that Passing Over Opportunities Repeatedlykeeps Africa POOR. Hopefully there were visitors from the CGIARcentres, because there were innovations relevant to every one ofthe international agricultural research centres.

Among the exhibitors’ stands there were five informal theatres(Figure 3) where speakers from industry and research madeshort interactive presentations dedicated to organic farming;food and flower crops; climate, water and energy; and trendsand innovation. These events provided convenientopportunities for participants to seek more information onquestions and ideas generated by the exhibits.

There were also a variety of tours and events that provided superblearning and networking opportunities. As expected it was a veryinformative and enjoyable event and the dates of the nextGreenTech – 11-13 June 2019 – are already in my diary.

Ralph von KaufmannAssociate Consultant of the African AgribusinessIncubators Network, and a member of the Board of theAfrican Technology Policy Studies Network

Figure 2. The GreenTech Amsterdam 2018 Vertical Farming Pavilion (Photo:Robert von Kaufmann).

Figure 3. A GreenTech Amsterdam 2018 informal theatre (Photo: Robert von Kaufmann).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

AbstractIn 2015 there was a seminar in the World Bank on controlledenvironment agriculture (CEA) entitled “The birth of anagricultural revolution”.That was notwithstanding the admissionthat the Aztecs, Babylonians, Chinese and Egyptians had irrigatedgardens over 3,000 years before. The pace of innovation is suchthat CEA is still revolutionary. It is now applied in the centre ofmegacities, in skyscrapers over our heads and in tunnels under ourfeet, and all around us on walls and in car parks. It enables foodcrops to be grown with seawater, on water and even underwater.Controlled environment agriculture can go to any scale, from tinytable-top units to mega-multistorey enterprises. The options canliterally take your breath away, for example in harvesting carbondioxide from the breath of people in buildings. In the context ofCEA, it is appropriate to think both in the box and in circles, andto break out from technical boundaries. It has created space forthinking big and the new discipline of agritecture. It is being appliedto mending political fences and in preparation for inhabiting space.The very fact that it is impossible to do justice to the topic of globalapplications of CEA in a single paper demonstrates its hugepotential to have an impact on food production anywhere on theplanet. That is a source of hope that the world will indeed be ableto feed itself well, sustainably and equitably up to and beyond peakhuman population.

IntroductionTo many readers, Despommier’s (2010) seminal book onvertical farming was an introduction to a new wave ofdisruptive farming technologies. In 2015 Merle Jensenpresented a seminar on controlled environment agriculture(CEA) entitled “The birth of an agricultural revolution”, basedon work he had been engaged in for over 50 years (Jensen,2015).That was notwithstanding that the flyer announcing theseminar admitted that the Aztecs, Babylonians, Chinese andEgyptians had irrigated gardens over 3,000 years ago.

In the flyer, Jensen was described as the first to define CEA as“a technology for growing plants in a nutrient solution (waterand fertilisers) with or without the use of an artificial medium... to provide mechanical support”. Jensen was also credited

with having:

“brought the concept of controlled environment agricultureto urban food production, hydroponics in the deserts of Egypt,Abu Dhabi and Jordan, and to expansion of food productionin China, Mexico, the USA and 120 other countries. A stellarexample of Jensen’s influence is China where, under hisguidance, greenhouses’ footprint has grown to 8 million acresproviding 31 million jobs.”

Despite the impressive advances that have already beenachieved, CEA is still revolutionary. That is fortunate becauseit is becoming evident that, even with all the yield-enhancingadvances, it will not be possible to produce enough food for 9billion people from soil-based farming alone, at least notwithout catastrophic environmental consequences. Controlledenvironment agriculture’s power to disrupt the status quo infood production allows us to confront that previouslyunthinkable eventuality.

Controlled environment agriculture has opened up opportunitiesfor sustainable food production almost anywhere. In the centreof megacities, food is being grown in skyscrapers over our headsand in tunnels under our feet, and indeed all around us on wallsand in car parks. Food crops are being grown with seawater, onwater and even underwater. Controlled environment agriculturecan go to any scale, from tiny desktop units to mega-multistoreyenterprises. The options can literally take your breath away, forexample in harvesting carbon dioxide from the breath of peoplein buildings. In the context of CEA, it is appropriate to think inthe box and in circles, and to break out from technicalboundaries. It has created space for thinking big and catalysedthe new professional discipline of agritecture. It is being appliedto mending political fences and in preparation for inhabitingspace.

These attributes, described below and in the other articles inthis special issue on CEA, allow us to believe that it is indeedpossible for everybody to be fed sustainably and nutritiously,wherever they are.

Growing over our headsImages of farmers leaning on gates looking over their fields are

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Global applications of controlled environmentagriculture

Raised on a farm in Kenya, after university in England, Ralph spent his working life in East, Southern and West Africa. After the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi,he worked in agricultural finance, project development, agricultural research, resource mobilisation, capacity strengthening and agribusiness incubation. His present prime hobby isaeroponic vegetable production.Ralphvonkaufmann@gmail.com

Ralph von Kaufmann

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no longer so apt. Many farms are now found in the centre ofcities, on top of or inside multistorey buildings, making gooduse of often neglected spaces in expensive urban locations.

A Belgian start-up is planning to establish 150 urban rooftopfarms and has secured 1.2 million euros to enable it to do so.Only three years since the business was founded, they have600 allotments, located on rooftops of the Cameleon shoppingcentre and the World Trade Centre in Brussels, a hotel, and theheadquarters of BNP Paribas Fortis in Paris. It lets 3 m2 parcelsfor 38 euros per month, which are cared for by a professionalgardener. They grow about 70 kinds of fruit, vegetable andherbs with permaculture techniques. They claim that this ischeaper than buying the same products in the supermarkets(Bosteels, 2018).

As with all innovative businesses, some CEA ventures will fail. Arecent example of this is the Dutch Rooftop Farm established byUF De Schilde, which claimed to be the largest rooftop farm inEurope (Sijmonsma, 2018a). The failures will be importantsources of learning but, as indicated above, there is no indicationthat they are dampening enthusiasm for new ventures.

Another innovative farm has been established on the roof of theBoston Medical Centre (BMC, bmc.org) in Massachusetts, whichprovides fresh vegetables for patients, staff and visitors (BMC, nd).In its first season, the 223 m2 unit produced 2,266 kg of beets,carrots, cucumbers, eggplants, green beans, herbs, peppers,tomatoes and other greens. The Centre claims that it reduces thehospital’s carbon footprint, increases its green space and reducesthe fuel required to deliver the food. As a manifestation of theCentre’s commitment to going green, it claims:

“In addition to being a source of great, fresh food, the BMC farmis a learning space for those wanting to eat a healthier diet. On-farm tours, volunteer opportunities for employees, andprograms through BMC’s Demonstration Kitchen for patientsexemplify BMC’s mission to address and improve socialdeterminants of health, like nutrition.” (Sijmonsma, 2018b)

Vertical farms can be huge enterprises (Figure 1). At the timeof writing the biggest vertical farm in the world is AeroFarms(aerofarms.com), located in Newark, NJ, USA. It claims to betransforming agriculture by:

“grow[ing] delicious, nutritious leafy greens and herbswithout sunlight and soil. Our crops get the perfect amountof moisture and nutrients misted directly onto their roots in acompletely controlled environment. With our patentedtechnology, we take indoor vertical farming to a new level ofprecision and productivity with minimal environmentalimpact and virtually zero risk.”

Growing under our feet Humans have always had reasons for digging underground,but this has seldom been done for food production. However,it has transpired that disused underground facilities can bequite readily turned into productive farms. The horticulturalbusiness Growing Underground (growing-underground.com)is a prime example of what can be achieved in a disused WorldWar II bomb shelter under London (Knapton, 2015). It ispossibly the world’s largest hydroponic farm, providingvegetables to over 20 high-end restaurants. It relies onventilation and LED lighting but, in comparison to above-ground greenhouses, it had minimal construction costs andhas lower heating costs.

The fact that numbers of these multistorey and undergroundenterprises are staying in business and expanding indicatesthat they are profitable, and that gives reason to hope that itwill be possible to provide high-quality fresh vegetables andsoft fruits to consumers in cities such as Cairo, where theoptions for more soil-based agriculture are increasinglyrestricted.

Growing all around usIn all big cities, air pollution has become a serious problem.Indeed, the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) project attributes6.1 million deaths annually to air pollution (Health EffectsInstitute, 2018). It has been found that plants can remove upto 30 percent of the health hazard created by microscopicallysmall particles (fine dust) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (Pugh etal, 2012). That benefit can be realised by establishing greenwalls to filter the air.

With greater appreciation of the wider benefits that can bederived from plants, developers are ‘future-proofing’ theirproperties by establishing CEA systems in ever moreimaginative spaces such as basement car parks, where moreopportunities will be found as car ownership decreases infavour of rent-when-you-drive and driverless cars. Mirvac(mirvac.com), a prominent Australian asset manager, hastransformed the basement of Sydney’s EY Centre into anurban farm where employees enjoy working and meeting theircolleagues. In partnership with Farmwall (farmwall.com.au),Mirvac has created Australia’s first pop-up urban hydroponic

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Figure 1. A view inside a vertical farm (Photo:Louis Hiemstra, Stock photo ID 512726496).

Figure 2. A farm wall in production (Source: upgrownfarming.co).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

vertical farm. In addition to vegetables, they also growmushrooms on spent coffee grounds, and their producereaches nearby cafes less than 10 minutes after being harvested(Cummins, 2018).

The Singapore-based Upgrown Farming Company(upgrownfarming.co) provides solutions for indoor farmingapplications with special attention to new growers who wantto start small and scale-up later with modular systems,including farm wall systems (Figure 2).

Growing with seawaterEverybody knows that plants cannot be irrigated with seawater.Wrong! Wainwright (see Article 4 in this issue) reports on howSeawater Greenhouse (seawatergreenhouse.com) and itspartners have developed innovative seawater irrigationtechniques that can be applied in hot and dry coastal regionsanywhere in the world, often where agriculture wouldotherwise be impossible. They have projects in Abu Dhabi,Australia, Oman, Somaliland and Tenerife, in which theyproject tomato yields ranging from 300 up to 750 t/ha.

Seawater Greenhouse recently won a Shell Springboard Award(shellspringboard.org) of £150,000 to support the growth andcommercialisation of its ‘cool house’ technology thatevaporates seawater to create a cool and humid microclimatein which to grow crops in arid coastal environments aroundthe world (Hortidaily, 2018).

Growing on waterIntegrating the production of fish and vegetables is not a newidea. Villagers, especially in South Asia, have traditionallyexploited ponds to produce fish, ducks and vegetables inpermanent beneficial balance with each other. However,modern aquaponic systems have enabled a wider variety ofuses, with huge scope for scaling-up.

The ‘community interest company’ has found that it is not onlypossible but also enjoyable to reduce waste through bringing fishand plants together by applying aquaponics. The vegetables filterthe water and absorb nitrates, which in common farmingpractices are undesirable freshwater pollutants from excessfertiliser runoff (Kennedy, 2018).

In another innovation, Salt and Water Studio (saltandwater.rs)has taken aquaponics onto the river Danube with amultifunctional floating greenhouse. Their greenhouse, aptlycalled an Eco Barge, grows vegetables while also generatingclean energy. It also provides a venue for education andcommunity bonding for the citizens of Belgrade.

Over-water food production is taken to another level by a conceptdeveloped by Smart Floating Farms (smartfloatingfarms.com) –agricultural barges with hydroponic systems above board and fishtanks below. The barges can be produced as modules and thenfloated anywhere to produce over 8 t of fruits and vegetables andnearly 2 t of fish per year. The business can be scaled up simplyby mooring barges next to each (Willmott, 2015).

Spanish architects have taken the concept even further with adesign for a triple-deck floating farm (Figure 3) with aquaponic

systems having up to 2 km2 of fish farms with annualproduction targets of 1.7 t of fish and 8 t of vegetables per 0.21ha module (Kalvapalle, 2015).

The technologies for solar, wind or wave power generators anddesalination to produce the small amounts of fresh waterrequired by the aquaponic systems are already available, andbecause of their smart features there will be little need forhuman intervention to keep them running.

Growing under waterIn another extreme innovation, an Italian scuba divingenthusiast has constructed underwater greenhouses (Figure4) as a way of enabling his enjoyment of both scuba diving andgardening (Gebelhoff, 2015). He started with an experiment ingrowing basil in a very small biosphere anchored to the seabottom, but has now added more biospheres to grow a widerange of salad and herb crops, and even some non-food plantssuch as stevia, melissa, calendula and aloe vera.

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Figure 3. Triple-decker smart floating farm concept (Source: Smart FloatingFarms).

Figure 4. The world’s most beautiful greenhouses are underwater (Source:Nemo’s Garden / Ocean Reef Group 2018).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

The ultimate goal is to enable crop production that does noharm to the environment. Indeed, there may be positiveenvironmental outcomes, indicated by octopuses andendangered seahorses sheltering under the biospheres.

Scaling up and downControlled environment agriculture can be practised at any scale.There are an ever-growing variety of table-top units for growingfavoured herbs, and units that blend in kitchens with fridgefreezers, such as those produced by Ikea. These systems can bescaled-up to form units from which customers in supermarketsand canteens can help themselves (Figure 5). Some cruise shipshave their own on-board aeroponic systems to provide theirpassengers with fresh herbs and nutritious greens.

Taking our breath awaySome of the recent developments in CEA are truly breathtakingin their ingenuity – literally. Boston University Medical Centrehas a rooftop system that is harvesting the greenhouse gascarbon dioxide (CO2) from the breath of the people in thebuilding, which they excrete in their breath at 40,000 ppm.This technology is removing a greenhouse gas that wouldotherwise be making students sleepy, and putting it to gooduse in promoting the growth of vegetables that produceoxygen. This is the subject of what promises to be aninteresting PhD research project (Gellerman, 2018).

Thinking in the boxThe innovations reported above are the outcomes of someextraordinary out-of-the-box thinking. Such creative thinkinghas also been applied inside box-like shipping containers,which are being recycled as self-contained vertical farms.

Shipping containers are strong and standardised, and can beinstalled with little by way of foundations. They can bedelivered fully assembled with systems ready to be switchedon. They are also easy to scale-up by placing containers sideby side or even on top of each other.

Since they are unaffected by weather or season, it is possibleto control production very precisely to coincide with changingmarket demands. Most of the inputs for plant production, suchas water, plant nutrients, ventilation, heating and cooling, canbe monitored and controlled from a smartphone. And they canbe installed close to points of sale. They may even be taken bylorry to markets so that the produce is harvested only after it

has been sold, thereby minimising waste.

Local Roots (localrootsfarms.com) is an interesting example ofcontainer farming in practice, which has raised aboutUS$ 11 million. They turn shipping containers into‘TerraFarms’, the yield for which is claimed to be the equivalentof 2 ha of farmland using only 1 percent of the water. TheTerraFarms are leased to wholesalers and restaurant chains.

Another example is Growtainers (growtainers.com), whichmarkets a modular state-of-the-art growing system that canbe delivered anywhere (Figure 6). They describe the system as:

“a highly engineered modular, stackable and mobile verticalproduction environment: … The results are a significantlyhigher yield in a shorter time than all conventional productionmethods. With a Growtainer™ container, it is now possible togrow almost anything, almost anywhere.”

There are a number of other firms, especially in the USA andEurope, offering similar modular farms that can grow about250 plants per m2, and can operate anywhere, in any climateand in any season.

Going in circlesThe Association for Vertical Farming (AVF) has a vision of thefuture as “a place where circular systems are researched asreadily as linear systems are researched today” (vertical-farming.net). The way forward towards that vision is set outin an AVF White Paper on Aquaponics Mushrooms and Insects(AVF, 2017). The White Paper considers the three distinctproduction systems integrated within a vertical farm as acatalyst for advancing food production systems into circulareconomies. AVF hopes this will be a guide to understandingthe species it features and a stimulus for further research,which will lead to implementation. The White Paper describesthe links between mushrooms, black soldier flies, fish, algaeand vegetable plants in integrated biotic and abiotic systems.

Breaking technical boundariesIt is commonly believed that CEA and vertical farming systemsare only fit to produce high-value leafy greens for nichemarkets. That implies that they are not going to have muchimpact on the nutrition of the masses whose needs aregreatest. However, the range of what can be produced is verymuch greater than that. Among the available examples,potatoes and caviar, which respond to contrasting demands forcalories and delicacies, have been selected to illustrate how farinnovation is pushing the technical boundaries.

A large crop of potatoes grown without soil has been harvestedby the British start-up Airponix (airponix.com). In the

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Figure 5. The Ikea Growroom is a spherical vertical garden designed to maximisespace and light for ideal growing conditions (Source: SPACE10 +).

Figure 6. A Growtainer shipping container farm on a delivery truck and its contents(Source: growtainers.com/gallery).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

polytunnels where it grows potatoes, Airponix uses modifiedinkjet printers to apply a nutrient-rich ‘fog’ of tiny waterdroplets. Airponix claims this is well-suited to staple food cropssuch as rice, wheat or potatoes and can be applied in arid ordegraded regions, with the added benefit of not needingherbicides, fungicides or pesticides (Cuff, 2018). Airponix’s co-founder Michael Ruggier claims that:

“The potential cost of the system is very low and requires littleenergy to operate [...]. Manual labour is also greatly reducedbecause harvesting is a simple clean process and root cropsdon’t need washing. This means that everyone can benefitfrom our technology and it has the potential to guaranteehigh-yield high quality food production independent ofexternal environmental conditions.” (Cuff, 2018).

Few foods can be as distant from starchy potatoes as caviar, whichis a delicacy, yet that too can be produced in CEA systems. Whitesturgeon are being bred by the Tsar Nicoulai Caviar company(tsarnicoulai.com). In contrast to the small tilapia, the mostcommon fish species found in aquaponic enterprises, whitesturgeon is the largest freshwater fish species in North Americaand can grow to more than 2 m in length.

The collapse of wild beluga sturgeon populations in theCaspian Sea in the 1980s stimulated research at the Universityof California (UC), Davis on breeding the white sturgeon,which is native to California’s Sacramento River. In acommercial application, white sturgeon females lay hundredsof thousands of eggs at a time, which are harvested for aboutique food producer (Quinton, 2018). UC Davis supportedTsar Nicoulai Caviar in advancing its eco-friendly approach toproducing food in a circular aquaponic ecosystem that cycleswater between fish, plants and bacteria. The sturgeon releaseammonia through their gills and excrete urea, which bacteriaconvert into nitrate, which can be applied as plant nutrients.The water is filtered to ensure no contamination is spread tofood plants from the fish and it is then used to irrigate lettucesin greenhouses. After this, the water is returned free of nitrateback to the fish tanks. This closed-loop system enables about80 percent of the water to be recycled.

Sturgeon are also farmed in Yorkshire, UK by KC Caviar(kccaviar.co.uk), with a patented process for producingovulated eggs (Figure 7). This has given KC the advantage ofbeing able to work with the World Sturgeon ConservationSociety to help wild sturgeon stocks recover by releasing them

into their natural habitats around the world. They are alsobuilding a retirement lake where visitors will be able to see andfeed the sturgeon.

Thinking BigThe ability to scale up is possibly CEA’s greatest asset becauseit is not tied to the soil and can be installed anywhere. Apragmatic vision of how the world’s incremental fooddemands – predicted to increase by 50 percent by 2030 and70 percent by 2050 (FAO, 2017) – could be met is given bySundrop Farms (sundropfarms.com) (Figure 8).

Located on just 20 ha of arid land near Port Augusta, north ofAdelaide, South Australia, Sundrop Farms produces an annualcrop of 15,000 t of tomatoes with a workforce of about 175people (Staight, 2016). They use no fresh water and only drawgrid electricity on overcast days. The normal power sourcecomes from 23,000 mirrors that track the sun and focus on asolar receiver at the top of a 127 m high ‘power’ tower. Thisproduces 39 megawatts of thermal power, which is used forelectricity, heating and desalinating seawater. The pure, clean,desalinated water is supplemented with the precise nutrientsthat the plants require and supplied to the plants grownhydroponically on coconut husks.

The potential scale of the operation is indicated by theengagement of financial advisors by Sundrop Farms to adviseon proposals for a further A$ 200 million investment in themega-greenhouse (Thompson et al, 2018). A similar amounthas been raised by the vertical farming company Plenty(plenty.ag) in what was billed in July 2017 as “the largestagtech investment to date” (Bromfield, 2017).

Agritecture: a new professional disciplineBy their nature, larger CEA systems must be designed andoperated by multidisciplinary teams involving agriculturalists,engineers and architects. To be able to work togetherefficiently, they must know quite a bit about each other’sdisciplines and be able to apply common terms and definitions.That has spawned the new professional discipline ofagritecture, which is defined as the art, science and practice ofintegrating agriculture into the built environment(agritecture.com). It enables food production in previouslydisregarded urban spaces.

The principal aim of agritecture is to bring cities more into linewith human needs for food, clean air and pleasantsurroundings. Examples can now be found in all manner oflocations, such as shopping malls, airports, car parks, rooftops,

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Figure 7. KC Caviar’s patented no-kill extraction of caviar (Photo: Mark Addey, KCCaviar).

Figure 8 An aerial view of Sundrop Farms (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:160411_Whole_Site_Aerial.jpg).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

basements and tunnels. Agritecturists take advantage ofhydroponic, aeroponic and aquaponic systems andcombinations of them. One of its greatest advantages is that ituses space in three dimensions, whereas traditional agricultureis practiced in only two dimensions.

Mending political fencesIt was announced recently that Japan is commissioning aprivate sector research team to explore the potential forgreenhouse strawberry and sea urchin cultivation on adisputed island chain. It is hoped that joint economicenterprises may ease tensions on the islands, known in Japanas the Northern Territories and in Russia as the SouthernKurils. Five priority ventures have been identified, one of whichis aquaculture (Nikkei Asian Review, 2018).

Inhabiting spaceThe US National Science Foundation (nsf.gov) has beenexperimenting in growing food in Antarctica, which the USNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) viewsas a precursor for growing food on the Moon and Mars(Cummins, 2017). This could have very important outcomesgiven that Stephen Hawking predicted that humans only have100 years left in which to survive on this planet (Christian,2017).

Engineers from the German Aerospace Centre (dlr.de/dlr/en)have grown food crops under the extreme conditions of theEkstrom Ice Shelf, where food cannot be grown outsidebecause it is sometimes as low as -38°C (Garfield, 2017).

NASA, the European Space Agency and the entrepreneur ElonMusk are designing greenhouses for Mars. Meanwhile,astronauts are already able to grow salad plants in zero gravity(Paul & Feri, 2015). In a further development of closed-loopsystems, astronauts’ urine will be added to the mix to fertilisethe plants and the transpiration will be condensed to producepure drinking water. The range of crops is being extended toinclude potatoes, sweet potatoes, wheat and soybeans toprovide carbohydrates (Herridge, 2016).

Cummins (2017) ends her article by stating that: “maybe whatwe need to discover isn’t the promise of a new planet, but theresolve to rectify the mistakes we’ve already made”. With thatin mind, it is good to note that Kimbal Musk (Elon Musk’sbrother) is promoting Square Roots (squarerootsgrow.com),which is dedicated to empowering thousands of youngentrepreneurs to become ‘real-food farmers’ growing leafygreens free of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) andpesticides, in indoor farms, right in the heart of the city.

ConclusionsIt is impossible to do justice to the topic of global applicationsof CEA in one paper – and that in itself demonstrates the hugediversity, scope and potential of CEA. Controlled environmentagriculture offers a source of hope that the world will be ableto feed itself sustainably and equitably up to and beyond peakhuman population.

References

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AVF, 2017. Controlled agriculture and ecosystem economies. Munich:Association for Vertical Farming. [https://vertical-farming.net/whitepapers/].Accessed 2 July 2018.

BMC, nd. Rooftop farm. Boston Medical Center. [https://www.bmc.org/rooftop-farm]. Accessed 3 July 2018.

Bosteels K, 2015. Belgian start-up plans 150 urban roof top farms. RetailDetailNL 07/06/2018.

Bromfield E, 2017. $200 million in funding, the largest agtech investment todate. Urban Vertical Farming Project blog, 21 July 2017.[https://urbanverticalfarmingproject.com/2017/07/21/200-million-in-funding-the-largest-agtech-investment-to-date/]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Christian B, 2017. Stephen Hawking believes we have 100 years left on Earth– and he’s not the only one. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/stephenhawking-100-years-on-earth-prediction-starmus-festival.

Cuff M, 2018. Green growth: British soil-free farming start-up prepares for firstharvest. Business Green, 1 May. [https://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/3031377/green-growth-british-soil-free-farming-start-up-prepares-for-first-harvest]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Cummins C, 2018. Office car parks turning into farms. The Sydney MorningHerald, 19 May 2018. [https://www.smh.com.au/business/companies/office-car-parks-turning-into-farms-20180516-p4zfng.html]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Cummins E, 2017. Learning to farm on Mars could actually save agricultureon Earth. Popular Science, 5 May 2017. [https://www.popsci.com/farming-earth-mars]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Despommier D, 2010. The vertical farm: feeding the world in the 21st century.New York: Picador.

FAO, 2017. The future of food and agriculture – trends and challenges. Rome:Food and Agriculture Organisation.

Garfield L, 2017. Antarctica’s new greenhouse can harvest vegetables evenwhen it’s -100 degrees Fahrenheit outside – take a look. Business InsiderAustralia, 20 September 2017. [https://www.businessinsider.com.au/antarctica-greenhouse-dlr-german-aerospace-center-2017-9]. Accessed 2 July2018.

Gebelhoff R, 2015 The world’s most beautiful greenhouses are underwater,and growing strawberries. The Washington Post, 30 June 2015.

Gellerman B, 2018. This ‘carbon farm’ grows plants using CO2 harvested frompeople inside the building below. Bostonomix, WBUR, 15 May 2018.[http://www.wbur.org/bostonomix/2018/05/15/rooftop-garden-bu]. Accessed2 July 2018.

Haar J, 2016. The eco barge cruises the Danube in a sustainable fashion.Trendhunter, 8 July 2016. [https://www.trendhunter.com/trends/eco-barge].Accessed 2 July 2018.

Hawkes C, nd. IKEA launches DIY flat-pack garden to promote urbangardening. Sydney: Domain. [https://www.domain.com.au/living/ikea-launches-diy-flatpack-garden-to-promote-urban-gardening-20170224-gujq7g/]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Health Effects Institute. 2018. State of Global Air 2018. Special Report. Boston,MA: Health Effects Institute.

Herridge L, 2016, NASA plant researchers explore question of deep-space foodcrops. NASA’s John F. Kennedy Space Center, 17 February 2016.[https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-plant-researchers-explore-question-of-deep-space-food-crops]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Hortidaily, 2018. UK: Seawater Greenhouse receives Shell Springboard award.Hortidaily, 14 May 2018. [http://www.hortidaily.com/article/43212/UK-Seawater-Greenhouse-receives-Shell-Springboard-award]. Accessed 2 July2018.

Jensen M, 2015. The birth of an agricultural revolution: controlledenvironment agriculture. World Bank seminar, 12 July 2015, Washington, DC.[http://ceac.arizona.edu/events/ceac-seminar-series-1211].

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Kalvapalle R, 2015. This smart floating farm could address severe food issues.Trendhunter, 25 September 2015.[https://www.trendhunter.com/trends/floating-farm]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Kennedy D, 2018. Bristol’s urban farmers are using aquaponics to grow foodwithout soil. The Big Issue, 19 April 2018.[https://www.bigissue.com/latest/bristol-fish-project-is-bringing-aquaponics-to-the-community/]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Knapton S, 2015. London’s first underground farm opens in WW2 air raidshelter. The Telegraph, 29 June 2015. [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/agriculture/farming/11706406/Londons-first-underground-farm-opens-in-WW2-air-raid-shelter.html]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Murray J, 2017. IKEA’s hydroponic system allows you to grow vegetables allyear round without a garden. Truth Theory, 7 March 2017.[https://wearechange.org/ikeas-hydroponic-system-allows-grow-vegetables-year-round-without-garden/]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Nikkei Asian Review, 2018. Strawberries and uni: Japan eyes ventures withRussia on islands. Nikkei Asian Review, 25 May 2018.[https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-Relations/Strawberries-and-uni-Japan-eyes-ventures-with-Russia-on-islands]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Paul A, Feri R, 2015. Taking plants off the planet – how do they grow inzero gravity? The Conversation. University of Florida. August 7, 2015.

Poulter S, 2018. Growing underground! Forgotten World War Two bombshelter 100ft below tube tunnels becomes world’s first subterranean farm. MailOnline, 29 June 2018. [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3143564/Growing-underground-Forgotten-World-War-Two-bomb-shelter-100ft-tube-tunnels-world-s-subterranean-farm.html]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Pugh TAM, MacKenzie R, Whyatt JD, Hewitt CN, 2012. Effectiveness of greeninfrastructure for improvement of air quality in urban street canyons.Environmental Science & Technology, 46(14), 7692-9. DOI:10.1021/es300826w.

Quinton A, 2018. US (CA): World’s first caviar from aquaponics. Hortidaily,24 May 2018. [http://www.hortidaily.com/article/43486/US-(CA)-Worlds-first-caviar-from-aquaponics]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Sijmonsma A, 2018a. Dutch Rooftop Farm declared bankrupt. Hortidaily, 7March 2018. [https://www.igrow.news/news/dutch-rooftop-farm-declared-bankrupt}. Accessed 23 July 2018.

Sijmonsma A, 2018b. This hospital built a farm on its roof. Hortidaily, 3February 2018. [http://www.hortidaily.com/article/41221/This-hospital-built-a-farm-on-its-roof]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Staight K, 2016. Sundrop Farms pioneering solar-powered greenhouse to growfood without fresh water. ABC News, 2 October 2016.[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-01/sundrop-farms-opens-solar-greenhouse-using-no-fresh-water/7892866]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

That’s York TV, 2017. UK’s first “no kill” sturgeon caviar farm. YouTube, 8September 2017. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjEitYBPR7Q#].Accessed 2 July 2018.

Thompson S, Macdonald A, Spraque J, 2018. KKR-backed tomato grower seeksnew investor, adviser appointed. Financial Review, 22 May 2018.[https://www.afr.com/street-talk/kkrbacked-tomato-grower-seeks-new-investor-adviser-appointed-20180522-h10dm1]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Urry A, 2015. So now we have beautiful underwater greenhouses. Why? Whynot! Grist, 1 July 2015. [https://grist.org/science/so-now-we-have-beautiful-underwater-greenhouses-why-why-not/]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Wang L, 2016. Floating urban greenhouse produces clean energy and organicfood. Inhabitat, 26 June 2016. [https://inhabitat.com/floating-urban-greenhouse-would-produce-clean-energy-and-organic-food/]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Willmott D, 2015. Are floating farms in our future? Smithsonian, 1 September2015. [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/are-floating-farms-our-future-180956476/]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

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News from the Field

The Association for Vertical Farming IntroductionThe Association for Vertical Farming (AVF) (www.vertical-farming.net) is an internationally active nonprofit organisationcomprised of individuals, companies, research institutions anduniversities that focus on leading and advancing the sustainablegrowth and development of the vertical farming industry andmovement.

The AVF’s mission is to play an active role in the development ofthe vertical farming industry, while helping to shape theindustry’s future.

The AVF encourages transparency and collaboration by mappingand promoting businesses, institutions and projects focused onor associated with urban and vertical farming.

The Association promotes:

• Policy recommendations;• Business collaborations;• Demonstration projects;• Technology partnerships;• Data transparency and standardisation.

The AVF regional managers cultivate support from governmentbodies globally and support regional members’ activities with

access to knowledge products and introductions to itsmembers. The AVF has identified three main areas of focus forthe advancement of the vertical farming industry:

1. Policy and Legislation: Collaboration with local, national and supranational regulators and policy makers around the world to create the right framework and environment for your business.

2. Education: helping to ensure that future farmers are well trained.

3. Standardisation: Supporting and developing �industry standards.

The AVF supports the Vertical Farming Academy to enablepeople of all ages, skill levels and levels to access:

• An open electronic platform providing access to free information and teaching materials relating to Vertical Farming;

• An inspiring educational space for the exchange and sharing of knowledge and experience in the field of Vertical Farming;

• An educational initiative building vocational training for hydroponic technicians called PONICS VET, based on the ECVET (European Commission Vocational Education Training) credit system.

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

Case studiesThe following case studies illustrate the range of approachesto vertical farming using examples from Canada, Germany,Singapore, the UK and the USA.

Gotham Greens (Brooklyn, New York, USA)(gothamgreens.com)

Gotham Greens, established in 2011, is a pioneer in the fieldof urban agriculture and climate-controlled rooftopgreenhouses. They design, build and operate commercial scalegreenhouse facilities in urban areas for fresh vegetableproduction. Gotham Greens combines state-of-the-art rooftopgreenhouses with advanced horticultural and engineeringtechniques to optimise crop production, crop quality, andproduction efficiency. Three facilities (Greenpoint, Gowanusand Jamaica (Queens)) are already up and running in NewYork, a fourth has been announced for Chicago.

Green Spirit Farms (New Buffalo, Michigan, USA)(greenspiritfarms.com)

Green Spirit Farms, founded in 2011, is a sustainable indoorhydroponic vertical farm growing and delivering lettuces, basil,spinach and other leafy greens to grocery stores andrestaurants. Between its three operations, Green Spirit Farmshas over 26,000 square feet of growing space; in 21 days, theyare able to grow over 100 lbs of lettuces in 36 square feet usingIllumitex LED lightning.

Sky Greens (Singapore) (skygreens.com)

Sky Greens is a hydraulic driven, hydroponic vertical farmusing a patented system, the A-Go-Gro, consisting of rotatingtiers of growing troughs mounted on an A-shape aluminum

frame. The frame can be as high as 9 m tall with 38 tiers ofgrowing troughs. The troughs rotate around the aluminumframe to ensure that the plants receive uniform sunlight,irrigation and nutrients as they pass through different pointsin the structure. What is interesting about these frames is thatthey are customisable and scalable; they can be tailor-made tosuit different crops, growing media and natural conditions.

Brooklyn Grange (Brooklyn, New York , USA)(brooklyngrangefarm.com)

Brooklyn Grange’s farms include two rooftop vegetable farms,totaling 2.5 acres and producing over 50,000 lbs of organically-grown vegetables each year. Brooklyn Grange also operate NewYork City’s largest apiary, with over 30 naturally-managedhoney bee hives. Brooklyn Grange is also an urban farmeducation center, teaching important skills through a hands-on education programme to the next generation of urbanfarmers and several refugees through a programme incollaboration with the Queens-based Refugee and ImmigrantFund (RIF). As part of their operations, they are compostingfood waste from individuals and restaurants, wood chips fromlocal tree services, and wood shavings from furniture andcarpentry shops.

Agrilution (Munich, Germany) (agrilution.com)

Agrilution enables individuals and households to grow theirown fresh food and herbs at home, thus improving food security,reducing food miles and fostering urban dwellers’ connectionto food growing processes. To do this, Agrilution develops,produces and distributes a fully automated kitchen device thatcan grow a wide variety of vegetables and fruits soillessly andeffortlessly. The small-scale multilayered home-growing deviceis based on Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA)

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Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

technologies and reduces the water consumption compared totraditional agriculture by up to 98 percent and fertiliserconsumption by up to 60 percent, whilst achieving 2 or 3 timesfaster growth rates than outdoors, and increasing both vitamin andmineral contents of the grown plants. Their device, the plantCube,produces enough food to satisfy the daily demand for vegetablesof two people, easily and fully automated. Furthermore, Agrilutiondistributes all needed refill supplies such as seeds and fertilisers tooffer its customers a “complete vertical farming package”.

Wigan UTC (Wigan, Lancashire, UK) (wiganutc.org)

Wigan UTC’s Vertical Farm, created in August 2013, is theworld’s first controlled environmental agricultural facilityusing a Vertical High Density Growing System in aneducational environment. The purpose of the vertical farm isto train a new generation of urban food production techniciansready for the challenges facing the food production industry.Wigan UTC’s Vertical Farm is using aquaponics and twohydroponic vertical conveyors, travelling up two floors givinggrowing areas of 0.5 and 1.0 acre to grow lettuces and aromaticherbs; water and nutriments are fully circulated. Each unit hasthree levels and is capable of growing 540 plants with amaximum harvesting capacity of 100 lettuces a day and up to26 harvests a year. The crops produced are used on site, in thefood production facilities to create meals for the school.Education-oriented, this vertical farm delivers interestingvisuals and updates about its food production activities on itsblog: http://wiganutcverticalfarm.blogspot.com.

MIT CityFarm (Cambridge, Massachusetts , USA)(mitcityfarm.media.mit.edu)

The MIT CityFARM is an ‘anti-disciplinary’ group of engineers,architects, urban planners, economists and plant scientistsexploring and developing high performance urban agriculturalsystems. They are researching and developing hydroponic,

aquaponic and aeroponic production systems; as well as novelenvironmental, diagnostic and networked sensing, controlautomation, autonomous delivery and harvest systems. TheMIT CityFARM’s Urban Agriculture Façade project is alsoexploring how to incorporate hydroponic and aeroponicsystems into existing urban buildings – turning them intoproducers of food. In addition, the MIT CityFARM’s OpenAgriculture project provides a platform for global researchersto share their data, discuss their findings, and work to advancethe common cause of improving traditional agricultural andcrop yields globally by making all the world’s agricultureinformation open and accessible.

Harlem Grown (Harlem, New York, USA) (harlemgrown.com)

Harlem Grown is a non-profit organisation, founded in 2011,with a mission to inspire youth to live healthy and ambitiouslives through mentorship and hands-on education in urbanfarming, sustainability, and nutrition. They operate severallocal urban farms such as a production-focused farm, aneducational youth farm, and a hydroponic greenhouse,increasing access and knowledge of healthy food for Harlemresidents and providing garden-based youth developmentprogrammes to Harlem youth. Using organic methods, HarlemGrown cultivates a wide variety of leafy greens, vegetables, andfruits.

SmartGreens (Cornwall, Ontario, Canada) (smartgreens.co)

SmartGreens grows fresh and local food in insulated shippingcontainers repurposed by Freight Farms into hydroponicgrowing facilities in which they can grow up to 1,200 plants aweek (the crop varieties includes kale, basil and spinach). Thespecially designed LED-lighting system enables themaintenance of optimal growing conditions within thecontainer, which is technology-enabled and automated withan i-Pad interface that controls temperature, humidity, andnutrients level. SmartGreens sells its production to local

News from the Field 1

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Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

restaurants and food retailers. ConclusionsAs shown by its participation at Green Tech 2018, theAssociation for Vertical Farming is fulfilling a need forinformation and interaction between peers in the applicationof the rapidly advancing controlled environment agriculturesector. All new technologies and businesses come with risksand hazards, but by building an international community, AVFwill not only raise awareness and help accelerate uptake, but itwill also help new practitioners to avoid having to learn themany lessons that have already been learnt by others.

Josephine FavreHead Marketing and Communication Association of Vertical Farmingwww.vertical-farming.net; Tel +41 79 794 1841

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News from the Field 1/Newsflash 2

NewsflashVertical Farming Workshop, World Agri-Tech Innovation Summit, San FranciscoThis workshop, held on 19 March 2018, was hosted to assistdelegates at the World Agri-Tech Innovation Summit(worldagritechusa.com) to learn how investors and operators invertical farming are scaling production and accessing newmarkets. It was the first event on vertical farming by the Rethinkteam who host the Summit (rethinkevents.com), and a precursorto a two-day workshop hosted in New York in mid-June (theIndoor AgTech Innovation Summit, 20-21 June 2018,https://indooragtechnyc.com/aboutus-2/).

The most interesting presentation with any detail was thepresentation by JJ Price, Business Development Director ofSpread, Japan (spread.co.jp/en), looking at the drivers foradoption in Asia, the economics of vertical farming and the valueplaced on clean food production.

The concept of vertical farming covers a cross-section ofknowledge on construction design, cultivation and operations,as well as management of sales and logistics. Using innovationin agriculture, vertical farming is replicable anywhere in theworld, attractive to the younger generation, and friendly to theenvironment and people. Food is grown locally, and hence fresh,pesticide-free and non-GMO; and ready-to-eat, with increasedcarotene in some leaf lettuce compared with iceberg lettuce.

With proven production in Japan, Spread is now launching itsfirst flagship Techno Farm in Kyoto (spread.co.jp/en/technofarm),assembling cutting-edge technologies in anticipation of a globalroll-out (Figure 1). The farm will produce 30,000 lettuce headsper day (1,000 t per year), with climate-free resilient farming andclaims to be the world’s largest and the first in automation.

Innovations used in the vertical growing systems include

recycling of 98 percent of water used for cultivation; fullyautomated cultivation from seeding to harvesting; uniformcultivation conditions; and monitoring of cultivation status usingsensors and artificial intelligence.

Their hygiene and product quality management systems are inline with international standards, which allow for bacteria countsand product quality checks, assuring a hygienic environmentthrough zoning of the cultivation area, and caters to unbrokencold-chain distribution systems to ensure freshness from harvestto delivery.

Spread was established in 2006 and at March 2017 had annualsales of JPY 807 million. The company is seeking three types ofpartners for international expansion in each region: plantoperators, distributors and investors.

Elizabeth WarhamAgri-Tech, UK Department for International Trade

Figure 1. Artist’s impression of the Spread Techno Farm (Source: Spread, Japan)

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

Controlled environment agriculture insupport of Africa’s food security

African agriculture has made significant progress in recentyears. Food production met gross food requirements duringthe period 2014-2016. However, the Food and AgricultureOrganisation of the United Nations estimated that in 2016some 150 million Africans went to bed hungry, and thecontinent’s food import bill was over US$ 35 billion. TheAfrican population is seriously saddled with the triple burdensof malnutrition: undernutrition, malnutrition and obesity.

African countries have taken concerted actions to address thefood security situation of the continent, from the setting up ofthe Comprehensive Africa Agriculture DevelopmentProgramme in 2002 to the Malabo Declaration adopted in2014, and the commitments made to end hunger and halvepoverty through agriculture by 2025 and enhance resilience to

climate variability. However, the food security situationcontinues to be worrying, especially when more than30 percent of the continent’s children under five years old aremalnourished.

Several factors contribute to this situation. Agriculturalproductivity is low, owing largely to poor soils and the limiteduse of productivity-enhancing inputs: improved seeds,appropriate fertiliser, agrochemicals and irrigation. The lack ofsecure land-use rights for women and youths, and limited accessto finance, greatly constrain investments in agriculture. Thesituation is further compounded by the poor state of transportand related facilities, especially farm-to-market roads, poormarket infrastructure, the vagaries of climate change, povertyand ineffective social transfers as well as other support schemes.

However, these handicaps can be partially circumvented throughinvestment in controlled environment agriculture (CEA). Thisform of agriculture offers great opportunities that can change thelives of millions of smallholder farmers, especially youths and

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Does Africa need controlled environment agriculture?

Dr A Namanga Ngongi, a national of Cameroon, obtained a PhD in Agronomy from Cornell Universityin 1976. He has extensive professional experience in food security issues, having served as DeputyExecutive Director of the World Food Programme and President of the Alliance for a Green Revolutionin Africa. He currently serves as Chair of the Boards of Trustees of the African Fertilizer and AgribusinessPartnership and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. namangangongi@yahoo.com

Professor Pat Pridmore is Professor Emerita of Education and Health in International Developmentat University College London. She has more than 30 years’ experience of working in health and nutritional development in low- and middle-income countries, eight of which are in sub-SaharanAfrica. She has led a number of multi-country research teams and published books and articlesconcerned with rights-based, innovative and participatory approaches to multi-sectoral planningfor nutritional improvement. p.pridmore@ucl.ac.uk

Pay Drechsel is leading the International Water Management Institute (IWMI)’s strategic programmeon Rural Urban Linkages, and the related flagship of the CGIAR Research Programme on Water, Landand Ecosystems. Before moving to IWMI’s headquarters in Sri Lanka, Pay was based for 11 yearsin Ghana. He has published extensively in the domains of urban and peri-urban farming, wastewater use and resource recovery. p.drechsel@cgiar.org

René van Veenhuizen is Senior Programme Officer with the RUAF Foundation and RUAF Global Part-nership, the Netherlands, a not-for-profit alliance on sustainable urban agriculture and food systems.He has been the Editor of Urban Agriculture Magazine for 15 years, and worked before with theFood and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. r.van.veenhuizen@ruaf.org

Namanga Ngongi, Pat Pridmore, Pay Drechsel and René van Veenhuizen

In three opinion pieces, four international experts, from a range of backgrounds, discuss the role of controlled environmentagriculture, its opportunities and challenges in Africa.

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women living in urban and peri-urban areas for whom landownership is a major constraint. Controlled environmentagriculture is well suited for the production of vegetables, ofwhich Africa’s per capita consumption is the lowest in the world,with demand increasing. Africa’s vegetable imports amounted toUS$ 1.9 billion in 2013. Most of the vegetables imported (tomato,lettuce, onion) can be produced in the region. The food importbill is only likely to increase in view of the rapid growth of Africa’spopulation and a growing middle class that demands morevegetables and other high-quality food products.

Controlled environment agriculture – greenhouses,hydroponics, aeroponics, aquaculture and aquaponics – canbe used profitably to produce vegetables and fish close tomarkets. Medicinal plants and other speciality crops could alsobe grown. Controlled environment agriculture can range fromthe use of low-cost plastic sheeting to high-tech automatictemperature, light and humidity controlled systems. Verticalfarming, requiring tens of millions of dollars in investments,is gaining ground in the developed world. However, in Africasimpler low-cost structures can be profitably used in vacantbuilding lots and unfinished or abandoned buildings in urban,peri-urban and easily accessible rural areas. Youths, boys andgirls, with various levels of education and the growing numberof new retirees can be trained or retrained and supported tooperate CEA businesses. Modalities for use of vacant urbanproperties and land in accessible rural areas for CEA will haveto be worked out by municipal and other authorities.

The initial investment to set up a small greenhouse will bebeyond the financial means of most young people, but thiscould be supported by the many youths inagribusiness/agripreneur programmes and businessincubation platforms that are being set up on the continent,with funding from the African Development Bank, the Alliancefor a Green Revolution in Africa and the World Bank, withtechnical support from the International Institute of TropicalAgriculture. Where these programmes are not yet operational,special CEA programmes should be developed. Controlledenvironment agriculture lowers risks from drought, weeds,pests and diseases, thus reducing the need to use herbicidesand other potentially toxic pesticides. Yield levels obtainedunder CEA can be more than 20 times those obtained on plotsof similar size in open fields, at the same time producinghigher-quality products.

Rapid production of disease-free planting material for thevegetative propagation of cassava, yam, banana and plantainis now possible under CEA. These new business lines cangainfully employ urban and peri-urban youths. Several otheradvantages accrue to CEA: year-round production, efficientuse of water, fewer problems with transport, reduced post-harvest and storage problems as production can beprogrammed for delivery, and higher prices. The skills requiredby CEA are higher than for open-field agriculture, but thesecan be acquired. Youths will be more easily attracted to CEAcompared with open-field agriculture as it is more technologydriven, less tedious, more prestigious, and its higherproductivity makes it more financially rewarding.

In the face of high food import bills, especially for vegetablesthat can be easily grown on the continent, high youthunemployment, underemployment among new retirees and

the increasingly negative effects of climate change, Africancountries need to invest in CEA. This will save scarce hardcurrency, create millions of quality jobs, mitigate effects ofclimate change, reduce food imports and strengthen the foodand nutrition security of the region, in line with thecommitments of the Malabo Declaration.

Namanga Ngongi

Leaving no-one behind: harnessingnew technologies to improve urbandietsIn 2007, the United Nations announced that for the first timein history more people now live in cities than in rural areas.This announcement led to poverty reduction, nutritionalimprovement and food security being placed at the centre ofurban sustainable development in both the 2030 UN Agendafor Sustainable Development and the 2016 New Urban Agenda(Habitat III). These agendas reflect the increasing politicalmomentum for actions to improve the income and diet of low-income urban families to help reduce the unacceptably highlevels of child stunting in poor urban areas. Child stunting isa serious public health problem in many cities, especially insub-Saharan Africa, because it jeopardises children’s physicaland mental development and is a driver of intergenerationalpoverty.

Urbanisation can bring many benefits, but the rapid andchaotic growth of many cities (at its fastest in sub-SaharanAfrica) is creating monumental challenges, given the reality ofweak urban institutions and inadequate financial resources.One of the greatest challenges to sustainable urbandevelopment is the need to strengthen governance for ‘pro-poor’ planning and create better employment opportunities,especially for women, in low-income families. Increasedcapacity is also needed for multi-sectoral planning tocoordinate actions to improve access to quality health care,education, safe water and waste disposal for low-incomefamilies. These families cannot always travel to thesupermarkets generally found in more affluent areas and areespecially vulnerable to increases in food prices. To improvetheir diets they therefore need increased access to affordablefresh vegetables grown locally. One way to achieve this isthrough home gardening, which is usually done by women.Home gardening has been shown to increase the diversity ofchildren’s diets and reduce micronutrient deficiencies, as wellas increasing women’s self-esteem. Shortage of land forgrowing fruit and vegetables in urban areas has led toinnovations such as balcony farming, where vegetables aregrown in bags on balconies or rooftops, or in any otheravailable spaces, using safe waste water and home-madecompost to supply the nutrients needed.

While home gardening can make an important contributionto family diets, on its own it is not sufficient to meet thechallenges of rapidly increasing numbers of low-income, urban(and peri-urban) families, shortage of land for agriculturalproduction, diminishing water supplies and continuingclimate change. It is crucial, therefore, that policy makers areopen to all opportunities for growing more food in low-income

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areas for family meals and for selling locally. The opportunitiesinclude new and innovative technologies which have thepotential to transform urban food systems by utilisingenvironmentally sustainable practices.

These new technologies need to rely more on skill than hardlabour, with minimal use of space, water and chemicals. Thisis where the technology known as CEA becomes important.Controlled environment agriculture has the potential to offerrelatively inexpensive ‘farms’ for the urban grower. Itencompasses technologies such as hydroponics (growingplants in water), aeroponics (growing plants without soil bysuspending them above misting sprays that constantlymoisten the roots with water and nutrients) and aquaponics(growing plants without soil using a natural fertiliser madefrom fish waste). Controlled environment agriculture enablesplants to be cultivated using water much more efficiently thantraditional agriculture. It also minimises the use of chemicalssuch as herbicides and pesticides. By incorporating wastemanagement, nutrient recycling and energy recycling, CEAprovides a mechanism for improving family diets and creatingincome-generating opportunities for families in low-incomecommunities.

Given the intractable nature of food and nutrition insecurityin cities, the current trend towards CEA could be game-changing. Utilising new technologies such as CEA presents auniversal challenge requiring fundamental changes in the waysocieties produce food for consumption in low-income areas.Controlled environment agriculture also offers anenvironmentally friendly and viable means of reducing childstunting, and should form an integral part of a sustainabledevelopment path for all healthy cities.

Pat Pridmore

Controlled environment agriculture:the silver bullet for urban food security?In 2010, the proportion of the world’s population living incities exceeded 50 percent, despite the fact that the world’scities occupy only 3-4 percent of the planet’s land area. Theurban population is projected to rise further, to 68 percent bythe middle of the century, and over half of the world’spopulation growth will happen in Africa (UNDESA, 2018). Thepopulation expansion is creating millions of new consumerswith rising incomes and spending power that will change theway the world shops. The challenge of growing enough healthyfood for our expanding cities is enormous. At the same time,the stress of climate change and the declining availability ofarable land and fresh water are challenging conventionalagriculture and rural-urban linkages as never before.

Meeting the increasing demand for food will require newapproaches that can multiply production despite limited spaceand increasing environmental pollution. Approaches areneeded that can target urban markets and build on the benefitsof short food chains, especially where rural food supplyremains challenged by poor road networks and extreme climateevents.

Where food transport and storage cannot rely on coolingfacilities, as in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa, food lossesare immense, especially among perishable vegetables. Theurban poor are the first to suffer from demand-supply gaps andrising food prices. Farmers in urban and peri-urban areas aretaking advantage of this challenge by producing year-round,in highly intensified systems, valuable leafy vegetables inclosest market proximity. Short food miles are for them morea (business) necessity than reflecting a growing greenconsumption philosophy as seen in other regions.

However, farming in urban areas commonly suffers fromphysical space limitations, urban pollution and regionally alsoa hostile policy environment. The latter can be due to reluctantpolitical acceptance and support, especially in those countrieswhere urban farming is perceived to be a block to urbandevelopment, or where it raises concerns due to the commonpollution of urban soils and air, and where contaminated waterbodies are used to irrigate vegetables.

The role of food in responding to various urban sustainabilityconcerns is increasingly acknowledged. Various cities in Africaare actively working on this, looking at new market andengagement opportunities for the private sector, includingresource recycling, development of new products and services,and technological innovations (Urban Agriculture, 2014). Oneincreasingly discussed response in this context is controlledenvironment agriculture (CEA).

What is CEA?

There are different definitions of CEA, but at its core CEArepresents a combination of engineering, plant science andcomputer-managed greenhouse technologies to optimiseplant-, fish-, mushroom- or insect-based production systems,food quality and production efficiency, making the most ofspace and other resources. The most common cultivation isof high-value vegetables and herbs. Emphasis is placed oncontrol of the plant environment, including temperature, light,water, nutrients and carbon dioxide in support of a staple year-round production of premium crops.

Many of these systems are capital intensive for their set-up inshipping containers or greenhouses, and are dependent onuninterrupted electricity for cooling, heat generation or waterpumping, particular light sources, and a closed indoorenvironment to operate independently from the local weatherand climate. These factors will limit the adoption of high-endCEA systems in regions where consumers are poor or powersupply uncertain. However, for some crops and productiontargets, not all environmental factors have to be controlled. Inother words, the additional yield benefit from controllingeverything might not justify the costs. And in some regions,as in parts of the tropics, temperatures and humidity mightvary little, while water is the single factor that needs to becontrolled. Thus different CEA systems can involve lower levelsof technical sophistication for different situations and contexts,ranging from fully automated and computer-controlledglasshouses to plastic sheets on field-grown crops, or racks ofplastic irrigation pipes with openings for implanting seedlings.

A common example of a CEA system that is suitable for bothlower- and higher-income groups, using different levels ofcomplexity, is hydroponics. Simplified hydroponics

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(carbon.org) offers a solution for vegetable production basedon modern hydroponic technology adapted to areas withlimited resources. This technology is based on minimal inputs,requiring no pumps, energy or expensive equipment. Thegardens are built with recycled or discarded containers andhand-watered once a day with a commercial hydroponicnutrient solution (Bradley & Marulanda, 2001).

Another example, which is increasingly popular, is verticalfarming (vertical-farming.net). A vertical set-up for plantgrowing within buildings, tunnels or containers worksirrespective of climate, sunlight and region, providing asolution to produce food even in tiny spaces, locally and year-round, for example on rooftops, in refugee camps or inbackyards. The system may use soil or be soilless. Manyhydroponic systems optimise space by growing plants inmultiple layers. Based on the definition of CEA, indoor verticalfarms would receive highest consumer approval because theyare most protected against any outdoor pollution. In thisregard, Japan may be seen as the epicentre of vertical farming.The Fukushima disaster dramatically increased the demand fororganic and safe food, and people have been willing to pay apremium for products grown in totally sterile environmentswithout pathogens, soil, sunlight, wind or rain.

A more comprehensive CEA response to increasing food supplyis aquaponics, which is the combination of soilless vegetablegrowing (hydroponics or aeroponics) with fish farming(aquaculture) within a closed-loop system that uses nutrient-rich waste water from the fish tanks as an organic fertiliser forplant production. This removes the need both for chemicalfertilisers and for the disposal of fish waste water. The watersavings can be particularly interesting for arid and semi-aridregions. However, such systems require a significant know-how in aquaculture, crop physiology and engineering, asidefrom their capital costs. These requirements limit the morecomplex CEA systems to companies with multiple expertiseand sufficient financial resources to buffer the not uncommontechnical challenges and fine-tuning faced before productionruns smoothly.

The silver bullet?

According to recent research comparing CEA systems withnormal greenhouses in different climate zones (Graamans etal, 2018), the high resource efficiency of CEA systems wasreconfirmed, but also the much higher energy demands andmore challenging financial viability. For now, sophisticatedCEA systems appear financially most viable where sufficientconsumers appreciate this form of crop production, as in thecase of Japan; or where strong niche markets, such as high-end restaurants, are happy to pay a premium for a guaranteedand continuous supply of, for example, particular herbs orother micro-greens. A key lesson is that because much of CEAis about technology and artificial intelligence, capacitydevelopment efforts should place equal emphasis on solidmarket analyses and sound business planning. Once CEAenterprises start to be taken up more widely, there will beimportant questions about how integrated urban planning cansupport these systems, for instance by integrating them intospatial designs, building codes, and urban energy and watergrids.

In Japan, there are already more than 200 CEA ‘plant factories’producing around 20,000 heads of lettuce each day.Increasingly, not only is plant development computer-steered,but tasks such as replanting and harvesting are done bymachines to cut labour costs and boost profitability(O’Donoghue, 2017). Is this the future of farming? And if so,where exactly does that leave the farmers, or the land itself?The answer is that CEA will only add to, but not replace, soil-based food production. It is an attractive option for the youngrural generation in many low- and middle-income countrieswho are rejecting the hard toil of traditional farming in searchof profitable urban jobs.

In summary, CEA constitutes a promising production systemsupporting the diversity of urban food needs. Its contributionto meeting the larger food demand will vary between differentgeographies, and its global impact will depend on how quicklyit develops in population strongholds such as China, India,Indonesia and the Philippines, as well as in rapidly urbanisingAfrica.

Pay Drechsel and René van Veenhuizen

References

Bradley P, Marulanda C, 2001. Simplified hydroponics to reduce global hunger.Acta Horticulturae, 554, 289-96.

Graamans L, Baeza E, Van Den Dobbelsteen A, Tsafaras I, Stanghellini C, 2018.Plant factories versus greenhouses: comparison of resource use efficiency.Agricultural Systems, 160, 31-43.

O’Donoghue JJ, 2017. Are indoor farms the next step in the evolution ofagriculture? The Japan Times, 10 March 2017. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2017/03/10/food/indoor-farms-next-step-evolution-agriculture/#.WwuZsfmFPIU]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Urban Agriculture, 2014. Grow the city: innovations in urban agriculture.Urban Agriculture Magazine 28. [https://www.ruaf.org/ua-magazine-no-28-grow-city-innovations-urban-agriculture]. Accessed 2 July 2018.

UNDESA, 2018. 68% of the world population projected to live in urban areasby 2050, says UN. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,News, 16 May 2018. [https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html]. Accessed 2July 2018.

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Abstract Feeding the growing global population, often based in harshenvironments, remains one of the major agriculturalchallenges of this millennium. Intensification of agriculturehas the potential to contribute to future food security. Thisreview looks at some examples drawn from around the worldwhere crop production has gone down the route of controllingthe environment for increased productivity on a larger scale.This includes ‘high-tech’ urban production of salad cropsthrough to farming in harsh arid environments with salinewater. The review then considers the opportunities andchallenges of applying this technology in the African context.

IntroductionThe world population is predicted to grow to 9.6 billion by 2050(currently 7.6 billion). How are we going to feed this expandingpopulation? A paper from FAO (2009) reviewed some of theoptions and concluded that a large proportion would comefrom higher yields and increased cropping intensity, with theremainder coming from expanding cultivated land. These areeasy statements to make but achieving these goals is going tobe challenging. Intensification of agriculture comes with itsown risks, whether zero-grazing livestock or intensiveproduction of horticultural crops. As a consequence, muchattention is currently being paid to reducing the impact ofintensive cropping on the environment (Wainwright et al,2014). To contend with these challenges, intensificationthrough controlled environment agriculture (CEA), especiallyon land presently thought unsuitable for intensive cropping,offers a potential contribution towards food security.

An image of large-scale CEA conjures up thoughts of theintensive greenhouses in Europe growing tomatoes, cucumbersand peppers. The roots of this type of cultivation lie in theorangeries of the stately homes of England, but today they arefood factories. Large-scale intensive horticultural production inenvironmentally controlled greenhouses is common. Forinstance, APS Salads (Anon, 2018), which produces in seven sitesaround the UK and grows 500 million tomatoes per year rangingfrom cherry to beefsteak, is the UK’s largest supplier of tomatoesto the high street, planting over 2.2 million tomato plants everyseason and yielding over 200 t per acre annually (Figure 1).

However, this is a traditional model and is primarily focused ondeveloped world agriculture. What is the potential for CEAglobally? This review is restricted to crops, although clearlycontrolled environment livestock, fish production, andcombinations of them are just as important.

The purpose of CEA for producing crops is to optimiseproductivity by limiting the abiotic (water, light, wind, soil,humidity, minerals, gases) and biotic (pests, diseases) stressfactors that cause sub-optimal growth. Most greenhouseenvironmental control technology has been designed tooperate in cold climates. However, the key environmentalparameters remain the same, though in reverse, when dealingwith harsh hot climates (too hot instead of too cold, too dryinstead of too humid). A simple guide to the important factorsregulated in a controlled environment is given in Table 1.

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Large-scale controlled environment agricultureglobally, and its potential for Africa

Henry Wainwright is the general manager of The Real IPM Company (K) Ltd, a biocontrol company inKenya. He has lived and worked in Kenya for the past 18 years. Prior to that he was a university lecturerin the UK and a scientist at the Natural Resources Institute, UK. henry.wainwright52@gmail.com

Henry Wainwright

Figure 1. Long-season production of cherry tomatoes in a controlled environmentin a greenhouse in Kent, UK (Photo: Real IPM).

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Computerisation and scaling-up

Controlling the environment is both complex and increasinglysophisticated. It begins with defining and setting the optimalenvironment, which is then controlled with real-timemonitoring. Sensors measure the various environment factorsand then regulate the conditions. That involves hardware forprocesses such as heating, cooling, humidifying, irrigating,and adjusting nutrients and pH. In modern controlledenvironment set-ups these processes are often controlled bymore than one computer with advanced software that cangreatly improve yields and economic performance byoptimising plant growth (Yang & Simbeye, 2013). Controllingan environment involves significant capital and running costs,which must be carefully assessed before investments are made,but there is scope for scaling-up the size of the productionunits (eg a larger greenhouse) to achieve economies of scale.

Crop environmental control casestudies

Under the Byzantine empire, Christian Arabs were the first to turnthe Negev Desert into a garden 1,500 years ago (David, 2017). Inmodern times, probably the longest established and mostsustained example of crop environmental control in a harshclimate is the greening of the Negev Desert by Israeli agriculturists.Their achievements in water planning, management,technologies (egwater-efficient crops, desalination, drip irrigation)and subsequent commercialisation was ground-breaking (Siegel,2015). However, this has not been without its critics as water costsare subsidised, and agriculture consumes some 60 percent of thecountry’s annual total of 2 billion m3 of water supply butcontributes less than 2 percent of GDP. This is partly due to theproduction of water-guzzling export crops such as bananas, citrusfruits and dates, and not enough has been done to improve water-use efficiency (Anon, 2008).

More recently, Klein (2016) reported that Sundrop Farms Pty Ltdin Australia needs only sunshine and seawater to produce15,000 t of tomatoes per year in the South Australian desert ona 20 ha farm. This is the first agricultural system of its kind inthe world that uses no soil, pesticides, fossil fuels or groundwater.As the demand for freshwater and energy continues to rise, thismay well be the nature of farming in the future. Sundrop Farmstakes saltwater from Spencer Gulf and removes the salt by solar-powered desalination to create enough freshwater to irrigate180,000 tomato plants inside its greenhouse. Plants are grownon an artificial cacao fibre media with recycling water. In summerthe greenhouse is cooled by evaporative cooling; in winter solarpower heating is applied. The establishment costs were higherthan for a normal greenhouse, but the running costs are claimedto be lower. The farm is clearly a prototype in the use of newtechnologies and time will tell if this becomes financiallysustainable. In the meantime it provides useful testing of thefeasibility at significant scale.

Vertical farmsThe other extreme of CEA is to create a completely artificialenvironment, including lighting. This has been enabled bymajor advances in low-energy light-emitting diode (LED)lighting with different integrated colours. The light intensitycan be adjusted per colour (red/blue/white/far red), so the lightspectrum can be entirely customised to meet the particularrequirements of the crop species, variety and stage of growth.This enables crops to be grown in multiple layers makingoptimal use of scarce space with appropriate irrigation,temperature control, growing media and hygiene systems.Vertical farming extends from small-scale growth rooms tomultistorey buildings. Presently, most vertical farms arededicated to producing high-value leafy salads and herbs, butthe range of suitable crops is extending almost daily.

The concept of CEA in totally artificial environments is beingcommercially promoted by Urban Crops in Belgium (Baraniuk,

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Table 1. Guide to abiotic factors managed in controlled crop environments.

Factor importance Objective and Water To deliver water in the right quantities, quality and time while ensuring

efficient use and minimal waste. Critical for productivity, necessary to manage cation-exchange capacity (CEC) and an ideal mechanism to deliver nutrients through ‘fertigation’.

Light To enable the plant to undertake photosynthesis and regulate other physiological processes controlled by day length and spectral frequency. Low light levels are a major constraint to crop productivity.

Temperature To establish the optimum temperatures to maximise biochemical and physiological growth processes. Suboptimal temperatures, both low and high, lead to not achieving maximum productivity.

Humidity To regulate the humidity of the aerial crop environment to minimise plant stress while effectively controlling plant diseases. Regulating humidity levels and managing conditions that prevent condensation on the crop during the diurnal cycle are critical to a healthy crop.

Gas content To optimise the gas content of carbon dioxide and oxygen to ensure photosynthesis is not limited. Plants deplete the CO2 content in the air and often require supplementing during active periods of photosynthesis.

Wind To minimise the plant stress caused by wind while achieving sufficient air movement to allow uptake of CO2, transpiration and regulation of humidity, and incidence of diseases in the crop.

Rhizosphere To achieve an ideal environment in and around the root zone to optimise crop growth by managing many factors including water, CEC, nutrients, oxygen, pH and plant anchorage.

Factor interaction

To understand the interdependence of the many environmental factors to ensure optimal growing conditions. Adjusting one factor can cause changes in others, and this interaction is a prime challenge for controlled environments.

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2017). Its system is described as an agricultural upheaval:growing crops indoors, not out on a farm, stacked layer overlayer under candy-coloured lights in an area the size of a studioflat. Several companies have sprung up over the past 10 yearspromoting this form of vertical farming. The underpinningtheory is that these vertical farms use less water, growingplants faster and all year round, not just in certain seasons.The facilities can also be built almost anywhere.

As noted above, vertical farming is mostly applied to short-term leafy crops such as herbs, lettuce and spinach, as operatedby Aerofarms in New Jersey, USA, which claims to be “chartinga course toward a new standard for totally-controlledagriculture providing local production at scale and nourishingour communities with safe, nutritious, and delicious food”(Aerofarms, 2018). Likewise, in the Netherlands Nijssen BV(2018) offers vertical growing systems that control airtemperature, ventilation, assimilation lighting, thehumidification system and an optimal supply of nutrients andwater. With computer monitoring and control systems, thecrops can be virtually left to grow by themselves. Multilayercropping need not be exclusive to high-tech producers. At RealIPM, on our farm in Kenya, we have a hydroponic foddersystem operating that grows sprouted barley on multiple layersin a greenhouse to reliably produce high-quality green fodderfor our zero-grazed cows and chickens (Figure 2). This systemis being promoted locally and regionally by AgrotunnelInternational Ltd and others.

Seawater greenhousesIn 2017, with a grant from Innovate UK, Charlie Paton andassociates Karl Fletcher and Chris Rothera began work inSomaliland on a greenhouse project, though more correctly ashade net house, in one of the most hostile climates in theworld (Figures 3 and 4). The technological innovation uses thecooling and humidifying power of water vapour produced fromevaporating salt water. Sea salt is distilled from salt water usingsolar heat, which in turn produces freshwater while alsocooling and humidifying the air, which is circulated aroundthe net house (Akinaga et al, 2017). Therefore a growingenvironment is created within the greenhouse that minimisestranspiration while having access to a clean source of good

quality water in a harsh desert climate. In collaboration withAston University (UK), the performance and productivity of thesystem is refined through simulation models that predict andenhance the crop’s performance. This is not the first desertgrowing project Charlie Paton has been involved with, as hehelped pioneer production units in Oman, Abu Dhabi andbone-dry South Australia.

The daring nature of the project is set within a very obviouscontext. The Horn of Africa is one of the most food-insecureregions of the world. Food agencies spend millions of dollars onfood aid. The United Nations reported a US$ 22 billion global foodaid programme for 2018 (United Nations, 2017). That sort ofmoney would finance thousands of hectares of seawatergreenhouses and grow millions of tonnes of fresh produce a yearin harsh climates around the world. Such ideas have anundeniable and compelling logic, especially as food aidprogrammes rarely address fundamental causes or offer longer-term solutions. Establishing the Seawater Greenhouse(seawatergreenhouse.com) as a proof of concept is the first step,and earlier this year the first harvests of lettuce, cucumbers andtomatoes were made. Taking this idea to scale will be challengingin a region not famous for its stable democratic government.Even so, there are many other areas of Africa that have thepotential to benefit from these ideas, especially when the totaldonor support budget is factored into the equation.

Crop production in controlled environments comes in allshapes and sizes as illustrated by the quoted examples. As ageneralisation, when compared with field-based crop

Figure 2. The production of hydroponic fodder (sprouted barley) for animal feedin a greenhouse in sub-Saharan Africa (Photo: Henry Wainwright).

Figure 3. Artist’s impression of the finished seawater greenhouse project in Somaliland (Photo: Seawater Greenhouse).

Figure 4. Solar panel construction for the seawater greenhouse project in Somaliland (Photo: Seawater Greenhouse).

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production, it is independent of the seasons but needs a greaterlevel of technical sophistication. The crops that can be grownare more restricted and require higher levels of management.Controlled environments have high demands for energy(usually electricity) and capital start-up costs are high, butsince they do not require cultivation such as ploughing andweeding, their running costs are potentially lower. It is alsointeresting to note that while there are still only a fewcommercial examples in Africa, there has been much greateruptake of CEA in tropical Asian countries.

The potential of CEA applications inAfricaAfrica has one of the fastest-growing populations in the world.There is considerable regional disparity in terrain suitable forproducing the extra food they will require. While there is highpotential for increased crop production in verdant rainfedcountries such as Uganda and in central Ghana, there is muchless potential in the harsh and arid regions of the Horn of Africaand Saharan regions in Mali and Niger. Just having a suitableclimate is not sufficient when there is a high population density,and rapidly expanding urban conurbations and infrastructurescompeting for the same land, such as in Rwanda and Kenya.There is also a great disparity in the amount of availablefreshwater, as illustrated by the recent drought crisis in SouthAfrica. Egypt may be extreme in having restricted prospects forincreased land-based food production, but it is not alone. Nosingle model of CEA will fit all conditions, and the drivers for itsadoption in places such as the Horn of Africa vary very widely.

Controlled environment agriculture does allow the location ofproduction to be relatively unrestricted, which creates theopportunity to locate production units where the food is required.However, currently the range of crops grown within a controlledenvironment is often restricted to high-value crops such astomatoes, peppers, squashes and leafy greens. This raisesquestions about the potential of CEA to provide food for low-income urban populations. The food produced under CEA islikely to be more expensive to enable the investors to recoup theircapital investments, and this may restrict them to producing foraffluent urban middle classes, or to be supported by some formof subsidy. That said, it has to be noted that the rapidly growingurban middle class is already transforming Africa.

All the systems and examples described in this article require asupply of energy, for example for lighting, desalination,temperature management and irrigation. A local source of energythat is inexpensive is therefore an important criterion, whetherfrom solar (Figure 4), hydroelectric or geothermal, as beingadvanced by the Kenyan Geothermal Development Company.

The implementation of large-scale CEA is also demanding in termsof expertise and management, and this will be initially challenging,especially in the remoter parts of Africa. If there are suitable levelsof capacity development then this can be overcome relativelyquickly. Africa has seen a steady migration of the younger labourforce away from the land. Controlled environment agricultureprovides the opportunity to offer employment and reverse the driftof workers away from food production.

Although the adoption of CEA on a large-scale is a stimulating

concept, it is additional to, and in no way a substitute for, otherapproaches to producing the extra food that Africa needs. Plantbreeding to enable crops to be grown in harsh environments willcontinue to be a priority both through conventional breeding andthrough plant engineering (López-Arredondo et al, 2015). It willbe interesting to observe the progress of the CEA systems alreadyadopted, or in the pipeline for adoption, in Africa.

If CEA is to be sustainable in Africa, it will have to be self-supporting and profitable. At present the drivers necessary tomake large-scale CEA growing profitable are not yet proven. Inaddition, to enable significant and rapid adoption of CEA inAfrica, it will need to be embraced at the policy level bygovernments and donors as part of their food security andemployment strategy. In future, the combination of the veryrapid advances in CEA technology and factors such as climatechange, population growth, government policy and economicprosperity of African countries may well make CEA cropproduction a feasible option for feeding Africa.

References

Aerofarms, 2018. Our story. [http://aerofarms.com/story]. Accessed 26 April 2018.

Akinaga T, Generalis SC, Paton C, Igobo CN, Davies PA, 2017. Brine utilisationfor cooling and salt production in wind-driven seawater greenhouses: designand modelling. Desalination, 426, 135-54.

Anon, 2008. Don’t make the desert bloom. The Economist, 5 June 2008.[https://www.economist.com/node/11506702]. Accessed 26 April 2018.

Anon, 2018. APS Group: About. [https://apsgroup.uk.com/about]. Accessed 26April 2018.

Baraniuk C, 2017. How vertical farming reinvents agriculture. BBC Future, 6April 2017. [http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170405-how-vertical-farming-reinvents-agriculture]. Accessed 26 April 2018.

David A, 2017. How Arabs made Israel’s desert bloom more than 1,500 yearsago. Haaretz, 2 May 2017. [https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/MAGAZINE-how-arabs-made-israels-desert-bloom-more-than-1-500-years-ago-1.5465856].Accessed 26 April 2018.

FAO, 2009. High Level Expert Forum – How to feed the world in 2050, 12-13October 2009. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.[http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/Issues_papers/HLEF2050_Global_Agriculture.pdf]. Accessed 26 April 2018.

Klein A, 2016. First farm to grow veg in a desert using only sun and seawater.New Scientist, 3095, 6 October 2016 (updated 14 October).[https://www.newscientist.com/article/2108296-first-farm-to-grow-veg-in-a-desert-using-only-sun-and-seawater]. Accessed 26 April 2018.

López-Arredondo D, González-Morales SI, Elohim Bello-Bello E, Alejo-Jacuinde G, Herrera L, 2015. Engineering food crops to grow in harshenvironments. F1000 Research 2015, 4 (F1000 Faculty Rev): 651. DOI:10.12688/f1000research.6538.1.

Nijssen BV, 2018. Development of substrates for multilayer cultivation in high-tech phytotrons. Hortidaily, 26 April 2018. [http://www.hortidaily.com/article/42667/Development-of-substrates-for-multilayer-cultivation-in-high-tech-phytotrons]. Accessed 26 April 2018.

Siegel SM, 2015. Let there be water: Israel’s solution for a water-starved world.New York: Thomas Dunne Books.

United Nations, 2017. UN relief wing appeals for record $22.5 billion in aid for2018. UN News, 1 December 2017. [https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/12/638002-un-relief-wing-appeals-record-225-billion-aid-2018]. Accessed 26April 2018.

Wainwright H, Jordan C, Day H, 2014. Environmental impact of productionhorticulture. In: Dixon GR, Aldous DE, eds. Horticulture: plants for peopleand places, Vol. 1. Dordrecht: Springer Science, 503-22.

Yang SF, Simbeye DS, 2013. Computerized greenhouse environmentalmonitoring and control system based on LabWindows/CVI. Journal ofComputers, 8(2), 399-408.

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The following paragraphs provide a glimpse of a few of theamazing innovations in controlled environment agriculture(CEA) that are happening across Africa.

Hydroponic fodder production forlandless dairyingThe majority of Kenyan dairy producers are typified by a lady,given the Kenyan iconic name Wanjiku, who supports herfamily by keeping two cows in stalls in her backyard with zerograzing. The cows convert grass cut from the sides of roadsand railways into milk and daily income, but, especially in thedry seasons, the local forage is too low in protein to keep thecows healthy and fit for profitable milk production. Wanjikucan now overcome that problem with a variety of systems forproducing green forage from sprouted barely (Figure 1). Thisensures a year-round supply of quality forage, regardless of theseason or weather (Weru, 2014; Wanzala, 2018).

Hydroponic fodder production units vary from small simpleunits to more permanent installations such as that shown inFigure 2, which can serve a number of neighbouring livestockproducers. Agrotunnel International, in addition to marketingand installing such systems, also trains producers in how tomake best use of them.

Landless urban vegetable productionHumans also need a regular supply of leafy greens but as citiesexpand, the vegetable farms get more distant, making it toocostly to deliver fresh vegetables at prices that low-incomeconsumers can afford. Oluwayimika Angel Adelaja, a residentof Abuja, Nigeria’s capital, took this problem as a businessopportunity and has set up a vertical vegetable farm inshipping containers. According to Channels TV, she did notjust want to produce vegetables, despite not owning any landfor farming, she also wanted to encourage youths to producefood. In a further innovation she uses liquid from a compostpit of poultry manure as a source of plant nutrients. With thissystem Oluwayimika claims to be producing 50 percent morelettuce in each single container than soil-based farmers do onan acre of land (Channels Television, 2016).

Another example of urban gardening can be found on the roofsof skyscrapers in central Johannesburg. They were establishedby public-private ventures aiming to attract unemployedyouths into green entrepreneurship (Lazareva, 2017). They arenot only bringing vegetable production to the market withcutting-edge farming methods, they are also providing hands-on business training (Figures 3 and 4).

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Controlled environment agriculture applications forAfrica

Figure 1. Oliver Ndegwa of Agrotunnel International demonstrating hydroponicfodder production (Photo: Oliver Ndegwa).

Figure 2. A hydroponic fodder production unit being constructed for AgrotunnelInternational Ltd by Eco-Steel Africa Ltd, Nairobi (Photo: Ralph von Kaufmann).

Figure 3. Nhlanhla Mpati, an agripreneur, tends to his plants at the garden he set upin November 2017 on top of Johannesburg's iconic 'Chamber of Mines' building inthe central business district (Photo: Inna Lazareva/Thomson Reuters Foundation).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

Food production in desertsHuge tracts of the African continent are covered in deserts andvery arid lands, and these are predicted to expand under theimpact of climate change. That portends disaster for manytraditional farmers. Egypt already has to deal with severe crisesin freshwater supplies. In response to that, Faris Farrag, anMBA graduate, left investment banking to set up anaquaponics business, Bustan Aquaponics (Figure 5). Thebusiness produces fish and uses the fish excreta to feedvegetable plants, which clean the water that goes back to thefish. With microbial organisms also providing nutrition for theplants, they have developed a sustainable system for producinghigh-quality produce using minimal amounts of water. Theexpertise acquired by Bustan Aquaponics is being transferredto other desert countries through the firm’s consultancybusiness (Hariharan, 2017).

A similar opportunity is being taken up in Namibia, where theFinnish Embassy and the Namibia Future Farming Trust havecombined to establish an aquaponics project. Their goal is toimprove nutrition and create employment in the face of thenegative impacts of climate change (New Era, 2017).

With abundant sunlight and ever more efficient desalinationtechnologies, the deserts will be good for farming because their

dry air limits the spread of diseases. This enables dairy farmsin Saudi Arabia to function on a scale that is unthinkable inwetter climates. Almarai, for example, is the largest dairybusiness in the world, producing a billion litres of milk a year.One of its seven farms, Al Badiah Dairy Farm, has 22,500milking cows (Figure 6) that produce 920,000 litres a day (IrishFarmers Journal, 2013). The average of over 40 litres per cowis the envy of the best farms anywhere. When the demand fordairy products rise to justify it, this could be emulated inAfrican desert countries.

Seawater irrigationDeserts on all African coasts provide easy access to seawater,which, with modern desalination technology, can be used forirrigation. The seawater pumped from the ocean can be appliedto humidify and cool the air round the plants, and it can beturned into steam by solar heat and then condensed intofreshwater. When used for irrigation, it supports domestic andwild animals, and plants that green the desert, and in so doingsequesters carbon (Amweelo, 2016).

ScienceDaily reported on seawater greenhouses that will bedesigned by researchers at Aston University to produce cropsin the Horn of Africa, which is one of the hottest and driestplaces on the continent. In contrast to the usual crop yields of0.5 ton/ha, the seawater greenhouses will produce 700 tons/ha(Aston University, 2015).

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News from the Field 2

Figure 4. Spring onion, chard and other vegetables grow on the rooftop garden ofone of Johannesburg's social housing skyscrapers. The garden was set up by RooftopRoots, an urban eco-farming business and social enterprise in November 2017(Photo: Inna Lazareva/Thomson Reuters Foundation).

Figure 5. Faris Farrag, founder of Bustan Aquaponics (Photo: Entrepreneur MiddleEast/Bustan Aquaponics).

Figure 6. Al Badiah dairy farm cows poised for rapid exit from parlour (Photo: Agriland).

Figure 7. Indirect use of salted water in agriculture (From Korrmann, 2018).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

In another approach, a German company has developedinnovative nets over which saline water can be poured(irrigationnets.com, 2018). The nets are placed upwind of thefield to be irrigated. The wind blows droplets of freshwaterthrough the net over the downwind field, creating a humidatmosphere that reduces the plants’ demand for water by about50 percent (Figure 7). The salt is left on the nets. The constantfoggy drizzle keeps the plants moist and cool. The firm claimsthat over time, application of this system will restock groundwater reserves (Korrmann, 2018).

Exploiting food wasteMore than 50 percent of Africa’s 1 billion people will soon live incities, several of them megacities with more than 10 millioninhabitants. That will create at least one agricultural resource thatwill be in abundant supply – food waste – and Africa is respondingappropriately. According to AgFunder, the 18th largest farm techdeal is the US$ 105 million equity and debt raised by a UK holdingcompany for AgriProtein, an insect farming company operatingin Cape Town, South Africa (Atieno, 2014).

AgriProtein has pioneered the production of black soldier fliesfed on municipal waste to produce feed for livestock. Thecompany is constructing the next generation of insect farmsin Johannesburg, which will take in 250 tons of waste per day.They are also expanding globally with three sites in the MiddleEast and two in Asia (Burwood-Taylor, 2018).

ConclusionsThere has been a lot of lamenting about Africa missing theGreen Revolution. However, this is changing quickly as Africanpopulation growth, increasing urbanisation and moredemanding consumers are combining to drive demand-ledinnovation. That is driving innovation in CEA in livestock andcropping systems, and at all scales from the smallest ofsmallholder systems to mega-businesses.

References

Amweelo M, 2016. Seawater can green deserts. Crown Publications, News,16 July 2016. [http://crown.co.za/featured/2765-seawater-can-green-deserts].Accessed 5 July 2018.

Aston University, 2015. Seawater greenhouses to bring life to the desert.ScienceDaily, 14 July 2015. [www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/07/150714083029.htm]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Atieno M, 2014, AgriProtein technologies – using contemporary ways to boostprotein supply to farmers. Innov8tiv, Start-ups, 6 April 2014.[http://innov8tiv.com/agriprotein-technologies-using-contemporary-ways-boost-protein-supply-farmers]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Burwood-Taylor L, 2018. AgriProtein raises $105m for insect farms. AgFunderNews, 4 June 2018. [https://agfundernews.com/breaking-agriprotein-raises-105m-insect-farms.html]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Channels Television, 2016. Urban agriculture: inspiring and innovativehydroponic farming system. Lagos: Channels Television, 29 August 2016.[https://www.channelstv.com/2016/08/29/urban-agriculture-a-sure-way-to-sustainable-development]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Daily Sun, 2017. Meet Angel Adelaja, Nigeria’s first female high tech shippingcontainer farmer and hydroponics expert. NaijaGists blog, 22 August 2017.[https://naijagists.com/meet-angel-adelaja-nigerias-first-female-high-tech-shipping-container-farmer-hydroponics-expert]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Forde A, 2017. Milking 22,500 cows in the Saudi Arabian desert. AgriLand, 28February 2017. [https://www.agriland.ie/farming-news/pics-milking-22500-cows-in-the-saudi-arabian-desert]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Hariharan S, 2017. Egypt-based Bustan Aquaponics is taking a sociallyresponsible route towards food security. Entrepreneur Middle East, 10December 2017. [https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/305826]. Accessed 5July 2018.

Irish Farmers Journal, 2013. Almarai Al Badiah farm in Saudi Arabia. IrishFarmers Journal, 7 November 2013. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhP6r2grhGk]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Korrmann V, 2018. Indirect use of salted water in agriculture. YouTube, 5February 2018. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8UmWyoWnnE0].Accessed 5 July 2018.

Irrigationntes.com, 2018. The irrigation solution for farms affected by saltwater, http://irrigationnets.com/#top]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Lazareva I, 2017. Johannesburg’s new ‘gripreneurs’ dig for gold on skyscraperrooftops. Reuters, AfricaTech, 1 December 2017. [https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN1DV41V-OZATP]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

New Era, 2017. Green light shines for aquaponics nutrition and employmentproject. Windhoek: New Era, Farmers Forum. [https://www.newera.com.na/2017/06/20/green-light-shines-for-aquaponics-nutrition-and-employment-project]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Wanzala J, 2018. Less water, no soil, more fodder: Kenya farmers beat drought.Reuters, 9 February 2018. [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-farming-weather/less-water-no-soil-more-fodder-kenya-farmers-beat-drought-idUSKBN1FT16O]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Weru G, 2014. Grow fodder in six days and feed cows on the seventh. DailyNation, 21 November 2014. [https://www.nation.co.ke/business/seedsofgold/Grow-fodder-in-six-days/2301238-2531004-r0yrrsz/index.html].Accessed 5 July 2018.

Ralph von KaufmannAssociate Consultant of the African AgribusinessIncubators Network and a member of the Board of theAfrican Technology Policy Studies Network

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Abstract A true vertical aeroponic farming system is described thatgrows produce 30 percent faster with 30 percent higher yieldsand yet uses 90 percent less water than traditional farmingtechniques. It is suitable at all scales; for men, women, childrenand elders; operating within individual, cooperative orcommunity systems; and can utilise contaminated land,derelict buildings, rooftops or containers. It may not be thefuture of farming worldwide, at least not for broad-acre crops,but it can certainly relieve the pressure on soil-farmed freshproduce, allowing farmers to rotate other crops more efficientlyand rest fields to maintain soil condition.

IntroductionTo make circular sustainable food production work to feed anever-expanding population requires two elements: a trulysustainable, holistic approach to positive environmentalimpact, and a truly sustainable business model that worksglobally.

To achieve this, we need to tackle many variables that theindustry feels are too difficult to overcome, and yet still be ableto meet the food quantities required to feed everyone equally.Some of the major obstacles are climate change, watershortage, fossil fuel usage, loss of soil condition, herbicide andpesticide resistance, and the lack of opportunities to engagemore people in food production as individuals, entrepreneursand farmers.

Climate change affects all strata of the industry: changingweather patterns, droughts and floods all work to turn once-fertile land into unfarmable areas, and people and businessesare forced to move on or fail. Fresh water tables are fallingfaster than they can be replenished in many areas consideredto be farming safe areas; as other areas fail, more pressure isplaced on the currently stable areas and the natural balancesare skewed. Where rainfall is unpredictable, farming too is anunpredictable industry. Fossil fuel price fluctuations workagainst the farming industry as almost every farming operationdepends on fuel to turn the soil, so nothing starts withoutsome oil being burnt. Herbicide and pesticide resistance

continues to be a hot topic as the palette of chemicals at ourdisposal shrinks, and there seem to be very limited new optionscoming through.

Many nations have great internal resources, with good rainfall,rich, fertile soils and skilled farmers, yet have such poorinfrastructure that it is almost impossible to supply perishablegoods to towns and cities in good time without massivewastage.

Other nations have internal resources that are spirallingdownwards until people are totally displaced or move to cities,where their core skills are less applicable and they become anoutgoing for the town, rather than an asset.

It is these variables that create a ‘farming lottery’ that maywork in farmers’ favour some years, but not others. They costfarmers money and make farming less attractive to investorsas a business proposition, and less dependable to people as ameans of self-sustenance.

To de-risk farming for all, we must remove the expensivevariables from the process and grow in biosecure areas usingminimal inputs for greater returns.

With huge percentages of countries’ populations living inlarger and larger cities, the emergence of urban farming hasunveiled a great opportunity that has, however, lacked thecommercial equipment at an appropriate infrastructure levelto support viable exploitation in industrial buildings andwasteland around the peripheries of towns.

Urban farming unlocks the supply chains with hyper-local foodproduction supplying town centres, and opens a whole newsustainable food market that can be explored by farmers andentrepreneurs alike.

A vertical aeroponic farming systemCambridge company Aponic Ltd (aponic.co.uk) has developeda true vertical aeroponic farming system that grows produce30 percent faster with 30 percent higher yields and yet uses90 percent less water than traditional farming techniques. Itworks by holding a stack of plants in a tube (Figures 1 and 2)and spraying the roots with a nutrient mist for 10 seconds

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A controlled environment agriculture applicationfor small-scale producers in Africa

Jason is the CEO and Founder of Aponic Ltd (aponic.co.uk). Although he was born to a farming family,Jason started his career as an aviation design engineer working for British Aerospace on life-supportequipment. Deciding on a career change, he taught himself to programme computers and worked allover the world. In his downtime, he designed and installed rainwater-harvesting systems, water-filteringequipment and large indoor fish ponds for airports. This range of experience and background knowledgeled him to design a multi-award-winning vertical soilless growing system, which grows commercialfood crops and raw materials using 90 percent less water and grows crops 30 percent faster and with30 percent higher yields than traditional methods. Jason@aponic.co.uk

Jason Hawkins-Row

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

every 20 minutes. The nutrient mist that is not taken up isreturned to the tank it came from. This recycling of the wateris where the 90 percent water saving comes from.

Vertical

Being vertical, it saves space by turning acreage into volume,and is applicable for urban farming as well as rural applications.It can be sited on poor soil, contaminated land or concrete tomake food production possible on cheap land that is unfit foranything else.

No soil

As a soilless system, it mitigates all soil-based pathogens, thereare never any weeds to be sprayed off, and the nutrient content

can be adjusted to provide the optimum growing conditionsfor crops from anywhere in the world without having to steam-sterilise soil, plough or harrow. Planting can be automated, ascan harvesting, allowing the food to be grown just metres awayfrom where it is sold or consumed and saving millions of foodmiles.

Power

The system runs on a 12 V power supply, but as it spraysnutrient for only 10 seconds every 20 minutes, it is drawingpower for only 12 minutes per day and a smallholder farm-sized unit would take only 20 litres of water a day. This powerdraw is easily achieved by solar power and leisure batteries, andthe water can be groundwater, rainwater or tap water passedthrough a simple sand filter and boosted with a powderednutrient and trace element mix. This allows people to createan off-grid farm anywhere in the world that needs just solarpower and rainwater. This is a very important factor for peopleliving and working in areas with unpredictable power supply.

Misting system

The difference between aeroponic and hydroponic is thathydroponic plants are usually grown in an inert mediumsoaked in a nutrient solution or with roots directly in a nutrientmix that restricts the root access to oxygen. An aeroponicsystem has no rooting medium so the nutrients are fed directlyto the roots in the form of an intermittent misting system. Thisallows high oxygen uptake at the root of the plant enabling theplant to form its oils and sugars more efficiently, which iswhere the 30 percent increase in both growth speed and yieldcome from.

Suitable for men, women, children and elders

This unshackles farmers from labour-, water- and energy-intensive farming and enables women, children and elders toset up a farm on a smaller plot of land and produce largeamounts of produce predictably and consistently, regardless ofseason, rainfall, soil condition or energy reliability.

Individual, cooperative or community systems

They can run it individually or as a cooperative or communityto provide drought-impervious, clean, nutritious food crops tofeed themselves, their families, their community or the localmarket. As the crops from the system have the best irrigation,nutrient availability and growing conditions, they are worthmore in the marketplace, and are of export quality whereverthey are grown.

When this is combined with a low capital outlay and simple,efficient operation, we have a solution that fits the budget,infrastructure level and technology level of any country, regionor climate. With a simple netting cage or completely undercover, crops can be grown with most of the costly variablesremoved so that farming for food becomes less of a lottery andfar more rewarding in terms of food security, safety,predictability and environmental and financial sustainability.

Lighting

Once we start to go fully under cover in biosecure areas forsecurity or protection from nature, we can now call upon light-emitting diode (LED) light and innovative sunlight porting toprovide low-cost, low-energy lighting. The LED technology is

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Figure 1. The Aponic vertical aeroponic farming system with recently plantedseedlings (Photo: Aponic Ltd).

Figure 2. The Aponic system with more mature plants (Photo: Aponic Ltd).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

well known and becoming more effective all the time. Solarpower and other renewables have traditionally been held backby energy storage technology. With the advent of electricvehicles and power crises in developed nations, energy storagetechnology has become more efficient and more affordable inreal terms, so this market too is advancing in leaps andbounds.

We can also start to site these facilities near usable wastestreams of carbon dioxide and heat so that the plants cansequestrate the carbon as they grow, and a mutually beneficialrelationship develops and mitigates further climate damage.

Little or no pesticides

This gives us control of all the variables: the heat, light,humidity, CO2 levels, nutrient and pH levels are all totallycontrollable. As there are never any weeds, there is no herbicideand therefore no herbicide resistance. With the vertical natureof the tubes, the plants grow at eye level and any pest incursioncan be spotted early and treated with biopesticides or spottreated, reducing spraying to only when it is needed, and onlyin small quantities. This is much better for the food chain,massively reducing the possibility of resistance building andalso avoiding pesticide sprays being sprayed routinely out inthe open to the detriment of pollinators and the localbiodiversity.

On unusable land, in derelict buildings, on rooftops or incontainers

Farmers are looking at being able to utilise previously unusableland and buildings to be able to grow low-input, high-valuecrops all year round with lower labour costs and an easilyobtainable workforce, as they are working in clean conditions,standing up.

With all variables under control and food safety andsustainability taken care of, this modular system can be fittedinto lorry containers (Figure 3) for more security, unusedbuildings, roof-tops and even contaminated land. We haveobserved that with minimal training and support, this simplebut effective system can be given to people of all abilities,educational levels and social backgrounds, and they canquickly start to farm their own food.

Suitable at any scale

Now we can see that farming does not have to be achievablesolely by large landowners or corporations; this is a modularsystem that can be started at any size and infinitely expanded.This is specifically designed to break down the barriers to entryto staple food production right across the socioeconomicspectrum. This method requires less land and returns muchhigher production, the capital expenditure is less than withtraditional farming, and the true return on investment is highand rapid.

Typically, even the large commercial Aponic farms take lessthan three years to return the capital expenditure. Thiscompares well with the traditional return on investment whenexpenditure goes into land, machinery, labour, storage andtransport, where we often see business models with a returnon investment of three generations.

ConclusionsIs this the future of farming worldwide? Probably not for broad-acre crops, but it can certainly relieve pressure on soil-farmedfresh produce to allow farmers to rotate other crops moreefficiently and rest fields to maintain soil condition.

What it does do very well is sit in the current business modelof every farmer throughout the world as a meaningfuldiversification that brings previously unfarmable areas of landinto low-input, high-profit production without impacting localresources or needing to recruit more labour.

This is an opportunity to change the socioeconomic cycles ofpeople in low- to middle-income countries by utilising aneasily deployed, sustainable food production system to enablethem to unshackle themselves from the damaging negativecycles of out-of-control food security, climate variations andunpredictable or expensive energy supplies.

Aponic has pioneered this technology with eight years ofdedicated research and development that makes the multi-award-winning design totally efficient, and simple to use andmaintain. It is rapidly becoming a norm for food productionthroughout the world.

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Figure 3. A container fitted with vertical aeroponic units and LED lighting (Photo:Aponic Ltd).

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Increasing land productivity by stacking up plants vertically isnot new. Popular in Victorian times with the use of strawberrypots to force indoor, out-of-season strawberries and in modern-day landscaped gardens using a variety of vertical growingsystems, vertical gardens for food production offer numerousadvantages. Briefly these include:

• increased production per unit area (up to sixfold);

• efficient on time, labour and water;

• provision of good agricultural nutrition;

• can be accessed by all;

• low land requirement (as low as 3 m2).

How we got into vertical garden bags in Kenya is by accident.We were running a company (Real IPM; realipm.com) in Kenyaand employed about 100 people in the year 2010. We had astaff canteen and provided lunch. We were concerned abouttheir rather limited diet: many Kenyans just eat ugali (maizemeal) and sukuma wiki (kale). As two horticulturists, wethought we could add variety and improve the nutrition of ourstaff by showing them different things to grow and eat. We hadsome spare land, and out of this developed the kitchen garden.However, our staff at home often did not have spare land tocultivate and therefore Louise began to develop ideas aroundthe vertical bag garden. With a lot of trial and error areproducible formula was developed for growing a range ofcrops in vertical bag gardens. What developed initially as anidea for our staff to take home soon began to generate externalinterest and people wanted to buy the bags. Some of the keycomponents of the bags’ success are as follows.

Bag material should be resistant to UV light. Recycledfertiliser bags will soon disintegrate. A local shade-netmanufacturer was contacted, and today they are made ofshading netting with a seven-year guarantee. Currently wehave three full-time seamstresses (Figure 1) sowing the bagsto the various designs we sell.

Getting the nutrition and growing media right. These bagswill be producing leafy vegetables for seven to nine months,so getting the growing media right at the beginning is critical.

Constructing and filling the bags so they remain stable andupright. This is definitely an art. Bag filling needs training, and an instructional booklet was prepared to show potentialvertical bag farmers how to prepare their bags. This featuredin an episode of Shamba Chef (Shamba Chef, 2017. Season 1, Episode 10: Mama Njoki, Limuru.[https://shambachef.com/episodes/series-1/ep-10-mama-njoki-limuru/]).

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Going vertical in Kenya

Figure 1. Real IPM seamstresses sewing vertical bags using UV-resistant shade-netmaterial (Photo: Henry Wainwright).

Figure 2. Vertical bag gardens about two months since planting with drip irrigationsystem (Photo: Henry Wainwright).

Figure 3. A 10-month-old vertical bag garden which has cropped 40–50 kale leavesper stem (Photo: Henry Wainwright).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

Seeing is believing. You can talk the talk, but the belief iswhen the potential bag farmer sees the productive bag. At ourfarm, vertical bags are shown in full production at various ages(Figures 2 and 3) all year round. The crops suitable for growingon the sides of the bags are mainly leafy vegetables (eg spinach,kale, amaranth), while in the top of the bag the choice is muchmore varied. Interestingly, as we are on the equator, all sidesof the bag perform very evenly as no side is shaded, unlikelocations more distant from the equator.

Financial viability. Whether the potential grower wants onebag or 50 bags, the conversation quickly turns to what it costs,how much water is needed, how much labour is required, andwhat the returns will be. At the outset we had to have theeconomics of the vertical bag gardens clearly defined.

Our company (Real IPM) is not an NGO or subsidisedoperation. The manufacture, promotion and selling of verticalbag gardens was a sideline to our main business (productionof biological control agents), yet the activity still had to coverits costs. Over time, the bag-selling soon began to function asa small business activity within our main business. Today wesell not only the bags, but also the plantlets, irrigation kits andenvironmentally friendly products used to control pests anddiseases. The demand for these bags surprised even us and, asseen in Figure 4, sales continue to increase. Clearly we havebeen proactive in creating demand through demonstrations,local TV features and active social media such as Facebook(@RealipmCo). Our customers are very varied, althoughurban-based customers make up the majority. Clients haveincluded growers buying 10+ bags to establish their ownvegetable-growing businesses, and urban middle-classcustomers who buy a single, small, pre-planted ‘balcony bag’they can put in the boot of their car and eventually place ontheir veranda.

The vertical bag certainly seems to be one way of contributingto food security. A freshly picked, home-produced leafyvegetable is likely to have considerably higher nutritional valuethan a tired, wilted leaf a few days old, bought in the market.In addition, Kenyan consumers are becoming increasinglycritical of food safety, so a home-grown vegetable grown in avertical bag adds reassurance as to where the vegetables havecome from and how they were grown.

Louise and Henry WainwrightThe Real IPM Company (K) Ltd.henry.wainwright52@gmail.com

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Figure 4. Numbers of vertical bags sold in the last five years., 2013–17

International Agricultural Research News

International researchon controlled environment agricultureThe international agricultural research centres, as publiclyfunded institutions, focus principally on research thatgenerates international public goods for the benefit of small-scale farmers in developing countries. As a result, they havegenerally steered clear of research on raising crops inglasshouses, or under other forms of environmental control,as the capital outlay required puts such production systemslargely out of reach of the majority of resource-poor farmers.Furthermore, while recognising that the production of high-value crops in protected environments may be a feasible option

for some, the international centres have generally held the viewthat the research and other support required to make it happenlies largely within the purview of the private sector andcommercial investors. Among the CGIAR centres, only theInternational Food Policy Research Institute has given anysignificant attention to agriculture in controlled environments,and that largely in the context of comparing alternativepathways out of poverty, estimating returns to investmentfrom different agricultural strategies, or looking at ways toincrease the supply of nutritious vegetables and fruits forexpanding urban markets.

However, this is not to say that the subject has been entirelyneglected. At least three of the member institutions of theAssociation of International Research and DevelopmentCenters for Agriculture (airca.org) have addressed aspects ofprotected agriculture: the World Vegetable Centre (WorldVeg,formerly AVRDC); the International Centre for BiosalineAgriculture (ICBA); and the Centre for Agriculture and

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Bioscience International (CABI).

World Vegetable Centre in Tajikistan

Among food crops, the relatively high value of most vegetablesmeans that they are economically well-suited for productionin controlled environments. WorldVeg thus places somepriority on research and development to improve and promotesuch systems.

One example of this is the Centre’s work in Tajikistan, wherehigh levels of undernutrition among young children andwomen of reproductive age is a persistent problem. To helpaddress this, in 2014 the United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment and WorldVeg set up the ‘Tajikistan Nutrition-sensitive Vegetable Technologies’ project under the USGovernment’s Feed the Future initiative. The project aims toincrease the production and consumption of improvedvegetables that are high in vitamin A, vitamin C, iron and zinc.

Since its inception, the project, together with the Institute ofHorticulture of the Tajik Academy of Agricultural Sciences, hasprovided seed producers with 12 new tomato and seven newsweet pepper varieties, and has developed new technology forthe preparation of soil substrates for growing seedlings ingreenhouses. The project has also assisted 20 new farmergroups in the higher-elevation zones of Yavan, Khuroson andJomi districts to prepare 15,000 tomato and sweet pepperseedlings in controlled environments, resulting in theproduction of seedlings that were ready to plant out muchearlier than those produced using traditional methods.

The project was renewed for a second three-year phase in 2017,during which it will expand its focus on women farmers, asthey have the main responsibility for family nutrition(WorldVeg, 2018). In addition to continuing to introduce andtest a range of new vegetable varieties that have improvednutritional qualities, the project will further developgreenhouse technologies and introduce modern productionand post-harvest practices appropriate to local needs andcircumstances. It also aims to develop an integrated pestmanagement package to control tomato leafminer (Tutaabsoluta), a new and dangerous pest affecting vegetableproduction in Tajiki greenhouses.

Boosting Tanzania’s greenhouse industry

Another example of WorldVeg’s work on controlledenvironment agriculture is an initiative carried out at itsregional office in Arusha, Tanzania, a country that has greatpotential to become an important producer of vegetables underprotective structures. Here, scientists are supporting thedevelopment of commercial, controlled environment croppingsystems tailored to meet local needs.

Hugo Despretz, a research agronomist at the WorldVeg centrein Arusha, points out that “Eastern Africa is home to agrowing middle class that is demanding an increasing amountof nutritious, safely produced, high quality vegetables. [...]Kenya has been for many years a leader in this field, butscarcity of arable land and water is forcing small and mediumholders to look at alternative production areas in Tanzania”

(de Nijs, 2017).

While Tanzania offers many advantages, having available land,a competitive labour market and sufficient water, significantresearch work is required in order to identify the bestcontrolled environment production methods and practices forlocal needs and circumstances. For example, developing zero-energy, naturally ventilated structures in the tropics remainsa significant challenge: how to find the best compromisebetween a congenial microclimate inside the structure andefficient protection against major pests.

“The type of cover plays a crucial role in this,” Despretz said.“Insect-proof netting seems promising to enable suitableventilation and to keep some pests out, but a lot of researchstill has to be done on mesh size and geometry, and on netcolour and structure to better understand the effects of thesefactors on the protected environment and pest entry abilities.”The research team is also trying to determine and understandthe impact on the microclimate of the structure’s architecture,dimensions and cladding. Types of covering being studiedinclude polyethylene films, shade screens and insect-proofnets. The team is currently constructing 12 new controlledenvironment houses in Arusha to support its investigations.

CABI’s reference book on greenhouse technology andmanagement

CABI’s mission is to improve people’s lives worldwide byproviding information and applying expertise to solve problemsin agriculture and the environment. While CABI’s researchfocuses largely on field production systems, it has neverthelessgiven attention to the management of various pests anddiseases that are prominent in greenhouse situations. It hasalso published, in both hard copy and digital formats, animportant reference book entitled “Greenhouse technologyand management” by Nicolas Castilla, a Spanish specialist inthis field (Castilla, 2012). Translated into English by EstebanBaeza, the book covers a range of current technologies andmanagement practices for general greenhouse production,with a particular emphasis on plastic greenhouses andvegetable growing. The author begins by addressing thenatural greenhouse microclimate in the context of managinggreenhouse systems such as ventilation, cooling, heating,carbon dioxide enrichment, light management, cropphysiology, greenhouse design and construction criteria. Thebook then moves on to cover other aspects of greenhousemanagement, including irrigation and fertilisation, soil andsubstrate cultivation, plant protection, regulation, economicanalysis, environmental impact, post-harvest and productionstrategies and marketing.

International Centre for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA)’s newgeneration greenhouse in Dubai

Scientists at ICBA based in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE),have been working for a number of years to develop innovativeand economical ways to control environmental conditions foroptimum crop production in desert climates. The research hasfocused particularly on ways to maximise the efficient use ofwater and energy for cooling, and has looked at systems based

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on insect-proof mesh with misting, as well as greenhousescooled by wet pad-and-fan.

The research has led to the development of a prototypegreenhouse that ICBA claims could potentially triple cropyields of fruits and vegetables in the UAE while using90 percent less water and 50 percent less energy thantraditional greenhouses. Dubbed the ‘new generationgreenhouse’, the prototype has been developed by ICBA at theAl-Dhaid Agricultural Innovation Centre in the UAE under theaegis of the Ministry of Climatic Change and Environment.

The prototype greenhouse operates on a closed system, usinga desiccant to absorb water transpired during the day andreleasing it as vapour during the night when, as temperaturesdrop, it condenses and is collected for re-use as freshwater toirrigate the plants. Dr Redouane Choukr-Allah, a seniorscientist involved with ICBA’s research on controlledenvironments, believes that energy requirements can be halvedusing this system, and that productivity could reach threefoldthe production in normal greenhouses, if carbon fertilisationis also used through injecting carbon dioxide (Baldwin, 2016).

ICBA has also created a second prototype – a net house thatuses a green, insect-proof mesh netting to partially block thesun, together with a misting sprinkler system that cools theinterior of the net house through evaporation. According to DrChoukr-Allah, quoted by Gulf News:

“In the net house, our research demonstrates that using thistechnology allowed us to reduce the water consumption byan average of two times compared to the normal greenhouseused by UAE farmers, based on the pad and fan system. Thenet house allowed a saving of 97 percent of energy incomparison to plastic greenhouses.”

Both innovative controlled environment designs allow for theplanting and harvesting of traditional greenhouse fruits andvegetables. As Dr Choukr-Allah states:

“The main objective is to boost the local production ofvegetable crops using protected culture. These technologiescould play a major role in water saving and increasingproductivity and will contribute to the food security of theUAE. The prototype could greatly improve food security,especially for arid desert countries such as UAE which importsmore than 80 percent of its food.”

ReferencesBaldwin D, 2016. Greenhouse yield to grow ‘threefold’ in UAE. Gulf News,15 October 2016. [https://gulfnews.com/news/uae/government/greenhouse-yield-to-grow-threefold-in-uae-1.1912884].

Castilla N, 2012. Greenhouse technology and management. Wallingford, UK:CABI.

de Nijs B, 2017. New R&D studies to boost Tanzania greenhouse industry.Hortidaily, 8 June 2017. [http://www.hortidaily.com/article/35415/New-R&D-studies-to-boost-Tanzania-greenhouse-industry].

WorldVeg, 2018. Tajikistan Nutrition-sensitive Vegetable Technologies: PhaseII. Taiwan, World Vegetable Centre. [https://avrdc.org/tajikistan-nutrition-sensitive-vegetable-technologies-phase-ii/].

Geoff HawtinGeoff has served as Deputy Director General of theInternational Centre for Agricultural Research in the DryAreas (ICARDA) in Syria; Director General of theInternational Plant Genetics Resources Institute (IPGRI)(now Bioversity International) in Italy; and DirectorGeneral of the International Centre for TropicalAgriculture (CIAT) in Colombia. He is currently amember of the CGIAR System Management Board.

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Abstract

Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa is associated withunpredictable weather variables accentuated by global climatechange. Some occurrences due to climate change are drought,flooding, and irregularities in rainfall pattern and volume,leading to food insecurity. Furthermore, cultivable lands in

Africa are poor in native fertility and have also shrunkdrastically due to population explosion and municipal growthand development. Rising populations and rapid urbanisationhave placed increasing pressure on Africa’s food security.Consequently, controlled environment agriculture (CEA),defined as the production of crops and animals in a protectedenvironment where optimal growing conditions aremaintained throughout the life cycle of the crop/animal, has

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Controlled environment agriculture in Africa:benefits, challenges and the political economy

Nicholas Ozor, PhD Agricultural Extension Administration and International and Rural Development(Nigeria and United Kingdom) is the Executive Director of the African Technology Policy Studies Network(ATPS). Based in Nairobi, Kenya, the ATPS is a transdisciplinary network of researchers, policy makers,private sector and civil society actors promoting the generation, dissemination, use and mastery of science, technology and innovations for African development, environmental sustainability and globalinclusion, with coverage in 30 countries. He was formerly a senior lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Extension, University of Nigeria, Nsukka and has published over 100 articles in reputableinternational journals, book chapters and other multimedia. Corresponding author: nozor@atpsnet.org

Dr Cynthia E Nwobodo is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Extension, University of Nigeria,Nsukka. She is a young researcher with a high academic pedigree, having obtained her first degree inthe same Department with First Class Honours. Dr Cynthia is a Commonwealth Scholar. She won boththe Faculty of Agriculture Best PhD student and the University of Nigeria Vice Chancellor’s PostgraduatePrize for the 2016/2017 academic session. She was a member of the Committee on Building trans-Disciplinary Climate Change Adaptation in the University of Nigeria, funded by the Open Society Foundation of the USA. Her research interests are climate change, rice, gender issues and ICTs in agri-cultural extension service delivery. cynthia.nwobodo@unn.edu.ng

Paul K Baiyeri (PhD) is a professor of crop science; his research emphasis is on tropical fruit species.Professor Baiyeri was formerly Head of the Department of Crop Science, and Dean of the Faculty ofAgriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria (UNN). He is a member of the International Societyfor Horticultural Science, the Horticultural Society of Nigeria, the Crop Science Society of Nigeria, andother national and international societies. He has over 155 articles published in national and internationaljournals of repute. He was the recipient of the UNN Vice-Chancellor Research Leadership Award for the2014/2015 academic year. Professor Baiyeri was formerly a research fellow and later a visiting scientistat the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria. His current research efforts are focused onsustainable crop production system intensification. paul.baiyeri@unn.edu.ng

Dr Anselm A Enete is currently a senior lecturer and Associate Dean in the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN). From 1999 to 2004 he was at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,Belgium, where he completed his PhD programme in agricultural economics in December 2003. UntilApril 2013 he was the secretary to the team that worked towards building a trans-disciplinary climatechange adaptation capacity in UNN, funded by the Open Society Foundation. He was also a team memberof the group that worked towards establishing an agribusiness programme at UNN, funded by the AfricanNetwork for Agriculture, Agro-forestry and Natural Resources Education. Dr Enete has published inbooks, local and international journals, conferences and technical reports. He has also successfully supervised seven PhDs in agricultural economics in UNN. anselm.enete@unn.edu.ng

Nicholas Ozor, Cynthia Nwobodo, Paul Baiyeri and Anselm Enete

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

been advocated as the immediate and future agriculturalstrategy to ensure food security for the urban populace inAfrica. Controlled environment agriculture is already beingpractised in North and Southern Africa, with a considerablepresence in East Africa, while West Africa is only beginning toadopt CEA. Levels of sophistication vary from low- andmedium- to high-tech greenhouses, hydroponics, aquacultureand aquaponics, among others. Generally, the choice of CEAin the region is adapted to suit local environmental conditions,infrastructure and policy support. However, African CEA stillfaces enormous challenges, ranging from poor technologicalcapacity on the part of research institutions, extension workersand farmers, to poor infrastructural and policy support. Thispaper advocates for enabling policies to support thedevelopment of CEA in Africa. It calls for a public-privatepartnership and investments to spur significant growth in thesubsector. Finally, it recommends sustained capacity andinfrastructural development to ensure efficient and effectiveCEA.

IntroductionIn the past 30 years, Africa’s population has doubled overalland tripled in urban areas (NEPAD, 2013). Africa has an urbangrowth rate of 3.5 percent, which is the highest in the worldand double the world average (UrbanAgri, 2018). The majorityof Africans earn their living from agriculture (Cheru & Modi,2013). The increasing population of Africa is posing a bigchallenge to conventional farming, which can hardly keep pacewith growth in the face of climate change and decreasingavailability of arable land, water and other resources neededfor agricultural production. Hence more than a quarter ofAfrica’s population is suffering from hunger (Jungart, 2017).By 2050, Africa’s population will hit 2 billion, the majority ofwhom will be women and young people. This will constitute ahuge challenge to the capacity of Africa’s agriculture to feedAfrica and create wealth for its teeming population, and alsoto ensure conservation of resources for future generations(NEPAD, 2013).

Increasing production more sustainably can be achieved bypromoting the controlled use of inputs and agro-environmental techniques (NEPAD, 2013). The production ofcrops and animals in a protected environment, where optimalgrowing conditions are maintained throughout the life cycleof the crop, is termed controlled environment agriculture(CEA). Controlled environment agriculture is largely driven byresource scarcity and changing climatic conditions which areputting stress on conventional farming practices. It involvesincreased control over various variables that optimise the plantgrowing conditions, resulting in higher plant quality and largeproduction volume while ensuring resource efficiency. Thecontrollable variables for plants may include temperature,humidity, carbon dioxide, light and nutrient concentration.Benefits that could be realised from CEA include reduction inwater use, reduction in pesticide and fertiliser use, reductionin water loss through recycling, high quality of produce, year-round production of seasonal produce, and higher productivitycompared with conventional farming on the same area of land(GreenAgri, 2012). In animal production, factors that could bemodified include light, heat, feed and water (Omoniyi et al,

2014). The moderation of these factors tends to providesuitable conditions for the optimal production of crops andanimals. Different levels of sophistication exist for CEA users,generally grouped as low-technology (low-tech), medium-techand high-tech greenhouses. The low-tech greenhouses consistof naturally ventilated greenhouses where the crop is grown inthe soil. Medium-tech greenhouses are more sophisticated interms of technologies for climate control and growing strategy.The high-tech greenhouse, on the other hand, is a closedgreenhouse where all parameters are controlled optimally(Elings et al, 2013).

Controlled environment agriculture has the capacity to turnthe fortunes of African agriculture and stem the tide of hungeron the continent. This paper aims to present the current statusof CEA in Africa. It identifies some existing CEA practices andinitiatives and their locations in Africa; examines the benefitsand challenges of CEA practices in Africa; and examines thepolitical economy of CEA on the continent.

Controlled environment agriculturepractices and initiatives in AfricaExisting practices in Africa

In Egypt, large-scale greenhouse horticulture is concentratedalong the river Nile, for instance along the Cairo-AlexandriaDesert highway (Elings & Baeza, 2017). Generally, thegreenhouses in Egypt use low to medium technologies. Low-tech greenhouses are used by small-scale farmers that servelocal markets, whereas medium-tech greenhouses (Figure 1)are used by large-scale farmers who serve the urban and exportmarkets (Elings & Baeza, 2017).

In 2016, Bosman Van Zaal, a Netherlands company, signed acontract with the Arab Organization for Industrialization for apilot high-tech greenhouse project in Egypt. The greenhousearea measures about 1.5 ha, consisting of glasshouse andplastic house with a technical service area in between. Thegreenhouse is designed for growing tomato and sweet pepper.The project also includes systems such as ventilation, screens,heating, cooling, irrigation, cultivation systems (hanginggutters and mobile benches), and electrical and controlsystems. There is also equipment for handling the crop suchas a seeding machine, hydraulic scissors, lift trolleys, plantprotection equipment, harvest trolleys, cold storage, etc(Hortfresh Journal, 2017).

In 2009, the Amiran Farmer’s Kit was developed andintroduced to farmers in Kenya to promote vegetable farmingin the arid and semi-arid regions of the country. The kit camewith training and farm support from Amiran extension officers.

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Figure 1. Flower production (left) and seedling raising (right) in medium-techgreenhouses in Egypt (Source: Elings & Baeza, 2017).

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The kit has two components – a greenhouse and an open-fieldoption. The farmer’s kit was introduced through a pilot projectsupported by research. A demonstration plot was set up atAmiran headquarters in Embakasi, Nairobi. Beneficiaries of theproject include farmers, primary and secondary schools,colleges, polytechnics and universities in the country. Thefarmer’s kit has been incorporated into the curriculum of someschools. The project has received widespread support from theGovernment, the European Community, charitableorganisations such as Kenya Red Cross, international agencies,non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and community-based organisations and leaders. Many sponsors havesupported the installation of the kit in academic institutions,and given funding to women and youth groups to buy the kitsand start their own agri-businesses. However, some challengesstill plague greenhouse vegetable production in Kenya,especially the lack of good quality water for production.Available water sources are saline, chlorinated or contaminatedwith diseases such as bacterial wilt (Softkenya, nd).

The green farming partners van Zaal, hothouse builderBosman, Hoogendoorn Growth Management and rosebreeders Olij Roses have opened a solar-powered greenhouseon the Olij Roses farm in Naivasha, Kenya (Figure 2). Theproject will enable Olij Roses to undertake production usingsolar power as an alternative energy source, which is thegrowing trend among horticulture farmers in the region dueto increasing energy costs.

In South Africa, the horticulture sector is small and mainlylocated in regions around Johannesburg, Cape Town andDurban. Protected horticulture is largely done in plastictunnels using a medium level of technology. There are basicallythree types of horticulture farmers in South Africa. First, thecommercial farmers who have large-scale moderngreenhouses; second, the emerging farmers who areinexperienced, resource poor and have a limited scale ofoperation; and third, the subsistence farmers who focus ongrowing enough food for home consumption. The subsistencefarmers grow vegetables in open fields; the emerging farmers

grow in low- to medium-tech production systems that have a(multi) tunnel but without an active cooling or heating system.The fertigation system is very basic and manually operated.Shadow nets are frequently used, in open field and in tunnels,but the quality is poor, depressing light levels reaching thecrops and limiting ventilation. The commercial farmers growin medium- to high-tech systems that control all indoorgrowth conditions (Figure 3). These systems are electricity-intensive (de Visser & Dijkxhoorn, 2015). The commercialsector contributes 95 percent of the total vegetable production,while the emerging sector contributes only 5 percent. About50 percent of vegetables are grown under protectedcircumstances.

The main cut flower produced is rose, with production varyingfrom 150 to 200 stems m–2. The second cut flower produced ischrysanthemum, which is mainly grown in greenhouses thatare relatively high-tech with an average yield of 300 stems m–2

per year. The average seedling production is 40 million traysper year, with a few large-scale growers producing 100-150 million trays per year. About 45 percent of cut flowerproduction is unprotected, 27 percent is under shade nettingand 28 percent in greenhouses (de Visser & Dijkxhoorn, 2015).

Limited levels of technology exist for South African protectedhorticulture. A general classification of available technologiesis given in Table 1.

Selecting a particular controlled environment agriculturesystem

Greenhouses and choice of produce are adapted toaccommodate local environmental conditions. The high levelsof solar radiation in the Johannesburg region enhance flowerquality and production rates. Due to large fluctuations betweenday and night temperatures, protected cultivation by plastic(multi) tunnels is commonly used to improve the indoorclimate. Many growers have installed pad-and-fan coolingsystems. These systems result in high annual costs due to theincreasing cost of electricity, and the water use of pad-and-fanis also significant, reaching as high as the irrigationrequirement for the crop. However, the supply of water in thisregion is sufficient due to the availability of water from

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Figure 2. Solar-powered greenhouse on Olij Roses’ farm in Naivasha, Kenya(Source: Hortidaily).

Figure 3. Low-tech (top left), medium-tech (top right) and high-tech (bottom)protected horticulture in South Africa (Source: de Visser & Dijkxhoorn, 2015).

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different sources, including rainfall, mountain rivers andboreholes (de Visser & Dijkxhoorn, 2015).

The solar-powered greenhouse in Olij Roses farm in Naivasha,Kenya is not only environmentally friendly, but has also beensaid to be more reliable than the Kenyan electric grid becauseof the constant, reliable and stable electricity supply. The newtechnology realises the generation of both heat and electricityusing solar panels and heat collectors. This effectively heatsthe greenhouse at night and provides enough electricity forfarm operations. The excess heat and electricity generated arethen stored in a special heat-conserving tank and battery pack(Flowerweb, 2013).

The lack of frosts around Cape Town permits the growth ofornamentals without undercover protection. Protectionagainst solar radiation on summer days is achieved usingshade nets, enabling low-tech ornamental production. Due tothe modest annual amounts of rainfall and remoteness of largerivers, sufficient water supply for all horticultural practices isusually problematic (de Visser & Dijkxhoorn, 2015). Althoughthe main vegetable production in the region is done outdoors,there is a trend towards protected cultivation. The best water-saving production can be realised in high-tech systems withnearly closed greenhouses and recirculated water (de Visser &Dijkxhoorn, 2015). The moist climate facilitates outdoorgrowth of horticultural crops. At optimal air temperatures andhumidity, the additional advantages of protected cultivation(eg control of irrigation amount, integrated pest management,no storms, limited weed inputs) are counteracted by the highmoisture levels resulting from indoor evapotranspiration inaddition to the high outdoor humidity. The high humiditylevels promote fungal diseases, exacerbated at hightemperatures. Also, the absence of low night temperaturesresults in a highly vegetative crop growth that does not bearsufficient fruit (de Visser & Dijkxhoorn, 2015).

In Nigeria, the use of greenhouses has been confined toresearch institutes, tertiary institutions and a few individuals,mainly due to the high cost of procuring the technology(Jimoh, 2017). Prominent among individuals who haveventured into greenhouse vegetable production in Nigeria isthe founder and chief executive of Fresh Direct Produce andAgro-Allied Services, Oluwayimika Angel Adelaja. Her businessstarted with 10 greenhouses on a leased 300 ha farm. Thegreenhouses covered only a small portion of the land while therest was covered with trees. She now grows vegetables incontainers stacked five high at two sites in Abuja. Each

container takes 4,000 plants per cycle, with each cycle lastingabout 7-30 days. The vegetables are produced usinghydroponic methods. Major distribution points are restaurants,hotels and grocery stores (Frey, 2017).

In animal production, CEA is mainly practised in poultryfarms. Commercial poultry producers in Nigeria engage inCEA where a number of production factors, such as light, heat,water and feed, are being moderated. The architectural designof the poultry house ensures that weather-related elements arecontrolled. The building site, orientation, insulation, roofoverhang and equipment are designed to ensure suitabletemperatures inside the poultry house (Omoniyi et al, 2014).Positioning the roof to run east-west keeps direct sunlight fromcoming through the sides that can cause heat to build up. Also,roofs are made of asbestos, the frame of the structure iswooden, and the walls are made of wire mesh and rubbernetting. Buildings are also constructed to prevent water fromentering the poultry house during rains while ensuring thatadequate cooling is maintained (Omoniyi et al, 2014).

Benefits of controlled environmentagriculture for AfricaThe review by Benke & Tomkins (2017) on vertical farmingsupports the fact that future food security and sustainabilityin the face of climate change and diminishing land and waterresources will have to adopt CEA as a paradigm shift fromconventional agricultural practices. Globally, CEA is creditedwith the following advantages (Mattson, 2017): production offresh high-quality produce that is free of pesticides; predictablecrop timing due to controlled and optimised aerial and root-zone environments; crops locally grown and produced all yearround; efficient and optimised resource utilisation; and limitedenvironmental impact.

The following are the potential benefits of CEA if adoptedacross African states:

• Optimal utilisation of abundant natural resources in cities for production of premium vegetables for the population. Africa has one of the fastest-growing populations in the world, especially the urban population. The continent also has one of the highest numbers of food-insecure people. Controlled environment agriculture has been shown to give higher productivity per hectare than open-field farming, suggesting that it has the potential to enhance food security

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Table 1. Approximate classification of South African protected horticulture

Technology level Low Medium High

Typical size (ha) 1-10 2-50 3-20 Cover type Shadow net Plastic roof, net

walls Plastic, glass

Production process Soil Hydroponics Hydroponics, climate control

Cooling system Natural ventilation Natural ventilation Pad-and-fan US first quality produce 40% 60-70% 90% Farmer Subsistence-

emerging farmer Emerging-commercial famer

Commercial farmer

AMHPAC classification Passive Semi-active Active AMHPAC = Asociación Mexicana de Horticultura Protegida AC, Mexican Association for Protected Agriculture

(Source: de Visser & Dijkxhoorn, 2015)

Descriptor

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in the region, especially in urban and peri-urban areas. Controlled environment agriculture can be particularly helpful in curbing urban food deficits because it can be conveniently located in urban areas.

• Establishment of large-scale CEA ventures that will be profitable in existing and emerging cities. For example, Lagos, Nigeria, is an emerging mega-city with a population of over 20 million people, so fresh vegetables from the greenhouses will have ready markets in the area.

• Small- and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) will spring up in cities. There has been strong advocacy for agriculture-based SMEs in African states. Controlled environment agriculture offers great opportunities for youth empowerment: interested agriculture graduates can start up small-scale hydroponics with soft loans, as in Nigeria from the Bank of Industry.

• Adopting CEA in Africa is expected to lead to greater food security. CEA offers tremendous opportunities for production of year-round vegetables and fruits. This will undoubtedly improve household access to these food products.

• Adopting CEA in Africa will increase incomes. Farmers will also be assured of income generation even during the off-season, enabling them to purchase other food products which they do not produce in the local markets.

• Foreign exchange will increase. With enhanced productivity from CEA there is the potential to export crops such as tomato and cucumber to areas such as Europe and North America, where they cannot be grown as easily during winter seasons (Hobbs, 2003).

• Reduced pollution risk. The risk of soil pollution through over-fertilisation is reduced and sometimes totally eliminated (Joubert, 2010).

The general overview is that CEA (and modified environmentagriculture) exists and is practised profitably in Africa.Controlled environment agriculture is the future agriculturalpractice that will ensure sustainable food security.

Challenges facing controlled environment agriculture in AfricaNotwithstanding the potential of CEA in the development ofAfrican agriculture in particular and the economy in general,its adoption and use faces several challenges:

• Capital-intensive. CEA is a capital-intensive enterprise, particularly at the take-off stage. For instance, a hydroponic or aquaponic greenhouse can cost anywhere from two to 20 times more than soil-based farming, even more with some ultramodern technologies. Given the poverty level in Africa, especially among farm households, finding the capital to invest in CEA would be a herculean task. Moreover, most of the technologies required for CEA would largely be imported. The exchange-rate volatility and poverty would therefore combine to price the technologies out of reach of the average farmer in Africa (Mattson, 2017).

• Substitutes technology for labour. African agriculture is

generally labour-intensive and has often been promoted as a major avenue for reducing the high and growing unemployment on the continent. The introduction of CEA in Africa may present a fresh challenge regarding employment generation through agriculture, as CEA is technology- rather than labour-intensive (Cox, 2016).

• Inadequate policies and regulations. The concept of CEA is generally new in many countries of Africa. As a result, there are few or no policies (laws, strategies and regulations) formulated to allow or assist farmers to adopt this agricultural practice. There is also poor government support, essentially due to poor knowledge of the practice. The consequence of this is little or no investment and research in the area, which prevents the emergence ofinnovations and thereby curtails the level of available technically feasible and efficient technologies in the area (Mbabazi Moyo et al, 2015).

• Inconsistent water and electricity supply. These resources are extremely important in crop and animal production and are major requirements in the use of CEA – hydroponics, aquaponics or otherwise. Traditionally, conventional greenhouse operators rely on natural gas and fossil fuels to generate sufficient electricity to run commercially competitive greenhouses. The high cost of such energy poses a major challenge to CEA. In addition, the supply of water is not guaranteed in most African countries and this may hinder the adoption and use of CEA.

• Poor design and maintenance culture. This constitutes a major challenge constraining the adoption of CEA in Africa. The technical know-how to service and maintain the equipment is generally very low. In addition, there is the problem of a poor maintenance culture in the region. Although some countries such as South Africa have successfully adopted CEA for large-scale commercial agriculture, most countries in Africa are still trying tomaintain the practice for research purposes, albeit unsuccessfully.

• Low on ‘ease of doing business’ index. Unlike traditional farming practices, CEA may require obtaining the necessary permits and registrations from government for starting a business. However, in most African countries, crossing the hurdles of obtaining such permits may generally be difficult. For instance, most African countries rank low on the World Bank’s ‘ease of doing business’ indicators (World Bank, 2017).

• Poor communications. There is a general lack of awareness and information on the importance and benefits of CEA and how to go about realising it. This may be partly attributable to the communication gaps that often exist between researchers, extension agents and farmers. This situation is worsened by the low extension:farmer ratio, which hovers around 1:1,000 (Robbins & Williams, 2005).

• Poor markets and market infrastructure. In most African countries, there are weak market linkages and channels due to poor market infrastructure. This might affect the competitiveness of CEA products both locally and internationally. For instance, in some cases where CEA is already practised (such as South Africa), new producers have cited difficulties in establishing long-term stable market channels for their crops (Mbabazi Moyo et al, 2015).

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RecommendationsWe propose the following recommendations to address thechallenges to the adoption and use of CEA that have beendiscussed above:

• Favourable policy and infrastructural provisions should be made by governments to enable potential CEA farmers and investors to access reasonably priced credit. In addition, farmers should be sensitised to belong to group organisations such as cooperatives to enable them to access group facilitated funds.

• Although CEA may result in displacement of labour from agriculture, human capital development could ameliorate this situation. Controlled environment agriculture is expected to improve agricultural productivity, hence spurring industrialisation which is expected to require highly skilled manpower as well as creating more jobs.

• Sensitisation of policy makers on the importance and benefits of CEA over traditional agricultural practices should be embarked upon by experts in the area.

• Research has shown that the CEA supplementary lighting and heating requirement is reasonably low in the tropics compared with temperate regions. This advantage could be harnessed, along with energy that could be generated using biogas, or solar energy, to meet the challenge of CEA’s energy requirement. In order to overcome the issue of water, traditional water wells could be dug in CEA farm locations.

• There should be adequate local training in the skills necessary for the service and maintenance of CEA facilities, which will raise critical manpower needed for the sustainability of the system.

• Decentralisation of business registration agencies and use of ICT facilities for business registration will promote ease of doing business in Africa.

• Transforming the extension system from a technology-transfer model to a pluralistic system involving participatory extension approaches that aim to develop demand-driven services is highly recommended.

• Governments should be sensitised to review macroeconomic policies in favour of international agricultural trade. In addition, provision should be made by governments to provide markets and improve market infrastructure.

The political economy of controlled environment agriculture in AfricaKey actors, their roles and relationships

All actors in the agricultural innovation system, includingfarmers, researchers, extension agents, private sector, policymakers/governments, NGOs and development agencies, arestakeholders in the CEA system. These actors should play activeroles in synergy to promote the development, uptake andsustainability of CEA in Africa. Farmers are at the centre, beingthe producers, while other actors should work as complementary

stakeholders to both farmers and other actors in the CEAinnovation system. For example, in Egypt (Figure 4), the majorstakeholders involved in protected horticulture are the growersor owners. To this group belong the greenhouse managers, cropspecialists, workers and other greenhouse staff. Growers/ownerscan be either large export-oriented entrepreneurs or horticultureSMEs. Growers/owners are organised in associations such as theHorticultural Export Improvement Association and theAgriculture Export Council.

Another group of stakeholders is formed by the greenhouseconstructors and the supply industry. This group is oftencomprised of foreigners, mainly from the Netherlands andother European countries (France, Italy and Spain), along withIndian and Chinese constructors. The Arab Organization forIndustrialization also supplies greenhouses made in Egypt,although the greenhouse designs and quality they offer vary.

The Agricultural Research Centre and the HorticultureResearch Institute, Cairo University and the AmericanUniversity in Cairo are the key organisations responsible forresearch on CEA in Egypt. Extension services are provided bythe Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation. The supplyindustry comprises breeding companies (eg Rijk Zwaan of theNetherlands), nutrient suppliers, suppliers of local biologicalcrop protection (eg BioEgypt), and any other materials neededfor operating a greenhouse. The post-harvest value chaincomprises carriers, logistics service providers, warehouse/coldstore facility owners, industry associations/research/extension,NGOs, government and shippers, and also the middlemen whosupply finance (Elings & Baeza, 2017).

In South African protected horticulture, major stakeholders aregrouped into three: knowledge organisations, professionalorganisations and private companies. The knowledgeorganisations comprise the Agricultural Research Council, theprincipal agricultural research institution and the sole institutegiving courses on hydroponics to growers in South Africa; andthe universities and agricultural colleges (leading universitiesincluding Stellenbosch University and the Universities of theFree State, of Pretoria and of KwaZulu-Natal). Although theuniversities are a potential knowledge base for South Africa’sCEA, their curricula are yet to become up-to-date with currentdemands for CEA.

The professional organisations include the South AfricanFlower Export Council, with the mandate of expanding SouthAfrica’s floricultural exports by facilitating synergies amonggrowers, while reducing costs by getting more and better-coordinated freight space and through capacity building. The

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Protected horticulture in Egypt

Figure 4. Major stakeholders involved with protected horticulture in Egypt (Source:Elings & Baeza, 2017).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

South African Flower Growers Association is an association offlower growers and exporters and related industries that workto improve the conditions in which the horticulture industryoperates, and runs its business by promoting networkingamong members. It also works in strengthening relationshipsbetween the flower industry and government, trade andindustry, and the commercial and economic sector. The SouthAfrican Protea Producers and Exporters Association representsall producers and exporters of Proteaceae and other floralmaterials originating from the South African indigenous floraand furthers their interests. The Seedling Growers Associationof South Africa was started to enable growers and members toresearch applicable topics and solve common problems. It alsoensures that potential customers know which nurseries aremaintaining a high standard. The South African NurseryAssociation is a non-profit organisation acting as a networkplatform representing the interests of the green industry. Theindustry association Agri South Africa promotes, on behalf ofits members, the development, profitability, stability andsustainability of commercial agriculture in South Africathrough its involvement and input in national andinternational policy. Agribusiness in Sustainable NaturalAfrican Plant Products aims to expand the economicopportunities for rural communities by using world-classscience, technologies, partnerships and business approachesto develop and enhance Africa’s competitive advantage in thenatural plant product industry. Intensive Agriculture SouthAfrica consists of an active group of commercial growers,hobbyists and associated companies involved in the intensiveproduction of mainly vegetable crops in a protected cultivationsystem (greenhouses, net structures, mini-tunnels, modernsoil covers, etc).

A number of private companies, including some Dutchcompanies, are active in supporting horticulture growers withadvice (de Visser & Dijkxhoorn, 2015).

Gender dimensions of controlled environment agriculture

Gender mainstreaming is critical in the development of CEAin Africa. Gender mainstreaming means the process ofidentifying gender gaps and making the concerns andexperiences of women, men, girls and boys integral to thedesign, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policiesand programmes in all spheres so that the benefits areequitably distributed (Mabundza et al, 2014). In Africa, womenare generally disadvantaged in terms of access to resources,access to information, participation in extension training, andother economic and social opportunities (Njobe & Kaaria,2015; Mudege et al, 2017). The economic, political and socialalienation of women and young people poses manydevelopmental challenges for African agriculture. Controlledenvironment agriculture may either exacerbate or improvewomen’s position as socially and economically excluded,depending on how issues of gender relations are handled bypromoters of CEA in Africa. The fact that most CEAtechnologies do not require land gives an edge to women whoordinarily do not have rights to land and other productionresources. However, costs of using some medium- to high-techgreenhouse equipment should be subsidised so that womenand youth can afford them. Improvements in access to creditcould also provide a leverage point for women and young

people to effectively key into CEA.

Existing policies and regulations supporting orconstraining controlled environment agriculture in Africa

The Maputo Declaration is a policy direction made by Headsof State and Government of the African Union in 2003 in orderto implement the Comprehensive Africa AgricultureDevelopment Programme (CAADP) and adopt sound policiesfor agricultural and rural development (PELUM Kenya, 2015).The CAADP recognises that an expansion in agricultural outputcan contribute significantly to reducing food insecurity byraising local production. The policy also acknowledgessustainable intensification as a strategy for achieving thisobjective. It recognises the importance of providinginfrastructures that enhance the competitiveness of Africanagriculture in domestic and international markets. The role ofinvestments in agricultural extension, research and ruralfinance, as well as legal frameworks for market access, areemphasised. Issues of tackling the vulnerability of the regionto the vagaries of climate change, water control andmanagement were highlighted. However, the policy was notdefinite as to the need to make investment in CEA, which iscritical to ensuring quality standards for the internationalmarket and the year-round supply of the required quantity ofagricultural products from Africa. The adaptation to the effectsof climate change, and the sustainable production of crops andanimals in the face of climate change, that can be achievedthrough the use of hydroponics and other CEA practices werenot explicitly captured.

In October 2015, the African Development Bank, in associationwith the African Union Commission, the United NationsEconomic Commission for Africa and the Government ofSenegal, launched the Feed Africa initiative, which aims atunlocking Africa’s agricultural potential. Feed Africa is aninitiative to transform African agriculture into a globallycompetitive, inclusive and business-oriented sector (AfDB,2018). Although the Feed Africa initiative focuses, amongothers, on the need to massively increase agriculturalproductivity and increase sustainability and nutrition, there isno specific consideration for improving food and nutritionsecurity by adopting CEA.

At subregional levels, a number of agricultural developmentpolicies and initiatives exist. The East African CommunityAgriculture and Rural Development Policy is a common policyin East Africa with the objective of achieving food security inthe subregion while ensuring sustainable land use andmanagement of soil, water, fisheries and forests. This policyaims to increase agricultural output, quality and availability offood, and rational agricultural production (PELUM Kenya,2015). However, the policy failed to recognise the pivotal roleof CEA in achieving these objectives. The Dar-es-SalaamDeclaration on Agriculture and Food Security in the SouthernAfrican Development Community (SADC) region seeks thedevelopment of a competitive agricultural sector throughimproved access to inputs, promotion of draught power,control of diseases and improved crop storage and handling,development of drought-tolerant crops, and improved fishstock management and processing (SADC, 2017). Theprogrammes employed by SADC to address food security inthe region include the Agricultural Information Management

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System, the Crop Development Unit and the Livestock SectorUnit. The SADC is yet to include CEA in its portfolio as astrategy for achieving food security in the subregion.

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)Agricultural Policy (ECOWAP) is implemented through theRegional Agricultural Investment Plan and supported by theUnited States Agency for International Development (USAID)West Africa. The objectives of ECOWAP are to encouragecompetitiveness of farmers in intra-regional and internationalmarkets, further food security in the region, and ensure decentincomes for workers in the agricultural sector (USAID, 2017).The ECOWAP vision is to improve the effectiveness andefficiency of family farms and promotion of agriculturalenterprises through involvement of the private sector (USAID,2017). Activities of ECOWAP include improving nutrition, riskmanagement and climate change resilience, agriculturalintensification and market regulation. Although these activitiescan be captured through incorporating CEA in agriculturalprogrammes, ECOWAP was not specific about adopting CEAin its implementation plan.

In Nigeria, building on the Agricultural Transformation Agendapolicy framework of the previous administration, the FederalGovernment led by President Muhammadu Buhari mappedout the Agriculture Promotion Policy. The Policy is based on anumber of carry-overs from the Agricultural TransformationAgenda, with the key objectives of focusing on private sector-led engagement as the main driver of the agricultural sector, avalue chain approach, improved domestic food security, andboosting export earnings as major priorities, stimulatingagricultural production on a sustainable basis as well asfactoring in climate change and environmental sustainability(FMARD, 2016). Controlled environment agriculture is a viableoption for achieving these objectives. However, the AgriculturePromotion Policy did not incorporate CEA as a strategy forachieving them.

In Kenya, as a major part of the ‘Big Four’ development agendaannounced by President Uhuru Kenyatta on 12 December2017, ensuring food and nutrition security is a priority. Inorder to ensure food security, the Kenyan Government aimsto increase food production by increasing the land area undercultivation; reduce post-harvest losses by creating incentiveson cereal-drying equipment, silos, fishing and aquaculturefeed; and provide credit for smallholder farmers, among others.This can be achieved through promotion of indigenous foodconsumption and diversification of staple foodstuffs,enhancing reduction of food wastage and food loss,strengthening supply chains and linkages to value addition,improving food market information systems and increasinginvestment, especially in agricultural infrastructure (PolicyMonitor, 2018). Controlled environment agriculture couldenhance the achievement of food and nutrition security byhelping Kenya to achieve some of these objectives.

As a road map to implementing the Africa-wide CAADP, Ghanahas developed the Ghana Agriculture Sector InvestmentProgramme (GASIP). The programme is aimed at contributingto the realisation of Ghana’s Medium Term Agriculture SectorInvestment Plan (MOFA, 2014). The objectives of GASIP arebuilt along four axes: linking smallholder farmers toagribusinesses to enhance pro-poor growth; scaling up a

successful value chain investment approach; promoting andmainstreaming climate change resilience approaches andknowledge management; and harmonisation of interventionapproaches and policy support. The GASIP is aimed atsupporting selected value chains including cassava, maize,sorghum, yam, fruits and vegetables. It also focuses onconservation agriculture, support for youth and women, andlinking smallholders into commercial value chains. However,GASIP did not include the need to foster the integration of CEAto ensure the required increase in production of high-valueagricultural products.

The Tanzanian National Agriculture Policy has as its objectives:to increase production, productivity and profitability of factorsof production; enhance national food security throughproduction of sufficient quantity and quality of food; improvethe competitiveness of agricultural products in the markets;and protect and promote integrated and sustainable utilisationof agricultural lands, among others (MAFC, 2013). Althoughthe policy aims to enhance agricultural production in terms ofquality and quantity, and to enhance production of quality foodfor export, it did not include the development of CEA as ameans of achieving these objectives.

The role of extension

Controlled environment agriculture is a relatively newdimension of agricultural practice with regard to farmers’technological know-how in sub-Saharan Africa. The extensionsystem needs to update its toolkit with innovative CEAtechnologies in order to impart the requisite skills to farmers.Professionalism in this regard calls for capacity building toenable extension workers to convey critical skills to theirclientele, as well as to foster coordination among relevantstakeholders in the CEA innovation system. Extension shouldalso adopt innovative teaching methods such as hands-ontraining videos on CEA practices, which could offer farmersactive learning experience on CEA even when the extensionagent is not physically present. It is also the work of extensionto ensure inclusiveness in policies that aim to advance CEA inAfrica. As a promising development pathway for Africa, a robustCEA strategy that mainstreams gender, age, ethnic differencesand specific farmer groups should be promoted. Extensiontherefore plays a critical role not just in helping farmers keyinto CEA, but in ensuring the sustainability of the wholeagricultural innovation system.

ConclusionsControlled environment agriculture is believed to hold greatpotential for the development of African agriculture and thereduction of food insecurity in the region. This paper (alongwith others in this special issue) presents the current status ofthe agricultural practice in Africa. The scope of CEA iscurrently limited to a few countries, such as Egypt, SouthAfrica and Kenya, and the types available in these countries aregenerally reflective of the environmental conditions. Thebenefits of CEA in Africa are showcased to include year-roundproduction of crops, and higher income for farmers resultingfrom higher productivity of crops and foreign exchange earnings.Challenges for CEA include its capital-intensive nature, andinadequate policies and regulations for the practice. The paper

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assesses the place of CEA in the existing agricultural developmentpolicies and initiatives in Africa, as well as in different sub-regionsof the continent. Various actors and institutions in the CEAsystem in the region are also presented.

The paper concludes by drawing attention to the pivotal roleof CEA in ensuring food and nutrition security in Africa, as wellas its importance in the continent’s effective participation inthe international market. Regional, sub-regional and countrypolicy deficits in the area of CEA are highlighted. Various waysof enhancing the enactment and implementation of policiesand initiatives that promote CEA are also pointed out bydiscussing the need for gender mainstreaming in the CEAsystem, as well as for extension providers to update their skillsin order to be able to carry the message of CEA to current andpotential farmers in Africa. It is hoped that the redirection ofagricultural development efforts towards CEA intensificationwill put Africa in a position to feed its ever-increasingpopulation, particularly the urban population, and improve theincome of farm households in the region.

Key recommendationsBased on the key issues assessed, this paper recommends thatsensitisation and awareness creation about CEA is veryimportant for agricultural development in Africa. The nationalagricultural research and extension systems should foster thepromotion of CEA in the agricultural development policies oftheir respective countries. Capacity training (including formaleducation and short training) is a good starting point forbuilding the capacity of various stakeholders in the CEAinnovation system. There is a need for institutional reform.Country and regional policies should reflect a commitment toadoption of CEA as a viable option for agricultural developmentin Africa. Such policies should mainstream adequate financingas well as public-private partnerships, and inclusiveness(involving women, youth and other vulnerable groups) toensure the sustainability of the whole CEA process.

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Abstract The work of INMED Partnerships for Children in climate-smartagriculture has led to an innovative aquaponics system usinginexpensive and locally accessible materials that is easilyscalable in nearly any environment. Combined with technicaland business training, access to affordable financing, links tomarkets and ongoing technical support, INMED’s Climate-Smart Agriculture programme is providing food security andincome-generation opportunities to climate change-vulnerablecommunities in Latin America, the Caribbean and SouthernAfrica. This paper explains how schoolchildren, students,young men and women, older women, people with disabilities,and convicts currently benefit from aquaponics, but even moreimportantly, how they have been given hope for futureemployment, nutrition and well-being.

IntroductionThe World Bank has projected that it is possible to achieve theUnited Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal to end extremepoverty by 2030, and considerable progress has been madetoward that goal. Yet in sub-Saharan Africa, where half of theextremely poor live, nearly 400 million people continue tosurvive on less than US$ 1.90 per day – half are aged under 18.Most are poorly educated and live in rural areas whereagriculture is the primary source of income (World Bank,2018).

Of all the attempts to reduce poverty, improving agriculturalproductivity is the most effective (Bill & Melinda GatesFoundation, nd), but climate change makes povertyreduction – and food security – more challenging. Prolongeddroughts and flooding in climate change-vulnerable regionsare driving smallholder farmers and their communities deeperinto poverty (Kharas & Fengler, 2017).

Add to that the declining number of young people entering thefield of agriculture and farming, as the average age of farmersworldwide hovers around 60. With older farmers less likely toembrace the new technologies needed to sustainably increaseagricultural productivity, the challenge to sustainably feed thegrowing world population becomes more difficult (FAO, 2014).

The future of farming and food security lands squarely ontoday’s youth. Yet rural youth in particular face many hurdlesin trying to earn a livelihood in agriculture: diminishing arableland, lack of education and access to credit, and the amountof physical labour required for little return (Vos et al, 2014).

Without some revolutionary intervention to re-engage youthand broaden the demographics of farming, it is unlikely theworld will end poverty by 2030.

INMED’s revolutionary solutionINMED Partnerships for Children has developed arevolutionary solution that is changing the face of farming inregions hit hard by climate change. What does a farmer of thefuture look like? A cafeteria worker, a single mother, a personwith disabilities, a student, a teacher, an urban apartmentdweller or even a convict.

For more than 30 years, INMED (inmed.org) has worked indistressed communities around the world to break complexcycles of poverty and empower the most vulnerablepopulations to achieve self-sufficiency. Through multisectorpartnerships in climate-smart agriculture, INMED has beenequipping schools, social service institutions, farmingcooperatives and at-risk communities to adapt to climatechange realities, improve food security, and provide skillsdevelopment and income-generation opportunities, whileprotecting natural resources.

At the core of INMED’s Adaptive Agriculture programme isaquaponics – an intensive food production techniquecombining aquaculture and hydroponics in a closed-loopsystem that dramatically conserves water and space, whileyielding abundant and marketable fresh produce and fish year-round. Aquaponics farming is significantly more productivethan equivalently sized plots that are traditionally cultivated.Combined with complementary water harvesting and solarpower systems, aquaponics offers vulnerable populations inresource-scarce environments a more efficient, lucrative andclimate-adaptive alternative to conventional farming.

INMED’s simple, scalable and low-cost system uses easilyaccessible local materials that can be scaled to fit any space in

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INMED aquaponics: cultivating farmers of the future

Dr Linda Pfeiffer is Founder, President and CEO of INMED Partnerships for Children, a nonprofit international humanitarian organisation that has worked in more than 100 countries to create a worldwhere all children are safe, healthy, educated and have opportunities to thrive. Through multisectorpartnerships and in-country affiliates, INMED builds effective systems that deliver innovative and sustainable approaches to break complex cycles of poverty and generate opportunities for self-sufficiency. Its programmes in climate-smart agriculture and aquaponics, health and nutrition, and youth development have made a sustainable impact on the lives of millions of children and theirfamilies since 1986. lpfeiffer@inmed.org

Linda Pfeiffer

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

both rural and urban environments. Through INMED affiliates,the beneficial impacts of aquaponics have been transforminglives in Latin America, the Caribbean and Southern Africa fornearly a decade. Some of the benefits of aquaponics include:

• 90 percent less water consumption than traditional farming;

• significantly less energy consumption than traditional mechanised farming;

• no chemical fertilisers or pesticides;

• faster-growing, healthier and more abundant crops than traditional farming;

• ability to include rainwater harvesting and solar power, further conserving resources;

• year-round crop production that is resilient to climate events;

• a means of repopulating endangered fish species.

Compared with traditional farming, aquaponics is a clearwinner. The Jamaica Ministry of Industry, Commerce,Agriculture and Fisheries, for example, publishes comparativecosts for 1-acre plots of all crop cycles using specific inputvariables. Depending on the crop, the Ministry’s findingsindicate that aquaponics can produce up to five times the cropyield of traditional field production – and often much more –for a fraction of the cost.

Aquaponics for better nutritionLess expensive and more abundant food production has beena godsend for Sarah, a cafeteria worker and aquaponics farmerat Randvaal primary school, serving children in an extremelypoor community of Johannesburg, South Africa. On mostdays, she prepares a crisp salad of greens, tomatoes, peppersand fragrant herbs she has just harvested from her school’saquaponics system, which INMED and Air Products(airproductsafrica.co.za) installed in 2012. She also pluckssome plump fish from the tanks that provide nutrient-richwater to grow the plants in the beds. And when the systemproduces more cucumbers than the school can consume,Sarah makes her famous cucumber jam (Figure 1) – afavourite among children and parents alike.

Sarah marvels at how the children gobble up the fresh saladbefore digging into their rice and fish, and she takes pride inknowing that her nutritious meals are helping the childrengrow stronger and healthier. For many of the children at thisschool, the meals they consume there are the only meals theyeat. With training in aquaponics farming and nutritionallybalanced food preparation by INMED South Africa, Sarah istransforming the lives of her students. She is a farmer of thefuture.

Aquaponics for food security and educationAccess to plentiful, year-round fresh produce is particularlycritical for developing children. In drought regions, however,fewer and fewer schools have access to farm-fresh food. Withschool-based aquaponics, that problem can be solved.

In Peru, for example, INMED has implemented an aquaponicssystem at a school in an urban slum outside Lima, improvingaccess to nutritious food and introducing new careeropportunities for the school’s vulnerable youth (Figure 2).Likewise, INMED has partnered with the Institute of BilingualPublic Pedagogical Higher Education in Ucayali, Peru to useits INMED aquaponics system as a conduit to at-riskindigenous communities. Using the campus system as atraining platform, visiting teachers are equipped to introduceaquaponics to indigenous communities throughout Peru, notonly to provide food security and income-generationopportunities, but also as a means of proliferating indigenousAmazonian fish species.

In Port Elizabeth, South Africa, INMED teamed up with theMondelēz International Foundation to install a commercialaquaponics system at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University,to serve as a teaching tool for its adaptive agricultureprogramme, as well as a source of year-round nutritious foodfor thousands of children attending disadvantaged schools inthe surrounding communities. Students are trained tomaintain the system and use it for research projects and degreetheses. Local schoolchildren also take field trips to theUniversity’s system to learn about the benefits of – and careersin – aquaponics. These students, teachers and indigenous

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Figure 1. Sarah making cucumber jam sandwiches (Photo: INMED).

Figure 2. Yarinacocha, Peru, class aquaponics harvest (Photo: INMED).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

communities are the farmers of the future.

Aquaponics for income generation andclimate-change adaptationAttracting youth and women to the field of aquaponics is aprimary goal of INMED’s Climate-Smart Agriculture programme.Southern Africa, for example, is facing its worst drought indecades, forcing thousands of smallholder farmers intounemployment and poverty. Yet in the drought-ravaged villageof Pella in the Northern Cape of South Africa, a stalwart group ofwomen is harvesting bountiful crops (Figure 3). With the helpof INMED Partnerships for Children, INMED South Africa andOld Mutual, members of the Pella Food Garden Cooperative arelearning how aquaponics can improve their livelihoods today andbolster their entire community for the future.

Before INMED’s intervention, the Pella Food GardenCooperative, consisting of five women, had been struggling foreight years to farm their sun-baked soil, but never generatedenough income to utilise all their land or buy inputs for theland. Despite their back-breaking efforts, the group earned lessthan US$ 20 per month, requiring all the members to rely ongovernment assistance just to survive.

In 2017, INMED South Africa installed a commercial-scaleaquaponics system for the cooperative. Along with technicaltraining in climate-adaptive agriculture, the Pella cooperativemembers received training to improve their computer,accounting, business planning and marketing skills fromINMED and Old Mutual. Within a few months, the cooperativewas harvesting healthy crops of marketable produce andcatfish – enough to feed their families and sell for profit. Withina year, this small farm cooperative increased its income bymore than 1,000 percent and has been featured in magazinearticles and on SABC TV News. These middle-aged women arethe farmers of the future.

In Jamaica, INMED has mobilised partnerships withmultilateral banks, ministries, markets, agriculture extensionagents and an agricultural college to help smallholder farmers,women and youth launch aquaponics enterprises (Figure 4).

The multi-year Increasing Access to Climate-Smart Agricultureprogramme provides technical and business training, onlinepre-qualification training, access to affordable loans, and linksto markets for high-quality aquaponics, fish and produce.

With ongoing local extension support from Jamaica’s RuralAgricultural Development Authority, this programme canstrengthen Jamaica’s agricultural economy, increase foodsecurity and improve public health. The women, youth andfirst-time farmers who will complete this programme are thefarmers of the future.

Aquaponics for inclusion and skillsdevelopmentAquaponics is particularly well suited to the needs of peoplewith disabilities (Figure 5), as the systems are situated at easilyaccessible heights, require minimal physical effort to maintainand involve no chemicals or fertilisers. In South Africa, INMEDhas been working in the disability sector since 2012, deliveringdirect training and technical assistance in sustainable, climate-change adaptive agriculture, as well as substantial inputs toenable members of disabled persons’ cooperative groups in theFree State and Limpopo provinces to launch new income-generating enterprises.

INMED recently expanded its reach in the Free State province,which has the highest population of disabled people in thenation. In partnership with the United States Agency forInternational Development (USAID) and Disabled People SouthAfrica, INMED’s project is addressing barriers to self-sufficiency, such as lack of access to financing, links to marketsand business administration skills, through technical and

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Figure 3. Pella farmer with spinach (Photo: INMED).

Figure 4. Jamaican aquaponics students (Photo: INMED).

Figure 5. Student farmer, Kempton Park Primary, Johannesburg, South Africa(Photo: INMED).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

business training and access to financing tailored to theirstatus as emerging producers/entrepreneurs, as well asguidance on managing and repaying their loans.

“USAID is very pleased to partner with INMED to helpempower local disability groups to fully participate in theSouth African economy. Our partnership strengthens theagricultural production system and brings people withdisabilities into the modern economy, while strengthening thelong-term ability of Disabled People South Africa to bettersupport the needs of its members.” (John Groarke, USAIDSouth Africa Mission Director).

Economic sustainability was a primary goal of anotheraquaponics project INMED Caribbean facilitated for the Jacob’sLadder Mustard Seed Community in partnership with USAIDin Jamaica. The project improved not only food security for thegroup’s 90 disabled residents, but also their confidence. “Wetry to have them participate, those that can,” saidadministrator Denyse Perkins. “It brings them to their fullestpotential and gives them a sense of self-worth.” Equipped withsolar power and rainwater-harvesting systems, the aquaponicsproject allowed the community to become more self-sustaining, using the funds they would have spent on food andenergy to purchase other items needed for residents. Peoplewith disabilities are the farmers of the future.

Over the years, INMED has found that when people withdisabilities become part of the mainstream economy viaaquaponics, the entire community flourishes. Neighborhoods,schools and others who once had limited access to freshproduce and fish now have a year-round supply of affordable,high-quality food. As aquaponics enterprises grow, they injectincome back into the community by way of jobs, construction,inputs, marketing, packaging, transportation, distribution, etc.

Another important ancillary benefit for disabled aquaponicsfarmers is the opportunity to overcome stigma in thecommunity. Through marketing and outreach events,community members are changing their perceptions of peoplewith disabilities as contributing members of society.

Aquaponics was also used as a means of rehabilitating wardsof the Metcalfe Street Secure Juvenile Center to becomecontributing members of society in Kingston, Jamaica. Thesystem installed by INMED Caribbean served several purposes,including food security, access to fresh produce, skillsdevelopment and behavioural therapy. Wards aged 12-17received training and were responsible for maintaining theirsystem. Through aquaponics, said Superintendent KarenElliott, the young men learned a new level of responsibility andwere exposed to a productive alternative for incomegeneration. Many wards also reported the system to betherapeutic and that it gave them hope. These young convictsare the farmers of the future.

Conclusions: a climate-smart revolutionAs a means of reducing poverty, aquaponics leverages thepower of agriculture and technology to help vulnerablepopulations achieve self-sufficiency. It addresses many root

causes of poverty by teaching new marketable skills, increasingincome-generation opportunities, attracting youth and womeninto farming, and fostering the inclusion of people living onthe fringes of society.

Aquaponics is resilient to climate-change events – a key barrierto poverty reduction. By increasing food security, providingyear-round access to nutritious fresh produce and fish, andprotecting scarce natural resources, aquaponics might just bethe revolutionary intervention we need to end poverty by 2030.

References

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, nd. Agricultural development: Strategyoverview. [https://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do/Global-Growth-and-Opportunity/Agricultural-Development]. Accessed 12 May 2018.

FAO, 2014. Food security for sustainable development and urbanization.Inputs for FAO’s contribution to the United Nations Economic and SocialCouncil (ECOSOC) Integration Segment, May 27–29, 2014. Rome: Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations. [http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/integration/pdf/foodandagricultureorganization.pdf]. Accessed 12 May 2018.

Kharas H, Fengler W, 2017. Future development: global poverty is decliningbut not fast enough. Brookings Future Development blog, 7 November 2017.[https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2017/11/07/global-poverty-is-declining-but-not-fast-enough/]. Accessed 15 May 2018.

Vos R, Yao X, Villarreal M, Brizzi A, Rutten L, 2014. Youth and agriculture: keychallenges and concrete solutions. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations with CTA and International Fund for AgriculturalDevelopment. [http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3947e.pdf]. Accessed 12 May 2018.

World Bank, 2018. Understanding poverty. World Bank webpage updated 11April 2018. [http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview]. Accessed5 May 2018.

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The vertical farm: feeding the world in the21st century

Dickson Despommier, 2010

Thomas Dunne Books/St Martin’s Press,New York, 305 pages; Picador (paperbackreprint 2011), 320 pages

Hardback ISBN: 978-03-1261- 3- 0, £27.56

Paperback ISBN: 978-03-12610-69-2,£10.99

eBook 978-03-12611-39-2, £7.59

Although this is not a new book, it was theoriginal inspiration that led to this specialissue of Agriculture for Development.‘Ground-breaking’ does not seem to be anappropriate accolade for a book on verticalfarming, which is about farming without soil.But that is exactly what this book was.Anyone new to the subjects of verticalfarming, controlled environment agricultureand ‘agritecture’ will now encounter a hugevolume of literature and many examples ofthem in practice. Yet in 2010, DicksonDespommier was a pioneer of a new visionfor sustainable food production.

The Vertical Farm has a foreword andintroduction and nine chapters. The firstthree are devoted to expositions onremodelling nature and yesterday’s, today’sand tomorrow’s agriculture. Four chaptersdevoted to the advantages, form andfunction, social benefits and alternative usesof vertical farms follow. In the final chapter,entitled “Food fast-forward”, the authorpresents his views on the disruptivepotential of vertical farming. It is orientedtowards the USA but, as with allDespommier’s writings and talks, it also hasvaluable global messages.

It is extraordinary, not only that theconcepts that Despommier espoused havebeen takenup so quickly, but also that somany of his hypotheses have been provenand sustained in practice. Some ofDespommier’s statements that inspired meare:

“Our journey from hunter-gatherers tourban dwellers still hasn’t produced a singlemetropolis that is truly healthy to live in.”

“Sustainable urban life is technologicallyachievable, and more important, highlydesirable.”

“When farms are successfully moved tocities, we can convert significant amounts offarmland into whatever ecosystem wasthere originally, simply by leaving it alone.”

“Farming indoors is not a new concept.”

“The efficiency of each floor of a verticalfarm, one acre in footprint, could beequivalent to as many as ten to twentytraditional soil-based acres, depending onthe crop.”

“Plants in the vertical farm could convertsafe-to-use grey water into drinking waterby transpiration.”

“The most pressing case for urbanagriculture lies in our failure to handlewaste, in particular agricultural runoff (left-over irrigation water laden with pesticides,herbicides, fertiliser and silt).”

“Although there are at present noexamples of vertical farms, we know howto proceed – we can apply hydroponic andaeroponic farming methodologies in amulti-story building and create the world’sfirst vertical farms. Some parts of the worldare rapidly moving toward such a schemealready, especially those countries – theNetherlands, Belgium, Germany, Iceland,New Zealand, Australia, China, Dubai, AbuDhabi, and Japan, to name but a few – thatare running short of arable farmland andhave the resources to contemplatereplacing the accepted traditionalagricultural paradigm with something newand more efficient. Other, less affluent

countries, such as Niger, Chad, Mali, Ethiopia,Darfur, and North Korea, desperately needvertical farms to rescue enormouspopulations from extreme hunger.”

These excerpts are, I believe, sufficienttestimony to Dickson Despommier’sextraordinary prescience, and I commendhis book to anyone interested in theprospects of controlled environmentagriculture in agriculture for development.

Ralph von Kaufmann

Plant factory: an indoor vertical farmingsystem for efficient quality food production

Toyoki Kozai, Genhua Niu, Michiko Takagaki(editors), 2016

Academic Press, London, San Diego,Waltham, Oxford

Paperback ISBN: 978-0-12-801775-3,USD 75.00, 392 pages

eBook ISBN: 978-0-12-801848-4,USD 50.74

This book is a tour de force in two parts and28 chapters. Although it was published asrecently as 2016, it was the first book in Englishon indoor plant production systems with ‘plantfactory with artificial lighting’ (PFAL) systems,which the authors predict will play a vital rolein future urban development.

The book explains the principles, concepts,design, operation, social roles, advantagesand disadvantages, costs and benefits ofPFAL. It discusses the potential andchallenges for solving local and globalagricultural, environmental and social issues.

Part 1 introduces PFAL, discusses its role,and goes on to discuss global PFAL business

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and R&D. From the perspective of Ag4Devit is indicative that there is no Africanexample. The authors then discuss theresource efficiency of closed plant systemsand the potential for micro- and mini-PFALsfor improving the quality of life of urbancommunities, and conclude with a reviewof rooftop systems. The authors highlightthe amazing versatility of PFALs to functionon any scale almost anywhere, in homes,offices, schools, hospitals, shops,supermarkets, restaurants – you name it. Itis significant that the authors emphasise thatthe objective is to bring together cultivationand the use of plants, and these aspectsshould be balanced. The design for usersshould be integrated with the design for theplants. They affirm that good designemphasises the beauty of the plants andthat this attracts users and the growth ofbetter plants. This virtuous circle of usersand plants is at the heart of the micro- andmini-PFAL concepts.

Part 2 provides an insight into how muchresearch and science has gone intoproducing systems. It is probably tootechnical for the lay reader, but it doesinduce confidence that the claims made forPFAL are true. Among these are that PFALwith 10 tiers is 100-150 times moreproductive than open fields by improvingtime to harvest, increasing cultivated area,reducing post-harvest wastage andimproving quality. For the technicallyminded, the following chapters areinvaluable sources of detailed immediateinformation and important references. Theauthors stress that it is essential tounderstand the nature and relationshipsbetween the environmental factors in aplant factory in order to attain optimaltechnical and financial outputs. The use oflights enables the grower to modify theenvironment to suit not only the particularplant variety but also its stage of growth andmaturity.

The book ends with a discussion of thechallenges for ‘next-generation PFAL’ andthe relationships between saving andconsuming resources. The authors concludethat more diverse plant production systems,including open fields and greenhouses, arerequired to improve societal resilience andsustainability. And PFAL is only one suchplant production system. This book

emphasises the usefulness of PFALs inurban areas. But they can also be useful inrural areas where renewable energy isavailable to generate electricity. PFALs canalso be used for other purposes, such asgrowing plants in spite of harsh weather,water scarcity and degraded soils.

The authors conclude by noting that thereare many technologies and businessopportunities that are yet to be discovered.The progress of controlled environmentagriculture since then confirms how rightthey were.

Ralph von Kaufmann

Controlled agriculture and ecosystemeconomies: a thought leadership piece onusing vertical farming systems to feed eachother and create greener urban spaces

Association for Vertical Farming, Munich,2017

https://vertical-farming.net/whitepapers,34 pages

A ‘thought leadership piece’ may be anunusual choice for a book review, but it hasa double purpose in this special issue ofAg4Dev on controlled environmentagriculture (CEA). It draws attention to theAssociation for Vertical Farming (vertical-farming.net) as well as providing a pragmaticproposition for a sustainable circulareconomy.

The authors make the case for AMI:aquaponics (fish production together withvegetables that are fertilised with fishwaste), mushrooms and insects. Thisapproach may become a game-changer insustainable food production because wastefood (for feeding insects and mushrooms)is a resource that even the poorest, orespecially the poorest, have in abundance.The publication aims to improve knowledgeof the featured species and identify wherefurther research is needed.

The document opens with separatesections containing information on what isinvolved in producing fish, plants,mushrooms and insects:

• Fish: It is important to understand how the various components impact fish production, and the authors take the example of Tilapia. While it has been shown that Tilapia can be produced in ‘ponic’ systems, and there are successful Tilapia-based aquaponic farms, there is still more to be learnt on how to feed the Tilapia more efficiently and on how to best utilise their waste as plant nutrients.

• Plants: Presently farmers are focused on using nutrient inputs to optimise yields and qualities of the desired plant products. The next step must be to break this linear mode and to introduce circular processes in which the waste products of production are applied as inputs. Aquaponics is a successful example of such a circular process in which the waste from fish production feeds plants. Plant waste can also support the production of mushrooms and insects that can be fed to the fish.

• Mushrooms: Fungi are a greatly under-used resource, but businesses are emerging around the world to produce mushrooms on plant waste, eg from coffee production. However, urban communities everywhere are producing large quantities of organic waste that could be used to produce food, building materials, clothes, paint, medicines and more. The authors conclude that this sets-up mushroom production for huge expansion.

• Insects: Black soldier fly larvae, for example, are rich in protein and fat, which is ideal for feeding fish and farm animals. This gives them huge potential to become a standard livestock feedstock while contributing to managing organic waste, but more research is needed to formulate optimal diets for the larvae.

The authors suggest that combining blacksoldier fly production with earthworms andmushrooms could be a way of minimisingthe waste from all three of them. And theyconclude these sections by encouraging

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research on creative and reasonableapplications of these systems.

The authors go on to discuss abiotic andbiotic synergies. Using a Tilapia-basedaquaponic system as the starting point, theybelieve it is possible to integrate blacksoldier flies and oyster mushrooms tocreate ecosystems that produce food withvery little to no waste. However, they dowarn that there has not yet been enoughresearch to underpin the growingenthusiasm for such systems.

They envisage research on circular systemsbecoming as common as research on linearsystems. Optimisation will then no longerfocus on single systems, but rather on howdifferent systems can be integrated intobigger, circular, sustainable systems. They areconvinced that as people begin to connectthe dots there will be a fundamental shift inthe perception of products and systemsfrom isolated to interconnected andcircular.

Their concluding statement is “We have laidout the skeleton of what this conversationmay look like, but there is still so much toquestion, test, and discuss.”

Ralph von Kaufmann

Review of three papers on vertical farmingand controlled environment agriculture

These three papers provide a sample of theevidence that is building in support ofgreater investment in vertical farming (VF).The two review papers (1 and 2) outlinemany of the vital features of VF-controlledenvironment agriculture (CEA) and aresupported by the summary of a EuropeanUnion-funded project which broughttogether VF-CEA actors from across theworld (3).

(1) Future food-production systems: verticalfarming and controlled-environmentagriculture

Kurt Benke, Bruce Tomkins, 2017

Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy,13(1), 13-26

DOI: 10.1080/15487733.2017.1394054

There is a strong Australian interest in thispaper, which discusses the pros and cons ofboth VF and CEA when compared with

extensive or broad-acre agriculturalproduction. An emerging global problem isthe decreasing stock of agricultural land percapita. Coupled with (or due to) risingpopulations and a reduction in fresh wateravailability leading to increasing areas ofdryland farming, this means that we arerunning short of farmland to feed ourselves.

This predicament has fuelled an increasedinterest in VF with controlled environmentsfor optimal crop production. At themoment, the main interest is in clean, greenand gourmet production of high-valuevegetable crops for wealthy urban elites, butthis is likely to change and include otherconsumer demographics as the systemsevolve and mature. The concept of VF ischaracterised by urban, indoor, high-rise,climate-controlled factory production usingrenewable energy and maximising wasterecycling.

The drivers for VF include increasing worldfood prices, climate change, land disputes(especially those caused by land-grabbing)and rapid urbanisation. The advantages ofVF include increasing the amount ofagricultural land by ‘building upwards’. Onemodel is to employ a tall glasshouse withmany vertically stacked racks of crops.Hydroponics or aeroponics and anenclosed environment can optimise the useof nutrients and eliminate the need forherbicides and pesticides. Temperature,humidity and lighting can be controlled tothe benefit of crops, and water use isdramatically reduced, not least throughrecycling.

Tuneable light-emitting diode (LED)illumination can be programmedthroughout the year, so that seasonalityeffects are eliminated when temperatureand humidity are also controlled. The use ofwind turbines, solar panels and storagebatteries means that VF-CEA systems canbe energy self-sufficient.

Commercial derivatives of VF are nowavailable, and examples are described fromSingapore, North America and Japan. Thebenefits emerging from VF-CEA can begrouped into three broad categories:economic, environmental and social.Economic advantages include improvedproductivity (year-round production andmuch higher yields); reduced costs

(especially of herbicides and pesticides);reduced transport costs (the consumersare at hand with urban VF systems) reducedlosses (no droughts, floods or sun damage);and production can be programmed tomatch demand as there are no seasonalityissues.

Environmentally, VF-CEA contributesbenefits through the production of clean,green and gourmet food. Greenhouse gasemissions are reduced as no tractors orploughing are required – in fact, soil itselfmay not be needed in hydroponic,aeroponic and nutrient film installations, andtransport costs and emissions areminimised. Environmental pollution isreduced as there is no runoff, soil erosion,or nitrogen and phosphorus pollution.

Socially, populations may benefit fromimproved employment opportunities inurban areas, especially where derelictindustrial buildings are repurposed for VF-CEA. New, high-grade jobs in engineeringand biotechnology will be especiallyvaluable. Finally, urban-based VF and CEAencourage a more holistic lifestyle whereliving accommodation and food productionare localised together. There seem to befew limits to the range of crops that can begrown in VF and CEA systems – fears of‘Frankenfoods’ can be overcome when thegrowing conditions and genetic material areexplained to consumers – and it seems thatthere is a prospect of fully automated urbanfarms based on the concept.

(2) A review of vertical farming technology:a guide for implementation of buildingintegrated agriculture in cities

Fatemeh Kalantari, Osman Mohd Tahir,Ahmad Mahmoudi Lahijani, ShahaboddinKalantari, 2017

Advanced Engineering Forum, 24, 76-91

DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AEF.24.76https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320339851_A_Review_of_Vertical_Farming_Technology_A_Guide_for_Implementation_of_Building_Integrated_Agriculture_in_Cities

This paper sketches an overview of VF andCEA mainly from an architecturalperspective. The authors summarise thegrowing pressures on the food productionindustry induced by population growth,

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natural resource degradation, requirementfor biofuels, more demand for better qualityand traceable food, and an increasinginterest in healthier living conditions.Vertical farming is proposed as a solution asit combines more efficient farming withpurpose-designed, high-rise buildings.

A conceptual VF model is proposed,designed to supply fresh produce to 15,000people in an urban setting. A tower blockwith 37 floors produces a range of freshvegetables and fruits in a stackedconfiguration with waste water collection, afish farm, food processing and anincorporated retail outlet. The report thengoes on to consider civil engineeringaspects such as the use of ethylenetetrafluoroethylene as a self-cleaning, clearcladding material (as is used in the UK’sEden Project biomes). Lighting should beprovided, as far as possible, from natural(solar) sources, but additional requirementsare best met with LED illumination. Theefficiency of LED lighting is one of its mostattractive qualities, but it can also bemanipulated to produce optimum-wavelength light to maximisephotosynthesis. Building shape (eg triangularsection or geodesic dome) also plays acrucial role in capturing the maximumamount of natural light.

Solar panels are used on both the roof andfaçade of the high-rise building in order toproduce the electrical energy for themultiple needs of the VF complex. Theseinclude lighting, pumping, ventilation and airconditioning, as well as energy to driveelectric motors for tasks such as conveyingand crop processing. Water use in VFsystems is much more efficient than inconventional farming models, where wateris lost to percolation, evaporation andrunoff. Water use in VF is reduced by anumber of practices:

• use of recycled grey water from the city;

• rainwater capture;

• dehumidification of evapotranspired moisture;

• employment of hydroponic and aeroponic systems for supplying precise amounts of water and nutrients to crops.

In addition to crop production, the VF

model includes an aquaculture subsystemthat recycles crop by-products, producesvaluable fish protein and provides plantnutrients in the form of recycled fishexcreta. Waste management in general is akey aspect of VF, which should operate asfar as possible as a closed loop, so that bio-waste is used as a source fertiliser andbiofuel.

Vertical farming makes use of smart sensorsand actuators to control the environmentfor plants, fish and perhaps other livestock.Human interference is minimal in thisscenario, and the environment for growthis kept optimal by continuous automaticmonitoring, calculation and actuation.Vertical farming aims for sustainability fromboth an architectural and a food productionperspective. The concept combines the bestof sustainable methods in both agricultureand high-rise buildings, leading to viablefresh food production and harmoniousintegration into the urban environment.

(3) Final Report Summary – SMART-CEA(Smart Controlled Environment AgricultureSystems), 2011-2015

European Commission, Brussels, 2016

https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/100831_en.html

The European Commission is aware of theimportance of agriculture in the EuropeanUnion (EU), where half the land is farmed,and so the sector has a major impact on theeconomy, employment, energy use and theenvironment. The world’s growingpopulation demands changes in agriculturalproduction, which will need to double by2050, and much of this increase will comefrom sustainable intensification. With this inmind, the Commission funded acollaborative project that facilitated theexchange of information and ideas betweenCEA researchers and practitioners inEurope, Korea and the USA. By improvingaccess and exchange, the EU has improvedcollaboration and synergies among globalactors in the move to bring intensifiedfarming indoors. The centre of excellenceformed by the project particularly aimed toincrease sustainability, reduce ammonia andother greenhouse gas emissions, reduce theuse of pesticides and fossil fuels, andgenerally to produce healthy, traceable food.

Through joint research and information-sharing activities the centre of excellencehas produced computational fluid dynamicsmodels for livestock buildings andgreenhouses. It has also assessed pesticideemissions and air quality. In summary, theSmart-CEA project has eliminated researchoverlaps and made for more efficient use ofresources, and so enabled researchers fromacross the world to collaborate inconfronting common global safe andsustainable food production challenges.

Brian Sims

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AbstractToday, in 2018, about one in eight people still do not have enoughfood to be able to lead fully active and healthy lives, and manychildren are physically and cognitively impaired by malnutrition.The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationsestimates that global food production must increase by50 percent by 2050 (FAO, 2017). The bulk of that must comefrom Africa, but it must be produced with less water andrestricted expansion of land under cultivation, whileaccommodating the specific challenges faced by the continent.

Controlled environment agriculture (CEA) is not a silver bulletand there are very real concerns that need to be carefullymanaged, especially concerning food safety. However, recentadvances have made it a pragmatic means for making significantcontributions to equitable and environmentally sustainableincreased food production. The ability to be independent of theweather and to utilise space in three dimensions opens enormousrevolutionary possibilities.

There is sufficient evidence of CEA practice in Africa to affirm itsvalidity but the pace of uptake to date has not been sufficient tomake a significant economic impact. Adoption of CEAtechnologies is happening spontaneously but not quickly enoughto meet the demand for more healthy vegetables among Africa’srapidly expanding low-income urban communities.

There is need for a determined effort to build the appetite andcapacity for change. That will require raising awareness of boththe social and the business potential of CEA, providing training,and enacting enabling policies and conducive urban planning.The rest of the world has an existential interest in Africa’s social,economic and environmental health and that makes CEA a veryrelevant component of international development cooperation.

Introduction

The second United Nations Sustainable Development Goal isSDG 2: “End hunger, achieve food security and improvednutrition and promote sustainable agriculture” by the year2030 – just 12 years from now. However, as recently as 2016,795 million people were still unable to meet their daily dietaryrequirements. In other words, one in eight people do not have

enough food to be able to lead fully active and healthy lives(Pridmore, Article 3 in this issue). With the world’s populationpredicted to rise by a further 2.6 billion by 2050, the Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations has estimatedthat to win the battle, food production must increase by50 percent in less than four decades (FAO, 2017).

Achieving such a huge increase will require overcoming theincreasingly severe limits on freshwater supplies andcompensating for the loss of agricultural land to industry,infrastructure, housing and recreation. The negative impacts ofclimate change will add further challenges. Food productionsystems will also have to respond to changes in the incomes andpreferences of consumers for higher-quality food products(APLU, 2017). All this will be complicated by the risks thatintensification of soil-based agriculture presents to long-termsustainability (Wainwright, Article 4 in this issue).

In this context, some observers fear that, in this century, a perfectstorm is brewing in which the tightening limitations to farmingwill clash with the growing demands for food to create theconditions for Malthus’ hypothesis (Malthus, 1803) to finally beproven true. That would have catastrophic consequences, somesymptoms of which are already apparent in the horror of fleeingmigrants voluntarily subjecting themselves to conditions akin tothe abhorrent slave trade.

This situation will not be stemmed, let alone reversed, until thereis sustained food and nutrition security for the presently deprivedmajority, and that will not happen without the application ofadvanced technologies (Ngongi, Article 3 in this issue).

Setting the contextFor the time being all humanity is bound to inhabit just one smallplanet. Stephen Hawking predicted that humanity only has 100years left on Earth, so it is perhaps good forward thinking to bealready developing technologies for producing food in space(Kaufmann, Article 2in this issue). However, in the meantime allof us will have to continue to share our one tiny planet.

As farmland area shrinks and yield gaps close in the Americas,Asia and Europe, the world is looking to Africa for increased foodproduction. With growing populations the harvested land areaper African worker is falling, and agricultural workers are ageing

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The way forward for controlled environment agriculture in Africa

Raised on a farm in Kenya, after university in England, Ralph spent his working life in East, Southernand West Africa. After the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi, he worked in agricultural finance, project development, agricultural research, resource mobilisation, capacitystrengthening and agribusiness incubation. His present prime hobby is aeroponic vegetable production.Ralphvonkaufmann@gmail.com

Ralph von Kaufmann

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and increasingly female as young people, especially young men,move to the cities.

There is a perception that some African countries have unusedarable land available for development. This has catalysed a 21stcentury ‘scramble for Africa’ by sovereign wealth funds and largecorporations, which are buying or leasing large areas of land toproduce food for their own home markets. Whether suchschemes do, or do not, bring economic and social benefits is lessimportant than Africa’s need to satisfy the food demands of itsown rapidly growing population of over a billion people. To dothat, advantage must be taken of advanced food productiontechnologies. Ngongi (Article 3 in this issue) notes that, inaddition to growing food crops, CEA systems can be veryeffectively used to produce disease-free planting materials in shorttime frames.

It is also essential for the health of the whole planet that, inseeking increased food production, Africa must not sacrifice itsprecious natural environment and biodiversity. The Congo RiverBasin exemplifies the importance of this issue to all humanitybecause it is the world’s second lung, comparable in importanceto the Amazon Basin.

Can Africa be the world’s breadbasket?To make Africa the world’s breadbasket with standard farmingtechnologies would require a massive expansion of land undercultivation and the use of a lot more freshwater for irrigation. Butalready the continent’s:

• soils are degrading;

• forests are disappearing;

• water catchments are being damaged and contaminated;

• biodiversity is in rapid decline;

• industrial, housing and recreational demands for land and water are soaring.

In these circumstances, African countries must be cautious inestimating how much more land and scarce freshwater can becommitted to agriculture. Furthermore, it is doubtful that it iseven technically possible to raise agricultural productionsufficiently efficiently to make fresh vegetables and soft fruitsaccessible and affordable by the many millions of Africans wholive on very low incomes in urban communities distant from thefarmlands.

At one extreme, Egypt, with a population of 95 million people,1.27 percent of the total world population, exemplifies theobstacles to producing sufficient food for rapidly expandingpopulations. If its population continues to grow at about2 percent a year, every year there will be over 1 million morepeople to be fed. In the past this has been achieved with increasedirrigation, but it is unlikely that Egypt can continue to get morewater for irrigation when upstream countries are raising theirdemands on the Nile. Indeed, just as this paper was being written,it was announced that Egypt was going to begin importing ricedespite traditionally having had a surplus. There will also beincreased fines for illegal rice cultivation (Reuters Staff, 2018).

The solution for Egypt would seem to be in making much betteruse of its huge resources of sunshine, seawater and dry desert air

to turn the desert green with technologies that are rapidlyadvancing (Kaufmann, Article 2 in this issue).

Kenya might be considered to have much better prospects forincreasing agricultural production. However, its popular imageof verdant, well-farmed highlands is an illusion. Four-fifths of thecountry is semi-arid or arid and four-fifths of the rapidly growingpopulation lives on the fertile fifth, but that is where most land isbeing lost to rapidly expanding urbanisation and infrastructure.

Even now, while it is true that Kenya has some of the bestfarmland and very good farmers, the majority of Kenyans canrarely afford the recommended quantity of healthy freshvegetables.

More irrigation is often proposed as the way to produce morefood, but Kenya has only five significant water catchments, all ofwhich are being challenged, and with no large rivers they providerelatively limited scope for increased irrigation. Ironically, whileKenya has plans to draw irrigation water from the Omo River, itis expected that upstream irrigation in Ethiopia will severelyreduce its flow across the border into Kenya (Avery, 2014). It ispredicted that this could cause Lake Turkana, the world’s largestdesert lake, to be reduced to two small lakes, with direconsequences for the health and livelihoods of 350,000 Kenyanswho are dependent on it. And that is likely to happen despite thelessons that are available from the devastations of the Aral Seaand Lake Chad.

Nigeria may be more representative of Africa, with enormousagricultural potential and several large rivers, but it is still a majorfood importer. Even if its agriculture performed very well it isunlikely that it could, for example, meet the fresh-food needs ofthe 17 to 21 million Nigerians who live in Lagos in the south-western corner of the country. It will be too costly to store andtransport fresh food so far from distant inland states.

There will be similar challenges to providing food for the majorityof low-income families living in cities across the whole continent,from Alexandria to the Cape Flats, from Nouakchott toMogadishu. A more local solution is required.

Is it possible to produce much moreand also to use less land and water?The youths moving to the cities may be classified asunemployed, but there is abundant evidence of the energy andingenuity they apply to urban vegetable production (Drechsel& van Veenhuizen, Article 3 in this issue). They seem to be ableto turn any available space among city buildings into avegetable garden. However, the food produced is not sufficientnor, as illustrated in Figure 1, always sufficiently safe.

As the numbers of residents increase and the open spaces arebuilt over, there will be an ever greater need to adopt new foodproduction technologies (Ngongi, Article 3 in this issue) thatcan provide the affordable fresh vegetables required by low-income households (Pridmore, Article 3 in this issue). Newimproved cultivars are being released and a lot of work is beingdone to reduce post-harvest losses and wastage to protectagainst the scourge of aflatoxins. There has been a hugeexpansion in the numbers and diversity of polytunnels andgreenhouses, which are more water-efficient. However,

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ultimately the lack of space will be the critical limiting factorunless it is used in all three dimensions. It is thereforeencouraging that in this issue of Ag4Dev, Wainwright (Article4), Pfeiffer (Article 7) and Kaufmann (News from the Field 2)provide evidence of accelerating uptake in Africa oftechnologies applicable to vertical farming.

Wainwright (Article 4 in this issue) notes that CEAtechnologies may be too expensive to be immediately adoptedin Africa. However, Mytton-Mills (Article 1 in this issue) andDrechsel & van Veenhuizen (Article 3 in this issue) recognisethat advantage can be taken of tropical climates, where thereis no need to control day length or cope with extremetemperatures, to adopt simpler CEA systems. Ngongi (Article3 in this issue) also advocates the adoption of simpler low-costtechnologies. The low-cost do-it-yourself model shown inFigure 2 is an example of the type of system that can provideentry points for entrepreneurs. These systems will give theoperators experience that they can use in upscaling to largerand more sophisticated units.

How to advance controlledenvironment agriculture in AfricaThere is huge potential for CEA to impact livelihoods in Africawhere there are 150 million people going hungry, despiteannual imports costing over US$ 35 billion (Ngongi, Article 3in this issue). With such a demand there are going to be newopportunities:

In deserts

As unlikely as it may seem, perhaps the greatest opportunitywill be found in the continent’s vast deserts, as noted in theexample of Egypt. Seawater applications in aeroponic,aquaponic and fogging technologies are opening amazingopportunities for CEA in Africa (Kaufmann, News from theField 2 in this issue). With short pumping distances, unlimitedsolar power, and dry, disease-free air there is enormouspotential for applying CEA technologies along the desertcoastlines in the north on the Mediterranean; in the east forDjibouti, Eritrea and Somalia; in the west for Mauritania,Morocco and Senegal; and in the south for Namibia and theWestern Cape – and these are only representative countries.

On lakes

There are also presently huge overlooked opportunities foraquaponics that could produce fish and vegetables for the land-scarce people on the shores and islands of, for example LakeVictoria, Lake Turkana and Lake Malawi. In contrast toirrigation schemes this would not require extracting any waterfrom these precious freshwater reservoirs.

On grey water and organic waste

Controlled environment agriculture systems provide solutionsfor urban planners who are struggling to get rid of grey water,which can be used to irrigate plants and in the process be cleaned.The seemingly inexhaustible quantities of organic waste fillinglandfills (Figure 3) can be turned into a resource for insectproduction (Mytton-Mills, Article 1 in this issue). The flies andtheir larvae can be fed to poultry and fish. Even the insectdroppings, called frass, can be used to substitute some of theplant nutritional requirements and reduce fertiliser applications.

Figure 1. Vegetable production in central Accra, Ghana, with waste water and onjust one plane (Photo: Ralph von Kaufmann).

Figure 2. A start-up bird-proof vegetable wall garden (Photo: Robert von Kaufmann).

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Figure 3. Food (not food waste) going to waste – this is not waste, it is valuablefeedstock (Photo: Wayne Koeckeritz, Food Waste Disposal, LLC;www.wastefwd.com.; Reprinted with permission from BioCycle/The JG Press,Inc.; www.BioCycle.net).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

CEA’s relevanceRelevance to small producers

The single most crucial question for the adoption of CEA in Africais whether small producers can adopt it. Wainwright (Article 4 inthis issue) notes that high-tech CEA enterprises tend to bedevoted to producing high-value greens and herbs for wealthierconsumers, and cautions that this may restrict its applicationsin Africa. However, he goes on to note that there are moreadoptable, simpler systems, and Hawkins-Row (Article 5 in thisissue) asserts that small producers can successfully manage smallaeroponic and aquaponic enterprises.

For CEA technologies to be adopted, the producers must be ableto obtain the required equipment and inputs such as plantnutrients and seeds. Fortunately, all of these could be producedin any African country, but it will require businesses to becomeengaged in producing, marketing and servicing CEA equipmentand supplies – and before they do so they will have to be madeaware of the opportunities.

This will provide great opportunities for new businesses. Theagribusiness incubators supported by African AgribusinessIncubators Network (africaain.org) should support such aspiringentrepreneurs who want to establish business in CEA supplychains. Ngongi (Article 3 in this issue) also suggests thatinstitutions such as the African Development Bank, the Alliancefor a Green Revolution in Africa, and the World Bank, ought toconsider providing financial support for such enterprises. Henotes that the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture(IITA) is well placed to provide technical support. That is echoedby my observation (Kaufmann, Newsflash 1 in this issue) thatthe advances in horticulture displayed at GreenTech 2018 wererelevant to all the CGIAR centres. The need for a proactive effortto promote the uptake of CEA technologies was demonstratedby the underwhelming African interest in GreenTech 2018, asreported in Newsflash 1.

Relevance to low-income settlements

In all settlements, CEA enterprises can be tailored for almost anycircumstance from seemingly infinitely flexible systems of tubes,towers or stacked trays that can form vertical vegetable gardens.As illustrated by the front cover of this special issue, almost anyhouse could collect both rainwater and electric power from itsroof and grow vegetables, herbs and soft fruits on any availablewall. Hawkins-Row (Article 5 in this issue) confirms that suchsystems are applicable to small-scale producers, and individuals,groups or communities can manage them.

Relevance to re-engaging young people

The drift of young people away from agriculture as they rejectthe drudgery of farm work (Pfeiffer, Article 7 in this issue) is athreat to Africa benefiting from the demographic bonus of havingthe youngest population. However, even if they want to, manyare being forced to get out of farming because there is a limit tohow often family holdings can be subdivided and still leave unitslarge enough to support a family. Ngongi (Article 3 in this issue)notes that there is also underemployment among new retirees,for whom CEA could also provide suitable employment.

In these circumstances it is fortunate that there are now foodproduction technologies that are much less arduous and cleaner

with the added advantage of not requiring much land. They canalso be sited locally conveniently for where young people wantto live in urban communities (Drechsel & van Veenhuizen, Article3 in this issue). Wainwright (Article 4 in this issue) notes that thisis a particular advantage of CEA systems, and Hawkins-Row(Article 5 in this issue) describes them as hyper-local systems forsupplying town centres, opening new opportunities forsustainable food markets for both farmers and entrepreneurs.

The future of CEA in AfricaThe genie is out of the bottle and CEA has taken off in Africa, butthere are important questions to be answered about how, when,where, by whom and to what extent it will it be taken up.

Imagination is the only limitation

Noble Laureate Professor Wangari Maathai recognised that evenwhen supermarkets back onto the slums, the majority of peoplein their neighbourhood cannot even set foot in them, let aloneafford to buy what they offer – a complaint that was echoed byPresident Mbeki, who questioned the source for pride in SouthAfrica’s mega-supermalls. Professor Maathai responded byintroducing vertical gardening to the slums using readilyavailable gunny bags filled with straw. Crops such as potatoesand onions can be planted at the top and in holes cut at differentlevels into the side of the bags. This enables numerous plants toflourish in the bag’s small footprint.

With imagination there are no limits to the possibilities

This is exemplified by the Mashambas Skyscraper project, namedfrom the Swahili word for fields (mashamba). This won firstplace, from a pool of 444 entries, in the 2017 eVolo SkyscraperCompetition, which annually invites architects and designers toconceive futuristic towers (McKnight, 2017). The designers,Pawel Lipiński and Mateusz Frankowski, proposed a tower thatcould be disassembled and moved to different locations acrosssub-Saharan Africa to help new agricultural communities acrossAfrica. The link with the present is demonstrated by the bicycledeliveryman who is taking produce down from the upper layersin the dome (Figure 4).

Banking on private enterprise in Africa

The ability of private enterprise in Africa to seize technical andmanagerially demanding agricultural opportunities has beendemonstrated by the phenomenal growth in horticultural exportsfrom African countries such as Ethiopia, Kenya and Rwanda. Thiswas further demonstrated by the agility with which Westernsanctions on Russia were exploited to open a new market forAfrican products. Although it is by no means exhaustive, myreport on current CEA applications for Africa (Kaufmann, News

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Figure 4. The winner of the 2017 eVolo Skyscraper Competition, the modularMashambas Skyscraper, would provide a place to grow, sell and learn about crops.Designers: Pawel Lipiński, Mateusz Frankowski (Source: McKnight, 2017).

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from the Field 2, in this issue) confirms that Africanentrepreneurs are taking increased interest in CEA applicationsfor their businesses.

Delivering fresh vegetables and soft fruits where they aremost needed

There are endless options for CEA applications and a lot of themare already being taken up in Africa (Kaufmann, News from theField 2, in this issue). Those who doubt the relevance of CEA toAfrica are challenged to find better answers to the followingquestions:

• How will the majority of city dwellers, who are poor, get regular access to affordable and truly fresh vegetables?

• How else can we keep African youths in food production?

• Is there a better way to reduce the workload on women, especially single mothers?

• Is there a more pragmatic way to save scarce fresh water and still produce food?

• Is there a better way to use Africa’s abundant sunshine and massive deserts?

• If it can be done anywhere else, why can it not be done in Africa?

• How else will cities like Cairo, Lagos and Nairobi get enough affordable fresh vegetables?

Building endogenous appetites and capacities for changeWhatever advantages CEA may promise, it will not be taken upas fast as it should be without a conscious effort to raiseawareness, provide training and enact enabling policies.

Raising awareness of the social and business potential of CEA

Raising awareness is a prerequisite of wide-scale adoption of CEAin Africa. Hopefully this publication will help do that. As themembers of the Association for Vertical Farming (News from theField 1, in this issue and vertical-farming.net) become moreaware of the opportunities in Africa, it would be good to see moreAfrican members and activities in Africa. The Association forVertical Farming could have great impact in sponsoring thedevelopment of policy briefs for African policy makers. It couldalso be very effective in raising awareness among its non-Africanmembers of the opportunities for mutually beneficial trade andinvestment with their African peers.

Providing training

Pfeiffer (Article 7, in this issue) provides an example of arevolutionary approach to engaging and training people in CEAtechnologies, be it cafeteria workers, single mothers, persons withdisabilities, students, teachers, urban apartment dwellers orconvicts. Through initiatives such as INMED Partnership forChildren the complex cycles of poverty can be broken and eventhe most vulnerable can be enabled to achieve self-sufficiency.INMED’s choice of working with aquaponics is not onlyadvancing a fish and fresh vegetable production system that isassured regardless of the vagaries of season and weather, but it isalso providing valuable experience of a circular business that

conserves water and optimises the use of space.

Hopefully, approaches like INMED’s will spread with, and evenencourage the uptake of, science, technology, engineering andmathematics (STEM) approaches in African schools. In manyAfrican schools the pupils have to complete mundane asks, suchas weeding gardens, before or after school. They would welcomethe exciting opportunity to learn not just about how to grow fishand plants, but also how to manage a small business, by havingaccess to a CEA unit, which could be set up in backyards andplaygrounds. Controlled environment agriculture seems to be agood option for NGOs, such as Teach A Man to Fish, that wantto raise the business skills of young people by engaging them insmall but real businesses.

Enabling policies and supportive urban planning

Ngongi (Article 3, in this issue) and Ozor et al (Article 6, in thisissue) note that 30 percent of African children under 5 years oldare malnourished. Pridmore (Article 3, in this issue) highlightsthe negative impact of that on children’s physical and cognitivedevelopment, being a cause of intergenerational poverty. Sheurges policy-makers to be open to every opportunity for growingand selling food locally in low-income areas. She concludes thatCEA systems are well suited to that and should be considered anintegral component of sustainable development for all cities. Itshould not be a preserve of wealthy cities such as Sydney(Kaufmann, News from the Field 2, in this issue).

Ozor et al (Article 6, in this issue) reveal a wide range ofcommitments to accelerated agricultural development that havebeen entered into by a range of continental institutions. Asmembers of the United Nations they have also committedthemselves to achieving SDG 1, eradicating poverty by 2030.Pfeiffer (Article 7, in this issue) notes that it is improbable thatAfrica will achieve this without a revolutionary intervention to getyoung people back into food production and to widen thedemographics of farming. The Global Nutrition Report 2016confirms that undernutrition has a major impact on thedevelopment and health of the population, and that investmentsin improved nutrition have achieved exceptional 1:16 returns(IFPRI, 2016). This point is also emphasised by Pridmore (Article3, in this issue).

The prospect for enlightened policies has improved becauseAfrican leaders are increasingly aware of the need to raise theirpeople’s consumption of vegetables. An example is a report bythe Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) that PresidentFilipe Nyusi of Mozambique, during a visit to vegetable breedingcompany in the Netherlands, stated “We have to educate ourpeople to diversify their diets” (Smorenburg, 2017). However,policy makers need to pay more attention to the impact thatpolicies have along whole food value chains. The benefits ofenacting enabling policies concerning particular issues are oftennegated by adverse policies on tariffs, cesses, charges and time-consuming bureaucratic procedures elsewhere in the valuechains that add to the end cost of the products. Ozor et al (Article6, in this issue) highlight key policy issues that need to beaddressed. These include improving the ease of doing business.It is essential to ensure consistency along whole supply chainsbecause there is, for example, little advantage in being able toquickly register and start a business to manufacture CEAequipment if it is then too difficult to import essentialcomponents that cannot be manufactured locally.

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In addition to national policies, Drechsel & van Veenhuizen (Article3, in this issue) note that there are local urban planning issues thatmust be addressed, especially concerning water and power usage.Wainwright (Article 4, in this issue) notes that CEA systems dependon supplies of energy that are not too expensive, and with goodplanning and enabling regulations, can be derived from solar,hydroelectric and geothermal sources. This is readily attainablebecause small CEA systems need only 12 V power inputs (Hawkins-Row, Article 5, in this issue). Wainwright (Article 4, in this issue)cautions that for CEA systems to be taken up widely enough to havereal social and economic impact, they must be financially viablewithout subsidies, and the enabling conditions for that will convergeas climate change, population growth and economic prosperitymake the rationale for CEA even more compelling.

The role of CEA in international development cooperationThe Netherlands Government and Dutch universities andbusinesses are particularly active in taking up the mutual benefitsthat can be derived through adoption of their advancedhorticultural techniques and technologies in Africa, but there aremany other public and private non-African actors working andinvesting in Africa. This is attractive because, apart from beinggood business, CEA systems contribute to achieving seven of theSDGs: on poverty (1), hunger (2), good health and wellbeing (3),education (4), gender equality (5), affordable and clean energy(7), and decent work and economic growth (8).

With these attributes a good case can be made for including CEAin official development programmes that have public-privatecomponents. This would be mutually beneficial especially forcountries in Asia, Europe and the Middle East that have fooddeficits that they must fill by imports.

Inclusivity and openness are key characteristics of successfulinnovation. There are strong arguments for countries that haveadvanced capacity in the new discipline of agritecture (Kaufmann,News from the Field 2, in this issue) welcoming students, trainersand practitioners from across the world. This is most compellingin the case of Africa because the rest of the world has an existentialinterest in helping Africa to produce food for its own people and tofill deficits elsewhere by employing means that are equitable,economically sustainable and environment friendly.

ConclusionsDrechsel & van Veenhuizen (Article 3, in this issue) suggest thatthe contribution of CEA to global food demand will depend onhow quickly it develops in the population strongholds of Chinaand India. However, my article (Kaufmann, News from the Field2, in this issue) provides evidence that, as in the case ofAgriProtein’s world-leading insect production, Africa does notneed to wait, and indeed is not waiting, for leads from elsewhere.Ngongi (Article 3, in this issue) notes that CEA is immune to thenegative effects of climate change that are going to affect soil-based agriculture. He concludes that CEA offers advantages thatare wholly consistent with the 2014 Malabo Declaration byAfrican Heads of State and Government in which they committedto ending hunger by 2025. They also committed to halving post-

harvest losses, which, because of its local production and salecharacteristics, is a strong feature of CEA systems.

Africa has:

• countries with acute land and water shortages;

• cities with huge numbers of urban poor who presently cannot find or afford sufficient fresh vegetables;

• huge numbers of unemployed but talented youths;

• enormous deserts with abundant sunlight and easy access to seawater.

If the ongoing trials with high-calorie crops are successful, therewill be systems suitable for almost all African conditions. Mostimportant of all, Africa has to capture its demographic bonus withgainful employment for its youth. The situation in which toooften the enterprise and vigour of young Africans are sapped bypoor policies, or good policies that are not implemented, mustnot be allowed to cause Africa to miss out on the CEA revolution.

Pfeiffer (Article 7, in this issue) concludes that aquaponics:

“leverages the power of agriculture and technology to helpvulnerable population achieve self-sufficiency. It addressesmany root causes of poverty by teaching new marketable skills,increasing income-generation opportunities, attracting youthand women into farming and fostering the inclusion of peopleliving on the fringes of society.”

This author would extend that beyond aquaponics to encompassthe whole diversity of CEA.

ReferencesAPLU, 2017. The challenge of change: harnessing university discovery,engagement, and learning to achieve food and nutrition security. Washington,DC: Association of Public and Land-grant Universities.[http://www.aplu.org/library/the-challenge-of-change/File]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Avery S, 2014. What future for Lake Turkana and its wildlife? SWARA,January-March.[https://www.internationalrivers.org/sites/default/files/attached-files/avery_swara.pdf]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Cosgrove E, 2018. Indoor farmers are “way too complacent” about food safety.AgFunder News, 20 June 2018. [https://agfundernews.com/indoor-farmers-complacent-food-safety.html]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

FAO, 2017. The future of food and agriculture - trends and challenges. Rome:FAO.

IFPRI, 2016. Global nutrition report 2016 – from promise to impact: endingmalnutrition by 2030. Washington, DC: International Food Policy ResearchInstitute. [http://www.ifpri.org/publication/global-nutrition-report-2016-promise-impact-ending-malnutrition-2030]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Malthus T, 1803 (14th edition: 1826). An Essay on the Principle of Population.London: JM Dent, pp 1-24.

McKnight J, 2017. Modular farm tower for sites across Africa wins internationalskyscraper competition. de zeen, 14 April 2017.[https://www.dezeen.com/2017/04/14/mashambas-conceptual-farm-tower-proposed-for-africa-wins-evolo-international-skyscraper-competition/].Accessed 5 July 2018.

Reuters Staff, 2018. Egypt to begin importing rice after slashing its owncultivation. Reuters Commodities News, 5 June 2018. [https://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFL5N1T747K]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

Smorenburg H, 2017. President Nyusi of Mozambique discusses food andnutrition security during visit to Netherlands. GAIN: Global Alliance forImproved Nutrition, 19 May 2017. [https://www.gainhealth.org/knowledge-centre/president-nyusi-mozambique-discusses-food-nutrition-security-visit-netherlands/]. Accessed 5 July 2018.

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TAA ForumWeb Manager’s ReportWe are pleased to announce that the new TAA website should beoperational by the end of August. We have commissionedCambridge Web Solutions to develop the new site, providing amore modern image, with click-through icons/photos so that thereader can click to access details, with less text on each page. Thesite will incorporate effective security, to eliminate SPAMmessages, and a more efficient membership database andanalysis system, which will make the Membership Secretary’s lifemuch easier. New ideas for different membership bands andsubscription rates, as discussed at the June ExCo, will beincorporated later: these are designed to encourage morestudents to join and also members of less developed countries.

We have tried to respond to members’ suggestions, includingsuch things as being mobile friendly, a facility to havephotographs in our News Alerts, and a more effective way ofpresenting Vacancies.

Meantime, we would like to thank Scott Wilson, of SW WebSolutions, who has ably managed our website since 2012. Ashe noted earlier this year, the old website had becomeprogressively larger and more complex, to the point where weneeded to move to a new and more secure platform.Developing a new website was therefore imperative if it wewere to meet the needs of the membership. However, this hasbeen expensive and we would therefore appreciatecontributions from our members, however small, to help todefray the costs. One can easily donate by credit card via ourPayPal link. If you would like to make a donation, please go tohttp://www.taa.org.uk/taa-donations.asp. Please insert“website” in the ‘Insert message to seller’ box.

Keith VirgoWeb Manager

Publications andCommunicationsCommittee UpdateAg4Dev34, a Special Issue on ControlledEnvironment AgricultureWe are very grateful to Ralph von Kaufmann for guest editingthis special issue of the journal on the theme “controlledenvironment agriculture CEA)" – inspired by a Curry Club talkby Ralph – and to the invited authors for their contributions.This rapidly evolving technology will be an important part offuture food production and has the potential to makesignificant contributions to food security, particularly in urbancentres and desert environments in the developing world. Theinvited papers, and the extended News from the Field items,have highlighted and illustrated the great variety of CEAapproaches currently being developed around the world, butwith a focus on the potential for Africa.

Ag4Dev35, an open issueAg4Dev35, the Winter 2018 issue of the journal, will be anopen issue with no particular theme. This issue is almost full,but contributions would still be welcome, particularly itemsfor Mailbox and Opinions Page. Please contact theCoordinating Editor at paulag4dev@gmail.com orcoordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.uk.

Ag4Dev36, a yet to be finalised special issueAg4Dev36, the Spring 2019 issue, should be a special issue,however the theme and guest editor are yet to be finalised.Possible themes include small livestock, integrated pestmanagement, and drones in agriculture. Anyone willing toguest edit any of these themes, or with suggestions for otherthemes, should contact the Coordinating Editor as quickly aspossible at paulag4dev@gmail.com or coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.uk. If a theme and guest editor are notidentified, this will be another open issue.

Ag4Dev37, an open issueAg4Dev37, the Summer 2019 issue, will be an open issue.

Ag4Dev38, a Special Issue on Invasive SpeciesAg4Dev38, the Winter 2019 issue, will be a Special Issue onInvasive Species, to be guest edited by Ravi Joshi, the TAACoordinator for the Pacific Region. Anyone interested incontributing to this special issue should contact Ravi atpacific_organiser@taa.org.uk, copying in the CoordinatingEditor at paulag4dev@gmail.com or coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.uk.

Paul HardingCoordinating Editor, Ag4Dev

TAA Forum

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Call for nominations for2018 TAA Honours andAwardsEach year, the TAA honours those who have made significantcontributions to agriculture for development and to the TAAitself. These will be awarded at the Annual Reunion to be heldin December 2018.

There are three categories of award, one of which is sub-dividedinto two sub-categories to particularly encourage overseasnominees in the early stages of their careers.

Development Agriculturalist 2018 is awarded in recognitionof outstanding contributions to agricultural development overthe course of a career, with a focus on increasing foodproduction, improving food security, reducing poverty andimproving environmental sustainability in developingcountries.

Young Development Agriculturalist (YDA) 2018 recognisesoutstanding achievement in gaining a better understanding ofconstraints to food security, poverty reduction andenvironmental sustainability in developing countries, and formaking an initial contribution to overcoming theseconstraints. YDA awards are open to candidates under 30 yearsof age. There are two subdivisions as follows:

• Open to UK-based candidates, normally selected from recent TAAF awardees;

• Open to non-UK-based individuals, mainly nominated by our overseas branches or overseas-orientated institutional members.

Award of Merit is given to individual or corporate membersof TAA who have made outstanding contributions to thefunctioning of the Association and to enabling TAA to meet itsobjectives.

The new chair of the Honours Panel, David Radcliffe(chairhonours@taa.org.uk) welcomes nominations for eachof the above categories. Nominations close on 30th September,after which the Honours Panel will make recommendations tothe TAA Executive Committee.

Each nomination should include the name of the proposer andseconder (both should be TAA members or employees ofInstitutional Members) and a short statement of the ways inwhich the nominee meets the criteria for the award for whichhe or she is being nominated.

Nominees for Development Agriculturalist and YoungDevelopment Agriculturalist do not have to be members ofTAA.

For more details, visit the TAA website, www.taa.org.uk and goto ‘TAA Honours’. Previous recipients of TAA Honours can beseen under 'Recipients of Honours'.

David RadcliffeChairman, TAA Honours Panel

TAAF NewsThe 2017 Tropical Agriculture Association Award Fund (TAAF)awardees have all completed their MSc dissertations andsubmitted their reports. Summaries of seven of these reportswere published in previous issues of the journal. The remainderappear in this issue. They show the wide variety of subjectscovered by the students, all of them good preparation forinteresting careers in development.

Most of the 2017 awardees have given talks on their researchto students on the current year’s MSc courses at theiruniversities. One of these talks, by two MSc graduates fromUniversity College London, took the form of a Curry Clubpresentation in March, which attracted a good mix ofuniversity and TAA participants. The talks have resulted inseveral of the current cohort of MSc students applying for oneof this year’s TAAF awards.

In March 2018, 19 applications were received from MScstudents at eight UK universities. This is not quite as many asthe numbers received in recent years, probably due in part toa university lecturers’ strike, which disrupted planning forsome of the students. Nevertheless, many of the applicationswere of very high quality, and after rigorous assessment by the

TAAF Committee we were able to offer awards to 11 MScstudents, most of whom have now started their field work.Table 1 shows the wide range of countries and interestingresearch topics once again covered by the awardees. Eachaward recipient is assigned a mentor, who has until now beendrawn from members of the TAAF Committee. In future yearswe hope to call on mentors with relevant experience morebroadly from the TAA membership.

One awardee, Rebecca Thompson, doing an MSc inDevelopment Economics at SOAS, has proposed an interestingstudy on tobacco production in Malawi, and has beennominated as the first Bill Reed Awardee using money fromBill Reed’s £5,000 legacy to TAAF. Rebecca has already had anexchange with Bill’s son, who works in the tobacco trade.

A conference is planned for the autumn, when the returnedawardees will be asked to present the outcome of their researchand will have an opportunity to interact with other awardeesand with TAA members who have experience relevant to theirresearch. A past TAAF awardee from 2014, Islam Abdel-Aziz(MSc Newcastle, now working with ADAS) is taking primaryresponsibility for organising the conference. We hope it will

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encourage the awardees to continue their membership of TAAafter their award period, and to contribute to future TAAactivities.

Paul Baranowski, a TAAF awardee in 2015 and joint recipientin 2016 of the Young Development Agriculturalist of the Yearhonour, has now joined the TAAF Committee and iscoordinating initiatives to encourage past and present TAAFawardees to maintain a long-term engagement with TAA. Paulhas set up a ‘Slack’ channel (to share messages, tools and files)to link awardees both with each other in the field, and withmore experienced TAA members.

We are also working on a plan to give any university studentsin natural resource subjects free access to TAA email alerts onjob opportunities, upcoming events and news items. We hopethis will build a critical mass of interested young professionals,at least some of whom may decide to join TAA and becomeactive in its work.

Generous donations to support all these activities have beenreceived this year from several individual TAA members, as wellas from the Wye College Agricola Club and the Bill Reed family

legacy. These contributions are very gratefully received. Wehope that similar donations and legacies will continue to flow,so that TAA and TAAF can continue to support youngprofessionals and keep the Association alive and in good health.

James Alden, a TAAF awardee in 2015 and joint recipient withPaul Baranowski of the Young Development Agriculturalist ofthe Year honour in 2016, is another new member of the TAAFCommittee and has helped with preparation of this issue ofTAAF News.

Antony Ellman and James Alden

Table 1. TAAF MSc awardees 2018

Table 1. TAAF MSc awardees 2018

University/ applicant

MSc course Dissertation subject/country TAAF mentor

Bangor University Abi Beath Agroforestry Oil palm in smallholder agroforestry

systems, Brazil James Brockington

Newcastle University

Niamh Thorne International Marine Environmental Consultancy

Effect of algal dominance on the structural complexity and fish population of coral reefs, Maldives

Jane Wilkinson

SOAS, University of London

Mattea Baglioni Violence, Conflict and Development

Strategy and policies for tackling food and nutrition security, Burkina Faso

Antony Ellman

Rebecca Thompson Development Economics

Determinants of declining levels of tobacco production, Malawi

Laurence Sewell

University College London

Fiacha O’Dowda Anthropology, Environment and Development

Social and ecological dynamics of shifting cultivation, Madagascar

Naysan Adlparvar

Gabriele Warwick Anthropology, Environment and Development

Social analysis of agroecology adoption as a sustainable rural development strategy, Brazil

Margaret Pasquini

University of East Anglia

Fariyal Rohail Climate Change and International Development

Water-energy-food nexus links to sustainable livelihoods and wellbeing, South Africa

Jim Watson

University of Oxford

Gemma Bennett Water Science, Policy and Management

Reactive governance in view of growing water deficit, Jordan

Paul Baranowski

Rowan Davis Biodiversity, Conservation and Management

Impact of climate change adaptation schemes on local communities, Mongolia

Jonathan Stern

Rosemary Sibley Nature, Science and Environmental Management

Indigenous land values and sustainable livelihoods in context of Brazil nut production, Brazil

Margaret Pasquini

University of Sheffield

Joseph Crellin Intercultural Communication and International Development

Impact of ecotourism on community benefits, case study of Chimanimani Highland Trail, Mozambique

James Alden

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Thomas Bates, MSc Environmental Change andInternational Development, University of Sheffield

Participation and perspectives in beekeeping:diversifying livelihoods for economic development andforest conservation in the Chimanimani TransfrontierConservation Area, Mozambique

In the face of deforestation and poverty in the world’s forests,beekeeping (Figure 1) has the potential to reduce the conflictbetween economic development and environmentalconservation in forested areas. This study explores to whatextent beekeeping activities are accessible to rural householdsin Mpunga, a large community in the ChimanimaniTransfrontier Conservation Area, Mozambique, byinvestigating who participates, and what barriers tobeekeeping have to be overcome to access the assets neededfor a sustainable livelihood.

The study found that beekeeping is not a gendered activity:more women take part than men, but concerted efforts toinvolve women are needed because of existing culturallimitations. Opportunities to participate are widely availablebecause of traditional processes of land allocation and anunsophisticated system of registering interest in beekeepinginitiatives. Furthermore, the study identified that membersof the community found beekeeping an easy activity. Thefinancial, social, physical, human and natural capitals neededfor a sustainable livelihood are accessible for the majority ofthe community in Mpunga. The structures in place andinstitutions involved in beekeeping initiatives mean thatbarriers are overcome with little difficulty. However, thisstudy raised concerns over current and future motivationsfor undertaking beekeeping: personal investment, financialor otherwise, in beekeeping as a livelihood is limited and

therefore has a detrimental effect on the success ofbeekeeping.

Throughout the eight-week research period, a number ofacademic, professional and personal challenges emerged.However, by overcoming these challenges, the research hasresulted in a study that has value in benefiting the localcommunity, aiding the responsible NGO Micaia in its futuredevelopment work. Areas of good practice and areas in needof improvement or further study have been identified, andnew knowledge established. Additionally, my professional andpersonal experiences have been furthered. The full realisationof this study could not have been achieved without generousfinancial and academic support from the Tropical AgricultureAssociation, and assistance from my colleagues andsupervisor from the University of Sheffield.

Figure 1. A beekeeper in protective clothing poses with his beehives.

Charlie Everitt, MSc International Marine EnvironmentalConsultancy, Newcastle University

Ecology of planktivores on tropical coral reefs in theMaldives

My fundamental research objective was to collect novelbaseline data, quantifying planktivorous fish species in atropical coral reef community (Figure 2), and analysing theirvariability in both space and time. My results suggest thatthere is no significant relationship between planktivores andthe linear concept of time, but supports notions that inherentvariability among reef communities is driven by morestochastic ecological processes and heterogeneousenvironments, such as tidal cycles and water-current velocity,as well as usage of coral reefs for shelter and foraging.

The dominance of planktivores found on a tropical coral reefsuggests the importance of the pelagic pathway, distributingoceanic energy amongst the reef community and the reefitself. This research project encapsulates my decision toreturn to academia and, in particular, to study a courserelating to Marine Science. Having read Law as anundergraduate, I was looking for a way to broaden myknowledge, challenge myself and learn an entirely newdiscipline and set of skills that would equip me for myintended future career in marine conservation, ecology and

governance. By leaving my comfort zone and taking on anatural science-focused research project, I was able tocomplete a scientific research project from start to finish;conducting my own field work, collecting my own data, andusing statistics to explore and analyse my results.

I thoroughly enjoyed the challenge, as well as my time in theMaldives, and feel confident about the processes involved inproducing scientific papers for the future. I am shaping a newpersonal ability for mediating between science and policy, andhave also created a lasting professional relationship with myclient, returning soon to conduct further research and editmy dissertation for potential publication.

Figure 2. The researcher quantifies planktivorous fish species in the tropicalcoral reef community.

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Samantha Gallimore, MSc International MarineEnvironmental Consultancy, Newcastle University

Sources of variability in underwater visual census in theMaldives

During May-July 2017 I undertook a project based in theMaldives looking to assess the variability in tropical reef fishcommunities estimated by underwater visual census (UVC)

Coral reefs provide livelihoods for many small islanddeveloping states, such as the Maldives, and there is a needto manage these fisheries. Behind any management schemeis the baseline data, and UVC is the most commonly used toolfor measuring fish stocks. There is a need to understand howdifferent groups of fish vary over different time scales, toeliminate any bias associated with the UVC methodology, andto attempt to conduct the correct replicates for individualfamilies or species.

The aim of the project was to increase understanding of theinherent variability in UVC data on a tropical reef fishcommunity in the Maldives, and to consider time-scaleeffects. It was evident that the planktivore families showed aconsistently high measure of variability, but no relationshipwith time. The piscivore functional group also showed a highvariability as they are associated with larger body size.

This suggests that, for these two groups especially, the UVCmethodology should be adjusted to take into considerationthe high variability. This could be done by using largersampling areas or increased replicates. In any case, to collectdata accurately for management plans, the variability shouldbe considered when planning the methodology. Theseoutcomes will lead on to further research looking atindividual species variability within the most variablefunctional groups. This work is essential to the managementof fisheries and the correct collection of baseline data.

The MSc award provided by TAAF made it possible for me tovisit the small island developing state and undertake thisproject. Overall, the project provided me with importantecological field work experience. I gained hugely from theprofessional skills provided by the Banyan Tree Marine Labin the Maldives and all the staff on site. On a personal level,it consolidated my fascination with the marine environmentand encouraged me to carry on pursuing this as a career. TheMaldives is a particularly sensitive part of the world due to itslow-lying islands, and my goal is to continue to work withthe Banyan Tree Global Foundation and the Marine Labs inthe Maldives to undertake more research and encouragecommunity involvement.

Holly Morgan, MSc Carbon Management, University ofEdinburgh

Conservation agriculture in Laikipia and MachakosDistricts, Kenya

In summer 2017, as a TAAF awardee studying at theUniversity of Edinburgh, I travelled to Nairobi, Kenya toundertake a research project for my MSc dissertation onclimate change and agricultural sector adaptation. I partneredwith the African Conservation Tillage Network (ACT), an NGObased in Nairobi which implements conservation agriculture(CA) projects across Kenya and other East African countries.I endeavoured to evaluate the reasons for low uptake of CAin Kenya despite its many potential benefits for thepopulation, to understand the barriers to uptake of CA andprovide recommendations for overcoming them.

The research was conducted primarily in Laikipia, a semi-aridcounty in central Kenya where most of the population derivetheir livelihoods from farming. Laikipian farmer participantsin a CA project, ‘Conservation agriculture for food security(2013-16)’, were interviewed about the main challenges theyhave experienced with CA after the closure of the project.Other stakeholder groups were also interviewed.

Most of the farmers surveyed had chosen to continue practisingCA after the project period; the most commonly cited reasonwas to ensure production in the presence of drought. However,

Figure 3. Samantha conducts underwater visual census of fish stocks.

Figure 4. Women farmers using jab planters to inject seed through previousyear’s crop residue.

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a common challenge faced by the farmers was lack ofmechanisation of CA, and the requirement for more manuallabour for CA systems (Figure 4). Both farmers and otherstakeholders stated that lack of available finance, extensionservices and access to mechanisation technologies preventedthem from switching from conventional tillage to CA. ThusCA remains a niche innovation and has not yet becomecommon practice.

To overcome these barriers, the research culminated in anumber of recommendations for developing a mechanisationsupply chain that can be sustained after external projectsupport is terminated. These include encouragement offarmer group formation, improved credit access throughgroup and village savings-and-loan schemes, promotion of

local equipment design and manufacture, increased use oftwo-wheel tractors, integrated training packages formanufacturers and lead farmers, and encouragement ofprivate sector involvement. The report was sent to theinterviewed stakeholders, farmers and ACT staff for theirconsideration.

This research experience was transformative for mepersonally, enabling me to see on-the-ground realities for thesmallholder farmers, and the unique challenges andopportunities facing these communities. I hope my researchwill be helpful to ACT/Laikipia in future project planning andimplementation, as well as adding to the wider CA knowledgebase.

Jason Savage, MSc International Marine EnvironmentalConsultancy, Newcastle University

Investigation of anthropogenic drivers of coral reefresilience in South Nilandhe Coral Atoll, the Maldives

The TAAF award enabled me to travel to the Maldives and,working with the Banyan Tree Global Foundation (BTGF), tocarry out surveys (Figure 5) to assess the state and resilience ofthe coral reefs surrounding certain islands following the massbleaching event in 2016. My research looked specifically intowhether there were differences between the reefs resulting fromdifferent island uses.

A sample of eight islands was selected for assessment ofanthropogenic impacts, including populated and unpopulatedislands, islands where agriculture is practised, and islandsreserved as tourist resorts (primarily for diving). The aim wasto contribute to a baseline data set for assessing the health ofthe reef ecosystem following the mass bleaching event of 2016,and to look at any spatial variations between island usesregarding the resilience and recovery of the reefs following thismass disturbance effect.

Significant differences were observed in terms of four resiliencemetrics: coral recruitment, live coral cover, complexity of fishand benthic species, and richness of fish and benthiccommunity structures. Coral reefs surrounding theuninhabited and resort islands demonstrated significantlystronger health and resilience than reefs surrounding inhabitedand agricultural islands.

The survey will be continued on an annual cycle with the BTGFMarine Lab staff. Since there were no data prior to the bleaching

event, this survey work will enable conservation efforts to befocused as the reefs recover from the bleaching event.

The findings from my research were disseminated into anacademic/scientific report for Newcastle University and atechnical report for the BTGF. The findings were also presentedby the head of global conservation at a coral reef conference.These efforts to increase awareness and understanding will aimto better focus conservation efforts and potentially improve localmanagement of these valuable reef resources.

This project benefited me greatly in the fact that it was a basisfor my MSc thesis and I gained valuable experience in a foreigncountry, learnt new skills and made some fantastic friends andvery useful contacts.

Eleanor Spencer, MSc Biodiversity, Conservation andManagement, University of Oxford

Is certification the answer? A consideration of localpower dynamics and perspectives in a seaweed valuechain, Bohol Province, the Philippines

The world is undergoing a ‘blue revolution’, as part of whichthe global seaweed industry has grown rapidly over the past twodecades. A large subsection of this industry is the productionof hydrocolloids, which are derived from red seaweed speciesand used widely in processed foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticalsand biofuels. Carrageenan is the most in-demand of these, and

the Philippines is the second-largest producer of carrageenanglobally, behind Indonesia.

Seaweed production is often dominated by small-scale farmers:it can be a vital source of income for poor rural families in thePhilippines and elsewhere. This, combined with growingevidence of the potential impacts of seaweed cultivation on fishassemblages and marine habitats, suggests a need forgovernance to ensure the industry’s environmental, social andeconomic sustainability. One potential mechanism is a non-state market-driven certification scheme, and the MarineStewardship Council and Aquaculture Stewardship Council are

Figure 5. Surveying coral reef resilience in Maldives.

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together developing a seaweed certification scheme for pilotinglater this year.

To increase the efficacy of such schemes, we must understandtheir local contexts before they are implemented. Supported bythe Zoological Society of London (ZSL) and the University of

Oxford, I investigated the localised power dynamics andperspectives within a carrageenan seaweed value chain basedin an artisanal farming system in the province of Bohol in thePhilippines (Figure 6). I aimed to identify implications for thedevelopment, implementation and uptake of a global seaweednon-state market-driven certification scheme at this local level.

Through 29 interviews with local actors in the value chain, largeimbalances in power were identified. Farmers appeared to bethe most vulnerable actors in the chain, and yet they might beburdened with the costs and responsibility of compliance witha future certification scheme. This raises importantconsiderations, and it may be that certification is not a suitablegovernance mechanism given current power dynamics.

I will be sharing the results of this research with ZSL and withthe interviewees and relevant seaweed farming communitieson Danajon Bank. I hope it will usefully inform ongoing andfuture conservation and poverty alleviation efforts in this area.This research provided an invaluable learning experience forme, and I look forward to building on this work now that I havecompleted my MSc.

Figure 6. Visit to a seaweed farm on Danajon Bank, Bohol Province, Philippines.

News from the Regions

TAA East Anglia visit to AponicOn 23 February, Aponic Ltd (aponic.co.uk) hosted a visit by 16TAA members, spouses and friends at its base in the EasternAgri-Tech Innovation Hub near Soham, Cambridgeshire, UK(innovationhubuk.co.uk).

Managed by the National Institute of Agricultural Botany(NIAB), the hub has a particular focus on fresh produce andfield vegetables, carrying out applied research “to reduce or re-use all forms of waste in the food supply chain and improveresource use efficiency in its production”.

Consistent with that mandate and under the strapline “Thefuture is growing up”, Aponic is developing vertical soillessgrowing systems with a focus on high-value, low-volumecrops.

The company’s founder and CEO, Jason Hawkins-Row,explained to the TAA group that its system uses 90 percent lesswater than traditional agriculture, runs on rainwater and solarpower, does not emit harmful runoff into the environment,and massively reduces the need for fossil fuels in foodproduction.

The system eliminates the need for herbicides and, because ofthe nutrient targeting, requires much less fertiliser. Thecontrolled environment and the ease of crop inspectionminimise losses from pathogens.

The modules, which are the result of six years R&D, aremanufactured in the UK under a patent. Key to the continuingdevelopment of the system is a remote-controlled support and

monitoring network to gather and analyse data from thevarious trials and commercial sites. This feedback loop was, forexample, informing the management of basil production.

Medicinal cannabis and pyrethrum are products with thepotential to extend the current focus on herbs, fruit, vegetablesand salad crops, examples of which were seen in the company’sdemonstration units.

During his excellent presentation and in the Q&A session,Jason highlighted the opportunities for investments in thetropics with ongoing links to India, United Arab Emirates andZambia. The challenges of marketing the produce werediscussed and it was emphasised that consistency of productquality was key, an important advantage of the Aponic system.

All-in-all, an enlightening and entertaining visit for whichJason received a well deserved vote of thanks from Keith Virgo,TAA Chairman.

Bill Thorpe(Note from the Editor: further details of the Aponic system areincluded in Article 5 in this issue, written by Jason Hawkins-Row)

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Upcoming Events

Upcoming events2018 NO-TILL CONFERENCEDate: 4-6 September 2018

Details: The No-Till Club of South Africa is organising athree-day conference and workshop on the themeManaging adversity with diversity: emerging cover cropstrategies by making cover crops pay. The conference willreview the uses and potential for no-till methods by small-scale farmers, appropriate machinery and cover crops,integration of livestock, and other related themes.

Further information: notillclub.com

Venue: Anthony Muirhead Gourton Farm, Drakensville,South Africa

AGRI 2018: 13THINTERNATIONAL CONFERENCEON AGRICULTURE ANDHORTICULTUREDate: 10-12 September 2018

Details: This year’s conference theme is Recentinnovations and implementation of modern technologiesin agriculture. Participants will include academics,business and industrial interests who will be presented withadvanced technologies and the results of recent scientificresearch.

Further information:agriculture-horticulture.conferenceseries.com

Venue: Zurich, Switzerland

6TH INTERNATIONALCONFERENCE ON SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTDate: 12-13 September 2018

Details: Organised by the European Centre for SustainableDevelopment in collaboration with CIT University, thetheme of the Conference is Creating a unified foundationfor sustainable development: research, practice andeducation.

Further information:www.ecsdev.org/index.php/conference

Venue: Congress Centre, Rome, Italy

UK DAIRY DAY, 2018 Date: 12 September 2018

Details: UK Dairy Day brings together all facets of the dairyindustry – farmers, students, breeders, geneticists, vets, feedmerchants and dairy equipment suppliers – plus professionalservice providers, charities and colleges.

Further information: ukdairyday.co.uk

Venue: International Centre, Telford, Shropshire

POTATO EUROPEDate: 12-13 September 2018

Details: The exhibition includes presentations from aroundthe world as well as the latest innovations: genetics resourcesand species innovation, disease prevention and protectingcultivation, managing water, fertilisation, cross-breeding,storage and preserving tubers. Practical demonstrationsinclude harvesting, storage and optical sorting, and technicalmeetings cover current technical and economic issues.

Further information and contact:potatoeurope.de/en/visitorsJ.Schmidt2@DLG.org

Venue: Springe, Germany

21ST INTERNATIONAL SOILTILLAGE RESEARCHORGANISATION CONFERENCEDate: 24-27 September 2018

Details: The conference provides an opportunity to presentresearch, share ideas and obtain new perspectives in soil andtillage research that will meet the challenges of food security andclimate change. There is also a four-day post-conference tour.

Further information: istro2018.webistem.com

Venue: Cité Universitaire, Paris, France

APPLE ORCHARD VISITDate: 6 October 2018

Details: The Royal Society of Biology, West Midlands branch,is organising a visit to apple orchards not usually open to thepublic. This special visit will view young orchards that includemany unusual Worcestershire varieties, and the visit will beled by the orchard owner.

Further information:rsb.org.uk/events?event=westmidlandsappleorchardvisit

Venue: Alvechurch, Worcestershire

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)

PORTHARVEST TECHNOLOGYCOURSE, WAGENINGEN

Date: 9-12 October 2018

Details: This course gives participants an in-depth view on thelatest insights into the biology of post-harvest development,ripening and deterioration processes in fresh horticulturalproduce; the most important factors for measurement,evaluation and modelling of product quality and loss; currenttechnologies for storage, packaging and handling; andpromising new post-harvest technologies (eg Robotica, LEDlight treatments, big data for quality prediction).

Further information: wur.nl/en/Research-Results/Research-Institutes/food-biobased-research/show-fbr/Postharvest-technology-course-Wageningen.htm

Venue:Wageningen University, the Netherlands

2ND AFRICA CONGRESS ONCONSERVATION AGRICULTUREDate: 9-12 October 2018

Details: The congress aims to bring together expertknowledge, information and insights from practitionersacross different sectors and interest groups in the public,private and civil sectors.

Further information: africacacongress.org

Venue: Johannesburg, South Africa

INTERNATIONAL RICECONGRESSSDate: 14-17 October 2018

Details: Organised every four years, the international ricecongress is the world’s largest gathering of rice scientists,researchers, and industry experts and players to share the resultsof their work, exchange intelligence on market drivers andtrends, and together learn about short- and long-term factorsaffecting the rice industry. This year’s congress focuses onTransformative science for food and nutrition security.

Further information: gfar.net/events/international-rice-congress

Venue: Marina Bay Sands, Singapore

TAA SW BRANCH AND ROYALAGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITYCONFERENCEDate: 18 October 2018

Details: Tentative topic is Food chain linkages: locavores,preservation, storage and minimising wastage.

Further information:Contact southwest_organiser@taa.org.uk

Venue: Royal Agricultural University, Cirencester,Gloucestershire

REAP CONFERENCE 2018:AGRI-TECH EASTDate: 7 November 2018

Details: The Conference will address the role of agri-tech forfuture food production and explore related ideas andinnovations.

Further information: agritech-east.co.uk/site/reap-2018

Venue:Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire

INTRODUCTION TOSOURDOUGH BAKINGDate: 9-10 November 2018

Details: This two-day course gives the opportunity to learnall about wild yeast and sourdough bread-making, guided byEmmanuel Hadjiandreou, internationally renowned bakerand author of How to make bread.

Further information:schoolofartisanfood.org/product/introduction-to-sourdough-baking

Venue: School of Artisan Food, near Worksop,Nottinghamshire

TAA HUGH BUNTINGMEMORIAL LECTUREDate: 14 November 2018

Details: The annual lecture, co-hosted by TAA and theUniversity of Reading School of Agriculture, will focus on therisks to small farmers in sub-Saharan Africa resulting fromclimate change and other factors, and the means to mitigatethem. Four presentations will be made around the theme ofclimate risk management in sub-Saharan Africa. The eventwill be chaired by Dr Andrew Bennett, TAA President.Members, spouses and friends are welcome.

Further information: taa.org.uk/events.asp

Venue: Agriculture Building, University of Reading, Berkshire

THE CROPTEC SHOWDate: 28-29 November 2018

Details: CropTec is for all farmers and agronomists seekingthe latest information on innovative methods to increaseprofits from crop production. As the UK’s leading technicaland knowledge-exchange event for the arable farmingindustry, this two-day show provides the ideal chance toexplore ways to improve efficiency and reduce unit costs ofproduction.

Further information: croptecshow.com

Venue: East of England Showground, Peterborough,Cambridgeshire

Upcoming Event

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Upcoming Events

THE THIRTEENTH HUGH BUNTING MEMORIAL LECTUREWednesday 14th November 2018

Featuring short presentations (titles are yet to be decided) by a panel of three industry specialists, putting the spotlight on

‘Climate risk management in sub-Saharan agriculture’Professor Peter Dorward. Leader of the Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA)programme which is becoming widely used in developing countries. Peter’s main areas of interest are innovation and smallholder agriculture.

Rosalind Cornforth. Director of the Walker Institute, an interdisciplinary research institute supporting the development of climate resilient societies. An example of the institute’s projects is the ‘Drivers of Regional EastMonsoon Variability’ (DREAM) project which aims to identify regional and local sources of moisture for the EastAsian hydrological cycle, and to understand how large-scale drivers influence these sources of moisture.

Olga Speckhardt. Head of ‘Global Insurance Solutions’ at the Syngenta Foundation, Olga has a rich back-ground in insurance and reinsurance. Olga is a member of the Board of Directors for the ‘Agriculture and ClimateRisk Enterprise’ company and is Chair of the Swiss Capacity Building Facility, which assists financial institutions.

Date: Wednesday 14th November Venue: John Madejski LectureTheatre Agriculture Building, Earley Gate University of Reading

The Hugh Bunting Memorial Lecture is hosted, in partnership, by the Tropical Agriculture Association(TAA) and the School of Agriculture, Policy and Development at the University of Reading. Hugh was a Professor of Agricultural Botany at the University of Reading from 1956 to 1982 and Dean of the Faculty ofAgriculture and Food. He played a leading role in developing the University’s competence and reputation intropical agriculture. He held the first and only Chair of Agricultural Development Overseas at Reading, fundedby the British Aid Programme, and was largely responsible for the drafting of the first constitution and for theregistration of the TAA as a UK charity.

Programme: Chair – Dr Andrew Bennett CMG, President of TAA* 17:30 - 18:30 – Assemble and networking meeting* 18:30 - 18:40 – Welcome – Professor Julian Park, Head of School * 18:40 – 19:40 – The Hugh Bunting Memorial Lecture, guest speakers’ presentations* 19:40 – 21:00 – Wine and finger buffet

To reserve your seat, please contact Lynne Drew - l.m.drew@reading.ac.uk or call her on: 0118 378 4549. Spouses and partners are very welcome. For more information visit:http://www.taa.org.uk/events.asp?menuId=19

How to get there? Consult the University of Reading map websitewww.reading.ac.uk/web/files/maps/whiteknights-campus-map.pdf. The Agriculture Building, is BuildingNumber 59 (Square D8) on the Whiteknights campus map. Please use the Earley Gate entrance to thecampus.

*********************Tour of the University’s ‘Museum of English Rural Life’. This is being arranged for TAA members andfriends. Meet by 13.30 at the museum (Whiteknights Campus) for lunch at the restaurant. To reserve a placeon this tour, please contact Terry Wiles (southeast_convenor@taa.org.uk).

Agriculture for Development, 34 (2018)Upcoming Event

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Notice of the Tropical Agriculture Association’s 2018 Annual General Meeting and Reunion

VENUE: The Royal Over-Seas League, Park Place, St James’s Street, London, SW1A 1LR

DATE: Tuesday 11 December 2018

AGENDA commencing at 6.00 pm, chaired by Andrew Bennett, TAA President1. Apologies2. Approval of minutes of 2017 AGM3. Matters arising4. Remember colleagues who have passed away5. ExCo elections6. Chairman’s 2018 Review and 2019 Preview7. Treasurer’s Annual Report 2017-20188. Adoption of Audited Accounts 2017-20189. Reappointment of Examiners10. TAAF Report11. TAA Strategy Development12. TAAF Awardee Presentation13. TAA 2018 Honours14. TAA Development Agriculturalist 2018 presentation15. Any Other Business

ANNUAL SOCIAL REUNION will be held from 7:30 pm

A hot fork buffet will be available but pre-booking is essential.

————————————————————————————————————————How to get to the Royal Over-Seas League

Tube to Green Park (Piccadilly, Jubilee or Victoria Lines), take the exit marked Buckingham Palace,walk past the Ritz Hotel turning right on Arlington Street. At the end of Arlington Street there aresome steps, and down the steps is the front entrance (approximately 5 minutes).

Buses 8. 9, 14, 19, 22 and 38 stop outside Green Park tube station on Piccadilly, running west toHyde Park Corner, Victoria and Knightsbridge, and east to Piccadilly Circus and Holborn.

Registration

Please register for the event by advising the General Secretary at general_secretary@taa.org.uk

Cost

There will be a charge of £25 per person to cover room and facility hire and a hot buffet dinner,payable at the door.

Registered Charity No. 800663

How to become a member of the TAA If you are reading someone else’s copy of Agriculture for Development and would like to join, or would like to encourage or sponsor someone to join, then please visit our website at http://www.taa.org.uk/

Step One - Application: Applications can be made on-line at:http://www.taa.org.uk/membership Alternatively an application form can be downloaded, completed and sent to: TAA Membership Secretary, 15 Westbourne Grove, Great Baddow, Chelmsford CM2 9RT.

Step Two - Membership Type: Decide on the type of membership you require – see the details and subscription rates below:

Step Three - Payment: Payment details are on the website with ‘Bank Standing Order’ being the preferred method since this ensures annual payment is made and is one less thing to remember! Payment can also be made by bank transfer, on-line using PayPal, or by cheque. Bank details are available from: treasurer@taa.org.uk

Step Four - Access to website and Journals: When application and payment has been received then the Membership Secretary will contact you with your membership number and log-in details for you to fully access the website and journals. The latest journal will be sent to full members.

For membership enquiries contact: membership_secretary@taa.org.uk

Type of membership and annual subscription rate

Full Individual Member (printed copies of Agriculture for Development)

£50 Online Individual Member (online copies of Agriculture for Development) £40

Institutional Member (printed copies of Agriculture for Development and online access for staff)

£120 Student Membership (online copies of Agriculture for Development)

£15

Committee

TAA is a registered charity,No. 800663, that aims to advanceeducation, research and practice in

tropical agriculture.

Specialist GroupsAgribusinessRoger Cozens, Coombe Bank, Tipton St John, Sidmouth, DevonEX10 0AX. Tel: 01404 815829; email: agribusiness@taa.org.uk

Land HusbandryAmir Kassam, 88 Gunnersbury Avenue, Ealing, London W5 4HA.Tel: 020 8993 3426; Fax: 020 8993 3632;email: landhusbandry@taa.org.uk

Environmental ConservationKeith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk CB89LU. Tel: 01440 783413; email: environment_conservation@taa.org.uk

Overseas BranchesTAA India: Girish Bhardwaj, 144 Abhinav Apartments, B-12Vasundhara Enclave, New Delhi 100096; Tel: +91 1143 070984,Mobile +91 98 918 74414; email: indian_organiser@taa.org.ukTAA Caribbean: Bruce Lauckner, c/o CARDI, PO Box 212,University Campus, St Augustine, Trinidad & TobagoTel: +1 868 645 1205/6/7; email: caribbean_organiser@taa.org.ukTAA SE Asia: Wyn Ellis, 4/185 Bouban Maneenin, Ladplakhad 66,Bangkhen, Bangkok 10220, Thailand. Mobile: +66 818 357380;email: seasia_organiser@taa.org.ukTAA Pacific: Ravi Joshi, Visiting Professor of Biology, Universityof the Philippines, Baguio, 2600 Baguio City, The Philippines,Mobile tel +63-919 955 8868/+63 998 578 5570email: pacific_organiser@taa.org.ukTAA Zambia/Southern Africa: Chris Kapembwa, Plot 30 Kaniki, Ndola,Zambia. Tel: +260 977 536 825, Email: zambia_organiser@taa.org.uk

UK Regional BranchesScotland

John Ferguson21 Pentland Drive, Edinburgh, EH10 6PU. Tel: 07734249948, email: scotland_convenor@taa.org.uk

North of England

John Gowing, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 1 Park Terrace,Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU.Tel: 0191 222 8488; email: northernengland_convenor@taa.org.uk

South-West

Tim Roberts, Greenways, 15 Marksbury, Bath, Somerset BA2 9HSTel: 01761 470455; email: southwest_organiser@taa.org.uk

London/South-East

Terry Wiles, 7 Old Stocks Oak, Farnham Road, Liss, Hants GU33 6JB.Tel: 01730 890228; email: southeast_convenor@taa.org.uk

East Anglia

Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk CB89LU. Tel: 01440 783413; email: eastanglia_convenor@taa.org.uk

DESIGN, LAYOUT AND PRESS-READY FILES

Robert Lewin Graphic DesignTel: (01353) 722005lewin994@btinternet.com

PRINTING

Altone LimitedTel: 01223 837840info@altone.ltd.ukwww.altone.ltd.uk

TAA, Montpelier Professional Services, 1 Dashwood Square, Newton Stewart, Wigtownshire DG8 6EQ Web site: http://www.taa.org.uk

TAA Executive Committee

OFFICE HOLDERS

President: Andrew Bennett, Chroyle, Gloucester Road, Bath BA1 8BH. Tel: 01225 851489; email: president@taa.org.uk Chairman: Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 9LU. Tel: 01440 783413; email: chairman@taa.org.ukVice-Chairman: Paul Harding, The Cliff, Stanyeld Road, Church Stretton, Shropshire SY6 6JJ. Tel: 01694 722289; email: vice_chairman@taa.org.ukGeneral Secretary: Elizabeth Warham, TAA, c/o Montpelier Professional Services, 1 Dashwood Square, Newton Steward, DG8 6EQ, UK. Tel: Mobile 07711 524 641, email: general_secretary@taa.org.ukTreasurer/Subscriptions: Jim Ellis-Jones, 4 Silbury Court, Silsoe, Beds

MK45 4RU. Tel: 01525 861090; email: treasurer@taa.org.uk

Membership Secretary/Change of Address: Linda Blunt, 15 WestbourneGrove, Great Baddow, Chelmsford CM2 9RT.email: membership _secretary@taa.org.uk

Institutional Membership: Martin Evans, 35 Cavendish Avenue, Cambridge, CB1 7UR. Tel: 01223 244436,

email: Corporate_membership@taa.org.ukBranches Coordinator: Steve Vaux, 30 Rockbourne Road, Sherfield-on-

Loddon, Hook RG27 0SR. Tel: 01256 880776. email: branch_coordinator@taa.org.ukEarly Career Membership: Paul Baranowski,

2 Lower John Street, London W1F 9DU. email: paul@climate-edge.co.uk.

Agriculture for Development Editors:Coordinating Editor:

Paul Harding, The Cliff, Stanyeld Road, Church Stretton, Shropshire SY6 6JJ. Tel: 01694 722289; email: coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.ukTechnical Editors:

Brian Sims, Elizabeth Warham, Andrew Ward, Michael Fitzpatrick, Charles Howie and Alastair Taylor,

email: editor_ag4dev@taa.org.uk

Website Manager: Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket,Suffolk CB8 9LU. Tel: 01440 783413,

email: webmanager@taa.org.ukAward Fund Chairman/Enquiries: Antony Ellman, 15 Vine Road, Barnes,

London SW13 0NE. Tel: 0208 878 5882, Fax: 02088786588; email: taa_award_fund@taa.org.uk

Honours Panel Chair: David Radcliffe, 5 Windmill Lane, Wheatley, OxfordshireOX33 1TA. Tel: 07887 751848.email: chairhonours@taa.org.uk

Vacancies Team Members: Alan Stapleton, Michael Fitzpatrick, Bookie Ezeomah.

email: vacancies@taa.org.uk

PUBLISHED BY THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURE ASSOCIATION (TAA)ISSN 1759-0604 (Print) • ISSN 1759-0612 (Online)