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FINAL&Submitted&May&2016&
1!
&Student:&Vivien&Lines,&Uppsala&University,&Sweden&Supervisor:&Manuel&Salamanca,&Javeriana&University,&Bogotá,&Colombia&!
!
“Los!niños!son!el!futuro!de!Colombia!y!en!sus!manos!está!la!paz.”!!Niño,&10&años,&Colombia.&
!
This!thesis!is!submitted!for!obtaining!the!Master’s!Degree!in!International!Humanitarian!Action.!
By!submitting!the!thesis,!the!author!certifies!that!the!text!is!from!his/her!hand,!does!not!include!
the!work!of! someone!else!unless! clearly! indicated,!and! that! the! thesis!has!been!produced! in!
accordance!with!proper!academic!practices.!
‘En!sus!manos’.!Children’s&rights&and&protection&post&armed&conflict;&&
an&opportunity&for&peacebuilding&in&Colombia.&
! 2&
ABSTRACT&
The! impact! of! armed! conflict! on! children’s! rights! and! protection! is! not! disputed! in! existing!
research.!This!thesis!looks!again!at!this!issue!in!the!context!of!the!longstanding!armed!conflict!in!
Colombia!and!the!current!transition!to!peace!in!the!country!in!order!to!consider!whether!and!
how! peacebuilding! can! give! children! agency! and! contribute! to! restoring! their! rights! and!
protection!post!conflict,!an!area!neglected!in!existing!research.!Using!testimonies!from!children!
gathered!by!a!questionnaire!and!events!held!in!communities!in!two!regions!of!Colombia!badly!
affected!by!the!conflict,!this!thesis!seeks!to!place!children’s!voices!about!the!impact!of!the!conflict!
on!them!and!their!views!about!peace!at!the!centre!of!the!discussion.!!
Key!findings!are!that!as!a!result!of!their!direct!experiences!of!the!conflict!children!have!two!main!
priorities! for! peace.! The! first! is! the!need! to! reHestablish!positive,! nonHviolent!behaviours! and!
relationships!in!their!families!and!communities!and!the!second!is!the!need!for!protection!and!
security! from! violence! and! crime.! These! findings! are! discussed! using! Lederach’s! theories! of!
reconciliation! based! peacebuilding! (1997;! 2005),! an! ecological! framework! for! children’s!
protection!and!concepts!of!children’s!resilience!and!rights.!!
It!is!concluded!that!states!are!responsible!for!providing!for!children’s!rights!and!protection!but!
there! is! a!need! to!pay!attention! to! the! impact!of!protracted!armed!conflict!on! communities.!!
Reconciliation!based!peacebuilding!which!restores!the!fabric!of!families!and!communities!and!
addresses!violence!post! conflict! could!enable!protective!mechanisms! to!be! reHestablished! for!
children!and!foster!the!development!of!children’s!own!resilience.!!Further,!giving!children!agency!
within!the!peacebuilding!process!is!important!to!reHestablishing!children’s!future!rights!in!a!post!
conflict!society!and!these!factors!combined!to!enhance!the!conditions!for!sustainable!peace.&
The!thesis!considers! the! implications!of! these!conclusions! for!humanitarian!and!development!
organisations! working! with! children! during! conflict! or! in! peacebuilding! and! makes!
recommendations!for!all!those!with!responsibilities!in!this!area.!!
& &
! 3&
TABLE&OF&CONTENTS&
& Page&number&
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS& 6&&
ABBREVIATIONS&AND&ACRONYMS& 7&&&
CHAPTER&1&& INTRODUCTION&1.1!& Reasons&for&the&study&&1.2!& Overview&of&chapters!
8&&8&9&&
CHAPTER&2&& THE&RESEARCH&DESIGN&2.1!& The&research&questions&2.2!& Development&of&a&theoretical&framework&2.3!& Previous&academic&research&2.4!& Qualitative&research&methods&2.5!& Data&analysis&2.6!& Research&credibility!2.7!& Ethical&considerations!
11&&11&11&12&13&
& 14&15&15&&
CHAPTER&3&& THEORETICAL&AND&CONCEPTUAL&FRAMEWORKS&3.1!& Literature&review&&3.2!& Theories&and&concepts&of&peacebuilding&&
3.2.1! Definitions!
3.2.2! Peacebuilding!as!liberal!institution!building!
! 3.2.3! Reconciliation!based!peacebuilding!
3.3!& A&children’s&rights&based&approach&3.4!& A&conceptual&framework&for&children’s&protection&3.5& Conclusions&about&the&proposed&theoretical&and&conceptual&& framework&
17&&17&19&19&20&21&24&25&28&&
&CHAPTER&4&& COLOMBIA,&FIVE&DECADES&OF&VIOLENT&CONFLICT&4.1!& A&brief&history&of&the&conflict&&
4.1.1! 1960s!and!1970sH!low!intensity!conflict!
4.1.2! 1980s!–!significant!escalation!in!intensity!
4.1.3! 1990s!–!protracted!conflict!with!heavy!casualties!
4.1.4! 2000s!–!Government!forces!reHestablish!control!
4.1.5! 2012!to!date!–!peace!talks!once!again! !
4.2& Conflict&analysis:&key&aspects&! 4.2.1! The!role!of!the!state!
! 4.2.2! The!impact!of!the!drug!trade!
4.2.3! The!conditions!for!peace.!
&29&&29&29&30&31&32&33&33&33&35&35&
! 4&
4.3& The&approach&to&transitional&justice&4.4& Wider&contextual&factors&–&a&country&with&much&potential&4.5& Conclusions:&implications&for&peacebuilding&
36&40&41&&
CHAPTER&5&& ARMED&CONFLICT&AND&CHILDREN’S&RIGHTS&AND&&& & PROTECTION&&5.1& International&law&! 5.1.1! The!Geneva!Conventions!
! 5.1.2! The!Convention!on!the!Rights!of!the!Child!and!the!!
! ! Optional!Protocol!
5.2& The&impact&of&armed&conflict&on&children&5.3& Children&in&Colombia&! 5.3.1! Colombian!national!law!
! 5.3.2! Children’s!rights!and!protection!in!Colombia!
5.4& Conclusions:&implications&for&peacebuilding&& &
43&&43&&43&44&&
46&50&50&51&55&&&
CHAPTER&6&& CHILDREN’S&VIEWS&ON&CONFLICT&AND&PEACE&&6.1!& ‘La!Construcción!de!la!Paz!en!Colombia’:&methodology&6.2!& The&empirical&data&
6.2.1! !‘Mapping’!the!impact!of!the!!conflict&(‘Cartografias’)!6.2.2! !‘Consulting’!with!children!about!peace!(the!‘Consulta’)!6.2.3! !Considerations!about!the!data!
6.3& Conclusions&about&the&empirical&data!
& 57&&57&60&60&63&
& 67&68&&
CHAPTER&7& DISCUSSION&OF&FINDINGS&d&PEACEBUILDING,&&& & CHILDREN’S&RIGHTS&AND&PROTECTION&7.1& Relevance&of&proposed&theories&of&peacebuilding&7.2& Considerations&of&children’s&rights&and&protection&7.3& The&role&of&humanitarian&organisations&& !
70&&&70&74&77&&
CHAPTER&8& FINAL&CONCLUSIONS&AND&RECOMMENDATIONS&8.1& Overall&conclusions&8.2& Recommendations&&
78&&78&81&
FIGURES&Fig&1& Doodle!Six!–!Expanded!Framework!for!Peacebuilding!(Lederach,!
! 2005:144)!
Fig&2& InterHAgency!Standing!Committee!Service!Model!from!Magid!&!
! Boothby!(2003:44)!
Fig&3& Terrorist!attacks!in!Colombia!1980H1989,!The!Economist!(2015)&Fig&4& The!flow!and!ebb!of!violence,!The!Economist!(2015)&Fig&5& Numbers!of!displaced!people,!The!Economist!(2015)!
&&23&&28&31&35&35&
! 5&
Fig&6& Reconciliation;!the!instruments,!(Bloomfield!et!al,!2003:24,!
! adapted!from!Lederach!
Fig&7& Programme!Methodology,!Fundación!Plan!(2015)!
Fig&8& Charts!showing!the!breakdown!of!all!respondents!to!the!
! questionnaire!by!gender,!age,!ethnicity!and!education!level!in!
! the!two!regions!
Fig&9& Table!showing!results!of!coding!
Fig&10!!!Theme!1!respondents!by!age!and!region&Fig&11! Diagram!depicting!Lederach’s!‘peacebuilding!pyramid’!
! (2007:39)!as!described!by!children!in!Colombia&
& 37&&61&66&&&
66&67&76&&&
&BIBLIOGRAPHY&&APPENDICES&1! The!model!‘The!Path!of!Love’!(‘El&Camino&del&Amor’)&2! Example!‘map’!of!the!impact!of!the!conflict!(’Cartografia’)&3! Instrument!for!the!‘Consultation’!(‘Consulta’)!&
&83&&&91&92&93&
&& & &
! 6&
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS&
!
Huge!thanks!to!Fundación!Plan!in!Colombia!for!the!opportunity!to!complete!an!internship!with!
them! on! the! project! ‘Proyecto& Aportando& a& la& Construcción& de& la& Paz& en& Colombia’,& and! for!
allowing!me!to!use!data!from!it!for!this!thesis.!!
Particular!acknowledgements!and!thanks!to!the!families!and!children!who!shared!their!stories,!
showed!incredible!resilience!and!made!me!so!welcome.!If!only!the!prospect!of!peace!was!in!their!
hands!alone.!!
& &
! 7&
ABBREVIATIONS&AND&ACRONYMS&&AUC!! The!United!SelfHDefence!Forces!of!Colombia!(AutoDDefensas&Unidas&de&Colombia)!
BACRIMs! Criminal!groups!(Bandas&Criminales)&
CBCPM!! Community!Based!Child!Protection!Mechanism!
CRC!! ! UN!Convention!on!the!Rights!of!the!Child!(1989)!
DDR! ! Disarmament,!Demobilisation!and!Reintegration!
ELN!! ! The!National!Liberation!Army!(Ejército&de&Liberación&Nacional)!
EPL!! ! The!Liberation!People’s!Army!(Ejército&Popular&de&Liberación)!!
ICBF&& & Colombian!Family!Welfare!Institute! (Instituto&Colombiano&Bienestar&Familiar)!!
IHL! ! International!Humanitarian!Law!
IASC! ! UN!InterHAgency!Standing!Commitee!
IDPs!! ! Internally!Displaced!People!!
FARC!! ! Revolutionary!Armed!Forces!of!Colombia!(Fuerzas&Armadas&Revolucionarias&de&&
Colombia)!
MH19! ! 19th!April!Movement!
MDGs! ! Millennium!Development!Goals!(UN)!
OPAC! ! Optional!Protocol!on!Armed!Conflict&
PI! ! Plan!International!
Plan! ! Fundación!Plan,!Colombia!
R2P! ! Responsibility!to!Protect!
SEDA! ! Swedish!Development!Agency!
TJ! ! Transitional!Justice!
UNDP! ! United!Nations!Development!Programme!
UNGA! ! United!Nations!General!Assembly!
UNICEF! United!Nations!Children’s!Fund!
UNSC! ! United!Nations!Security!Council!
! !
! 8&
CHAPTER&1& INTRODUCTION&
Post!conflict!children!are!frequently!presented!as!either!damaged!victims!or!threats!to!peace!as!
perpetrators!of!violence,!representation!which!fails!to!recognize!their!knowledge,!resilience!and!
potential! as! agents! of! change! in! peacebuilding.! Children! have! distinctive! voices! to! bring! to!
peacebuilding!based!on!their!unique!experiences!of!trauma!and!their!resilience!(Cook!&!Wall,!
2011:212).! All! over! the! world! children! are! contributing! to! creating! peace! within! their!
communities.!Despite,!or!maybe!because!of,!the!devastating!impact!of!armed!conflict!on!their!
lives,! families! and! communities,! children! are! found! to! be! enthusiastic,! creative! and! inclusive!
peace!builders.! In!post!conflict! societies,!many!examples!can!be! found!of!children!and!young!
people! delivering! education! programmes,! community! development! and! positive! relationship!
building!activities.!Children!are!found!to!have!a!unique!contribution!to!make!to!sustainable!peace!
based!on!their!own!experiences!and!priorities!(McEvoyHLevy,!2006;!2011).!
1.1& Reasons&for&the&study&
Colombia!represents!an!interesting!case!study!for!research!of!this!kind!as!peacebuilding!is!being!
undertaken!and!transitional! justice!measures!are!being!implemented!whilst!the!conflict! is!still!
ongoing.!This!raises!challenges!for!those!providing!humanitarian!assistance!in!a!context!where!
children’s! rights! and! protection! have! been! ignored! and! the! humanitarian! system! has! the!
opportunity!to!work!in!ways!which!restores!these!by!approaching!the!rebuilding!of!communities!
in!particular!ways.!!
In!Colombia,!children’s!rights!and!protection!have!not!been!well!met!and!have!been!devastated!
by!the!50!year!armed!conflict,!yet!the!Movement!of!Children!for!Peace!has!enabled!children!to!
be!involved!in!local!positive!activities!since!1996!and!to!be!strong!drivers!of!a!peace!agenda!for!
the! Country! through! community! based! activities! such! as! enabling! children! from! warring!
communities!to!come!together!through!play,!organising!workshops!for!children!to!share!their!
experiences!of!the!conflict!and!promoting!non!violent!interactions!(Cameron,!2001:42;!Berents,!
2014:379).!!
There!are!many!other!positive!examples!from!around!the!world.!In!Sierra!Leone,!Guatemala!and!
South! Africa! children! have! participated! in! truth! commissions.! In! northern! Uganda! children’s!
! 9&
peace!clubs!use!song,!dance!and!media!to!promote!action!for!peace.!During!the!period!of!conflict!
in!Nepal! children!were! supported! to! create! children’s! zones!of! peace! formally! recognised!by!
political!parties!and!which!supported!children!to!negotiate!with!warring!parties! in! relation!to!
their!protection!during! the!conflict!and!to!become!representatives!on!village!child!protection!
committees.!
However,!whilst!there!are!many!examples!in!literature!of!how!children!have!engaged!in!peace!
building! processes! these! are! often! anecdotal! in! nature.! The! participation! of! children! in!
peacebuilding! is!becoming!an! international! standard! (UN,!2014;!Search! for!Common!Ground,!
2014),! yet! little! research! has! been! undertaken! to! inform! theory! building! about! children’s!
engagement! in! peacebuilding! or! to! look! at! how! peacebuilding! programmes! address! the!
victimization!and!marginalization!of!children!and!young!people!affected!by!armed!conflict.!!
Children’s!rights!and!protection!are!being!devastated!by!armed!conflict!around!the!world!yet!
research!has!yet!to!focus!on!developing!discourse!about!how!peacebuilding!might!contribute!to!
reHestablishing!these!rights!post!conflict.!Little!is!known!about!what!children!and!their!agency!
mean!to!peace!in!post!war!conflicts,!what!peace!means!to!children!and!how!this!knowledge!can!
be!better!integrated!within!peacebuilding!programmes!(McEvoyHLevy,!2011:151).!The!research!
seeks!to!be!of!use!to!humanitarian!and!development!professionals!working!in!this!context.!
Using!a!theoretical!framework!based!on!models!of!peacebuilding,!child!protection!and!children’s!
rights,!this!study!seeks!to!add!to!existing!research!on!the!contribution!peacebuilding!can!make!
to!addressing!the!needs!of!conflict!affected!communities!by!focusing!specifically!on!the!rights,!
protection!and!priorities!of! children!and! informed!by! the!direct! testimonies!of! children! from!
Colombia.!!
1.2& Overview&of&chapters&
In!chapter!2!I!will!discuss!the!research!methods!used!and!set!out!the!specific!research!questions!
designed!to!focus!this!research!and!the!approach!taken!to!the!collection!and!analysis!of!data.!
To! inform!the!research!and!the!development!of! findings,!chapter!3!uses!existing! literature!to!
develop! a! framework! based! on! theories! and! concepts! of! peacebuilding,! children’s! rights,!
ecological!models!of!resilience!and!community!based!child!protection.!!
! 10&
In!order!to!understand!the!context!for!children!and!peacebuilding!in!Colombia!chapter!4!explains!
the!history!to!the!conflict!and!identifies!key!relevant!characteristics!and!chapter!5!looks!at!the!
global!and!national!picture!of!the!impact!of!armed!conflict!on!children’s!rights!and!protection.!
These!chapters!include!the!international!and!national!legal!frameworks!on!these!issues.!!
Chapter!6!presents!the!empirical!data!gathered!from!children!and!young!people!in!two!areas!of!
Colombia! badly! affected! by! the! conflict! and! explains! the! project! this! data! came! from.! The!
qualitative! data! is! analysed! to! better! understand! children’s! experiences! of! the! conflict! in!
Colombia,!their!priorities!for!and!views!about!peace.!!
In! chapter! 7! these! findings! are! discussed! with! reference! to! the! theoretical! and! conceptual!
framework!proposed!in!chapter!3!and!in!order!to!consider!the!specific!research!questions!of!this!
thesis!and!addresses!the!relevance!of!the!findings!to!the!humanitarian!community.!!
Final!conclusions!and!recommendations!for!those!working!with!children!and!building!peace!in!
conflict!affected!communities!are!set!out!in!chapter!8.!
! !
! 11&
CHAPTER&2& THE&RESEARCH&DESIGN&
The!aims!of! this! thesis!are,! in! the!context!of!Colombia,! to! (1)!better!understand!how!conflict!
impacts!on!children,!(2)!understand!affected!children’s!priorities!for!peace,!(3)!consider!whether!
and!how!peacebuilding! can!be!undertaken! in! a!way!which! involves! children! and!meets! their!
needs,!and!(4)!consider!how!peacebuilding!might!restore!children’s!rights!and!protection!post!
conflict!and!enhance!the!conditions!for!sustainable!peace.!!
This! chapter! explains! the! research! design,! the!methods! used! to! achieve! these! aims,! and! the!
strengths!and!weaknesses!of!the!approach!taken.!!
2.1& The&research&questions&
Specific! research! questions! are! important,! to! set! the! parameters! for! research! and! to! inform!
decisions!about!the!methods!likely!to!be!appropriate!for!data!collection!and!analysis!(Hennink!et!
al!2011:35).!In!this!case,!the!specific!research!questions!are;!
Using!a!case!study!of!two!specific!areas!of!Colombia;!
1.! How!has!the!conflict!impacted!on!children?!!
2.! What!are!the!priorities!for!children!post!conflict?!
3.! How!do!children!perceive!peace?!
4.! Can!peacebuilding!be!undertaken!in!a!way!that!includes!children!effectively!and!responds!
to!their!priorities!for!peace?!
5.! How!might!this!contribute!to!restoring!children’s!rights!and!protection!and!enhancing!the!
conditions!for!sustainable!peace?!
2.2& Development&of&a&theoretical&framework&
This!thesis!starts!with!the!development!of!a!conceptual!and!theoretical!framework!to!inform!the!
collection!and!analysis!of!the!empirical!data!and!discussion!of!findings!in!order!to!address!the!
research!questions.!The!use!of!theory!is!important!to!this!research!as!it!enables!the!researcher!
to!formulate!ideas!and!concepts!into!a!“logical,!systemic!and!explanatory!scheme,”!which!helps!
to!explain!phenomena!(Strauss!&!Corbin,!1998:21).!Critical!analysis!of!existing!research!leads!to!
the! proposition! of! theoretical! and! conceptual! frameworks! to! support! analysis! and! the!
! 12&
introduction! of! key! concepts! and! definitions! related! to! the! research! topic! and! its! critical!
questions.! In! line!with! the!realist! tradition! this!provides! focus!and!structure! to! the!study!and!
informs! the! analysis! of! the! qualitative! data! obtained.! Robson! (2011:66)! states! how!positivist!
research! seeks! to! verify,! or! falsify! theory.! In! this! case!of! a! realist! framework,! the! theoretical!
framework! is!central! to! informing!our!understanding!of! reality,! research!seeks! to!explore! the!
utility!of!an!existing!theory!and!possibly!to!extend!it!using!new!data!(Robson,!2011:4),!rather!than!
proving!or!disproving!it.!
This!research!can!also!be!described!as!constructivist!as!it!is!designed!to!explore!specific!problems!
and!better!understand!the!factors!that!create!the!problem!from!the!perspective!of!the!individual!
experiencing!them!in!order!to!generate!proposals!that!can!improve!approaches!in!the!future!–!
‘real!world’!research!(Robson,!2011:4).!As!a!result,!considerable!attention!is!given!in!this!thesis!
to!understanding!the!context!of!the!conflict!in!Colombia!and!the!landscape!for!peace!as!well!as!
on!the!impact!of!conflict!on!children,!both!widely!and!in!the!specific!case!of!Colombia.!From!this,!
specific! factors! significant! to! this! research! and! which! are! important! to! the! identification! of!
research!findings!are!identified.!
2.3& Previous&academic&research&
Secondary!data,!existing!academic!research,!is!utilised!to!inform!the!theoretical!framework!and!
to! ensure! that! the! research! draws! from! and! adds! something! useful! to! existing! knowledge!
(Hennink!et!al,!2011:36).!Research!on!the!impact!of!armed!conflict!on!children,!particularly!on!
children!who!are!recruited!by!parties!to!the!conflict,!is!extensive!and!consistently!demonstrates!
the! disruption! to! children’s! rights! –! their! lives,! families,! communities,! education,! health! and!
protection,!as!well!as!the!potential!for!significant!psychosocial!trauma!(Downing,!2014;!Escobar,!
2004;!Marchand!and!Denov,!2014).!
Research!on!peacebuilding!in!post!conflict!societies!is!also!comprehensive,!frequently!focusing!
on! the! challenges! of! reconstruction! and! risks! of! continued! violence! (Lederach,! 1995,! 2007;!
Bloomfield,!2003;!Borer,!2006).!Much!research!considers!children’s! rights!generally! (including!
Liebel,!2012)!but!little!focuses!specifically!on!children’s!rights!and!peacebuilding.!McEvoyHLevy!
(2001;!2006;!2011)!is!an!exception!with!extensive!research!into!children!in!post!conflict!societies!
! 13&
and!her! findings!have!proved!particularly!useful! to! this! study.! It! is! this! research!gap,!and! the!
importance!of!this!issue!to!those!working!in!environments!of!armed!conflict!and!peacebuilding,!
that!this!thesis!seeks!to!contribute!to.!
2.4& Qualitative&research&methods&
The!unit!of!analysis! in!this!study! is!the!child,!as! it! is! interested! in! individual!experience!which!
varies!depending!on!factors!such!as!ethnicity,!age,!family!circumstances!and!experiences!of!the!
conflict.! From! this! I! will! seek! to! identify! and! understand! both! unique! and! generalisable!
experiences!and!views.!The!sample!of!research!participants!was!purposive!(Robson,!2011:140),!
designed!to!reach!a!target!population!with!experience!of!the!issues!under!research.!
In!this!case,!given!that!this!study!seeks!to!understand!a!problem!from!the!perspective!of!those!
affected,!the!meanings!individuals!ascribe!to!the!world!and!their!experiences!of!it!on!the!basis!of!
their!own,!unique!circumstances!and! in! the!context!of!diverse!cultures!and! societies,! flexible!
qualitative!methods!are!more!appropriate!than!quantitative!research!methods!that!are!suited!to!
positivist!research!which!seeks!to!identify!a!‘truth’!(Robson,!2011:130).&
This! thesis! uses! primary! empirical! data! from! a! programme! being! delivered! by! an! INGO! in!
Colombia!and!gathered!using!qualitative!methods!through!purposive!sampling!with!participants!
relevant! to! the!subject!of! the! study.!The!exact!methods!were!determined!by! the! INGO!and! I!
opportunistically!made!use!of! this!data! for! this! research!with! the!organisations’!consent.!The!
empirical!data!includes;!
1)! Qualitative! empirical! data! drawn! from! events! held! with! children! in! two! communities! of!
Colombia!badly!affected!by!the!conflict.!
2)! Responses!to!a!self!completed!questionnaire!with!children!in!two!communities!of!Colombia!
badly!affected!by!the!conflict.!
I! also!undertook! two!semiHstructured! interviews!with! the!Colombian!Family!Welfare! Institute!
(Instituto& Colombiano& Bienestar& Familiar,! ICBF),! the! government! agency! responsible! for! the!
protection!of!children!in!Colombia,!which!could!be!used!to!triangulate!findings!or!add!contextual!
information.!
! 14&
The!questionnaire!approach!was!chosen!as!it!provided!anonymity!giving!the!potential!for!more!
honest! responses,! it! could! reach! respondents! scattered!over! a!wide! geographic! area,! can!be!
relatively! cheap! to! administer! and! can! have! a! high! response! rate!which!would! enable!more!
confidence!in!the!findings.!In!design,!the!questionnaire!combined!response!by!written!words!and!
drawings!so!that!younger!children!or!those!with!poor!literacy!could!also!participate1.!
Questionnaires!have!some!limitations,!however,!such!as!having!a!limited!range!of!questions,!no!
opportunity! to! to! explain! the! meaning! of! questions! or! to! clarify! issues,! not! allowing! for!
spontaneous! answers,! (respondents! can! think! about! answers! before! completing)! and! it! is!
possible! to! consult! with! others.! These! risks! were!mitigated! by! supplementing! the! data!with!
additional!data!from!less!structured!events!where!there!was!the!opportunity!for!children!to!use!
free!narrative!and! for! the! researcher! to!explore! their!answers!with! them.!These!events!were!
similar!to!a!focus!group!format!where!facilitated!group!discussion!allows!for!specific!issues!to!be!
explored!in!considerable!depth.!
Alternative!methods!could!have!been!considered.!Observation!of!affected!communities!through!
ethnography! or! a! case! study! approach!would! have! provided! detailed! information! about! the!
subject! matter! but! time! did! not! allow! for! such! an! approach! in! this! case.! SemiHstructured!
interviews!are!commonly!used!for!complex!research!like!this!as!they!allow!for!the!researcher!to!
interact!more!with!the!research!subject,!to!explain!questions!and!understand!answers.!However,!
this! can! be! expensive! and! time! consuming! and! the! quality! often! depends! on! the! interaction!
ability!of!the!interviewer!(Hennink!et!al!2011:108).!In!my!case!I!felt!that!my!level!of!Spanish!was!
inadequate!for!this!method!given!the!sensitivity!of!the!issue!and!vulnerabilities!of!the!research!
subjects.!
2.5& Data&analysis&
The! analysis! of! qualitative! data! was! undertaking! using! thematic! coding! analysis! (Robson,!
2011:474)!which!starts!with!an!immersion!in!the!data!using!inductive!logic!built!on!by!gathering!
more!data!deductively!(Oktay,!2012).!Theory!was!developed!from!empirical!data!using!‘constant!
comparison’!methods.! As! questionnaires! were! returned! they! were! systematically! compared,!
analysed!and!conceptually!organised!and!labelled!using!a!process!of!‘open!coding’!to!identify!the!
1!See!Appendix!3!
! 15&
dimensions!and!properties!of!specific!phenomena,!and!‘axial!coding’!to!reassemble!the!data!into!
linked!categories!in!order!to!form!more!precise!and!complex!explanations!(Strauss!and!Corbin,!
1998:101H142).!The!categorizing!of!data!was! informed!by!concepts!and!variables! identified!as!
significant!in!the!theoretical!framework!and!from!knowledge!about!the!context!of!the!conflict!in!
Colombia!and!its!impact!on!children.!The!sample!size!ensured!‘saturation’!(Strauss!and!Corbin,!
1998:136)! was! reached,! the! point! where! no! new! concepts! emerged! from! completed!
questionnaires.!QuasiHstatistical!approaches!will!be!utilised!to!consider!any!significance!within!
findings!(Robson,!2011:465).!
Finally,!inductive!findings!are!compared!with!the!theoretical!framework!identified!to!develop!and!
contribute!findings!to!existing!theory!and!that!can!be!applied!to!practical!situations!by!making!
recommendations!for!humanitarian!organisations!working!in!this!field!(Robson,!2011:470).!!
2.6& Research&credibility&
It!is!important!to!ensure!findings!are!trustworthy.!In!quantitative!research!a!key!consideration!is!
the!pursuit!of!a!sample!and!findings!that!are!statistically!reliable.!In!flexible!methods,!where!there!
is!often!more!than!one!answer!to!the!problem!under!study,!it!is!argued!that!credibility!is!more!
important! (Robson,! 2011:156).! The! methods! used! must! establish! findings! which! reflect!
participants!and!researchers’!experiences,!accepting!that!there!are!other!possible!explanations.!
Internal!validity!considers!the!study’s!own!internal!logic,!whether!it!achieved!what!it!set!out!to!
and! reached! plausible! findings.! Construct! validity! ensures! that! the! research! techniques!
encapsulate!the!characteristics!of!the!concepts!being!studied!and!properly!‘measure’!what!they!
intended!to!(Robson,!2011:156).!!
In!this!study,!this!has!been!achieved!by!identifying!research!participants!whose!experiences!were!
highly! relevant! to! the! specific! questions! of! the! research.! Further,! carefully! defining! the! key!
concepts!of!the!study,!and!the!development!of!a!conceptual!and!theoretical!framework!using!
existing!research!sought!to!ensure!an!approach!to!the!design!of!methods,!data!collection!and!
analysis!which!was!grounding!in!preHexisting!knowledge.!Multiple!sources!of!data!have!been!used!
to!check!conclusions!and!the!meaning!of!outliers!are!explored!thoroughly.!Factors!which!could!
have!influenced!the!credibility!of!findings!are!explicitly!discussed.!!
2.7& Ethical&considerations&
! 16&
Ethical!considerations!were!highly!relevant!to!this!study.!There!were!particular!considerations!
given!the!ages!of!the!subjects.!Consent!to!use!the!data!for!the!purpose!of!this!thesis!was!given!
by!Plan!and! the! consent!of!parents!was!obtained! for! all! children! involved! in! all! activities.! To!
ensure!confidentiality!no!child!is!referred!to!by!name!or!is!identifiable!in!any!way.!
The! nature! of! societies! violently! divided! by! conflict! was! also! a! constant! consideration! and!
consulting!with!community!members!sought!to!ensure!that!the!research!did!no!harm,!such!as!
causing!conflict!or!other!repercussions!within!the!community!(Smyth!&!Robinson,!2001:52).!My!
behaviour!as!researcher!was!important!to!ensuring!participants!were!treated!with!respect!and!
listened!to!sensitively!given!the!traumatic!experiences!being!shared.!The!research!had!a!purpose,!
to!inform!the!later!elements!of!the!programme!being!delivered!by!Plan,!which!was!clear!and!well!
communicated! and! participants! had! the! opportunity! to! contribute! to! the! evaluation! of! the!
effectiveness!of!the!activity.!
!
! !
! 17&
CHAPTER&3&&THEORETICAL&AND&CONCEPTUAL&FRAMEWORKS&
As!explained! in! the!previous! chapter,! this! chapter!provides! an!overview!of! relevant!previous!
research!which!helps!to!define!the!research!subject!more!clearly!and!inform!the!development!of!
theories! and! concepts! and! the! frameworks! that! will! be! applied! throughout! this! thesis,! in!
particular!to!the!analysis!of!the!empirical!data!and!the!development!and!discussion!of!findings.!
It!also!defines!the!key!terms!and!concepts!used!in!this!thesis.!
3.1& Literature&review&
A!consideration!of!existing!literature!ensures!that!my!research!builds!on!existing!knowledge!and!
adds! something! useful,! and! also! supports! the! development! of! a! theoretical! and! conceptual!
framework!which!informs!the!analysis!(Strauss!&!Corbin,!1998:21).!A!thorough!search!of!existing!
literature!using!key!words!has!identified!the!following.!
Despite!the!many!published!case!studies!of!children’s!role!in!building!peace,!what!children!think!
about! peace! processes,! post! conflict! reconstruction! and! how! peacebuilding! can! address! the!
rights!of!children!and!young!people!post!conflict!has!been!given!little!attention!in!research!(Cohn,!
2000:48;!Pruitt,!2015:158;!McEvoyHLevy,!2006:2).!This!is!remarkable!given!how!severely!children!
are! impacted!by! armed! conflict! and!how! central! their! priorities! and! rights! should!be! to!post!
conflict!societies.!The!thesis!seeks!to!address!the!fact!that!existing!research!is!mostly!descriptive,!
rather! than!normative!or! analytical,! and! children! are! largely! presented! as! complementary! to!
formal!peacebuilding!activities!rather!than!central!to!it.!!
Children!are!found!to!be!enthusiastic!and!inclusive!advocates!for!peace!and!their!engagement!
seen!to!contribute!to!more!sustainable!peace!(Pruitt,!2015:166;!Cameron,!2001:42;!O’Kane!et!al!
2009:273).! Engaging! children! in! peace! building! through! reconciliation! can! contribute! to!
addressing! trauma! in! children!who!have! lived!with!protracted!violence!and!develop!peaceful!
strategies! for! the! future! (Pruitt,! 2015:159;! Borer! et! al,! 2006:56;! McEvoyHLevy,! 2006:235).!
Children!are!found!to!often!have!a!different!perspective!on!post!conflict!priorities!than!adults,!
often!described!as!thinking!less!about!political!and!economic!concerns!and!more!on!justice!and!
fairness!at!a!community!level.!Their!priorities!and!activities!often!focus!on!concerns!from!their!
! 18&
day!to!day!realities,!such!as!security!in!homes!and!on!the!streets!(Cameron,!2001;!O’Kane!et!al,!
2009;!McEvoyHLevy,!2001:90).!!
Children!are!making!a!valuable!contribution!to!peace!building!at!a!local! level!but!this! is!rarely!
found! to! be! scaled! up! so! that! their! participation! influences! the! political! process! nationally,!
limiting!the!contribution!children!could!make!to!sustainable!peace!and!the!focus!of!peacebuilding!
on!their!rights!and!protection!(O’Kane,!2009:260;!McEvoyHLevy,!2006:195).!
Research!on!the!impact!of!conflict!on!children!is,!on!the!other!hand,!extensive!and!consistently!
identifies!how!children!are!disproportionately!harmed!by!conflict.!Children’s!rights!to!education,!
physical! health,! psychological! wellbeing! and! protection! are! all! identified! as! being! seriously!
affected! by! both! the! conflict! and! associated! effects! such! as! separation! from! families,!
displacement!and!recruitment!into!armed!groups!(De!Castro!et!al,!2012;!Moss!and!Meenashki,!
2006:!Nicolai!&!Triplehorn,!2003).!Protection!of!children!is!identified!as!being!given!inadequate!
focus! during! emergencies! and! in! peacebuilding! (Cohn,! 2000:46).!Much! research,! including! in!
Colombia,!focuses!on!the!reasons!for!the!extensive!recruitment!of!children!by!armed!groups,!the!
impact!of!this!on!them!and!their!experiences!of!demobilisation!(Downing,!2014:34:43;!Denov!
and!Marchand,!2014:228).!
Much!research!considers!how!the!long!term!impact!of!armed!conflict!on!children!is!affected!by!
their! individual! resilience,! and! key! to! this! is! their! cognitive! functioning! and! the! family! and!
community! relationships!which!exist!around!them!(Fernando!et!al,!2013;!Betancourt!&!Khan,!
2008).! Research! on! children’s! recovery! post! conflict! is! moving! away! from! childhood!
vulnerabilities!being!understood!through!individual!pathology!to!an!understanding!that!children!
can!be!agents!of!their!own!development!in!environmental!and!relational!contexts.!Post!conflict!
interventions! with! children! are! increasingly! based! on! a! social! ecology! of! childhood! where!
children’s!needs!are!best!met!through!working!with!families!and!communities!to!restore!social!
structures!and!normalcy!(Fernando!et!al,!2013:293;!Boyden,!2003:14).!!
Much!research!on!peacebuilding!looks!at!the!propensity!for!conflict!to!reHemerge!post!accord!
and! at! how! best! to! create! the! conditions! for! sustainable! peace! (Borer,! 2006:5).! Research! is!
emerging!which!focuses!on!peacebuilding!not! just!being!about!rebuilding!democratic!systems!
! 19&
and! infrastructure!development!but!of! the! importance!of!community!based,! ‘bottomHup’!and!
inclusive,! relationship! based! reconciliation! to! enable! communities! to! repair! fractured!
relationships,!heal!after!experiences!of!violence!and!achieve!genuine!social!change!and!peaceful!
futures!(Lederach,!1997;!2015;!Bloomfield!et!al,!2003:46).!!
Existing!literature!presents!case!studies!of!children’s!participation!in!peacebuilding,!their!role!in!
promoting!nonHviolent!behaviours!and!as!agents!of!change!in!their!communities,!including!some!
examples!from!Colombia!(Pruitt,!2013162;!Cameron,!2001:43;!Berents,!2014:361)!but!literature!
fails! to! focus!comprehensively!on!children’s!priorities!post!conflict,! their!agency!and!how!the!
peacebuilding!phase!can!address!these.!This!is! in!addition!to!an!identified!gap!in!literature!on!
how!children!relate!to!their!rights!generally,!how!they!perceive!and!make!use!of!them!(Liebel,!
2012:117).!
Consequently,!the!following!concepts!and!theories!are!identified!as!relevant!to!this!research.!!
3.2& Theories&and&concepts&of&peacebuilding&
3.2.1& Definitions&
Influential!in!early!discussions!on!peacebuilding,!Galtung!(1996:170)!rejected!violence!as!a!means!
of!resolving!conflicts!instead!theorising!that!conflict!was!best!transformed!by!creating!‘positive’!
peace! through! addressing! the! attitude,! behaviour! and! contradiction! dimensions! (his! ‘conflict!
triangle’)! in! turn! ending! structural! violence! (poverty,! discrimination! and! institutionalised!
inequality)!and!cultural!violence!(beliefs!and!values!that!support!and!sustain!or!justify!violence).!
In!this!way!a!return!to!direct!violence!(immediate!physical!harm)!was!prevented,!more!than!just!
ending!conflict!by!creating!‘negative’!peace,!instead!securing!sufficient!stability!to!prevent!the!
reHemergence!of!war!(Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:185).!Without!the!provision!of!a!safe!environment!
post!conflict!it!is!argued!that!there!is!no!prospect!of!sustainable!peace!(Bloomfield!et!al,!2003:20;!
Darby,!2006:1).!!
Ending! contemporary! conflicts! are! identified! as! requiring! diplomacy,! peacemaking,!
peacekeeping,! conflict! resolution! and! peacebuilding;! different! but! complementary! activities,!
clear!definitions!are!therefore!key.!Peacemaking!refers!to!diplomatic!efforts!to!end!the!conflict!
or!prevent!those!that!are!threatened.!Conflict!management!is!typically!seen!as!the!actions!which!
! 20&
limit!conflict!or!bring!a!war!to!an!end.!Peacekeeping!refers!to!the!deployment!of!forces!to!monitor!
a!ceasefire!or!other!agreements!on!which!peace!is!agreed!between!parties!(Ramsbotham!et!al,!
2011:32).!!
Much!literature!considers!the!post!Cold!War!context!for!conflicts!and!ending!wars.!The!shared!
conclusion!is!that!in!this!context!conflict!resolution!needs!to!not!just!look!at!reducing!violence!or!
reaching!agreements!which!end!the!conflict!but!must!also!include!a!peacebuilding!element!that!
addresses!the!political,!economic,!social!and!psychological!causes!of!war;!the!issues!that!led!to!
parties!taking!up!arms!as!well!as!its!consequences!(Wallensteen,!2015:5/11;!Ramsbotham!et!al;!
2011:229;!MacDougall,!2009:327).!!
Conflict! resolution! is! defined! as! the!wider! activities! leading! to,! “a! social! situation!where! the!
armed!conflicting!parties!in!a!voluntary!agreement!resolve!to!live!peacefully!with!and/or!dissolve!
their! basic! incompatibilities! and! henceforth! cease! to! use! arms! against! one! another.”!
(Wallensteen,! 2015:52).! Peacebuilding! is! defined! by! the! UN! SecretaryHGeneral’s! Policy!
Committee!(2007)!as,!“A!range!of!measures!targeted!to!reduce!the!risk!of!lapsing!or!relapsing!
into!conflict!by!strengthening!national!capacities!at!all!levels!for!conflict!management,!and!to!lay!
the!foundation!for!sustainable!peace!and!development.”!Finally,!conflict!transformation!refers!
to!the!larger!project!of!national!rehabilitation!–!constructing!a!sustainable!peace!by!addressing!
cultural! and! structural! violence! and! preventing! a! return! to! direct! violence.! It! is! this! wider!
interpretation!of!conflict!resolution!this!thesis!will!adopt!as!being!required!for!peacebuilding.!
Two!key!theories!emerge!from!literature!about!peacebuilding.!!
3.2.2& Peacebuilding&as&liberal&institution&building&
The! first! sets!out!a!normative! theory!where!peace! involves! installing! the!pillars!of! traditional!
liberal! society,! such!as!democracy,! economic! liberalisation,! the! rule!of! law!and!human! rights!
protection,!in!a!universal!way!in!previously!violent!societies.!Peacebuilding!is!focused!on!building!
the! broad! structural! context! (institutions,! capacity! and! norms)! within! which! sustainable!
development!can!take!place!(Paris,!2004:6;!Donais,!2012:23).!Democracy!is!seen!as!an!effective!
system! for! managing! the! normal! differences! that! exist! within! society! without! recourse! to!
violence!(Bloomfield!et!al,!2003:10).!Amongst!concerns,!critics!point!to!how!liberal!democracies!
! 21&
are!not!culturally!appropriate!to!all!settings,!questioning!whether!the!root!causes!of!conflict!will!
truly! be! addressed! and! for! the! liberating! potential! of! violence! to! create! new! social! orders!
(Wallensteen,! 2015:295;! Ramsbotham! et! al,! 2011:232;! Donais,! 2012:23;! Paris,! 2004:45/152).!
Concerns!about!limitations!of!‘topHdown’!models!led!to!the!emergence!of!alternative!theories.!!
3.2.3& Reconciliation&based&peacebuilding&
The!second!theory!is!informed!by!evidence!and!experience!from!a!range!of!locations!(including!
S.! Africa! and! N.! Ireland)! and! points! to! the! importance! of! local! peacebuilding! including! the!
reconstruction! of! social! trust! and! non! violent! relationships! through! reconciliation! as! part! of!
creating! the! essential! conditions! for! sustainable! peace! in! democratic! societies.! The! theory! is!
based!on!a!belief!that!sustainable!peace!requires!solutions!to!both!the!issues!of!the!conflict!and!
the!creation!of!the!relationships!required!to!live!with!these!democratic!solutions!(Little,!2011:7;!
Bloomfield!et!al,!2003:140).!Failing!to!repair!the!relationships!damaged!by!conflict!of!the!past!is!
said!to!almost!guarantee!the!failure!of!the!future!(Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:246;!Little,!2010:85).!!
Strongly!influenced!by!the!work!of!J.P.!Lederach!(1995;!2007),!the!theory!focuses!on!engaging!all!
sections! of! society! in! sustaining! locally! determined! but! relationship! based! interventions! that!
develop!peaceful!ways!for!communities!to!interact!post!conflict.!This!is!particularly!felt!to!be!the!
case!in!relation!to!long!term!and!intrastate!conflicts,!as!in!Colombia,!where!direct!experiences!of!
violence!within!communities!leave!deep!psychological!and!sociological!divisions!at!a!local!level!
which!need!to!be!transformed!through!profound!reconciliation.!Lederach’s!framework!for!the!
transformation!of!a!conflict!has!three!key!elements.!
The!first!is!that!all!sections!of!society!must!be!part!of!the!peacebuilding!process,!each!in!different!
ways,! in! order! that! the! broader! systemic! and! subsystem! concerns! that! led! to! conflict! are!
addressed!and!profound!reconciliation!takes!place!so!that!peace!is!sustainable.!Top!leadership!
groups!(such!as!political!and!religious!leaders)!focus!on!high!level!negotiations,!middle!leadership!
(such!as!academics!and!INGOs)!on!developing!capacities!in!conflict!resolution!and!peace!building!
and!grassroots!leadership!(such!as!community!leaders!and!NGOs)!on!addressing!the!direct!impact!
of!violence!on!communities!and!community!participation.!!
! 22&
Lederach! uses! a! ‘web! approach’,! where! key! parties! are! connected! creatively! to! achieve!
constructive!dialogue!leading!to!a!change!in!the!attitudes!and!structures!that!promoted!war.!The!
status!of!middle!leadership!is!seen!as!critical!in!terms!of!capacity!to!connect!and!influence!the!
system! through! ‘webs’! of! strategic! relationships,! yet! grassroots! leaders! have! the! greatest!
potential! to!address! the!conditions! that!generate!conflict!given!their!direct!experience!of! the!
conflict.!Local!level!leaders!are!likely!to!better!understand!both!the!divisions!that!exist!as!a!result!
of!conflict!at!a!village!level!and!be!in!a!position!to!draw!on!the!capacities!that!there!may!be!in!a!
specific! community! to! address! them.! This! is! an! important! element!of! Lederach’s! framework;!
conflict! transformation!must! take! time! to! understand! the! problem! in! context! and! have! the!
humility! to!actively!envision,! include,! respect!and!promote! the!human!and!cultural! resources!
from!a!given!setting!to!inform!the!solution.!In!this!way,!reconciliation!is!sustained!by!local!actors!
having! been! empowered! to! create! genuine! and! meaningful! social! change,! tackling! the! root!
causes!of!violence.!
“People!who!face!the!worst!situations!of!human!degradation,!violence!and!abuse!often!see!the!
challenge!of!genuine!constructive!change!with!piercing!vision.”!(Lederach,!2005:42).!
The!second!element!considers!that!relationships!are!the!central!organizing!concept!to!change,!
the!context!in!which!violence!happens!and!in!which!peace!can!be!created!(Lederach,!1997:24)!
and! consequently! there! is! a! need! to! address! social! and! relational! dynamics! through!
reconciliation.!!
Definitions!of!reconciliation!focus!on!providing!protagonists!with!the!opportunity!and!space!to!
both!acknowledge!the!impact!of!the!past!violence!and!to!imagine!shared!futures!characterized!
by!peaceful!coHexistence!and!at!the!level!of!society,!“a!process!through!which!a!society!moves!
from!a!divided!past!to!a!shared!future”!(Bloomfield!et!al!2003:12).!!
Reconciliation! requires! the! use! of! specific! approaches! to! enable! healing! in! relationships! at! a!
community!level!by!linking!the!past!with!the!future!to!make!sense!of!the!present!and!to!imagine!
that!a!new!peaceful! future! is!possible! (Lederach,!2005:146;!Bloomfield!et!al,!2003:15).!This! is!
depicted!in!the!highlighted!area!in!this!diagram.!
! 23&
!!!!! !
Fig&1:!! Doodle!Six!–!Expanded!Framework!for!Peacebuilding!(Lederach,!2005:144)!
Techniques! such! as! collective! healing,! restorative! justice,! narrative,! remembered! history! and!
lived!history!enable! those!affected!by!conflict! to!understand! ‘who!we!are’!which! is!critical! to!
communities!to!be!able!to!envision!a!desired!future!and!‘where!we!are!going’.!The!future!needs!
to!be!grounded!in!the!shared!past!experiences!of!the!affected!population,!leading!to!healing!that!
enables!the!social!change!that!is!needed!for!the!future!to!take!place.!!
Considerable!risks!are!noted!with!this!approach.!Key!is!the!potential!for!‘bottomHup’!approaches!
to!perpetuate!existing!power!dynamics!and!harmful!and!exclusive!relationships!or!social!structures!
with!communities,!for!example!excluding!woman!and!children!or!favouring!powerful!elites!who!
may! dominate! or! undermine! change! (Ramsbotham! et! al,! 2011:236).! Further,! local! groups!
! 24&
operating!at!the!grass!roots!level!may!be!highly!disempowered,!fragmented!and!lacking!capacity!
for!peacebuilding!(Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:244).!!
The!third!key!element!of!Lederach’s!framework!is!the!need!to!address!the!structural!issues!that!
led! to! the!conflict,! the!political!and!economic! inequalities! that!were! the!cause!of! the!conflict!
which!again!can!only!be!done!if!a!system!wide!approach!is!taken!to!peacebuilding.!!
Increasingly,!the!international!standard!is!for!peacebuilding!which!is!transformative!and!inclusive!
(UN,! 2014).! Gender! is! increasingly! being! given! more! consideration! with! a! greater! focus! on!
women’s!specific!experiences!of!conflict,! their!particular! skills!and! the!contributions! they!can!
make!to!sustainable!peace!if!they!are!included!in!peacebuilding.!Some!learning!exists!about!the!
potential!for!children!to!contribute!to!methods!of!reconciliation!based!peacebuilding!(McEvoyH
Levy,!2006:21)!but!there!is! little!explicit!consideration!of!children’s!role!within!the!theories!of!
peacebuilding!outlined!above;!how!their!voices!can!be!heard,!their!priorities,!knowledge,!cultures!
and!roles!considered,!and!how!this!would!impact!on!the!peacebuilding!process!and!on!creating!
the!conditions!for!sustainable!peace.!
!In!addition!to!considering!this,!this!thesis!seeks!to!explore!whether!approaches!to!peacebuilding!
could! also! enable! communities! to! better! provide! for! children’s! rights! and! protection! in! a!
reconciled!society!post!conflict.!
3.3& A&children’s&rights&based&approach&
Throughout!this!thesis!a!children’s!rights!based!framework!is!pursued.!Rights!are!defined!as!the!
normative!rules!which!have!been!established!within!society,!in!particular!here!within!legislation,!
about!what!is!owed!or!allowed!to!people!within!a!society!or!describes!what!people!are!entitled!
to.!
Traditional! approaches! to! children’s! rights! were! influenced! by! attitudes! towards! children’s!
development!and!capacities,!and!were! largely!paternalistic!and!protective! in!nature!believing!
that!children!lacked!competence!to!make!decisions!so!adults!would!need!to!act!for!them.!The!
conceptual!framework!of!children’s!rights!adopted!by!this!thesis!is!heavily!influenced!by!the!work!
of!Manfred!Liebel!(2012)!who!sees!the!UN!Convention!on!the!Rights!of!the!Child!(CRC)!as!key!in!
giving!state!parties!the!duty!to!improve!the!structural!conditions!that!exist!for!children,!to!protect!
! 25&
a!full!range!of!children’s!rights,!including!health,!education,!protection!and!participation,!both!in!
peace!and!war,!and!reflected!a!move! to!a!more! liberal!children’s! rights!based!approach!with!
children!as!active!subjects!in!their!own!lives,!with!economic,!political!and!social!agency!(Liebel,!
2012:23).!!
Central!within!this!is!the!transformative!and!democratising!potential!of!children’s!participation,!
an!interpretation!of!their!agency!as!their!ability!to!participate!in!decisions!at!an!individual,!family,!
community!and!political!level.!It!assumes!that!children!have!particular!interests!that!they!are!able!
to!recognise!and!represent!(Liebel,!2012:58/126).!However,!a!rights!based!framework!identifies!
that! children’s! acting! is! limited! by! norms,! laws! and! children’s! marginalised! and! relatively!
powerless! status! and! seeks! to! tackle! this! by! recognising! that! children! are! selfHdetermined!
members!of!society!who!act!in!their!own!interests!(Liebel,!2012:20).!If!children’s!agency!is!made!
a!reality,!children!can!use!their!rights!to!reduce!socially!constructed!dependence!and!strengthen!
their!autonomy!(Liebel,!2012:3).!!
The!normative!framework!of!the!CRC!arguably!reflected!a!‘western’,!liberal!model!of!childhood!
free!of!work!dominated!by!education,!leisure!and!family!which!failed!to!recognise!that!in!many!
societies!children!play!a!more!responsible!and!independent!role!that!the!‘west’!imagined!(Liebel,!
2012:25).! Provisions! in! the! CRC! apply! to! all! under! 18s! and! as! such,! in! this! thesis,! a! ‘child’! is!
understood!to!be!all!those!under!18.!However,!the!realisation!of!children’s!independent!rights!is!
understood!as!a!factor!of!their!development,!maturity!and!intellectual!capacity!as!much!as!it!is!a!
legal,!social!or!cultural!construct,!as!commonly!reflected!in!differing!age!based!practices!to!such!
as!criminal!responsibility,!marriage!and!employment.!!
The!CRC!sets!an!ambition!of!universal! children’s! rights!but!notions!of! child!development!and!
childhood!being!variable!constructs!suggest!that!this!needs!to!be!considered!within!a!context!of!
culture,!historical!background!and!the!values!of!local!communities!and!given!this,!rights!cannot!
be!equally!applied!to!all!children!in!all!contexts!(Holzscheiter,!2010:112;!Kaime,!2011:21;!Liebel,!
2012:14/180).!!
3.4& A&conceptual&framework&for&children’s&protection&&
! 26&
Children’s!protection!is!found!in!existing!literature!to!be!a!central!issue!for!post!conflict!societies;!
enabling!children’s!safety! to!be! reHestablished!and! to!enable! recovery! from!the!psychological!
trauma!of!conflict,!children!can’t!recover! if!violence!is!a!continued!reality!(Ramsbotham!et!al,!
2011:246).! Consequently,! the! conceptual! and! theoretical! framework! of! this! thesis! includes!
children’s!protection,!informed!also!by!a!children’s!rights!based!approach.!!
The! CRC! suggested! a! move! away! from! the! privacy! of! family! life,! where! children! have! no!
independent! legal! protection! and! are! deemed! less!morally! capable! of!making! decisions! than!
adults,!to!a!rights!based!culture!in!which!expectations!about!children!and!adults!are!legislated!
for!and!children!are!seen!to!have!a!degree!of!self!determination!and!autonomy!rather!than!being!
passive!objects!of!concern.!!
This! informed! a! shift! in! thinking! about! how! to! protect! children! following! disasters! and!
emergencies! leading!to!more!systemic!and!sustainable!approaches!which!strengthen!national!
child!protection! systems!and!create!protective!environments! that! respond! to!and!prevent!all!
forms! of! abuse,! violence,! exploitation! and! neglect,! described! by! Tol! et! al,! (2013:23)! as! an!
‘ecological!framework’.!!
Considerable!research!looks!at!the!protective!mechanisms!provided!for!children!by!community!
and! family! in! times! of! peace! which! armed! conflict,! particularly! protracted! conflict,! disrupts!
placing!children!at!increased!risk!of!violence!(Magid!&!Boothby,!2013:39;!Cohn,!2000:46).!“Armed!
conflict,! in!particular,!provides!an!ecological! shock!or!destabilization! that!creates!a!culture!of!
violence! that!damages!child!protection!and!support!at!multiple,! interacting! levels.”! (Magid!&!
Boothby,!2013:42).!However,!De!Castro!(2012:262)!found!that!even!where!the!social!fabric!of!
communities!was!disturbed!by!conflict,!it!wasn’t!destroyed.!PreHexisting!networks!that!enabled!
children!to!be!provided!with!safety!and!security!could!be!reHestablished!post!conflict.!
Vulnerability!is!seen!to!be!a!key!factor!in!the!impact!of!disaster!on!communities,!determined!by!
local! contextual! factors! and! the! capabilities! of! specific! groups! facing! adversities.! A! violent,!
conflictive!or!unsupportive!family!and!community!environment!is!noted!to!increase!children’s!
risk!of!exposure!to!violence!in!the!community,!conversely,!the!presence!of!social!support!through!
familiar!networks!of!family!and!friends!is!identified!as!having!a!protectiveHstabilizing!effect!(Tol,!
! 27&
2003:16;! Magid! &! Boothby,! 2003:45;! De! Castro,! 2012:262).! Also! critical! to! this! ecological!
framework! is! a! child’s! individual! capacity! for! resilience.! Factors! such! as! their! level! of!
development,! attachments,! resourcefulness,! nature! of! the! psychological! support,! available!
parenting,!perceptions!of!their!experiences!and!opportunity!to!contribute!positively!to!society!
are!found!to!be!key!to!the!impact!of!trauma!on!children!and!their!recovery!(Williams!and!Drury,!
2011:59;!Tol,!2003:14).!!
Community! based! child! protection!mechanisms! (CBCPM)! are! found! to! be! effective! in! raising!
awareness!of!violence!to!children!and!in!safeguarding!children!from!abuse!and!violence!when!
they! are! embedded! in! and! ‘owned’! by! functioning! community! structures! and! supported!
effectively.!They!are!defined!as!‘a!network!or!group!of!individuals!at!a!community!level!who!work!
in!a!coordinated!manner!towards!protection!of!children!from!all!forms!of!violence,!in!all!settings.!
Such!mechanisms!work!most!effectively!if!built!on!existing!structures!or!traditional!mechanisms!
initiated!from!the!community!rather!than!externally!but!can!be!indigenous!or!externally!initiated!
and!supported.’!(Plan!International,!2015).!!!
This! is! consistent! with! existing! evidence,! for! example! IASC! (2007)2,! which! identifies! that!
community!based,!empowering!approaches!are!key!to!ensure!both!the!best!results!during!an!
emergency!but!also!sustainable!and!sustained!results/benefits!as!part!of!a!spectrum!of!services!
that!promote!resilience.!The!four!levels!of!service!provision!they!envisage!are;!
! ! ! Specialised!services!
! Focused!nonHspecialized!supports!
Community!and!family!supports!
Basic!services!and!security!
!
Fig&2:&& InterHAgency!Standing!Committee!Service!Model,!from!Magid!&!Boothby!(2003:44)!
2! The! InterHAgency! Standing! Committee! (IASC)! is! the! primary! mechanism! for! interHagency! coordination! of!
humanitarian!assistance.!
!
! 28&
3.5& Conclusions&about&the&proposed&theoretical&and&conceptual&framework&
To!conclude!this!chapter,!this!thesis!proposes!a!framework!that!includes!how!peacebuilding!can!
be!both!‘top!down’,!focusing!on!liberal!institution!building,!and!‘bottom!up’,!focusing!on!engaging!
all! sections! of! society,! particularly! grassroots! communities,! using! reconciliation! based!
approaches!to!repair!the!relationships!which!have!been!damaged!by!violence.!
A!concept!of!children’s!rights! indicates!how!a!range!of!rights!should!be!provided!for!and!that!
children!should!actively!participate!in!determining!priorities!and!approaches!for!peace!based!on!
their! lived!experience!of!conflict.!Children’s! rights!are! recognised! to!be!socially!and!culturally!
constructed!but!children’s!protection!is!identified!from!existing!literature!as!being!a!critical!right!
likely! to! be! affected! by! conflict! and! a! critical! issue! for! peacebuilding! and! so! a! conceptual!
framework! is! proposed! where! children’s! protection! is! best! understood! using! an! ‘ecological!
framework’,! where! a! functioning! family! and! community! not! only! provides! protective!
mechanisms!for!children!but!also!creates!the!conditions!that!enhance!children’s!own!resilience!
to!harm!as!part!of!a!wider!framework.!!!!
This! research! aims! to! consider!whether! the! proposed!models! of! peacebuilding! are! suited! to!
children’s!experiences!of!conflict!and!priorities!for!peace!that!will!be!identified!from!the!empirical!
data! and!whether! and! how! this! can! contribute! to! restoring! their! rights! and! protection! post!
conflict.!The!next!two!chapters!will!place!this!discussion!firmly!in!the!context!of!Colombia!and!
will!consider!evidence!about!the!impact!of!the!armed!conflict!on!children.&
! !
! 29&
CHAPTER&4& COLOMBIA;&FIVE&DECADES&OF&VIOLENT&CONFLICT&&
Given!this!thesis!considers!the!specific!issues!of!children,!armed!conflict!and!peacebuilding!in!the!
context!of!the!conflict!in!Colombia,!in!this!chapter!I!include!a!brief!history!of!the!conflict!which!
includes! origins,! actors! and! dynamics! of! the! conflict! to! date,! as!well! as! the! identification! of!
specific!factors!of!particular!relevance!to!this!research,!such!as!the!transitional!justice!framework.!
A! brief! overview! of! relevant! wider! political,! economic! and! social! circumstances! in! Colombia!
completes!the!context!setting.!
4.1&& A&brief&history&of&the&conflict&
The!origins!of!the!fiveHdecade!conflict!date!back!to!the!assassination!of!the!leftHwing!liberal!leader!
Jorge!Eliécer!Gaitán!in!1948!following!which!violence!erupted!across!the!country!between!the!
Conservatives!and!Liberals.!During!‘La&Violencia’,!a!decade!of!intense!fighting!between!numerous!
nonHstate! armed! groups! including! political! parties,! socialists,! peasant! organizations,! and! the!
private!armies!of!large!landowners,!it!is!estimated!that!around!200!000!were!killed!(González,!
2004).!Following!a!short!period!of!military!rule!which!ignited!a!new!wave!of!violence,!this!came!
to! an! end! in! 1958! through! the! ‘National! Front’,! a! power! sharing! agreement! between! the!
conservatives!and!liberals!which!excluded!other!parties!and!led!to!the!repression!of!any!political!
activity!outside!of!this!arrangement.!!
At!the!same!time,!lack!of!rural!reform!and!weak!political!systems,!combined!with!the!influence!
of!Cuba!and!China,!led!to!peasant!communities!transforming!into!guerrilla!groups!groups!taking!
up!the!cause!of!ineffective!state!land!tenure!regimes!and!defending!the!economic!rights!of!the!
rural! poor.! Key! amongst! these! were! the! Revolutionary! Armed! Forces! of! Colombia! (Fuerzas&
Armadas& Revolucionarias& de& Colombia,! FARC),! the! National! Liberation! Army! (Ejército& de&
Liberación&Nacional,!ELN),!The!Liberation!People’s!Army!(Ejército&Popular&de&Liberación,!EPL)!and!
the!19th!April!Movement!(MH19).!!
4.1.1& 1960s&and&1970s&–&low&intensity&conflict&
! 30&
During! the! 1960s! and! 1970s! the! general! public! were! largely! indifferent! to! the! low! intensity!
conflict!taking!place!in!rural!areas!(Valenzuela,!2009:56).!However,!both!FARC!and!ELN!suffered!
heavy!losses!which!left!them!seriously!depleted.&
From!the!1970s!Colombia!experienced!rapid!urbanization,!the!secularization!of!the!middle!and!
upper! classes! and! the! influence! of! education! and! international! thinking! (Gonzalez,! 2004:13).!
Politically,!the!1970s!and!80s!were!characterized!by!a!weak!and!inefficient!government!and!a!
corrupt!traditional!political!class.!In!fact,!political,!cultural!and!ethnic!pluralism!wasn’t!recognised!
until!Constitutional!reform!in!1991.!
4.1.2& 1980s&–&significant&escalation&in&intensity&
In!the!1980s,!armed!groups!grew!in!strength!due!to!profitable!kidnappings!and!taxation!of!the!
growing! illegal! drug! trade! in! Colombia! and! guerrilla! groups! were! influenced! in! their! use! of!
violence!by!the!tactics!of!the!other!conflicts!taking!place!in!the!region.3!
Increased!revenues!allowed!the!1982!FARC!conference!to!agree!significant!expansion!of!military!
operations!across!the!country!to!gain!power!at!a!local!level.!They!made!use!of!the!peace!talks!
taking! place! at! this! time4! to! upgrade! their! fighting! capacity! through! improved! armament,!
command,!control!and!communications,!receiving!support!from!both!the!USSR!and!Vietnam.!This!
was!complemented!with!a!growth!in!capacity;!in!1984!FARC!had!27!fronts!(10,800!fighters)!and!
by!1992!had!60!fronts!(24,000)!with!a!target!to!increase!further!to!84!fronts!by!1996,!although!it!
is!not!known!if!this!final!target!was!met!(McDougall,!2009:337).!This!led!to!a!significant!increase!
in!violence!across!large!areas!of!the!country,!not!just!rural!areas,!as!shown!in!the!figure!below.!!
3!The!revolutionary!wars!taking!place!at!the!time!in!Guatemala,!El!Salvador!and!Nicaragua.!
4!1982!H1986!during!the!administration!of!President!Betancur.!
! 31&
!
Fig&3:&& Terrorist!attacks!in!Colombia!1980H1989,!The!Economist!(2015)&
The!tactics!of!the!guerrilla!groups!led!to!the!creation!of!several!rightHwing!paramilitary!groups!to!
protect!landowners,!drug!lords!who!became!landowners!and!local!businessmen!from!attacks!by!
guerrillas,!a!development!supported!by!many!local!politicians!and!members!of!the!military!with!
whom!alliances!were!formed.!The!paramilitary!groups!originated!as!small!local!armed!gangs,!but!
most!eventually!joined!a!nationHwide!organization,!The!United!SelfHDefence!Forces!of!Colombia!
(AutoDDefensas&Unidas&de&Colombia,&AUC).!The!AUC!was!closely!affiliated!to!conservative!and!
economic!powers! in!Colombia,! such!as! the!elite! landowners! and!multiHnational! corporations.!
Private!armies!did!not!restrict!themselves!to!fighting!the!guerrillas,!but!were!also!responsible!for!
other!human!rights!violations!including!targeting!civilians!suspected!of!leftist!sympathies,!such!
as!teachers!and!union!officials,!for!execution!(Human!Rights!Watch.!1996;!2000).!
In!1985,! the!FARC!attempted!to!enter! into! the!political!process! through!the! formation!of! the!
Union!Patriotica!(UP)!leading!to!over!3000!of!their!members!being!murdered!by!1994,!putting!to!
an!end!potential!for!peaceful!social!reform!at!this!time!(Gonzalez,!2004:13).!
4.1.3& 1990s&–&protracted&conflict&with&heavy&casualties!
! 32&
As!a!result!of!the!continued!increased!resources!available!to!all!sides,!from!narcoHtrafficking!and!
to!the!military!and!paramilitary!groups!from!international!support!including!the!US!funded!Plan!
Colombia5,!the!conflict!intensified!significantly!and!became!protracted.!By!the!end!of!the!1990s!
guerrilla! groups! were! present! in! two! thirds! of! the! municipalities! of! the! country! (Echandia!
1999:103,! cited! in! Valenzuela,! 2009:64)! and! the! capabilities! and!military! tactics! of! the! army!
improved!significantly.!At!the!same!time,!the!drug!trade! infiltrated!the!political!system!in!the!
form!of!bribery!and!extortion!(the!‘parapolitica’)!leading!to!fragmented!state!power.!
Civilians! in! rural! areas! were! subjected! to! violence! from! guerrillas,! paramilitary! groups! and!
Colombian!armed!forces! leading!to!deaths,!forced!disappearances,!high!numbers!of! internally!
displaced!people!(IDPs),!children!being!recruited!into!conflict,!sexual!and!gender!based!violence,!
basic!rights!being!violated!and!the!effects!of!a!high!use!of!landmines.!!
4.1.4& 2000s&–&Government&forces&redestablish&control&
Following! further! failed! peace! talks6,! in! 2002! FARC! escalated! the! conflict! again! successfully!
achieving!their!goal!of!weakening!state!presence!and!governance!at!a!local!level.!By!the!end!of!
2002!158!out!of!the!1098!municipalities!had!no!police!and!131!mayors!had!been!forced!to!leave!
their!municipalities!(Echandía,!2008:8,!cited!in!Valenzuela,!2009:66).!!
In!late!summer!2003,!President!Uribe!oversaw!a!massive!military!assault!on!the!guerrillas!as!part!
of!Plan!Colombia!and!Plan!Patriota.!This!military!strategy!led!to!the!government!reHestablishing!
control!over!large!areas!of!the!country,!including!through!the!reconstruction!of!police!stations,!
and!to!significant!reductions!in!levels!of!violence.!!
Between!2003!and!2006!paramilitary!groups!(particularly!the!AUC)!were!formally!demobilized!as!
a!result!of!generous!and!controversial!amnesty!legislation.!However,!of!note!is!that!successor!
criminal!groups,!or!BACRIMs!such!as! the!Urabeños,!have!since! taken! their!place,!establishing!
strong!business! alliances!with! the! FARC! in! relation! to! the!drug! trade! and!are! reported! to!be!
5!Since!2002!the!US!has!provided!Colombia!with!$9.3bn!in!aid!much!of!which!has!been!spent!on!counterinsurgency!
and!counterdrug!programmes!targeting!FARC.!
6!Which!took!place!between!1999H2002!during!the!Pastrana!government;!FARC!was!at!the!peak!of!its!military!powers!
and!made!almost!no!effort!to!seriously!negotiate!a!peace!treaty!instead!reportedly!used!a!16!000!square!mile!safe!
haven!they!were!granted!in!southern!Colombia!to!train!troops!and!expand!their!drug!trade!(Gonzalez,!2004).!
! 33&
responsible!for!abuses!such!as!killings,!disappearances,!sexual!violence!and!forced!displacements!
as!recently!as!2014!(Human!Rights!Watch,!2015).!
A!further!reflection!on!the!‘successes’!claimed!by!the!government!during!this!time!is!that!it!has!
since!been!established!that!murdering!civilians!and!falsely!presenting!them!as!rebels!had!inflated!
the!apparent!success!of!the!government!by!as!much!as!40%!in!2007.7!
4.1.5! 2012&to&date&d&peace&talks&once&again&&
Peace!talks!have!again!been!underway!since!2012!mainly!between!the!Government!and!FARC,!
but!also!including!the!ELN,!facilitated!by!a!third!party!in!a!neutral!location.!Agreement!has!been!
made!on!four!of!the!six!key!requirements!for!peace;!rural!reform,!political!participation!of!rebels,!
illegal!drugs! trade!and! transitional! justice.!However,!agreement!has!not!yet!been!reached!on!
highly! significant! aspects! of! the! transitional! justice! framework! such! as! the! process! for!
demobilizing!guerrilla!groups!and!for!the!handing!over!of!weapons.!
4.2& Conflict&analysis:&key&aspects&
Given!the!complex!nature!of!this!protracted!conflict!it!is!not!possible!within!the!parameters!of!
this!thesis!to!undertake!a!comprehensive!conflict!analysis,!however,!there!are!a!few!key!issues!
relevant!to!the!questions!of!this!research!which!I!will!seek!to!highlight.!
4.2.1& The&role&of&the&state&
It!is!important!to!this!thesis!to!understand!state!functioning!in!Colombia!as!it!has!impacted!on!
the! realization!of! children’s! rights!and!protection! to!date!and!will!be!highly! significant! to! the!
context!for!peacebuilding.!
Sovereignty! is! formally! afforded! to! the! state! within! the! current! international! system,! civil!
governments!are!responsible!for!protecting!citizen’s!basic!rights!(Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:165).!
However,!the!absence!of!functioning!state!power!In!Colombia!is!argued!to!have!led!to!armed!
groups!being!able!to!organize!and!control!large!parts!of!the!rural!territories!leading!to!extensive!
7!For!more!information!on!Colombia’s!‘false!positives’!scandal!see!http://colombiareports.com/falseHpositives/!
! 34&
human!rights!violations.!Waltz! (1959,!cited!by!MacDougall,!2009:323)!states!that!“war!occurs!
when!there!is!nothing!to!prevent!it”.!!
McDougall!(2009:323)!theorises!that!the!absence!of!a!functioning!state!in!rural!areas!provided!
armed!groups!with!the!opportunity!to!use!state!building!as!a!form!of!civil!war.!In!many!areas,!
guerrilla!groups!took!on!state!functions!such!as!building!schools!and!hospitals,!local!security!and!
collecting!taxes.!The!absence!of!state!military!and!police!capacity,!an!effective!taxation!system!
and!a!transport!infrastructure!all!served!to!isolate!rural!areas!and!increase!the!vulnerability!of!
civilians,!including!children,!to!the!activities!of!armed!groups.!This!theory!is!supported!by!looking!
at!the!significant!reduction! in!rates!of!violence!and!IDPs!following!the!development!of!a! local!
infrastructure!by!Uribe!in!2003.!Combined!with!the!emergence!of!a!drug!trade,!the!absence!of!
state!power!in!large!portions!of!rural!Colombian!territory!was!the!primary!cause!of!the!conflict!
becoming!protracted.!
&
Fig&4:!! The!flow!and!ebb!of!violence,!The!Economist!(2015).!
! 35&
!
Fig&5:&& Numbers!of!displaced!people,!The!Economist!(2015).!
Weak!state!functioning!contributed!to!a!failure!to!realise!children’s!rights!and!to!the!severity!of!
the!impact!of!the!conflict!on!children,!through!a!failure!to!sustain!protective!infrastructure!such!
as!schools!and!health!services,!and!creates!a!risk!for!the!future.!!
4.2.2& The&impact&of&the&drug&trade&
The!cause!of!the!conflict!in!Colombia!was!political!and!economic!inequalities,!not!the!drug!trade,!
but! the!drug! trade!has!become!hugely! significant! to! conflict!dynamics!and! the! impact!of! the!
conflict!on!civilians.! Increased!demand!for!cocaine,!particularly!from!the!US,!together!with!an!
ideal!climate,!a!weak!state!unable!to!control!its!emergence,!the!poverty!and!marginalization!of!
rural! farmers! and! the! opportunistic! armed! groups! looking! for! more! resources! to! fund! their!
operations!led!to!Colombia!becoming!a!major!supplier!of!coca.!The!resources!this!generated!led!
to!an!increase!in!the!severity!of!the!tactics!used!by!both!sides!and!a!significant!worsening!of!the!
impact!on!civilians.!The!rapid!expansion!of!armed!groups!specifically! led!to!an!increase!in!the!
recruitment!of!child!soldiers,!vulnerable!to!recruitment!as!a!result!of!economic!and!social!factors.!
A!key!part!of! the!current!peace! talks!has!been! the!agreement,! in!May!2014,!of!a! strategy! to!
eradicate!coca!and!to!combat!cocaine!trafficking!in!areas!under!guerrilla!control.!However,!the!
continued!global!demand!for!cocaine,!the!inability!of!the!government!to!control!production!and!
the! economic! gains! for! producers! and! smugglers! are! highly! likely! to! lead! to! the! violence!
associated!with!the!drug!trade!being!a!continued!reality!for!communities!in!Colombia!for!some!
time.!
4.2.3! The&conditions&for&peace&
! 36&
As!it! is! important!to!consider!how!the!progression!of!the!conflict! impacts!on!the!post!conflict!
environment,!so!it!is!important!to!understand!key!aspects!of!the!conditions!that!have!enabled!
peace!to!become!a!possibility.!!
Targeted!military!action! is! identified!to!be!more! likely!to!foreshorten!a!conflict!by!persuading!
those!losing!ground!to!accept!a!settlement!(Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:6).!In!Colombia,!a!prolonged!
army!offensive!following!the!election!of!President!Álvaro!Uribe!resulted!in!the!killing!and!capture!
of! many! FARC! commanders.! However,! a! significant! factor! enabling! the! deHescalation! of! the!
conflict!to!the!level!where!peace!talks!were!reHestablished!was!the!strategy!taken!by!President!
Juan!Manuel!Santos!to!acknowledge!FARC!as!a!politically!motivated!organization,!in!contrast!to!
his!predecessor!who!in!public!referred!to!them!only!as!narcoHtraffickers.!This!was!important!to!
getting!FARC!back!around!the!negotiating!table!by!signalling!a!possible!new!political!relationship!
between!the!adversaries!(Kriesberg!and!Drayton,!2012:213).!
The!negotiations!over!peace!have!not! just! focused!on!the!reduction!of!weaponry!but! include!
addressing!the!causes!of!the!conflict,!e.g.!through!commitment!to!rural!reform,!education!and!
political!participation,!recognized!to!be!crucial!to!the!ending!of!civil!wars!(Wallensteen,!2015:5)!
and!important!to!the!context!for!children’s!rights!and!peacebuilding!post!agreement.!!
4.3! & The&approach&to&transitional&justice&
We!see!from!the!above!that!peace!has!become!possible!as!a!result!of!what!Zartman!(1995,!cited!
in!Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:178)!refers!to!as!a!‘ripe!moment’.!Capitalising!on!this,!an!approach!to!
transitional!justice!has!been!being!developed!and!is!being!implemented!whilst!the!conflict!is!still!
continuing.!Transitional!justice!seeks!to!find!a!balance!between!justice!and!peace!(or!retribution!
and!reparation!–!see!fig!7)!for!countries!emerging!from!conflict,!and!the!approach!being!taken!in!
Colombia! is! critical! to! the!discussion! in! this! thesis! about! children’s! rights! and!protection!and!
peacebuilding.!!
! 37#
!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
Fig#6:!! Reconciliation;!the!instruments!(Bloomfield!et!al,!2003:24,!adapted!from!Lederach).!
Colombia! is! adopting! a!wide! range!of!measures! to! address! for! past!wrongs! and! compensate!
victims,!funds!have!been!identified!and!agreed!approaches!are!being!implemented!with!degrees!
of! success.! In! 2005,! the! Justice! and! Peace! Law! (Ley! 975)! was! implemented! to! provide! a!
standardized! framework! for! transitional! justice! and! to! provide! special! protections! for! child!
victims,!including!children!detached!from!illegal!armed!groups.!Ley!975!also!established!a!legal!
framework! for!demobilised!paramilitary! groups!offering! leniency! to! those!who!disarmed!and!
cooperated!with!action!in!relation!to!human!rights!violations.!In!May!2006,!it!was!revised!by!the!
Colombian! Constitutional! Court! to! include! victims! better8,! in! response! to! concerns! that! the!
original!legislation!represented!an!effective!amnesty.!
In!2011,!The!Victims!and!Land!Restitution!Act!(Ley$1448$de$Victimas$y$Restitutión$de$Tierras)!was!
enacted!as!part!of!this!framework,!with!the!intention!of!setting!out!how!victims!of!the!conflict!
would! be! recompensed,! including! those! who! have! lost! control! of! their! land.! Provisions! for!
8!The!revised!law!gave!victims!an!increased!role!in!prosecutions!and!required!full!confessions!from!perpetrators!in!order!to!enjoy!the!laws’!benefits.!
24
Much has been written about the influence of these four instruments in the reconciliation process. Some believe that truth-telling, for example, leads directly to trust, empathy and even forgiveness. This conviction is clearly present in the label “truth and reconciliation commission”. It is an accurate name insofar as seeking for accuracy about the past is a vital step in the reconciliation process, accord-ing to our wide definition. But “truth” in itself will not bring reconciliation. Truth-seeking is a key ingredient, but only one ingredient, in reconciliation. In the same way, justice is a vital requirement for healing wounds, making offenders accountable, and re-establishing a relationship of equity and respect. But justice alone does not produce full reconciliation. Truth and justice are not separate from reconciliation: they are key parts of it.
Healing, truth-seeking, justice and reparation lay the foundations for the gradual creation of the various outcomes of the reconciliation process. They create favourable conditions and generate oppor-tunities. But other, often long-term, investments are also needed, such as educational programmes and human rights awareness activities.
Decisions to be Taken, Choices to be Made
Political and civil society leaders are faced with a variety of strategic and structural choices. The identification of critical factors and potential solutions is crucial. Many of these choices are dealt with in other chapters, but the following is a brief presentation of some of the more general problems.
The Question of Whether to Address Reconciliation
It seems self-evident to see reconciliation as a vital requirement in societies that are emerging from a terrifying past, but there are post-conflict countries where the notion of reconciliation is simply
Figure 2.1 Reconciliation: The Instruments
Peaceful coexistence
Trust
Empathy
A culture of democracy
Healing(chapter 6)
Truth-telling(chapter 8)
Reparation(chapter 9)Restorative justice
(chapter 7)
Source: Adapted from the work of John Paul Lederach
! 38#
reparations! include! to!child! survivors!of!human!rights!abuses.!By!December!2015,! the!state’s!
Victims!Unit!had!registered!some!7.8!million!victims!of!the!conflict!(Amnesty!International,!2016)!
however!concerns!have!been!expressed!about!this!law!and!implementation!of!measures,!such!as!
land!restitution,!is!reported!to!be!slow.!!
Child! combatants,! minors! who! international! standards! would! consider! victims! of! forced!
recruitment,!are!only!recognized!by!this! law!as!victims!if!they!were!still!minors!at!the!time!of!
demobilization.!Given!how!long!the!conflict!is!going!on!this!is!likely!to!exclude!many!who!were!
forcibly!recruited!as!children!but!are!now!adults.!Further,!members!of!illegal!armed!groups!who!
have!suffered!human!rights!abuses!are!not!recognized!as!victims!by!the!law!and!since!the!1448!
Act!does!not!apply!to!victims!of!common!crime!there!may!be!victims!of!violations!of!human!rights!
related!to!the!armed!conflict!that!cannot!rely!on!it!as!a!result!of!the!continued!non\recognition!
by!the!government!of!the!continuing!operations!of!the!paramilitaries,!who!are!now!presented!
instead!as!‘criminal!gangs’!(BACRIMs).!
In! relation! to! retributive! justice,! the! Colombian! government! ratified! the! Rome! Statute! on! 5!
August!2002!therefore!the!International!Criminal!Court!may!exercise!jurisdiction!over!war!crimes!
alleged! to! have! been! committed! on! its! territory! since! that! date! where! national! courts! are!
unwilling!or!unable!to!do!so.!Non\!state!actors!and!paramilitary!forces!in!Colombia!have!been!
seen! to! have!weak! systems! of! accountability! for! compliance!with! international! law! yet! little!
action!has!been!taken.!
In!2003,!the!government!published!Decree!128!amending!previous!laws!on!the!reintegration!of!
voluntarily! demobilized! soldiers,! including! child! soldiers,! leading! to! a! government! led!
demobilization!process.!Decree!128,!granted!legal!and!economic!benefits!to!members!of!armed!
groups!who!demobilized,!critics!argue!it!provided!an!effective!amnesty!from!investigation!and!
prosecution!from!war!crimes!and!human!rights!abuses,!and!protected!those!who!sponsored!their!
illegal!activities.!!
! 39#
Ley!975,!sought!to!advance!the!peace!process!and!reincorporate!combatants! into!civilian! life,!
providing!benefits! including! reduced! sentences9! in! return! for! truth! telling,! reparations! to! the!
victims,!and!a!promise!not!to!return!to!lawlessness.!International!human!rights!organizations!and!
experts!in!transitional!justice!claimed!that!it!provided!de!facto!amnesty!for!violators!of!human!
rights,! hindered! the!dismantling!of! paramilitary! groups,! and! failed! to! guarantee! the! rights!of!
victims!to!reparations!and!truth!(New!York!Times,!2005).!By!July!2015!fewer!than!20!sentences!
had!been!handed!down!(Alcalá!and!Uribe,!2016:7),!many!paramilitary!structures!remain!virtually!
intact! and! these! groups! continue! to! commit! human! rights! violations! against! the! civilian!
population!and!to!act!as!government!informers,!raising!concerns!about!the!impact!on!the!safety!
of!victims!and!human!rights!defenders!(Amnesty!International,!2016).10#
The!current!administration!is!reportedly!pursuing!a!number!of!bills!which!could!impact!on!the!
accountability!of! the!military! for!human! rights!abuses!during! the!conflict,! including! the! ‘false!
positives’! killings,! by! transferring! responsibility! for! prosecutions! from! the! civil! to! the!military!
justice! system! which! is! reported! to! lack! independence! and! have! a! poor! track! record! at!
investigating!human!rights!abuses!effectively!(Human!Rights!Watch,!2016).!Further,!in!order!to!
progress!the!peace!talks!non\custodial!sanctions!have!been!agreed!for!those!who!acknowledge!
responsibility! for! grave! violations! of! human! rights! and! grave! breaches! of! international!
humanitarian!law.!!
Ley!975!also!created!a!National!Commission!of!Reparation!and!Reconciliation!with!a!focus!on!
truth!telling!and!reconciliation.!Truth!telling!activities!which!seek!to!create!narratives!about!past!
violence!based!on!the!experiences!of!those!directly!impacted!by!violence!are!seen!as!crucial!for!
transitional!justice!and!some!attempts!have!been!made!in!Colombia,!but!difficulties!are!reported.!
This! includes!victim!safety!when! the!conflict! is! still!ongoing,!difficulties!achieving!an! inclusive!
approach!and!the!dominance!of!state!and!institutional!narratives!(Alcalá!and!Uribe,!2016:9).!A!
truth!commission!is!scheduled!to!begin!work!following!the!signing!of!a!peace!accord.!
9!5!to!8!years,!less!time!if!spent!in!a!‘concentration!zone’.!10!Around!160!paramilitaries!who!submitted!themselves!to!Law!975!were!eligible!for!release!in!2014.!Some!were!high\ranking!leaders!who!had!been!in!prison!on!remand!but!had!served!the!maximum!eight!years!stipulated!in!Law!975.!Many!were!expected!to!return!to!their!original!areas!of!operation.!
! 40#
In!summary,!some!progress!is!being!made!with!publicly!acknowledging!victims,!giving!them!a!role!
in! the! peace! process,! with! reparations,! truth! telling! and! justice! but! there! are! considerable!
reservations!about!the!approaches!being!taken!and!considerable!risks!for!children’s!rights!and!
peacebuilding.! Transitional! justice! in! Colombia! has! been! dominated! by! the! disarmament,!
demobilisation! and! reintegration! (DDR)! of! ex\combatants! and! agreements! being! reached! to!
precipitate! peace! agreements! are! seen! to! favour! armed! groups! at! the! expense! of! victims,!
including!children.!This!is!likely!to!lead!to!significant!unresolved!grievances!between!victims!and!
perpetrators!of!violence!for!the!post!accord!phase.!Transitional!justice!is!critical!to!re\establishing!
human!rights!and!peace!yet!is!failing!to!effectively!address!security!in!Colombia!and!is!arguably!
creating!the!conditions!for!future!violence!and!crime.!!
4.4! Wider#contextual#factors#–#a#country#with#much#potential#
The!wider! context! for!peacebuilding! in!Colombia! is! influenced!by!wider! social,! economic!and!
political!characteristics!of!the!country!which!are!discussed!briefly!in!this!section.!
Colombia!is!the!fourth!largest!country!in!South!America!with!a!population!of!over!48!million!the!
majority!(58%)!of!whom!are!mestizo!(mixed!Spanish!and!indigenous!heritage),!20%!are!white,!
14%! mulatto,! 4%! black,! 3%! mixed! Black\Amerindian! and! 1%! are! Amerindian.! 35%! of! the!
population!are!under!18!and!just!over!50%!are!women!(DANE,!2015).!
In!the!last!decade!extreme!poverty!fell!from!17.7%!in!2002!to!8.1%!in!2014!while!total!poverty!
fell!from!49.7%!to!29.5%!in!the!same!period!implying!that!6.2m!people!left!poverty!in!this!period.!
The!multi\dimensional!poverty!rate!taking!into!account!education,!health,!labour,!childcare!and!
housing!has!also!declined,! from!49%!in!2003!to!21.9%!in!2014!meaning!the!number!of!multi\
dimensional!poor!fell!by!9.8m!(World!Bank,!2015).!!
Colombia!is!a!functioning!democracy!with!economic!growth!that!has!been!the!most!significant!
driver!of!this!poverty!reduction!and!shared!prosperity!gains!alongside!stable!food!prices!and!price!
stability.!The!country!has!a!wealth!of!natural!resources!and!currently!is!a!large!exporter!of!petrol,!
coffee,!flowers,!bananas,!coal!and!emeralds.!The!economy!grew!at!an!average!4.4%!from!2007!
to!2012!(CIA,!2015).!However,!the!poverty!rate!is!still!higher!than!the!Latin!America!average!and!
! 41#
inequality,!as!measured!by!the!Gini!co\efficient11,!is!amongst!the!worst!in!the!world!(World!Bank,!
2015).!The!poverty!rate!in!the!Colombian!countryside!is!42.8%!(Wilson!Centre,!2014).$
The! Colombian! labour! market! is! still! characterized! by! high! rates! of! unemployment! and!
informality.!The!2013!UNDP!gender! inequality! index!ranks!Colombia!88th!out!of!148!countries!
which! is!experienced!particularly! in! the! labour!market!where!women’s! formal!participation! is!
55.8%!compared!with!79.7%!for!men!(CIA,!20015).!However,!unemployment!for!women!in!the!
first!quarter!of!2015!was!reported!to!be!13.1%!and!for!men!7.4%!(DANE,!2015).12!
Whilst!60%!of!Colombia’s! regions!have!been!able! to!reduce!their!per!capita! income!gap!with!
respect!to!Bogotá!in!the!post!decade,!lack!of!territorial!integration!and!poor!physical!and!social!
connectivity,!leads!to!persistent!gaps!in!standards!of!living!between!urban!and!rural!areas!and!
across! geographic! regions.! Some! of! the! poorest! departments! with! significant! indigenous!
communities!have!had!the!smallest!declines!in!poverty!rates!for!period!2002!–!2013.!The!urban,!
rural!divide!is!persistent!in!monetary!and!multi\dimensional!poverty!measures,!explained!by!a!
continued!lack!of!investment!in!rural!areas!(World!Bank,!2015).!!
4.5!# Conclusions:#implications#for#peacebuilding#
Colombia! has! a! functioning! democracy! and! significant! natural! resources! that! support! the!
potential! for! continued! economic! growth! and! could! support! an! effective! approach! to!
peacebuilding!and!the!realisation!of!children’s!rights!post!conflict.!However,!the!challenges!for!
peacebuilding!are!great.!
It! is!a!society!characterised!by! inequality!and!the!protracted!conflict!has! impacted!heavily!on!
civilian! populations! including! a! high! loss! of! life! and! more! than! 5.5m! people! being! forcibly!
displaced! from! their! homes! since! 1985,! with! a! high! incidence! along! the! Pacific! Coast!
disproportionately!affecting!the!Afro\Colombian!and!indigenous!populations!living!in!these!rural!
areas! (World! Bank,! 2015).! 18%!of! IDPs! are! displaced! as! a! result! of! sexual! and! gender! based!
11!This!is!a!measure!of!statistical!dispersion!intended!to!represent!the!income!distribution!of!a!nation's!residents,!and!is!the!most!commonly!used!measure!of!inequality.!
!
! 42#
violence!(UNDP,!2013)!and!approximately!35%!of!IDPs!are!children!under!18!(UN,!2014).!Between!
2010!and!2015!578000!children!were!victims!of!the!armed!conflict!(Sala!Humanitaria,!2016).!
The!role!of!government!and!infrastructure!in!local!areas!is!significantly!underdeveloped!and!the!
drug! trade! is! an! economic! reality! bringing! with! it! continued! criminal! activity! and! violence.!
Further,!the!approach!taken!to!demobilization!has!prioritized!the!rights!of!ex\combatants!and!
has!led!to!a!re\emergence!of!criminal!gangs!and!a!continued!lack!of!security.!A!lack!of!confidence!
in!government!is!likely!to!include!a!lack!of!faith!in!agreements!being!made!as!part!of!peace!talks,!
for!example!commitments!to!tackle!the!root!causes!of!the!conflict!through!rural!reform.!!
Society’s!perception!of! the!conflict!and!relations!between!guerrilla!groups!and!the!rural!poor!
they!seek!to!represent!have!been!severely!undermined!by!the!methods!of!armed!conflict.!Public!
opinion!polls!routinely!give!the!FARC!an!approval!rating!of!about!2%!(Americas!Quarterly,!2013).!
Violence!and!human!rights!abuses!have!permeated!Colombian!society!for!more!than!five!decades!
becoming!the!mechanism!for!the!resolution!of!private!and!collective!conflicts!in!the!absence!of!
the!state!(González,!2004).!!
As! a! result! of! the! protracted! conflict! Colombian! society! is! found! to! be! deeply! divided! and!
characterised! by! violence! and! abuse! of! human! rights! and! considerable! risks! exist! to!
peacebuilding.!The!following!chapter!focuses!on!the!specific!considerations!relating!to!the!impact!
of!armed!conflict!on!children! in!order! to!develop!a!detailed!understanding!of! the!context! for!
children!in!Colombia!post!conflict.!!
! !
! 43#
CHAPTER#5# ARMED#CONFLICT#AND#CHILDREN’S#RIGHTS#AND#PROTECTION##
Whilst!there!are!some!global!commonalities!about!the!impact!of!conflict!on!children!and!their!
likely!needs! in!peacebuilding,! the!unique! characteristics!of!each! conflict! situation!need! to!be!
identified!and!considered!(Borer!et!al,!2006:59).!Having!identified!key!elements!of!the!conflict!
and!wider!context!in!Colombia,!this!chapter!focuses!on!the!specific!impact!of!armed!conflict!on!
children,!both!globally!and!in!Colombia.!It!sets!out!the!legal!framework!that!applies!to!children!
and!armed!conflict!and!considers!how!armed!conflict!impacts!on!children’s!rights!and!protection!
and!includes!a!consideration!of!the!position!of!children’s!rights!in!the!country.!!
This!informs!an!understanding!of!children’s!likely!needs!post!conflict!and!the!likely!priorities!and!
context!for!peacebuilding.!
5.1# International#Law#
The!legal!framework!to!protect!children!from!armed!conflict!is!well!established!in!International!
Law!which!sets!out!that!State’s!party!to!the!provisions!have!the!primary!responsibility!to!ensure!
the!protection!of!children!and!to!provide!relief!to!affected!populations,!by!adapting!their!own!
laws!and!regulations!where!necessary,!in!line!with!the!Responsibility!To!Protect!(R2P).13!#
5.1.1# The#Geneva#Conventions#
Through!the!Geneva!Conventions!of!1949!and!two!additional!protocols!of!1977,! International!
Humanitarian!Law!(IHL)!regulates!the!conduct!of!international!armed!conflict.!The!Fourth!Geneva!
Convention14!is!one!of!the!main!sources!of!protection!for!civilian!persons,!and!thus!for!children.!
It! prohibits! not! only!murder,! torture! or!mutilation,! but! also! any! other!measures! of! brutality!
whether!applied!by!civilian!or!military!agents.!!
The! Geneva! Conventions! of! 1949! have! been! considered! to! apply! primarily! only! to! conflicts!
between!States.!However,!the!Conventions!also!include!common!article!3!that!applies!to!internal!
conflicts! and! sets! out! the! fundamental! rights! of! all! persons! not! taking! an! active! part! in! the!
13!The!concept!of!state!sovereignty!and!the!‘Responsibility!to!Protect’!(R2P)!is!described!in!full!in!UN!A/63/677.!14!The!Fourth!Geneva!Convention!relates!to!the!Protection!of!Civilian!Persons!in!Time!of!War!and!has!been!ratified,!almost!universally,!by!186!States,!including!Colombia.!
! 44#
hostilities,!namely,!the!right!to!life,!dignity!and!freedom!as!well!as!protecting!them!from!torture!
and! humiliating! treatment,! unjust! imprisonment! or! being! taken! hostage.! In! general,! these!
provisions! oblige! armed! groups! to! minimize! civilian! suffering! and! requires! them! to! protect!
children.!!
Article!77!of!Protocol!I!stipulates!that!‘children!shall!be!the!object!of!special!respect’,!protected!
against!any!form!of!indecent!assault!and!provided!with!the!care!and!aid!they,!whether!because!
of! their! age! or! for! any! other! reason,! by! the! Parties! to! the! conflict.! Article! 78! deals!with! the!
evacuation! of! children! to! another! country,! saying! that! this! should! not! take! place! except! for!
compelling!(specified)!reasons.!
Protocol!II!covers!non\international!armed!conflicts!and!was!the!first!IHL!that!explicitly!addressed!
the!needs!of!children!by!mentioning!children’s!rights!to!care,!aid,!education,!reconciliation!with!
their! families! and! to! be! removed! from! conflict! zones! to! safe! areas! in! the! country.!However,!
Protocol!II!applies!only!to!a!restricted!category!of!internal!conflicts:!they!must!involve!conflicts!
between!the!armed!forces!of!a!Government!and!dissident!armed!forces!or!other!organized!armed!
groups.! According! to! this! criterion,! it! can! be! argued! that! Protocol! II! would! not! apply! to! the!
majority!of!current!civil!wars!as!few!Governments!are!likely!to!concede!that!any!struggle!within!
their!borders!amounts!to!an!armed!conflict,!and!this!was!the!case!in!Colombia!until!relatively!
recently.!
5.1.2# The#Convention#on#the#Rights#of#the#Child#and#the#Optional#Protocol#
Human!rights! law!establishes!the!rights!that!every! individual!should!enjoy!at!all! times,!during!
both! peace! and! war.! The! obligations! incumbent! on! every! State,! are! based! primarily! on! the!
Charter!of!the!United!Nations!reflected!in!the!Universal!Declaration!of!Human!Rights.!The!primary!
responsibility!for!ensuring!human!rights!rests!with!States,!since!they!alone!are!contracting!parties!
to!the!relevant!treaties.!!
Although!human!rights!law!applies!both!in!peacetime!and!in!war,!there!are!circumstances!where!
the!enjoyment!of!certain!rights!may!be!restricted.!Many!human!rights!treaties!make!allowance!
for!States!to!derogate!from!their!obligations!by!temporarily!suspending!the!enjoyment!of!certain!
rights!in!time!of!war!or!other!public!emergency.!!However,!human!rights!law!singles!out!certain!
! 45#
rights! that! can!never!be! subject! to!derogation.! These! include! the! right! to! life,! freedom! from!
torture!and!other!inhuman!or!degrading!treatment!or!punishment!and!freedom!from!slavery.!
Human!rights!law!has!a!number!of!specialized!treaties!particularly!relevant!to!the!protection!of!
children!in!armed!conflict.!!The!International!Covenant!on!Civil!and!Political!Rights!covers!many!
mandatory!rights!including!the!right!to!life!and!the!right!to!freedom!from!slavery,!torture!and!
arbitrary! arrest.! The! International! Covenant! on! Economic,! Social! and!Cultural! Rights! sets! out!
rights!to!food,!clothing,!housing,!health!and!education!which!State!parties!should!seek!to!provide,!
commonly! described! as! protection,! provision! and! participation! rights! (Liebel,! 2012:70).! In!
particular,!the!UN!Convention!on!the!Rights!of!the!Child!(1989)!(CRC)!is!the!strongest!expression!
of!rights!relating!to!many!specific!aspects!of!children’s!lives,!including!health,!education,!family!
life!and!participation!in!decisions,!although!it!is!important!to!note!that!this!right!extends!to!being!
consulted!with!–!not!guaranteeing!rights!in!decision!making.!!
Specifically,!provisions!of!the!CRC!include!Article!38!(War!and!Armed!Conflicts)!that!sets!out!how!
“Governments!must!do!everything! they!can! to!protect!and!care! for!children!affected!by!war,!
specifically,!children!under!15!should!not!be!forced!or!recruited!to!take!part!in!a!war!or!join!the!
armed!forces”!(UNICEF,!2016).!Other!relevant!provisions!that!apply!both!during!peacetime!and!
conflict! include;! Article! 18,! the! protection! of! children’s! rights;! Article! 6,! survival! and!
development;! Articles! 9! and! 10! which! promote! family! placement! and! tracing;! Article! 19,!
promoting!protection!from!violence;!Article!20,!setting!out!responsibilities!to!look!after!children!
properly!where!they!cannot!be!cared!for!by!their!families;!Article!28!a!right!to!education;!Article!
34,! protection! from! sexual! exploitation;! and! Article! 39,! setting! out! responsibilities! for! the!
rehabilitation! of! child! victims! including! physical! and! psychological! recovery! and! social!
reintegration.!!
The!UN!commissioned!report!of!Graça!Machel!(1996),!led!to!the!development!of!an!additional!
Optional!Protocol!on!Armed!Conflict!(OPAC)!to!the!CRC!that!condemns!the!targeting!of!children!
in!situations!of!armed!conflict!including!commitments!around!recruitment!of!children!under!18!
and!demobilisation.!Whilst!the!OPAC!was!being!drafted!the!non\binding!‘Cape!Town!Principles’!
(1997)!emerged,!and!later!Paris!(2007),!and!although!possessing!no!legal!basis!have!been!highly!
influential!in!setting!international!standards!in!this!area.!
! 46#
A!major!feature!of!the!CRC!and!OPAC!is!the!machinery!that!was!established!to!monitor!State!
Parties’!compliance!with!it.!In!particular,!in!2004!the!UN!Security!Council!moved!to!hold!an!annual!
debate!on!children!and!armed!conflict!with!enhanced!monitoring!and!reporting!through!the!UN!
Committee!on!the!Rights!of!the!Child.!The!CRC!is!the!only!human!rights!treaty!that!explicitly!gives!
NGOs!the!opportunity!to!contribute!to!its!monitoring!by!submitting!reports!to!the!Committee!
and!this!is!reported!to!have!led!to!a!strong!partnership!between!the!UN!and!an!NGO!Group!who!
operate!in!an!advisory!capacity,!including!monitoring!developments!on!child!exploitation!issues!
(including!article!38!and!OPAC).!
Further,!UN!SC!Resolution!1539! (2004)! states! that! the!protection,! rights! and!wellbeing!of! all!
children!affected!by!armed!conflict! should!be! specifically! integrated! into!all!peace!processes,!
peace!agreements!and!post!conflict!recovery!and!reconstruction!planning!programmes.!
Finally!in!terms!of!implementation,!the!Rome!Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Court includes!
as! a!war! crime! conscripting!or! enlisting! children!under! the! age!of! 15! years!or! using! them! to!
participate!actively!in!hostilities!in!both!international!and!non\international!armed!conflicts!and!
has!led!to!convictions!for!war!crimes,!including!of!a!head!of!state!in!Sierra!Leone.!!
5.2# The#impact#of#armed#conflict#on#children#
The! legal! framework!outlined!above!has,!however,! failed!to!prevent!the! impact!of!conflict!on!
children! as! identified! in! the! report! to! the! UN! General! Assembly! (Machel,! 1996),! the! first!
assessment!of!war\affected!children!as!both!victims!and!participants,!highlighting!the!interplay!
of! factors! including!violence,!poverty!and!discrimination,!access!to!education,!early!mortality,!
disease,! under\nutrition,! displacement! and! separation! from! family! members.! This! report!
recognised! the! changing! nature! of! armed! conflict;! the! diversification! of! armed! groups! and!
growing!involvement!of!non!state!actors!creating!new!risks!and!challenges.!Intra\state!wars!were!
increasingly!characterised!by!the!prevalence!of!ill\trained!combatants!failing!to!comply!with!IHL,!
readily! available! small! weapons,! economic!motives,! organised! crime,! terrorism! and! counter\
terrorism.!Unarmed!civilians!were!increasingly!the!targets!of!conflict!and!protracted!conflicts!led!
to! the! deterioration! in! basic! services,! deepening! of! social! divisions! and! the! decline! of! local!
economies!and!associated!poverty!(Machel,!1996).!
! 47#
It!is!reported!that!in!2014!tens!of!millions!of!children!were!growing!up!in!situations!affected!by!
existing! and! new! conflicts! (UN,! 2015).!Mass! abductions! of! civilians,! including! children,! were!
identified!as!becoming!an!increasingly!prevalent!feature!of!conflict,!for!example!in!Syria!and!Iraq!
where!over!one!thousand!children!were!abducted!by!the!Islamic!State!and!the!Levant!(ISIL).!
Key! considerations! from! existing! rights! based! literature! on! the! impact! of! armed! conflict! on!
children’s! rights! broadly! relate! to! education,! physical! health,! psychosocial! wellbeing! and!
protection,!including!the!issue!of!children!recruited!as!combatants,!all!important!to!post!conflict!
situations!and!peacebuilding!(Borer!et!al,!2006:43).!!
Many!of!the!worlds’!out!of!school!children!are!in!conflict!and!post\conflict!countries!as!a!result!
of!a!disruption!to!state!capacity!to!provide!education!in!times!of!crisis!as!well!as!attacks!by!armed!
groups!on!schools,!students!and!teachers!and!in!some!cases!the!occupation!of!schools!(Sommers,!
2009:30;!Nicolai!and!Triplehorn,!2003:1).!Schools!are!often!targeted!by!armed!groups!as!they!are!
seen! as! subversive! to! the! aims! of! the! conflict! or! because! they! represent! state! authority!
(Sommers,!2009:31;!Nicolai!and!Triplehorn,!2003:3;!Novelli,!2010).!Disruption!of!education!leads!
to! a! reduction! in! enrolment! and! attendance! impacting! on! children’s! learning! and! cognitive,!
emotional!development!also!pushing!children!into!violence!or!making!them!more!vulnerable!to!
exploitation! (Sommers,!2009:36).!Students!often!do!not! fully! recover! these! lost!opportunities!
impacting!on!their!longer!term!employment!prospects!and!a!countries’!economic!development.!!
Health!facilities!are!also!at!risk!of!being!disrupted!during!war.!For!example,!according!to!the!WHO,!
240!medical!facilities!in!Syrian!have!been!hit!during!the!conflict!up!to!late!2015,!with!70!hit!in!
Jun\Aug!2015!alone!as!a!result!of!which!697!medical!personnel!were!killed!and!40%!of!Syrians!
lack!basic!care! (BBC,!2016).!Much!research!supports! the!conclusion! that!a!high!proportion!of!
deaths! in! complex!emergencies!are!children! (Moss!&!Meenakshi,!2003:6;!Rieder!&!Choonara!
2011:59),!in!the!decade!to!2003!more!than!2m!children!were!killed,!6m!injured!or!permanently!
disabled,!1m!orphaned,!and!20m!were!displaced!(Barenbaum!et!al,!2004:41!cited!in!Cook!&!Wall,!
2011:58).!The!highest!rate!of!mortality!in!refugees!is!identified!to!be!in!the!under!5s!as!a!result!
of!the!disruption!of!the!availability!of!food,!water,!sanitation!and!hygiene!facilities!as!well!as!to!
systems!controlling!communicable!diseases!and!promoting!child!health.!Landmines!cause!death!
! 48#
and! injury! for!many!years!after! the!conflict! (Rieder!&!Choonara,!201160;!Moss!&!Meenakshi,!
2003:21).!
A!substantial!volume!of!evidence!identifies!that!children!involved!in!or!witnessing!armed!conflict!
are! likely! to! experience! psychological! impacts! ranging! from! anxiety! and! depression! to! post\
traumatic!stress!disorder!(Reider!and!Choonara,!2011:61;!De!Castro,!2012:252;!Magid!&!Boothby,!
2013:40),!both!from!the!direct!experiences!of!war!but!also!from!the!associated!effects!of!other!
trauma!such!as!loss!of!family!members!or!the!impacts!of!displacement.!Much!of!the!research!is!
undertaken! with! children! once! they! have! become! refugees,! making! it! hard! to! differentiate!
between! the! impact! of! exposure! to! armed! conflict! or! the! impact! of! its! associated! effects.!
However,! De! Castro! (2012:253)! identified! that! children! experienced! a! range! of! psychosocial!
impacts! most! particularly! terror,! fear! and! anxiety,! loss! of! self! confidence! and! self\esteem!
affecting!their!school!attendance,!relationships!with!others!and!resulting!in!physical!symptoms!
such!as!head!or!stomach!aches.!She!also!found!an!increase!in!bullying!reported!in!schools.!
Children’s!experience!of!violence,!including!community!violence!and!criminality,!can!impact!on!
their! behaviour.! Whilst! risks! for! aggressiveness! are! found! through! the! development! of!
dysfunctional!cognitive!and!emotional!processes!(Guerra!et!al,!2003:1562)!individual!resilience!
is!seen!to!be!key!in!determining!the!impact!of!the!violence!on!the!child!(Guerra!et!al,!2003:1572;!
Tol,!2013:23).! In! terms!of! recovery,!most!studies!have! found!a!gradual! improvement!of!post\
traumatic!symptoms,!particularly!in!the!absence!of!further!adverse!life!events!and!where!strong!
family!and!community!supports!exist,!but!with!a!high!risk!of!relapse!(Proctor,!2006:570;!Thabet!
and!Vostanis,!2000:296).!
Armed!conflict!is!widely!recognised!as!impacting!on!children’s!basic!safety!and!security!which!are!
essential!for!healthy!development.!Children!are!separated!from!their!parents!creating!risks!of!
sexual!exploitation!and!trafficking.!Much!research!relates!to!the!ineffectiveness!of!international!
law!in!protecting!children!from!violence!(Poulatova,!2013;!Kuper,!2000).!!
As!well!as!supporting!psychosocial!wellbeing,!research!looks!at!the!role!families!and!communities!
can!play!in!protecting!children!and!how!this!is!disrupted!at!times!of!conflict!placing!children!at!
! 49#
risk.15! Some! research! looks! at! the! common! failure! to! build! child! protection! measures! into!
emergency!programming!and!for!child!protection!typically!not!being!established!by!development!
agencies!until!societies!are!more!stable!leaving!children!at!significant!risk!in!the!interim!period!
(Cohn,!2000:47).!
The!vast!majority!of! research! relating! to! the!protection!of! children! in! conflict! focuses!on! the!
experiences!of!children!recruited!into!armed!groups.!Whilst!it!is!not!intended!that!the!particular!
experiences! of! these! children! is! the! focus! of! this! thesis,! given! this! is! a! significant! issue! for!
Colombia,! and! the! rights! of! these! children! raise! specific! issues! for! peacebuilding,! key!
considerations!are!identified.!
In!1998!it!was!estimated!that!300,000!child!soldiers!were!exploited!in!over!30!conflicts!around!
the!world!(UNICEF,!2001:3).!However,!indications!are!that!there!are!likely!to!be!more!children!
currently!involved!in!conflict!due!to!a!deterioration!in!circumstances!in!many!conflicts!including!
in! Sudan,! the! DRC,! CAR,! Iraq! and! Myanmar.! The! recruitment! of! children,! in! breach! of!
international! law,! remains! crucial! to! the! survival! of! many! armed! groups! around! the! world.!
UNICEF!note!that!when!conflict! is!prolonged,!armed!forces!and!groups!are!more! likely!to!use!
children!to!replenish!their!ranks.!This!trend!is!facilitated!by!the!availability!of!light,!inexpensive!
small!arms!and!light!weapons!that!can!be!easily!handled!by!children!aged!10!and!younger.!!
The! reasons! for! children’s! recruitment,! the! nature! of! their! roles! in! conflict,! impact! of! the!
experience!and!the!issues!connected!to!demobilisation,!including!rehabilitation,!are!extensively!
evidenced.!Research!considers!how!children!can!be!presented!as!voluntarily!enlisting!but!this!
ignores! the! power! dynamic! and! children’s! vulnerabilities,! and! children’s! forced! enlistment! is!
identified! to! be! significantly! impacted! by! factors! of! poverty,! domestic! violence! and! state!
functioning.!Much!evidence!exists!of!the!trauma!of!being!a!child!soldier,!how!children!are!robbed!
of!their!childhood!and!are!often!subjected!to!extreme!brutality,!including!drug!abuse!and!physical!
and!sexual!violence,!as!both!victims!and!perpetrators!(Wessells,!2007;!Escobar,!2004:38).!
Extensive! research! identifies! poor! outcomes! for! ex\child! combatants! post! demobilization,!
15!This!is!discussed!further!in!Chapter!3!section!3.3.!
! 50#
including!economic!and!mental!health!outcomes!(Cohn,!2000:50;!Wessells,!2007).!Community!
acceptance!and!peer!support!are!identified!as!significant!factors!in!ameliorating!the!effects!of!
the!trauma!(Denov!&!Marchand,!2004:234).!
5.3# Children#in#Colombia##
Given!that!the!circumstances!of!every!conflict!and!their!impact!on!communities!vary!(Borer!et!al,!
2006:65),!it!is!important!to!consider!the!specific!circumstances!of!Colombia,!including!relevant!
national!legislation!as!it!impacts!on!the!context!of!children’s!rights!and!protection!in!Colombia!
and! the! specific! experiences! by! children! of! the! conflict! in! Colombia,! in! order! to! develop! an!
understanding!of!the!specific!impact!of!the!conflict!on!children’s!rights!and!protection!and!the!
context!for!peacebuilding.!!
5.3.1# Colombian#national#law#
As!the!CRC!has!no!special!derogation!clause!its!provisions!should!ensure!the!rights!and!protection!
of!children!during!times!of!conflict.!However,! implementation!and!enforcement!of! the!CRC! is!
almost!completely!dependent!on!national!legal!means!(Liebel,!2012:110).!In!Colombia,!the!CRC!
was!adopted! in!1989!and!under!Article!93!of! the!Constitution!adopted! in!1991,! international!
human!rights!treaties!were!considered!to!be!part!of!constitutional!law,!taking!precedence!over!
national! laws.!Article! 44!of! the!Constitution! lists! the! rights! of! children,! including! the! right! to!
protection,!and!creates!an!obligation!on!the!family,!society!and!the!state!to!protect!these!rights.!
However,! it! wasn’t! until! 2006,! with! the! implementation! of! Law! 1098! on! Childhood! and!
Adolescence! (El$ Codigo$ de$ la$ Infancia$ y$ Adolescencia),! that! the! country! set! out!much! of! the!
national! law! in! relation! to! the! protection! of! children! and! the! promotion! of! their! health! and!
development.!This!included!a!framework!of!rights!including!Article!22,!the!right!to!a!family!life!
and!articles!23\37!list!rights!including!health,!education,!culture!and!the!right!not!to!work!until!
15.!!
Ley!1098!includes!the!treatment!of!children!within!criminal!proceedings,!including!stating!that!
criminal!responsibility!does!not!apply!below!the!age!of!14.!Article!20!of!Ley!1098!prohibits!the!
involvement!of!children!in!military!activities.!!
! 51#
In!Colombia!the!national!legal!framework!for!ceasefire!and!demobilisation!is!reinforced!through!
Laws! 548! (1999)! and! 782! (2002)! which! were! amended! on! 22! January! 2003! through! the!
government! published! Decree! 128! dealing! with! the! reintegration! of! voluntarily! demobilized!
soldiers,! including! child! soldiers.! Article! 22! of! Decree! 128! forbids! the! use! of! children! in!
intelligence!activities!by!any!group,! including!armed!forces.!However!Article!13!of! the!decree!
could! provide! amnesty! for! paramilitaries! and!members! of! armed! groups!who! recruit! or! use!
children!in!hostilities.!
These!measures!led!to!the!development!of!a!strategy!by!the!Colombian!Government,!and!the!
ICBF!and!the!UN!have!worked!together!to!prevent!recruitment!and!ensure!effective!rehabilitation!
and!reintegration!of!demobilised!children!and!young!people.16!!
Notably,! Article! 175! sets! out! the! ‘opportunity! principle’! which! allows! the! Colombian! Public!
Prosecutor!to!abstain!from!legal!prosecution!in!cases!where!teenagers!have!formed!part!of!illegal!
or!organized!armed!groups!where!they!were!deemed!to!be!vulnerable!to!recruitment,!including!
as! a! result! of! the! use! of! force,! threats! or! coercion.! Since! 1999,! there! have! been!
193!convictions!for!child!recruitment,!including!under!the!Justice!and!Peace!Law!of!2005!and!by!
the! Human! Rights! Unit! of! the! Office! of! the! Attorney! General,! as! well! as!
by! regional!and! local! courts.! In! June,!a!new!bill! for! the!protection!of!victims! !of! ! sexual! ! and!!
gender\based! ! violence! ! in! ! conflict! was! ! approved! to! harmonize! the! national! legislation!
with!international!standards!(UN,!2015).!
5.3.2# Children’s#rights#and#protection#in#Colombia!!
Given!the!longstanding!nature!of!the!conflict!in!Colombia!it!is!almost!impossible!to!consider!the!
fulfilment!of!children’s!rights!without!considering!the!context!and!impact!of!the!armed!conflict.!
In!fact,!it!could!be!argued!that!this!has!defined!the!nature!of!childhood!and!children’s!rights!in!
the!Country.!There!is!an!absence!of!specific!literature!describing!a!concept!of!childhood!and!an!
attitude!towards!children’s!rights!in!Colombia!as!distinct!from!the!armed!conflict,!particularly!to!
16! Notably,! regional! Departments! established! local! level! co\ordination! mechanisms! and! social,! educational,!recreational! and! training! activities! in! high\risk! areas,! including! extensive! training! for! the!Army! on! IHL! and! child!protection.!
! 52#
be!able!to!consider!specific!cultural!differences!which!are!likely!to!exist!between!Afro\Colombian,!
Mestizo! or! Indigenous! groups,! and! therefore! I! cannot! explore! this! in! detail.! However,! in! all!
societies!diverse!forms!of!children’s!participation!exist!through!work,!family!life!and!politics!and!
these!are!key! indicators! that!may!help! to!develop!an!understanding!of! this! in! the! context!of!
Colombia.!!
From!a!regional!perspective,!in!some!South!American!countries!children!were!assigned!a!piece!
of! land! at! a! very! early! age! in! order! to! develop! responsibility.! Further,! in! indigenous! South!
American!groups!it!is!reported!to!not!be!common!to!separate!children!and!adults!by!age,!they!
were!both!seen!to!be!part!of!the!community!with!different!capacities!(Liebel,!2012:30).!Working!
children’s! organisations! in! Latin! America! seem! to! attach! an! empowering! value! to! economic!
participation!as!a!path!to!autonomy!and!independence,!as!long!as!the!conditions!of!employment!
are! good;! children!working! to! support! themselves! and! their! family! in! adolescence! should! be!
respected!(Liebel,!2012:152).!
Looking!at!the!common!markers!of!‘majority’,!or!transition!into!adulthood,!in!Colombia,!marriage!
is!legal!at!12!years!for!girls!and!14!years!for!boys!and!23%!of!young!women!marry!before!the!age!
of! 18,! primarily! in! rural! areas! (Humanium,! 2011).! Legal! criminal! accountability! is! 14! years,!
education! is! provided! to! 16! but! rates! of! completion! are! low! and! youth! employment! is!
widespread.!The!right!to!vote!is!from!18!years.!This!suggests!that!independence!is!encouraged!
from!a!significantly!younger!age!than!in!the!‘west’.!!!
Over!the!past!decade!the!Colombian!state!has!been!implementing!policy!directed!at!improving!
the!living!conditions!of!families!in!general!with!progress!reported!in!the!delivery!of!Millennium!
Development! Goals! (MDGs),! for! example! the! reduction! of! poverty! and! extreme! poverty,!
nutrition,! education! attendance! and! child! labour.! However,! children’s! rights! have! not! been!
widely!upheld!and!have!been!seriously!impacted!by!the!protracted!armed!conflict.!!
Approximately!one!in!ten!children!in!Colombia!receive!no!schooling!(Humanium,!2011).!Quality,!
equity!and!completion!rates!are! reported! to!be!poor!and!already!disadvantaged!populations,!
such!as!rural!poor!and!indigenous!groups,!demonstrate!a!disparity!in!achievement!(World!Bank,!
! 53#
2008).17!Schools!have!been!disrupted!by!conflict;!between!1991!and!2006!808!educators!were!
assassinated!in!Colombia!and!1008!were!forced!to!leave!their!homes!and!jobs!for!fear!of!violence!
at!the!hand!of!paramilitary!groups!(Novelli,!2010),!affecting!long!term!economic!opportunities;!
youth!unemployment!is!20%!for!women!and!13%!for!men!against!a!national!figure!of!8.8%!(CIA,!
2015).!Poverty!amongst!IDPs!leads!to!a!high!risk!of!children!dropping!out!of!school!and!becoming!
involved! in! conflict.! Education! quality! has! been! prioritized! politically,! particularly! through!
improving!the!quality!of!teaching!and!learning!and!some!progress!is!being!seen!more!recently!
(World!Bank,!2008).!18!
Key!health!outcomes!are!still!poor,!45%!of!children!in!Colombia!are!reported!to!live!below!the!
poverty!line,!the!0\17!mortality!rate!between!2005!and!2011!has!a!slight!upward!trend,!with!a!
mortality! rate! for! 2005! of! 14.08! deaths! per! 100,000! (Humanium,! 2011).! Children! of! Afro\
Colombian!and!Indigenous!origins!have!been!especially!vulnerable!to!discrimination!and!grave!
violations! as! conflict! has! largely! been! in! territories! where! they! live,! with! a! consequent!
disproportionate! impact! of! poverty! associated! with! conflict! and! displacement! leading! to!
increased!rates!of!malnutrition!and!illness!(UN,!2012).!12%!of!children!nationally!are!reported!to!
be!chronically!malnourished!rising!to!24%!of!IDP!children!and!90%!of!indigenous!communities!
along!the!Pacific!coast!(WFP,!2015).!
A!high!risk!of!depression!and!anxiety!has!been!found!amongst!child!victims.!Sexual!exploitation!
is! an! extensive! problem! in! the! Country! (including! from! tourism)! with! children! particularly!
vulnerable!due! to!poverty.!Between! Jan!and!Sept!2013,!11,300!children!were! reported! to!be!
victims! of! sexual! violence! (Gobierno! Colombiano,! 2015).! Violence! is! widespread! in! society;!
domestic!violence,!violence!at!school!and!street!violence!is!widely!reported,!some!associated!to!
17!Conclusions!of!the!Programme!for!International!Student!Assessment!(OECD)!in!2006!were!that!in!the!previous!decade!Colombia!had!made!significant!progress!in!improving!educational!access!(primary!enrolment!was!approx.!90%!and!secondary!approx.!65%! \!approaching! regional!averages)!and! internal!efficiency,!but!was!placed!below!average!among!Latin!American!Countries!on!quality,!equity!and!secondary!completion!rates.!18! Two! particular! innovative! strategies! in! the! Colombian! education! system! have! received! attention! –! ‘Hogares!Comunitarios! de! Bienestar! Familiar’,! an! early! child! development! programme! impacting! on! enrollment! and!attainment!in!later!grades,!part!of!a!national!integrated!early!childhood!policy,!and!‘Familias!en!Acción’,!a!conditional!case! transfer!programme!which!has!also! improved!enrollment.! In!addition,!Colombia!has!achieved! international!renown!with!its!‘Escuela!Nueva’!programme!based!on!pedagogy!and!flexibility!to!improve!student!achievement!in!rural!areas!(World!Bank,!2008).!
! 54#
the!drug!trade!(Humanium,!2015).!ICBF!is!established!as!the!government!body!responsible!for!
the!protection!of!children!but!has!not!been!fully!functional!in!all!parts!of!the!Country!and!INGOs!
have!made!a!significant!contribution,!in!particular!to!reaching!children!in!conflict!affected!areas.!
Colombia!has!been!reported!to!the!UN!for!grave!violations!against!children!as!a!result!of! the!
conflict!including!recruitment,!killings!(including!extra\judicial!killings),!maiming,!sexual!violence!
and!exploitation,!abductions,!attacks!on!schools!and!hospitals,!forced!recruitment,!deaths!and!
injuries! from! landmines.! Security! forces! have! been! reported! to! have! engaged! in! acts! that!
compromise!the!protection!of!conflict!affected!children!(UN,!2012).!These!concerns!have!led!to!
specific!measures!at!a!national!level!to!prevent!and!address!harm!to!children!including!in!Dec!
2008!the!Government!of!Colombia!voluntarily!accepting!the!establishment!of!the!UN!Monitoring!
and!Reporting!mechanism!and!the!establishment!of!a!Country!Task!Force.!!
Despite!both!the!FARC,!the!ELN!and!the!Colombian!Government!giving!undertakings!not!to!use!
children!in!conflict!as!far!back!as!1999,!it!was!estimated!in!2003!that!the!number!of!children!who!
had!been!recruited!by!non!state!armed!groups!party! to! the!conflict! in!Colombia!had! risen! to!
around!11000!including!children!as!young!as!12!(Coalition!to!Stop!the!Use!of!Child!Soldiers,!2004).!
Army!sources!estimated!that!close!to!half!of!FARC!members!have!been!recruited!as!minors!(BBC,!
2016).!A!more!recent!report!states!that!7722!children!were!recruited!between!1985!and!2014!
and!most!of!them!were!linked!to!war!before!they!were!14!years!old!(Colombia!Reports,!2015).!
As!the!conflict!was!increasingly!fought!in!more!remote!areas!indigenous!groups!were!identified!
as!being!most!at!risk.!Although!they!represent!only!3%!of!the!total!Colombian!population!they!
made!up!14%!of!those!registered!as!demobilized!FARC!recruits!(Colombia!Reports,!2015).!
Reasons!for!children’s!recruitment! include!force,!poverty!and! lack!of!economic!opportunities,!
domestic!violence,!social! factors!such!as!family!and!a!weak!state!(Downing,!2014:!McDougall,!
2009).!Child!combatants!witness!and!perpetrate!violent!acts!and!are!at!risk!of!sexual!exploitation!
and!drug!use.! Children!are! reported! to!have!been!used! in! a! range!of! roles,! both! in! frontline!
combat!but!also!in!logistics!such!as!spying,!intelligence,!working!in!coca!plantations!or!domestic!
tasks!(Escobar,!2004:37).!
! 55#
Since! 1999,! at! least! 5,694! children! have! been! separated! from! armed! groups! and!
benefitted! from! the! ICBF! demobilization! programme.!However,! in! 2014,! the!UN! verified! 343!
cases!of!recruitment!and!use!of!children!by!armed!groups!in!22!departments!and!in!Bogotá.!The!
ICBF! documented! the! separation! of! 277! children,! the! majority! of! whom! had! escaped! from!
armed!groups.!In!June!2015,!FARC!agreed!to!release!all!recruited!children!under!the!age!of!15!
and! to! stop! recruiting! children! under! 17! leading! to! the! demobilization! of! 15!minors! in! 2015!
(Colombia!Reports,!2015).!In!February!2016,!FARC!agreed!to!end!recruitment!of!those!aged!under!
18.!However,!it!is!also!increasingly!recognized!that!child!ex\combatants!are!more!vulnerable!to!
recruitment!into!criminal!gangs!(Wessells,!2007;!Borer!et!al,!2006:52).!
Finally,!in!terms!of!children’s!participation!rights,!the!case!study!of!the!Movement!of!Children!for!
Peace!in!Colombia19!demonstrates!that!there!is!a!potential!for!children’s!active!engagement!in!
peace.!In!Colombian!peace!communities,!young!people!have!organised!to!reject!recruitment!by!
armed!actors.!However,! it! is!unclear!how!widespread!children’s!participation! is!within!society!
and!this!has!not!been!without!risks.!In!2001\2002!there!were!a!series!of!violent!attacks!against!
youth! leaders!culminating! in!the!assassination!of!Edwin!Ortega!who!acted!as!an! international!
representative!of!the!youth!of!peace!communities!(McEvoy\Levy,!2006:76).!
5.4# Conclusions:#implications#for#peacebuilding#
The! international!and!national! legal!system!is! ineffective! in!providing!for!children’s!rights!and!
protection!and!lacks!credibility!in!both!prevention!and!prosecution.!The!legal!commitment!to!a!
framework! of! children’s! rights! in! Colombia! has! not! been! established! as! a! reality! and! the!
protracted!armed!conflict!has!further!served!to!fundamentally!breach!children’s!rights.!Today’s!
wars! are! increasingly! intrastate! fought! at! a! local! level,! causing! divides! between! friends! and!
neighbours!and!the!methods!of!warfare,!including!increased!targeting!of!civilians,!is!leading!to!
children!being!disproportionately!impacted!by!conflict.!The!impact!of!conflict!on!children’s!rights!
is! dependent! on! their! particular! experience! of! the! conflict;! whether! they! were! IDPs,! active!
19!See!Chapter!1!for!more!information.!
! 56#
combatants! or! bystanders,! fought! by! ‘choice’! or! under! duress,! experienced! low! intensity! or!
violent!atrocities,!were!from!poor!or!wealthy!families,!male!or!female!(McEvoy\Levy,!2006:12).!!
However,!given!the!nature!of!the!conflict!in!Colombia,!children!are!likely!to!have!a!range!of!needs!
post! conflict.! Disrupted! education! and! cognitive! emotional! development,! illness! and! physical!
injuries,! psychosocial! trauma! and! distress! are! all! likely.! Some! groups,! including! IDPs! and!
indigenous! groups,! are! identified! to! be! particularly! vulnerable.! All! of! these! will! need! to! be!
addressed!and!restored!through!peacebuilding.!
This!chapter!has!established!the!specific!impact!on!conflict!on!children!in!Colombia!in!order!to!
develop! an! understanding! of! the! likely! priorities! for! children! post! conflict! which! need! to! be!
considered! as! part! of! peacebuilding.! In! the! next! chapter! this! is! developed! further! using! the!
testimonies!of!some!children!in!Colombia!who!have!been!directly!affected!by!the!conflict.!
! 57#
CHAPTER#6# CHILDREN’S#VIEWS#ON#CONFLICT#AND#PEACE!
This!chapter!presents!the!empirical!data!gathered!from!children!and!young!people!in!two!regions!
of!Colombia!in!relation!to!the!issues!of!armed!conflict!and!peacebuilding.!The!data!enables!us!to!
use!the!testimonies!of!children!to!determine!whether!or!not!the!characteristics!of!the!conflict!we!
have! identified! in! the! previous! chapter! have! been! experienced! by! children! in! Colombia,!
specifically! in!terms!of!how!their!rights!and!protection!have!been!affected,!and!enables!us!to!
consider!what!this!means!for!approaches!to!peacebuilding.!
6.1# ‘La#Construcción#de#la#Paz#en#Colombia’:##methodology#
The! data! is! obtained! from! activities! undertaken! as! part! of! the! ‘Project! Contributing! to!
Peacebuilding! in!Colombia’! (‘Proyecto$Aportando$a$ la$Construcción$de$ la$Paz$en$Colombia’),!a!
three\year! programme,! in! its! first! year,! funded!mainly! by! the! Swedish! Development! Agency!
(SEDA)!as!part!of!their!commitment!to!tackling!the!causes!of!conflict!and!creating!sustainable!
peace! around! the!world! and! being! delivered! by! an! INGO,! Plan! International! (PI),! in! areas! of!
Colombia!where!children!and!young!people!have!been!badly!affected!by!the!conflict.!!
PI!has!been!delivering!programmes!in!Colombia!since!1962!where!they!are!known!as!Fundación!
Plan!or!‘Plan’,!(Para$Las$Niñez).!Much!of!Plan’s!work!in!Colombia!is!related!to!the!impact!of!the!
longstanding! conflict! on! children! and! young! people.! This! includes! programmes! supporting!
displaced!children!and!their!families,!access!to!education,!protection,!engaging!young!people!in!
the!process!of!peace!and!programmes!developing!children’s! rights.20! In!all! their!projects!Plan!
operates! in! accordance! with! specific! values! including! consideration! of! the! local! context,!
operating!inclusively!and!sustainably!and!a!commitment!to!children’s!participation.!
The!aim!of!the!Colombia!Country!Strategic!Plan!(2012\2017)!is!to!contribute!to!building!inclusive!
communities!that!promote!peaceful!coexistence!and!the!effective!enjoyment!of!the!rights!of!all!
children,!girls!and!young!people!of!Colombia!against!priorities!of;!care!and!protection,!education!
and!development,!social!mobilization!and!citizenship,!and!sustainable!development.!
20! For! more! information,! see! PI’s! new! five! year! Global! Strategy! (2015\2020)! for! child! protection! programming!www.plan\international.org/file/1148/download?token=YDDse6jJ!and!for!more!information!about!the!programme!in!Colombia!visit!www.plan.org.co!
! 58#
The!objective!of!the!peacebuilding!project!is!to;!
•! Strengthen! the! participation! of! children! and! young! people! in! transitional! justice,!
reconciliation!and!in!the!construction!of!peace!post!agreement.!
•! Strengthen! children’s! agency,! resilience,! develop! their! capacities! and! tackle! inequalities,!
especially! the! comprehensive! protection! of! the! rights! of! children,! through! pedagogic!
programmes.!
•! Prevent!violence,!especially!sexual!violence,!in!a!post!agreement!context.!
•! Reduce!the!effects!and!impact!of!armed!conflict!on!the!population,!especially!for!victims,!by!
rebuilding!family!structures!providing!protection!and!futures!free!from!all!types!of!violence.!
•! Increase!the!confidence,!sense!of!belonging!and!identity!of!children!within!the!family,!school,!
community,!institutional!and!social!environments.!
The!project!seeks!to!challenge!norms!about!violence!in!a!post!conflict!environment!using!pilot!
methodology!entitled!‘The!Path!of!Love’!(‘El$Camino$del$Amor’),$developed!by!Plan!in!an!earlier!
pilot!with!Plan!Germany!in!2009\2010!to!investigate!violence!in!schools!in!particular!communities!
in! five! regions! of! the! Country! with! a! high! proportion! of! afro\Colombian! and! indigenous!
communities!experiencing!poverty,!social!exclusion!and!impacted!by!the!conflict!(Fundación!Plan,!
2011).21!‘The!Path!of!Love’!is!described!by!Plan!as!a!pedagogy!which!seeks!to!create!loving!and!
respectful!relationships!by!tackling!the!normalization!of!violence,!discrimination,!sexual!abuse,!
physical!and!psychological!punishment!and!bullying.! It! seeks! to!develop!attitudes,!behaviours!
and! relationships! characterized!by! respect,! tolerance,! diversity,! self! respect! and!participation!
through!specific!activities!over! four!phases!of! the!programme;! the!calling,! the!transformative!
journey,!the!creation!of!a!new!reality!and!the!celebration.!
The!data!for!this!thesis!comes!from!two!activities!that!I!was!part!of!during!my!internship!with!
Plan!between!August!2015!and!January!2016!that!were!part!of!‘the!call’!to!children!and!young!
people!to!engage!in!the!programme,!undertaken!in!two!areas!of!Colombia!badly!affected!by!the!
armed!conflict;!Buenos!Aires,!a!rural!territory!in!Cauca!Valle,!and!Cartagena,!an!urban!territory!
21!See!Appendix!1!for!a!diagram!visualizing!this!(in!Spanish).!
! 59#
in!the!Caribbean.!
The!activities!sought!to!enable!children!to!contribute!their!views!about!the!impact!of!the!conflict!
on!them!and!the!ways!in!which!a!lasting!and!stable!peace!can!be!built!in!their!own!territories,!
to!begin!a!discussion!in!a!way!which!uses!the!experiences!of!the!past!to! inform!a!discussion!
about! future! peace! and! in! doing! so! contributes! to! addressing! trauma! and! reconciling!
relationships!in!the!community.!This!is!visualised!in!the!figure!below.!
!
Fig#7:!! Programme!methodology,!from!programme!documentation!Fundación!Plan!(2015)!
The! methodology! uses! reconciliation! based! approaches! which! bring! communities! that! have!
witnessed! violence! and! become! divided! by! conflict! together! and! uses! creative! approaches,!
including!the!use!of!narrative!and!drawings,!to!enable!experiences!of!the!past!to!be!shared,!as!a!
way!of!addressing!trauma!and!repairing!relationships,!and!to!develop!shared!visions!of!a!desired!
future.! The! use! of! narrative! is! recognized! as! a! powerful! tool! in! reconciliation,! enabling! a!
collaborative! process! of!meaning!making! and! building! positive! relationships! that! is! a! part! of!
addressing!trauma!and!leads!to!social!change!(Borer,!2006:56).!
Plan!have!had!an!established!presence!in!both!of!these!communities!for!many!years!given!the!
high! levels!of!poverty,!violence!and!the! impact!of! the!conflict.!This! local!knowledge!enabled!
access! to! identified! groups! and! for! unique! local! cultural! and! societal! characteristics! to! be!
considered! in! the! design! and! delivery! of! programmes.! In! each! community,! people! had! very!
different!values,!histories,!skills!and!social!structures!which!are!all!likely!to!affect!their!responses!to!
the!conflict!and!its!impact!on!them.!In!line!with!this,!teams!adapted!the!methodology!of!activities!
Moment!1
Impact of!the!conflict!(Past)
Actions!of!communities!for!peace!(Past)
Moment!2
Impact!of!the!conflict!(Present)
Actions!of!communities!for!peace!(Past)
Moment!3
Actions!of!communities!for!peace!(Future)
! 60#
to! reflect! the! specific! circumstances! of! the! different! communities! and! in! consultation! with!
community!members,!including!children!and!young!people.!
6.2# The#empirical#data#
6.2.1# #‘Mapping’#the#impact#of#the#conflict#(‘Cartografias’)#
Facilitated!workshops!were!held!with!groups!of!around!50!children!of!mixed!age!and!gender!from!
different!communities! in! the!Municipality! focused!on!the!creation!of!shared!narratives!about!
both!the!past!and!the!future!to!create!‘maps’!that!identify!how!the!conflict!has!impacted!on!these!
communities,!and!their!views!about!peace\building.22!!
The!detailed!comments!of!children!and!young!people!were!recorded!during!the!events,!were!
transcribed!and!translated!by!the!author!afterwards!and!are!available!in!a!separate!document!on!
request.!In!relation!to!memories!of!the!past,!there!was!significant!consistency!in!the!testimonies!
given!about!the!experiences!of!conflict!and!their!impact.!!
In!Cauca!Valle,!children!of!all!ages!retold!very!similar!experiences!of!the!impact!of!the!conflict,!
identifying!specific!events!and!discussing!how!they!impacted!on!boys,!girls,!women!and!men.!The!
specific!times!when!armed!groups!violently!invaded!their!villages,!as!recently!as!June!2015,!was!
commonly!where! groups!began! their! discussions,! identifying! the! resulting!deaths! of! soldiers,!
police,!civilians! including!children,! torture!of!men!and!women,! forced!recruitment!of!children!
(most!usually,!but!not!exclusively,!boys),!sexual!exploitation!of!women!and!girls,!disappearances!
and!forced!displacement.!This!was!most!frequently!associated!with!paramilitary!groups!whose!
victims!were!more!often!identified!to!be!civilians,!but!also!with!guerrilla!groups!whose!victims!
were!more!usually!identified!to!be!military.!Children!spoke!of!the!impact!of!this!on!their!families!
and!communities,!of!the!terror,!fear!and!anxiety!created!in!men,!women!and!children.!Children!
spoke!of!losing!their!parents,!often!their!fathers,!with!women!headed!households!identified!as!
common,! their! schools! being! disrupted,! the! development! of! psychological! problems,! drug!
addiction!in!boys!and!pregnancies!in!young!girls.!They!identified!that!relationships!between!their!
22!See!appendix!2!for!an!example!‘map’.!
! 61#
parents!became!violent!or!broke!down,!their!fathers!lost!their!self\respect,!women!were!forced!
into!prostitution,!they!lost!their!homes.!As!two!groups!said;!
“Paramilitaries!evicted!landowners!from!their!territories!and!took!their!belongings.!Girls!and!boys!
were! affected! physically! and! psychologically,! some! women! were! forced! to! live! with! the!
paramilitaries! and!men!were!beaten,! humiliated! and!displaced! from! their! lands! experiencing!
fear,!sadness!and!helplessness.”!
“The!arrival!of!the!paramilitaries!created!a!risk!of!sexual!exploitation!of!girls,!boys!left!school!to!
look!for!work…young!people!were!terrified!and!threats!and!displacement!caused!them!to!drop!
out!of!school…!it!led!to!prostitution,!pregnancy!and!sexual!violence”.!
The! impact! of! crime! and! delinquency! and! the! presence! of! criminal! gangs! was! also! widely!
discussed!with!children!talking!about!their!homes!being!burgled,!animals!stolen,!shops!looted!
and!not!feeling!safe!in!public!spaces.!
Children!also!identified!the!impact!of!landmines,!bombs!being!located!very!close!to!the!village!
and!the!deaths!and!serious! injuries!of!children! in!their!communities!as!recently!as!May!2015.!
Illegal! mining! by! armed! groups! was! also! identified,! leading! to! sexual! exploitation! of! girls,!
prostitution!of!woman!and!pregnancies!and!children!dropping!out!of!school.!!!
Children! in! the!Caribe!most! frequently! identified! the! forced!displacement!caused!by!violence!
from!armed!groups!(both!paramilitaries!and!guerrilla!groups),!of!the!loss!of!their!land!and!also!
identified! the! sexual! violence! of! woman! and! girls! leading! to! pregnancies! and! prostitution.!
Significant! effects! on! family! functioning! were! identified! with! women! becoming! heads! of!
households,!an!increase!reported!of!violence!within!relationships!and!towards!children.!Children!
talked!of!the!impact!of!being!displaced,!experiences!of!discrimination!and!of!having!to!abandon!
their!schools!and!trying!to!find!work!to!help!their!families!survive.!They!spoke!of!the!psychological!
impact!of!these!experiences!on!men,!women,!boys!and!girls!specifically!identifying!loss,!shame,!
and!trauma!from!experiences!of!violence!and!the!violation!of!their!rights.!In!the!words!of!one!
group;!
! 62#
“Boys!and!adolescents! lack!purpose!for! life! (because!of)!a!psychological! trauma!generated!by!
violence,! thirst! for! revenge! for! the! consequences! of! the! past! and! emotional! and! family!
instability”.!
And!from!another,!“In!the!community…!children!have!suffered!forced!displacement!by!violence,!
many! turn! their! backs! on! their! education!because!of! their! psychological! problems! and!other!
situations!they!must!work!to!help!the!family!to!get!money!to!survive.”!
A!further!common!theme!in!discussions!in!the!Caribe!was!the!increase!in!crime!from!criminal!
gangs!and!associated!consequences!of!drug!addiction!and!pregnancies.!Children!spoke!of!being!
too!scared!to!leave!their!homes!or!to!sleep;!widespread!fear!of!crime!and!concerns!about!security!
and!an!associated!lack!of!trust!and!confidence!in!the!police!was!a!repeated!issue.!!
As!one!group!of!children!identified,!“The!displacement!of!some!people!displaced!by!conflict!from!
criminal! gangs! to! poor! neighbourhoods! in! the! city....! leading! to! drug! addiction,! teenage!
pregnancies!and!being!forced!from!schools.”!
In!relation!to!the!future,!in!Cauca!Valle!groups!discussed!the!need!for!the!promotion!of!positive!
messages!about!peace,!positive!activities!for!young!people!focused!on!music,!dance!and!sport!
and!safe!public!spaces!and!schools!where!children!and!young!people!could!gather.!Peace!in!their!
neighbourhoods!was!described!as!being!tranquil!and!harmonious,!with!people!living!together!in!
tolerance! and! without! fear.! Neighbourhoods! would! be! free! from! drugs! and! weapons! and!
neighbourhoods!and!families!would!be!free!of!violence.!!As!one!group!stated,!“In!5!years!I!see!
my!community!full!of!people!positive!about!progress!and!events!that!encourage!us!all!to!achieve!
and!to!create!dreams.”!
In! the! Caribe! a! peaceful! future! was! commonly! described! as! having! good! relations! between!
neighbours,!well!developed!neighbourhoods!(with!schools,!hospitals,!employment!and!effective!
policing)!and!this!would!be!achieved!by!activities!such!as!workshops,!awareness!raising!about!
peace,!sporting!events,!cultural!activities!and!murals!promoting!peace.!
A!significant!difference!noted!between!the!discussions!in!the!two!areas!was!that!in!Cauca!Valle!
children! spoke! more! about! the! experiences! of! violence! from! paramilitary! and! other! armed!
groups,! and! its! impact,! as!well! as! the! impact! of! illegal!mining! and! landmines.! In! the! Caribe,!
! 63#
however,!children!spoke!more!about!the!impact!of!forced!displacement!and!crime.!This!possibly!
reflected!the!differences!arising!from!their!urban!(Caribe)!and!rural!(Cauca!Valle)!characteristics.!
6.2.2# #‘Consulting’#with#children#about#peace#(the#‘Consulta’)#
A! questionnaire! with! two! questions! was! designed! to! consult! with! children! about! their!
perceptions!of!peace!and!the!actions!that!generate!it.23!The!two!questions!were;!
•! How!do! I! imagine!my!community!will!be! in!peace?$ (The! response! to! this!question!was! in!
drawing!form!to!engage!children!of!a!wide!range!of!ages!and!with!wide!ranging!literacy!skills.)!#
•! What!can!I!do!to!build!peace?$(The!response!to!this!question!was!in!written!form.!Younger!
children!and!children!with!poor!literacy!skills!were!supported!to!complete!it.)#
Included!in!this!study!were!334!questionnaires!completed!and!returned!by!children!under!18!at!
events!organized!by!Plan!in!the!identified!communities!during!the!identified!timeframe.!137!were!
from!Cauca!Valle!and!197!from!the!Caribbean.!141!(42%)!were!completed!by!boys!and!193!(58%)!
by!girls.!179!(53%)!of!respondents!were!afro\Colombian,!37!(11%)!were!Mestizo!and!5!(1.5%)!
were!indigenous,!in!line!with!the!composition!of!the!overall!population.!However,!significantly!
higher! numbers! in! the! 12! to! 15! age! group! completed! the! questionnaire! in! the! Caribe.! This!
difference!in!the!age!profile!between!the!two!regions!also!meant!that!more!respondents!in!the!
Caribe!had!completed!secondary!level!education.!
!
23!See!Appendix!3!for!an!example!of!the!questionnaire.!
0
100
200
Niña Niño
Gender!\ all!by!Region
Caribe Cauca!Valle
0100200
De!0!a!7!años
De!12!a!15!años
De!16!a!18!años
De!8!a!11!años
Age!\ all!by!Region
Caribe Cauca!Valle
! 64#
!Fig#8:!! Charts!showing!the!breakdown!of!all!respondents!to!the!questionnaire!by!gender,!age,!! ethnicity!and!education!level!in!the!two!regions.!
Qualitative! responses! have! been! analysed! using! constant! comparison! and! 'open'! and! 'axial'!
coding!methods,!organizing!the!data!conceptually!until!saturation!was!reached!to!identify!the!
themes!below.!Open!coding!enabled!the!concepts!to!emerge!and!axial!coding!enabled!concepts!
and!dimensions!to!be!grouped!thematically!into!categories!or!themes.!These!themes,!with!the!
concepts!and!dimensions!of!which!they!are!comprised,!are!shown!below.!
1.! Positive#changes#in#behaviours#
2.! Ending#violence#and#crime#
3.! The#role#of#the#state#
4.! The#role#of#parents#
5.! Respect#for#the#environment#
Loving!to!others!
Respect!
Tolerance!
To!be!friendly!to!neighbours!and!friends!
To!live!in!harmony!with!others!
To!respect!teachers,!elders!and!parents!
To!generate!new!thoughts!
To!speak!the!truth!
To!be!a!good!student!
To!show!respect!!
No!war!
No!shootings!and!killing!
To!say!no!to!violence!
No!fighting!
No!robbing!
No!bullying!
No!more!hijacking!
No!maltreating!women!and!children!
No!discrimination!
No!use!of!drugs!and!alcohol!
To!keep!away!criminals!
Dialogue!with!the!FARC,!criminals!drug!traffickers!the!army!and!delinquents.!
Disarm,!demobilize!and!educate!ex\combatants!
End!the!drugs!trade!
Provide!help!to!families!
Address!poverty!
End!corruption.!
Dialogue!with!children!and!the!community!
Create!coexistence!
Educate!children!with!peaceful!values!
Develop!values!like!respect,!responsibility!and!honesty.!
Keep!the!neighbourhood!free!of!smoke!
Keep!our!schools!and!parks!clean!
Respect!nature.!
Fig#9:# Table!showing!results!of!coding!#
050
100150
Ethnicity!\ all!by!region
Caribe Cauca!Valle
0 20 40 60 80 100
Estudios!superiores
Segundaria
(blank)
Education!\ all!by!region
Cauca!Valle Caribe
! 65#
The! most! commonly! identified! theme! which! emerged! from! the! constant! comparison! of!
responses!was! that!peace!was!seen! to! require! the!development!of!positive! relationships!and!
behaviours!within!and!between!families!and!communities.!61%!of!respondents!identified!that!
peace!required!both!new!relationships!and!ways!of! interacting!at!an!individual,!family,!school!
and!community!level!which!were!characterised!by!‘respect,!tolerance!and!love’,!three!frequently!
cited!characteristics!of!peace.!There!was!nothing!statistically!significant!about!the!responses!to!
this! theme!by!ethnicity!but!more!girls! than!boys! identified! this! theme!and! in!particular!more!
respondents!were!girls!in!the!8!to!11!age!group!and!from!Cauca.!!
For!example,!a!ten\year\old!girl! in!Cauca!stated!that,!“For!me,!to!build!peace!you!need!much!
tolerance,!respect!and!love.!To!live!with!peace!is!the!most!beautiful!thing!we!have!in!life,!for!me!
it!is!the!best!thing!I!have!inside.”!
!
Fig#10:!!Theme!1!respondents!by!age!and!region.!
The!second!most!significant!theme!related!to!the!need!to!end!violence!and!crime,!such!as!murder!
and!robbery!as!well!as!violence!against!specific!groups!such!as!women!and!children,!to!achieve!
peace.!Respondents!identified!the!need!to!establish!security!and!non!violent!behaviours.!28%!of!
respondents,!a!significant!proportion!of!whom!were!from!the!Caribe,!identified!characteristics!
relating!to!children’s!experiences!of!violence!and!crime!from!both!the!conflict!and!from!emerging!
criminal!gangs,!including!drug!and!alcohol!use.!Children!associated!this!violence!with!the!conflict!
and!felt!strongly!that!this!crime!and!violence!needed!to!be!brought!to!an!end!to!achieve!peace.!!
For! example,! a! 15\year\old! boy! in! Cauca! stated! that,! “To! improve! peace! (we! need! to)!make!
people!tired!of!weapons…!as!people!we!are!all!the!same!and!we!need!to!give!up!arms!and!guns!
so!that!one!day!we!will!have!an!end!to!war”.!And!a!9!year!old!boy!in!the!Caribe!stated!that,!“To!
0
50
100
De!0!a!7!años De!8!a!11!años De!12!a!15!años De!16!a!18!años
Caribe
Cauca!Valle
! 66#
have!no!violence!there!would!be!no!fighting!and!we!would!have!complete!peace!with!culture,!
education,!and!sport!in!a!city!in!peace”.!
Although!these!first!two!themes!appear!similar!it!is!significant!that!the!second!is!phrased!in!a!way!
where!peace!is!described!as!being!about!ending!crime!and!violence,!‘negative’!peace,!whereas!
the! majority! of! respondents! presented! this! in! a! more! ‘positive’! way,! with! the! first! theme!
demonstrating!an!understanding!that!peace!required!not!just!the!cessation!of!violence!but!also!
the!creation!of!new!positive!relationships!and!behaviours.!
The!third!theme!related!to!perceptions!about!the!role!of!the!state!in!enabling!peaceful!societies.!
There!are!a!number!of!activities!that!children!recognised!as! important!political!and!economic!
functions!needed!as!part!of!peace.!This! included! the!need! for!dialogue!with!guerrilla!groups,!
gangs,!drug! traffickers,! the!army!and!other!criminals! including!action!against!corruption.!This!
theme!also!included!responses!relating!to!the!need!for!an!effective!approach!to!disarmament!
and!demobilization!and!drug!trafficking!in!order!to!end!the!war,!and!the!need!to!support!families!
living! in!poverty.!Children!understood!that!all!parties!to!the!conflict!needed!to!be! involved! in!
bringing!it!to!an!end.!
The!fourth!theme,!identified!by!a!few!children!in!both!regions,!related!to!the!role!of!parents!in!
peaceful!societies.!Parents!were!seen!to!have!a!significant!role!in!instilling!ethics!and!values!which!
enable!peaceful!coexistence,!such!as!respect,!responsibility!and!honesty!in!children.!!
The!final!theme,!identified!by!only!a!few!children!in!both!Cauca!and!the!Caribe,!was!that!peace!
required!an!environmental!element!and!a!respect!for!nature!in!communities!and!schools.!!
There!were!some!significant!responses!that!didn’t!fit!with!these!key!themes!that!are!important!
to!note!and!consider,!for!example!where!a!few!children!were!unable!to!see!that!peace!was!a!
possibility.!As!a!15!year!old!boy!in!the!Caribe!stated,!“It's!hard!to!do!something!to!make!peace!
today!because!not!everyone!wants!peace!but! instead!violence.”!And!a!17!year!old!boy! in!the!
Caribe!who!responded!that,!“I!have!concluded!that!peace!doesn’t!exist,!because!if!peace!existed!
there!would!not!be!deaths!at!the!hands!of!others…”.!There!were!also!significant!aspects!that!
were!not!mentioned,!for!example!there!was!no!mention!by!children!of!retribution!or!reparation!
for!victims.!!
! 67#
In! terms!of!what! children! identified! their! communities! to!need! in!order! to!become!peaceful,!!
positive!activities!were!overwhelmingly!identified!as!being!a!key!requirement,!both!targeted!at!
specific!vulnerable!groups!such!as!those!with!psychosocial!needs!or!for!drug!addicts!and!positive!
activities!for!all!children!in!their!specific!communities,!including!through!schools,!based!around!
promoting!peace,!sport,!music,!dance,!for!example,!in!the!words!of!a!16!year!old!afro!Colombian!
child!in!Cauca!Valle,!“I!want!to!build!peace!with!music,!dance,!orchestras,!and!a!band!of!peace.”!
And!from!a!14!year!old!girl!in!the!Caribe,!“Each!person!could!assume!the!role!of!'peacemaker'!to!
carry!the!message!to!the!communities.”!And!from!a!10!year!old!child,!“I!would!bring!the!peace!
process!into!my!school.”!
6.2.3# Considerations#about#the#data#
Returning!to!the!issue!of!research!reliability!and!validity,!the!nature!of!the!empirical!data!needs!
to!be!considered.!!
A!statistically!significant!sample!was!not!of!primary!importance!to!this!research,!as!it!would!have!
been! in! quantitative! research.! However,! the! sample! was! statistically! representative! of! the!
ethnicity!of!the!overall!population!but!girls!were!over\represented!within!the!sample!and!these!
factors! need! to! be! considered! when! interpreting! the! data.! However,! the! high! number! of!
respondents!and!that!the!themes!were!‘saturated’,! indicates!that!a!sufficiently!representative!
range!of!experiences!of!the!conflict!were!gathered!such!that!findings!still!have!validity,!reliability!
and!usefulness.!!
In! addition,! the! questionnaire! did! not! include! detailed! information! about! the! individual!
respondent,!for!example!whether!their!experiences!of!the!conflict!included!being!recruited!by!an!
armed!group.!As!a!result,!the!context!of!specific!responses,!which!may!have!been!relevant!when!
interpreting!responses,!was!not!known.!
The!questionnaire!(‘consulta’)!method!allowed!for!a!good!response!rate!with!wide!but!not!deep!
findings,! the! approach! didn’t! allow! for! interrogation! of! responses.! However,! this! was!
supplemented! with! the! more! free\flowing! responses! and! discussion! from! the! mapping!
(‘cartografia’)$events! that! allowed! for! experiences! to! be! discussed! to! ensure! they!were! fully!
understood!by!the!author.!
! 68#
The! questionnaire! and! events!were! only! completed!with! children! living! in! areas! affected! by!
conflict!so!the!findings!are!not!necessarily!applicable!to!all!children!in!Colombia.!However,!there!
is! value! in! targeting! communities! most! affected! as! arguably! they! raise! the! greatest! risks! to!
sustainable! peace! and! so! the! findings! are! useful! for! peacebuilding! when! considered! in! this!
context.!
Some!data!was!gathered!from!children!in!groups!which!influenced!the!findings;!in!some!groups!
all!responded!the!same,!some!children!were!more!confident!in!discussions!and!others!were!less!
able!to!reveal!their!true!feelings!or!share!highly!personal!experiences.!Also,!very!young!children!
disengaged!or!got!bored!towards!the!end!of!the!‘cartografia’!events.!This!may!have!been!solved!
by!using!smaller!groups!or!a!different!methodology!specifically!for!younger!children.!!
Interestingly,! many! of! the! experiences! of! conflict! that! children! discussed! were! before! their!
lifetimes,!things!their!parents!would!have!experienced!and!their!children!have!become!aware!of!
which! emphasises! the! significance! of! secondary! violence.! As! one! parent! in! Cauca! said,! “Our!
children!are!the!most!affected!emotionally!because!they!see!our!suffering.”!
6.3# Conclusions#about#the#empirical#data#
With! the! noted! reservations,! the! chosen!methods! elicited! a! significant! volume! of! children’s!
testimonies,!experiences!and!opinions!of!relevance!to!the!research!questions.!!!
There!were! some!differences! in!experiences!between! the! two!areas!but!across!both! regions,!
children! consistently! identified! the! significant! impact! of! the! conflict! on! their! emotional! and!
physical!wellbeing!and!livelihoods,!their!health,!education,!protection!and!rights.!They!spoke!of!
the!effects!on!themselves,!their!parents,!families!and!wider!communities,!both!the!direct!effects!
of!the!actions!of!armed!groups!and!also!of!the!criminal!gangs!now!increasingly!emerging!which!
has!led!to!an!ongoing!climate!of!insecurity!and!fear.!
When!listening!to!children!in!Colombia!describe!the!impact!of!the!conflict!on!them,!their!families!
and!communities!it!was!perhaps!not!surprising!that!they!focused!on!the!impact!of!specific!events,!
such! as!when! paramilitaries! invaded! their! villages! or!when! children!were! killed! by! landmines.!
Understandably,!these!events!had!a!significant!and!lasting!effect!on!the!physical,!emotional!and!
psychosocial!wellbeing!of!women!and!children.!However,!in!these!discussions!there!was!very!little!
! 69#
mention! of! the!ways! in!which! the! conflict! had! affected! their! lives! on! a! day\to\day! basis.! The!
protracted!conflict!in!combination!with!a!weak!state!has!led!to!a!significant!disruption!to!education,!
health!and!other!basic!infrastructure,!particularly!in!rural!areas.!Yet!children!barely!mentioned!day\
to\day!realities!caused!by!the!conflict!such!as!how!teachers!were!driven!away,!schools!were!closed!
for!extended!period,!roads!were!non\existent!or!destroyed!affecting!the!local!economy!and!health!
services!were!poor!and!disrupted.!!
Overwhelmingly,!children!identified!two!priorities!for!peace.!The!first!is!the!need!for!non\violent!
and! respectful! relationships!between!all!members!of! their! families! and! communities! and! the!
second! is! the! need! for! security,! within! families! and! communities!where! they!were! safe! and!
protected! from! crime,! violence! and!maltreatment.! Key! to! children’s! concept! of! peace! is! the!
capacity!for!them!to!develop!their!abilities!and!potential.!!
In!the!following!section,!in!order!to!answer!the!specific!questions!of!this!research,!!I!will!discuss!
these! findings! using! the! specific! theories! and! concepts! proposed! in! chapter! 3! relating! to!
children’s!rights!and!protection!and!their!participation!in!peacebuilding.
! 70#
CHAPTER#7# DISCUSSION# OF# FINDINGS# \# PEACEBUILDING,# CHILDREN’S# RIGHTS#AND#PROTECTION!The!empirical!data!in!the!previous!chapter!confirms!the!findings!from!literature;!armed!conflict!
has!a!devastating!impact!on!children’s!rights!and!protection.!The!empirical!data!also!identifies!
how,! as! a! result! of! their! experiences,! children! in! Colombia! see! peaceful,! non\violent,!
interpersonal! relationships! between! all! members! of! their! family! and! community,! as! well! as!
increased! protection! and! security! at! a! local! level! as! critical! elements! of! peace.! It! also!
demonstrates!the!important!contribution!children!can!make!to!the!development!of!priorities!for!
peace!as!a!result!of!their!experiences!if!they!are!included!in!peacebuilding!effectively.!
In!this!chapter,!the!theoretical!and!conceptual!frameworks!proposed!in!chapter!3!will!be!used!to!
discuss! these! findings! further,! informed! by! key! factors! from! the! international! and! national!
context!identified!in!chapters!4!and!5,!and!specifically!to!consider!the!central!questions!for!this!
research!–!whether!and!how!peacebuilding!can!be!undertaken!in!a!way!that!includes!children!
effectively! and! responds! to! their! priorities! for! peace.! Finally,! how! this! might! contribute! to!
restoring!children’s!rights!and!protection!and!enhancing!the!conditions!for!sustainable!peace!is!
discussed.!
7.1# Relevance#of#proposed#theories#of#peacebuilding##
In!Chapter!3,!two!theories!of!peacebuilding!were!presented,!peacebuilding!as!liberal!institution!
building! and! a!model! of! reconciliation! based! peacebuilding.! This! research! seeks! to! consider!
whether,!and!if!so!how,!these!theories!are!suitable!to!enabling!children’s!priorities!to!be!met!and!
their! rights! and! protection! re\established! post! conflict! as! part! of! peacebuilding.! Children’s!
perceptions!about!peace,!based!on!their!experiences!of!conflict,!indicate!that!there!are!elements!
within!both!of!the!proposed!theories!that!have!relevance.!
Children!see!their!safety!and!protection!as!an!essential!part!of!peace,!and!in!turn!recognise!that!
the!state!has!a!key!role!in!bringing!the!conflict!to!an!end!and!building!the!infrastructure!that!they!
identify!as!being!needed! in!a!democratic! society!post! conflict,!particularly!providing! for! their!
security.!The!state!is!responsible!for!ensuring!protection!and!security!which!includes!dealing!with!
the!effects!of!crime,!not!just!the!effective!rule!of!law!through!a!functioning!police!and!judicial!
! 71#
system,!but!also!by!putting!in!place!approaches!which!tackle!the!causes!of!crime,!such!as!poverty.!
Children!also!identify!the!importance!of!political!negotiations!about!peace!including!all!parties!
such!as!armed!groups!and!the!army,!and!of!the!role!of!the!state!in!ensuring!effective!approaches!
to! important! conflict! resolution! matters! such! as! disarmament! and! the! demobilisation! of!
combatants.!
Significant! risks! to! liberal! state\building! in!Colombia!have!been! identified;! a!historically!weak!
state!has!been!a!key!factor!for!the!conflict!becoming!so!violent!and!protracted,!particularly!in!
rural! areas! where! inequalities! such! as! poverty! and! unemployment! remain! high! and!
infrastructure,!such!as!roads!and!schools,! remains!significantly!underdeveloped.!Although!the!
democratic!and!economic!systems!are!in!place!and!commitments!have!been!given!to!a!significant!
programme!of!rural!development!as!part!of!the!current!peace!process,!there!are!considerable!
risks.! Levels! of! crime! remain! high! with! a! risk! of! children! experiencing! repeat! victimisation!
following! any! agreements! about! peace.! The! needs! of! victims! of! the! conflict! are! not! yet!well!
prioritised! or!met! and! repeat! victimisation! is! likely.!Whilst! a! ‘top! down’! liberal! approach! to!
democratic!reform!is!required!to!meet!some!of!children’s!identified!priorities!for!peace!it!does!
not!give!confidence!that!peace!will!be!achieved!or!will!be!sustained,!that!all!of!children’s!priorities!
for!peace!will!be!met!or!provide!assurance!that!their!rights!and!protection!will!be!established!for!
the!future!as!they!have!not!been!during!the!decades!of!conflict.!!
‘Top!down’!approaches!fail!to!address!the!important!community!level!dynamics!that!are!found!
to!have!such!a!crucial!impact!on!the!sustainability!of!peace,!and!may!fail!to!utilise!local!capacities!
and!ensure!that!the!approaches!to!peace!are!grounded!in!local!social!and!cultural!realities!and!
are!owned.!Strong!social!relationships!and!cultural!norms,!such!as!the!use!of!music,!appeared!to!
still!exist!in!the!communities!I!met!despite!the!difficulties!they!had!faced.!Davis!(1992:155)!describes!
the!“immense!effort”!that!communities!make!to!preserve!their!way!of!life!in!face!of!emergencies,!
to!preserve!social!relationships!that!are!threatened!or!disrupted.!The!building!of!peace!must!be!
negotiated!with!local!people!and!build!on!these!capacities!and!local!wisdom!if!it!is!to!be!sustainable!
and!further,!active!participation!in!the!process!of!peace!is!found!to!build!social!capital!and!contribute!
to!strengthening!communities!(Donais,!2012:63).!!
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In!their!testimonies,!children!typically!demonstrated!a!broader!understanding!of!the!approaches!
required!to!resolve!conflict,!‘positive’!peace!more!accurately!defines!their!perceptions.!Children!
identified!that!relationships!and!dynamics!at!a!family!and!community!level!were!of!great!important!
to! peace,! elements! that! would! not! traditionally! be! prioritised! within! a! ‘top\down’! approach.!
Children!who!contributed!to!this!research!prioritise!the!creation!of!a!strong,!functional!and!non\
violent!society!and!clearly!demonstrated!great!capacity!to!contribute!to!this.!Their!views!support!
theories!where!successful!peacebuilding!is!achieved!through!changes!that!reduce!the!risk!of!violent!
conflict! and!also! contribute! to!establishing!a!new!social!order!which!addresses! inequalities! and!
divisions!and!is!deemed!legitimate!(Donais,!2012:71).!
These! factors!point! to! the!applicability!of! Lederach’s! integrated! framework! for!peacebuilding!
(1995)! that! utilises! indigenous! capacities! in! a! transformative! way! to! reconcile! communities!
divided! by! conflict! through! the! sharing! of! experiences! of! the! conflict! as! part! of! a! process! of!
collective!healing!and!social! reconstruction! for! the! future!and! the!creating! the!conditions! for!
sustainable!peace.!Violence!is!found!to!play!a!central!role!in!determining!the!chances!of!peace!
(Darby,! 2006:3)! and! cooperation! through! relationships! is! said! to! be! the! greatest! safeguard!
against!a!return!to!violence!(Bloomfield!et!al,!2003:12).!
As!would!be!expected,!given!the!context!and!nature!of!the!conflict!in!Colombia!and!evidence!of!
its! impact!on!children,! children! in!Colombia!confirmed!that!their! families!and!communities!had!
become!characterised!by!division,!violence!and!crime.!Their!testimonies!highlighted!how!they!see!
the!repair!of!these!damaged!relationships!as!essential!to!peace,!they!highlighted!the!importance!
of! paying! attention! to!micro\local! processes! and! to! the! development! of! social! trust,! aspects!
neglected!by! traditional! liberal! approaches! to!peacebuilding.!Children!understood! that!peace!
involved! addressing! structural! factors! but! gave! greater! weight! to! restoring! the! everyday!
encounters,! actions! and! experiences! within! their! family! and! community.! In! their! view,! an!
approach!is!needed!which!does!more!than!just!address!the!structural!‘contradictions’!that!led!to!
violence!(Galtung,!1969)!by!also!including!a!focus!on!human!empathy,!solidarity!and!community!
(Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:41).!
Lederach!identifies!how!modern!inter\state!wars,!where!conflict!occurs!within!neighbourhoods!and!
communities,!cause!social!divisions!which!undermine!trust!and!tolerance!and!create!the!conditions!
! 73#
for!violence.!In!accordance!with!children’s!identified!priority!of!the!creation!of!positive!relationships!
for!the!future,!his!model!addresses!these!social!divisions!and!the!impact!of!violence!on!individual!
and!community!relationships!through!reconciliation!based!approaches!which!engage!the!resources!
of!local!communities!and!address!their!priorities!for!peace.!In!so!doing!he!argues!that!peace!is!more!
long!term!and!sustainable!than!through!traditional!liberal!institution!building!approaches.!
Lederach!sees!the!facilitation!of!children’s!testimonies!about!the!impact!of!the!conflict!and!their!
perception!about!future!peace!as!a!key!part!of!reconciliation24;!narrative!and!creative!approaches!
are!used!to!enable!social!energy!to!emerge!and!drive!creative!approaches!and!deep!social!change!
(Lederach,!2007:75).!Narratives!create!and!strengthen!a!community’s!understanding!of!its!past!
and!can!create!solidarity!for!the!future.!The!use!of!creative,!narrative!based!approaches!from!
which!the!data!for!this!thesis!is!drawn!is!consistent!with!delivering!the!reconciled!communities!
children!desire.!This!approach!enabled!children!to!share!their!experiences!of!the!conflict!as!part!
of!developing!an!understanding!about!peaceful!futures!and!to!develop!ideas!together!about!what!
this! peaceful! future! might! look! like! and! how! it! can! be! achieved.! These! can! be! powerful!
mechanisms!for!contributing!to!children’s!healing!and!for!the!restoration!of!their!rights.!
Further,!Lederach’s!integrated!framework!proposed!that!peace!will!only!really!be!sustainable!if!
all! levels! of! society! are! involved,! utilising! the! resources! both! from! within! communities! and!
outside.!The!views!of!children!in!Colombia!support!this!by!identifying!a!role!for!all!levels!of!society!
in!building!peace.!
!
!
!
!
24!Refer!back!to!‘Doodle!Six’!(Lederach,!2005:144)!on!p23!of!this!thesis.!
! 74#
# Type#of#Actors## # # # #################Approaches#to#Building#Peace!
#
!!
!
#
Fig#11:!!Diagram!depicting!Lederach’s!‘peacebuilding!pyramid’!(2007)!as!described!by!children!in!! Colombia.#
The!role!of!middle! leadership! is!seen!by!Lederach!as!particularly! important!to!connecting!the!
grassroots! and! top! leadership.! A! consensus! has! emerged! on! the! necessity! of! sustained,!
coordinated! external! support! to! locally! negotiated! peacebuilding! (Jenkins,! 2013:1).! In! the!
peacebuilding!programme!the!data!for!this!thesis!came!from,!the!INGO!Plan!demonstrated!how!
they!have!a!key!role! in!building!capacity! for!peacebuilding!within!communities! in!ways!which!
ensure!all!groups,!including!children,!are!included!and!are!influential,!and!are!also!well!placed!to!
advocate!with!top!leadership!on!behalf!of!affected!communities.!In!this!way!a!key!risk!of!‘top!
down’! approaches,! that! they! perpetuate! the! existing! power! dynamics!within! society,! can! be!
mitigated.!
7.2# Considerations#of#children’s#rights#and#protection##
This!thesis!has!established!that!the!process!of!peacebuilding!needs!to!restore!the!rights!and!
protection! of! children,!which! in! the! case! of! Colombia! have! not! been!well! provided! for! and!
globally!are!severely!impaired!by!armed!conflict.!Responsibility!to!provide!for!children’s!rights,!
including!their!protection,!is!located!with!state!powers.!Post!conflict,!as!part!of!liberal!institution!
building,!a!comprehensive!infrastructure!is!needed!that!guarantees!their!full!range!of!rights!as!
set!out!in!the!CRC;!including!health,!education!and!protection!as!well!as!providing!for!political!
participation.!
Providing!a!space!to!come!together,!building!capacity,!ensuring!inclusion,!developing!non!violent!behaviours,!advocating
Ending!the!conflict,!negotiating!with!armed!groups,!DDR,!ending!the!drug!trade!and!crime,!provision!of!security.!Ensuring!the!provision!of!essential!services!(e.g.!schools)
Engaging!all!groups!in!local!decision!making,!demonstrating!non!violent!behaviours,!respecting!others,!providing!positive!activities!
Level#2:!Middle#Range#Leadership;!Victims!Groups,!Universities,!Plan,!other!INGOs
Level#3:#Grassroots#Leadership;#community! leaders,! NGOs,!children!representatives!
Level#1:#Top#Leadership;!Government,!army,
! 75#
Children! in! Colombia! conceptualized! their! greatest! problem! to! be! a! lack! of! security.! The!
ecological!model!of!children’s!protection!and!theories!of!children’s!resilience!proposed!in!chapter!
3! includes! the! role! families! and! communities! play! in! protecting! children! from! violence! by!
establishing!protective!networks!for!children!and!fostering!children’s!own!resilience,!addressing!
vulnerability!and!strengthening!their!unique!capacity!to!process!and!recover!from!trauma!(Tol,!
2003:16).!!
It!has!been!demonstrated!how!emergencies!disrupt! the!capacities!of!communities! to!provide!
these!protective!mechanisms!and!it!has!also!been!demonstrated!how!Lederach's!peacebuilding!
framework!prioritises!the!development!of!reconciled,!peaceful!communities! for!the!future.! In!
turn! it! is! argued! that! rebuilding! the! social! fabric! of! families! and! communities! through!
reconciliation!contributes!to!restoring!the!community!based!protective!mechanisms!for!children,!
keeping!them!safe!and!recognising!their!rights.!Grassroots!leaders,!communities!and!families!are!
recognised!by!children!as!having!a!crucial!role!in!providing!for!their!protection!by!creating!non\
violent!environments!in!which!children!can!be!safe,!develop!and!thrive!but!this!can!only!be!the!
case!if!the!divisions!and!trauma!left!by!conflict!are!addressed.!By!developing!reconciled!and!well!
functioning,! cohesive! communities! Lederach’s! integrated! framework! could! not! only! enable!
families!and!communities!to!better!protect!children!but!could!also!put!in!place!the!mechanisms!
to!enable!children’s!own!resilience!and!self!protection!to!be!enhanced!for!the!future.!!
Key!to!Lederach’s!framework!for!the!creation!of!a!transformed!society!post!conflict!is!addressing!
the!root!causes!of!inequalities!and!achieving!social!justice!to!prevent!conflict!from!re\emerging.!
Lederach! only! very! briefly! mentions! children’s! involvement! at! the! grassroots! level! but!
recognises!it!as!significant.!A!children’s!rights!approach!indicates!the!importance!of!children’s!
active!engagement!through!‘bottom\up’!peacebuilding.!Indeed,!given!children’s!future!role!in!
society!the!success!of!peace!agreements!arguably!depends!on!whether!children!accept!peace!
and!consequently!their!priorities!must!be!reflected!in!it.!
Children!have!generally!not!been!identified!as!important!variables!of!peace!yet!they!can!have!
considerable! capacity! to! contribute! to! and! sustain! peace! building! if! they! are! engaged! it! in!
effectively!or!to!undermine!it!if!they!are!not!(McEvoy\Levy,!2006:3).!There!is!a!real!potential!for!
them!to!be!‘spoilers’!if!they!are!not!enabled!to!participate!and!if!the!process!of!peace!does!not!
! 76#
give!them!hope!for!the!future,!as!seen!in!the!importance!of!‘peace!benefits’!for!children!such!as!
improvements!to!provision!of!education,!employment!and!positive!activities!(Borer,!2006:9).!
Children’s!testimonies!for!this!thesis!demonstrate!how!children!in!Colombia!have!been!enabled!
to!contribute!to!determining!the!priorities!for!peacebuilding!by!being!given!the!opportunity!to!
describe!their!considerable!lived!experience!of!the!conflict,!the!problems!they!perceive!for!the!
future!and!what!they!see!as!the!solutions!for!the!future.!This!thesis!shows!how!children!have!
specific!and!valuable!ideas!about!the!work!that!is!needed!to!build!peace!and!want!to!be!engaged!
in!it.!Their!‘moral!imaginations’!(Lederach,!2007)!about!how!to!build!sustainable!peace!may!be!
very!different! from! that!of! those! (adults)! traditionally! included! in! these!processes!and! their!
involvement!can!lead!to!more!legitimate,!multi\generational!and!lasting!peace!(McEvoy\Levy,!
2006:8).!!
There! are! other! benefits.! Adopting! a! children’s! rights! approach,! by! enabling! the! active!
participation!of!children!in!the!development!of!a!positive!future,!has!been!found!to!positively!
impact!on!children’s!coping!skills!(Miller,!1996:104).!Enabling!children!to!be!active!agents!in!post\
conflict! social! change! can! add! to! their! resilience,! build! social! capital! and! contribute! to! the!
restoration! of! their! rights! post! conflict! by! giving! a! clear! message! about! future! attitudes! to!
children’s!rights!across!society!(McEvoy\Levy,!2006:214).!This!is!crucially!important!in!Colombia!
where!children’s!experiences!have!frequently!been!at!odds!with!a!rights!based!approach.!The!
involvement!of!Plan,!and!their!commitment!to!a!rights!based!approach!in!their!programming,!
ensured!that!children!were!active!participants! in!this!peacebuilding!programme!and!is!part!of!
giving! a! clear!message! across! society! about! the! role! children!will! play! in! the! future.! In! turn,!
political!participation!can!enhance!children’s!resilience.!
“A! key! aspect!of! resilience!and! recovery! is! enabling! young!people! to! regain! agency! and! self\
confidence! in! helping! themselves! and! other! people! while! providing! them!with! the! practical!
support!they!require!to!do!so”!(Williams!and!Drury,!2011:74).!!
It!is!a!limitation!of!this!research!that!these!anticipated!outcomes!cannot!be!evidenced!through!
short! term!programming.!There!would!be!value! in!undertaking!more! longitudinal! research! in!
communities! affected!by! conflict!where! reconciliation!based!approaches! are!undertaken! in! a!
rights! based!way! to! evaluate! their! impact! on! children’s! future! rights! and! protection! and! the!
! 77#
sustainability!of!peace.!There!would!also!be!value!in!research!which!seeks!to!compare!outcomes!
of!‘top\down’!approaches!to!those!that!are!more!‘bottom\up’.!
7.3# The#role#of#humanitarian#organisations#
Finally,!it!is!important!to!discuss!the!implications!of!these!findings!for!humanitarian!organisations!
working! in! this! field.!Humanitarian!approaches!are! frequently! criticised! for!being! small! scale,!
unsystematic! and! short! term.! Traditionally,! peacebuilding! is! seen! as! a! development! task,!
separate!to!the!immediate!and!urgent!response!which!is!required!of!humanitarian!organisations!
at!times!of!emergencies!or!disasters.!However,!this!thesis!demonstrates!how!the!reconciliation!
of! communities,! and! the! development! of! sustainable!mechanisms! that! protect! children! and!
foster!children’s!own!resilience,!should!be!started!early!and!undertaken!at!all!stages,!both!during!
emergencies!and!after.!!
The! contemporary! humanitarian! aspiration! to! ‘build! back!better’! can! also! apply! to! children’s!
rights! and! protection! post! conflict! if! humanitarian! organisations! actively! facilitate! children’s!
engagement!in!peace!building!in!ways!which!enable!their!lived!experiences!of!conflict!to!inform!
priorities!for!the!future.!Making!children!safe!and!restoring!their!resilience!through!rebuilding!
their!family!and!community!networks!as!well!as!providing!for!meaningful!political!participation!
are! identified!to!be!more!sustainable!and!to!be!critical!elements! in!aiding!children’s!recovery!
from! the! impact! of! armed! conflict.! In! this!way,! humanitarian! organisations! can! give! children!
agency!in!their!own!recovery.!
There! is! a!need! to! link!emergency! responses! to! sustainable!development!by! creating!a!more!
expansive!vision!of!humanitarianism!which!both!meets!immediate!needs!but!also!builds!systems,!
which!create!protective!environments!and!resilience!for!the!future.!!
# #
! 78#
CHAPTER#8# FINAL#CONCLUSIONS#AND#RECOMMENDATIONS#
8.1# Overall#conclusions#
At!the!time!of!writing!a!ceasefire!between!FARC!and!the!Government!in!Colombia!has!alleviated!
the!worst! effects! of! the! conflict! on! civilians! living! in! rural! areas! and! peace! talks! continue! to!
progress!although!agreements!have!not!yet!been!met!on!all!key!points!and!the!success!of!the!
talks!is!still!uncertain.!However,!approaches!to!peacebuilding!have!already!started!with!a!risk!of!
repeat!victimisation!if!peace!talks!fail.!#
Consistent!with! the! experiences! of! children! living! in! situations! of! armed! conflict! around! the!
world,!children!in!Colombia!who!participated!in!this!research!spoke!of!witnessing!violence,!of!
widespread!experiences!of!physical,!emotional!and!sexual!harm!and!the!trauma!this!has!caused!
to!them,!their!families!and!communities.!They!have!been!displaced,!forced!into!poverty,!denied!
healthcare!and!education,!been!the!victims!of!crime.!Their!parents!have!been!murdered,!families!
broken!up!and!many!relationships!have!become!characterised!by!violence!and!maltreatment.!
They!have!been!victims!and!witnesses!of!crime!and!not!felt!safe!in!their!own!homes!and!villages.!
Many!children!have!also!been!recruited! into!armed!groups!and!approaches!to!demobilisation!
have!failed!to!effectively!address!the!additional!trauma!this!leads!to!or!to!successfully!integrate!
children!back!into!their!families!and!communities!for!the!future.!These!experiences!have!been!
experienced!even!more!severely!by!children!from!indigenous!communities!and!those! living! in!
rural!areas.!!
The!International!and!National!legal!frameworks!and!monitoring!systems!have!failed!to!protect!
children!from!the!impact!of!armed!conflict!as!they!were!intended!to,!both!those!around!the!world!
and!in!Colombia.!Neither!have!they!created!a!reality!where!aspirations!about!children’s!rights!
are!universally!achieved.!!
The! conflict! in! Colombia! was! caused! by! longstanding! structural! inequalities! in! society.! This,!
combined!with!a!combination!of!factors!including!the!way!the!conflict!has!developed,!how!it!has!
been!fought,!its!impact!on!civilians!and!children,!the!risk!of!ongoing!crime!and!violence!and!a!
failure!to!fully!respect!the!rights!of!victims!as!a!result!of!the!approach!being!taken!to!transitional!
justice,!create!a!complex!context!for!peacebuilding.!!
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On!average,!a!country!coming!out!of!war!has!a!50%!chance!of!relapsing!into!conflict!in!the!first!
five!years!(Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:228).!The!above!factors!mean!the!risk!of!a!return!to!violence!
in!Colombia!is!high.!The!legacy!of!the!conflict!and!the!context!in!Colombia!indicates!the!need!for!
an!approach!to!peacebuilding!which!utilises!Colombia’s!assets,!such!as!democratic!systems!and!
economic! growth,! to!meet! the! needs! of! divided! societies,! re\establishes! rights! and! security,!
addresses!the!root!causes!of!conflict!and!re\establishes!the!infrastructure!needed!for!the!future!
(Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:230).!An!approach!needs!to!be!taken!that!is!extensive!and!addresses!
both!the!political!and!economic!infrastructure!that!has!not!been!put!in!place!consistently!across!
the!whole!country!to!date!and!which!also!addresses!the!divisions!and!trauma!within!communities!
that!results!from!the!longstanding!reality!of!violence.!!
If! we! listen! to! the! testimonies! of! children,! security! and! the! development! of! non\violent!
relationships! are! critical! to! peace! in! post! conflict! Colombia.! Elements! of! liberal! institution!
building!are!important!in!meeting!children’s!priorities!for!peace!but!it!is!argued!by!this!thesis!
that!this!must!be!combined!with!‘bottom\up’!reconciliation!based!approaches!if!attention!is!to!
be!given! to! the!creation!of!non\violent!and!cohesive! social! relationships!within! families!and!
communities!that!children!see!as!being!essential!for!peace.!!
The!social!fabric!of!communities!is!critical!to!the!protection!of!children!and!their!psychosocial!
wellbeing!(Cook!and!Wall,!2011:74),!reconciled!communities!can!enable!children!to!be!better!
protected,!more! resilient! to! the! long! term! impact! of! harm! and!more! able! to! develop! self\
protective!mechanisms! for! the! future.! Theories! of! peacebuilding! proposed! by! Lederach! are!
reconciliatory! in! divided! communities! and! transformative! and! liberating! in! terms! of! the!
development! of! peaceful! behaviours! for! the! future.! This! reconciliation! can! provide! the!
emotional!space!needed!for!the!forging!of!new!non\violent!relationships!that!children!identify!
as!critical!to!peace!(Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:246)!and!which!are!also!essential!to!realising!their!
rights!and!protection!in!the!future.!
However,! there! is! also! a! crucial! role! for! a! strong! and! functioning! state! in!meeting! societies’!
structural!needs!post!conflict.!Smith!(2004:27,!cited!in!Ramsbotham!et!al,!2011:229),!describes!
how! peacebuilding! should! be! seen! as! a! toolkit! from! which! you! draw! depending! on! the!
circumstance!of! the! specific! case.! This! appears! to!be! the! case! for! Colombia!where! alongside!
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community! reconciliation! is! needed! a! functioning! state! providing! effective! arrangements! for!
security,!a!functioning!democratic!system!and!infrastructure!development,!particularly!given!the!
significant!historical!underinvestment!in!rural!areas.!
Children’s!testimonies!indicate!that!all!parties!need!to!be!involved!in!the!creation!of!peace.!There!
is! a! need! for! both! ‘bottom\up’! and! ‘top! down’! approaches! to! peacebuilding.! Bottom\up!
reconciliation!addresses!trauma!and!can!rebuild!community!cohesion!through!relationships,!in!
this!way!strengthening!the!capacity!of!families!and!communities!to!protect!children.!However,!
the!role!of!the!state!in!providing!effective!protection!and!security!through!policing!and!rule!of!
law!in!Colombia!is!going!to!be!essential!to!realising!sustainable!peace!post!agreement!given!risk!
factors!such!as!the!continuing!emergence!of!and!violence!by!criminal!gangs.!!
Approaches! to! peacebuilding! are! emerging! which! look! at! both! rebuilding! the! infrastructure!
needed!for!peace!but!also!pay!attention!to!reconciling!divided!communities!and!developing!the!
non\violent!behaviours!that!are!needed!for!peace!in!the!future.!Local!reconciliation!will!not!be!
sustainable!if!it!is!not!supported!by!state!directed!measures!for!addressing!security,!economic!
opportunities!and!needs!and!rights!of!individuals.!
The!model! adopted! by! Plan! demonstrates! that! children! can! be! involved! in! determining! the!
priorities! for!peace!based!on! their! experiences!of! the! conflict! and! can!be!active!partners! for!
building!peace.!The!testimonies!of!children!affected!by!conflict! in!Colombia!would!support!an!
approach!to!meeting!their!priorities!of!protection!and!security!through!non\violent!relationships!
in! the! future.! The! theories! and! concepts! discussed! in! this! thesis! demonstrate! that! children’s!
priorities!can!be!met,!and!their!rights!and!protection!can!be!re\established!post!conflict,!through!
approaches!to!peacebuilding!which!embed!children’s!active!participation!at!all!levels!and!which!
recognises!that!children’s!rights!are!best!protected!by!strong!and!functioning!democratic!states,!
non\violent! communities! and! families,! and! when! children! are! supported! to! develop! the!
capacities!which!make!them!resilient!and!are!enable!to!participate!effectively.!
It!is!essential!that!a!rights!based!approach!is!taken.!Children!can!make!an!important!contribution!
to!determining!the!priorities!for!peacebuilding!given!their!experience!of!conflict!if!they!are!given!
the! agency! and! are! supported! to! do! so.! In! turn,! this! increases! the! likelihood! of! peace! being!
! 81#
sustainable!and!gives!an!important!message!about!the!place!of!children’s!rights!in!a!post!conflict!
society.!
Approaches!to!peacebuilding!have!the!potential!to!contribute!to!restoring!children’s!rights!and!
protection!if!children!are!included!in!determining!local!priorities!for!peace!and!in!the!work!that!
is!undertaken!to!reconcile!relationships!in!communities!affected!by!conflict.!The!model!adopted!
by!Plan!demonstrates!the!energy!and!insight!that!children!can!contribute!to!the!peacebuilding!
process,!the!value!of!their!contributions!to!sustainable!peace!given!their!experiences!of!conflict,!
and!that!this!can!be!done.!
8.2# Recommendations#
For#governments;#
•! Maintain!children’s!access!to!health!and!education!during!emergencies.!
•! Prioritise! the! reconstruction! of! the! infrastructure! which! enables! children’s!
comprehensive!rights!to!met!post!conflict.!
•! Ensure!mechanisms!exist!for!the!meaningful!participation!of!children!in!political!systems.!
For#middle#range#leaders#(including#humanitarian#organisations);#
•! Ensure! peacebuilding! processes! prioritise! reconciliation! and! the! development! of! non\
violent! relationships! in! communities! divided! by! conflict! and! that! children! are! active!
participants!throughout.!
•! Ensure! support! to! and! the!development!of! capacity! for! sustainable! community! based!
child!protection!mechanisms!at!times!of!peace!and!conflict.!
•! Skill!local!workers!in!psycho\social!and!education!interventions!to!provide!children!with!
the!wellbeing!and!skills!they!will!need!for!the!future.!
•! Put!in!place!DDR!processes!that!contain!economic!opportunities!and!enable!young!people!
to!transition!from!violence!into!community!roles.!
•! Expand! humanitarian! organisations’! mandate! into! conflict! prevention/peacebuilding,!
even!at!the!point!of!emergency,!to!enable!early!recovery.!!
•! Put!in!place!community!based!post!conflict!programmes!which!include!peace!education.!
! 82#
•! Ensure!children!are!supported!to!be!involved!in!the!design!and!delivery!of!local!services.!
For#grassroots#leaders;#
•! Provide!space!for!and!prioritise!reconciliation!within!local!communities.!
•! Ensure!child\safe!spaces!for!recovery!and!reintegration!exist!at!a!local!level.#
•! Ensure!mechanisms!exist!for!children’s!participation! in!determining! local!priorities!and!
local!governance.#
•! Ensure!the!effective!operation!of!community!based!child!protection!mechanisms!during!
and!after!conflict.!
# #
! 83#
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Appendix#1!The!model!‘The!Path!of!Love’!(‘El$Camino$de$Amor’),!Fundación!Plan,!(2011:129)!
! 91#
Appendix#1!The!model!‘The!Path!of!Love’!(‘El$Camino$de$Amor’),!Fundación!Plan,!(2011:129)!
! 92#
#
Appendix(2!Example!‘map’!of!the!impact!of!the!conflict!(‘Cartografia’)! !
! 93(
!!
Appendix(3!Example!instrument!for!the!consultation!(‘Consulta’)! ! !
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Appendix(3!Example!instrument!for!the!consultation!(‘Consulta’)! ! !
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