Advantages of Being Non-native Teachers

8/1/2019 Advantages of Being Non-native Teachers

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ARTICLE

Non-nat iveteache rs , herewe go !

Betty Pow teaches at U SP a nd is a leade ro f th e B RAZ -T ESO LP ro nu nc ia tio n S IG .

The la te Zaina Abdalla Nunes was afounder m em ber of the B RA Z-T ES OLP ro nu nc ia tio n S IG .

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Na tiv e -s pea ke ri sm seems t oh a ve been an endl es s ly c o nt ro ve rs ia lis su e. F irs t it w as th e id ea l m o de l,th en , th e o utd ate d la ngu ag e ru le rs .T he p urpo se o f th is a rtic le is tod is cu ss th e c ha ng es th at n ativ e a ndn on -n ativ e s pe ak er te ac he rs h av eundergone w ith the focus on thefu nd am en ta l im po rta nce o f the n on -natives.Introduct ion

It has no t been so long since then ativ e s pe ak er te ac he r w a s lo ok edup to and targe ted as the idea lm od el. N ative sp ea ke rs w ou ld goro un d th e w orld d is se min atin g theso un ds o f E nglish a s if th ey w erea doctrine to be fo llow ed. A ndwh er ev er th ey a ppea re d, f ollo w er sw ou ld s tru ggle to le arn th e la ngu agea s c lo se to th eir m a ste rs a s p os sib le .T h e n at iv e r ule d, th e n on -n ativ esa cqu ie sc ed. T he w in d h as ch an ge d infa vo ur o f no n-n ative s to sh ow tha tth eir c ontrib utio n m atte rs. B ut w ha ttrig ge re d s uc h a c ha ng e?W hat has happened - thes win g o f th e p en dulum ?

The 1994 IATEFLCon fe re n ceo pe ned w ith a ke yn ote a dd re ssc a ll ed 'Na ti ve s a nd Non -n a ti ve s :M uch A do about S om ething', andt he spea ke r, W . R . L ee s ta te d t ha t:

'Less than a cen tu ry ago itw as w idely taken fo r gran ted tha tf or ei gn -l an guage l ea rn e rs d e se rv eda 'n ative ' te ach er, a nd if th ey h ad'n on -n ativ e' t ea ch er s, a s mo std id , th ey w ere a t a d is ad va nta ge .N ow ad ays m ost le arn ers o f E FL in

the w orld are still taugh t by 'non-n at iv e' s pe ak er s o f E n glis h, th ou ghre co rd in gs o f 'n ative ' s pe ec h a reo fte n a va ila ble . T h e n ec es sa rys up erio rit y o f 'n at iv e' s pe ak er s,a s m od els a nd a ls o te ac he rs , isin creas ing ly quest ioned .' (Lee , op .ci t. )

T hro ugh th e title an d th ose firs tw ords , Lee w a s draw ing a tten tion toe me rgin g co nce rn s re la te d to n ewro le s o f N N S a nd N S t ea ch ers .

R e se arc h c arrie d o ut in th e la ten in etie s h as c ome a cr os s a sto un din gfig ure s c on ce rn in g c omm u nic atio n inE ng lis h w orld wid e. F in din gs p oin t toth e in cre as in g n um b er o f n on -n ativ es pe ak er in te ra ctio ns in E n glis h.Je nkin s (2 00 0: 0 1) sta te s tha t 'fo r th efirs t tim e in the h isto ry o f the E nglishla ng ua ge , s ec on d la ng ua ge s pe ak er sou tnum ber those fo r w hom it is them othe r to ngue , a nd in te ra ctio n inE n glis h in cr ea sin gly in vo lv es n o fir stl anguage speake rs wha tsoever '.

M an y im p lic atio ns d erive d fro msu ch fin din gs co uld b e tre ate d fro mse vera l po in ts o f v ie w, a mo ng th em :cu ltu ra l , soc io log ica l, i deo log ica l,e co nom ic , a nd ped ag og ic al.A s a m atte r of fact, they are a lle qu ally im po rta nt, a nd it is h ardto d is so cia te o ne fro m th e o th er.F oc us in g o n o ne a spec t imme dia te lyb rin gs u p s ev er al q ue st io ns . T a ke t hep ed ag og ic al o ne , m o re s pe cif ic allythe ro le o f th e n on -n ative s pea ke rte ac he r in th e co nte xt o f le arn in gE nglis h a s a s ec on d o r fo re ig nla ngu age . If th e m ajority o f th ein te ra ctio ns th at a re h eld in E nglis ha ll o ve r th e w orld in vo lve n on -n ative s pe ake rs , w hic h va rie ty o f


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E nglish is go ing to be taugh t? W hois go ing to teach it? W hat w ill beth e m o st s uita ble m e th od olo gyfo r th is con text? A nd w hat abou tth e te ach in g m ate ria ls to b e u se d?We ll, s ev er al q ue st io ns a ris e fr omth is change of focus . T he scope ofth is text w ill be restric ted to thein te rlo cu to rs o f th e in te rc ha ng e. L etus zoom in one o f the m ain agen tso f th is p ro ce ss , t he n on -n ativ es pe ak er te ac he r (NNST ).Who is the NNST?

N ee dles s t o sa y, a N N ST is ap erso n w hos e firs t la ngu age isd iffe ren t from the targe t one . A N NS Tis a person w ho se ts ou t to teach alanguage tha t is no t h is ow n. A nd heis en titled to do so because he hasg on e th ro ug h th e p ro ce ss o f le arn in gth e la ng ua ge h im s elf /h er se lf, h asatte nde d co urse s o n ho w to tea chit a nd , fin ally , h as b ee n a cc ep te dat an e du ca tio na l in stitu tion to d os o, h av in g s uc ce ss fu lly fu lfille d th eappropria te requ iremen ts .

T he se a re s ta nd ard p atte rn s o new ish es w ere tru e o ve ra ll. N ot a llNNSTs le a ve un iv e rs it y f ul ly c a pab leo f te ac hin g En glis h. Co ur se le ve lsa nd c urricu la va ry th ro ugh ou t th ec ou ntry a nd a u nive rs ity d egre eis no guaran tee of language andp ed ag ogic c om p ete nc e. H ow eve r, n om a tte r w ha t p ro ce ss a n in divid ua lhas gone th rough, the truth is tha te ve ry y ea r s ee s n ew te ac he rs le avin gun iv er sit ie s w i th t he ir c e rt if ic a te s ,e ntitle d to te ach th e ta rgetlanguage. W e do not in tend to lookin to le ve ls o f d is cu rs iv e c ompet en cea nd kno wle dge o f E nglis h h ere ,as th is would no t be the scope ofth is a rtic le . W ha t w ill b e a ssu me dh ere is tha t a ll N NS Tso f E nglis h w illhave gone through som e sort o fte ac hin g p ra ctic e, w he th er a t c olle geo r a t la ngua ge in stitu tio ns, a nd a reou t in the E LT marke t. T hose w hohave no t, genera lly try to ca tch upb y a tte nd in g s pe cia lis t o n- th e- jo bc o ur se s f or t ea c he rs .

The working con text o f theN N ST in B ra zil

Sho rt ly a ft er f in is h in gu nd er gr ad ua te c ou rs es in E n glis hL an gu ag e a nd L ite ra tu re , g ra du at eslo ok fo r jo bs as te ac he rs a t lan gu agein stitu te s, p rim a ry a nd s ec on da rysch oo ls fro m th e p riva te se cto r o rs it fo r exam s to w ork as teachers a tsta te sch oo ls lin ke d to th e p ublicsector.

T he ta rg et a ud ie nc e th os etea ch ers a re fa ce d w ith varie s a lo t,d ep en din g o n le ar ne r o bje ct iv es .W o rkin g c on ditio ns a ls o va ry a ndteachers do the ir best to adapt toa nd c ate r fo r th eir s tu den ts ' ne ed sand w ants . B ut w hat a re those needsa nd w an ts ? W hy d oes a B ra zilia ns tu de nt le arn E n glis h?

For s ev era l r ea so ns : a s p ar to f th e B ra zilia n L OB i, E nglish isa c om pu ls ory c ou rs e a t re gu la rsc ho ols w hic h, in prin cip le , a im s atd e ve lo p in g l ea rn e rs ' c ommuni ca ti onsk il ls soc ia l ly and pro fess iona ll y


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(using the internet, understandingsongs, making friends abroad,preparing for the job market, etc).The list is as long as the numberof people involved in the learningprocess.

Who are students likely tointeract with? First of all, withtheir teachers, mainly NNSs whohave gone through similar learningprocesses as they have, and theirclassmates in class activities. Otherinterlocutors may be internet-pals,tourists visit ing Brazil, or exchangestudents from several countries.

Who are adult learners goingto talk to? Most probably, theirteachers and classmates in theirEnglish courses, at work with theirbosses and overseas visitors whosefirst language mayor may not beEnglish, on international phone calls,at conferences l istening to or givinglectures etc.

At a micro-level, Engl ish is learntas a tool to enable the learnerto grow both professionally andpersonally. At a macro-level, Englishas a foreign language is, or shouldbe, seen as part of the educationalsystem whose 'main objective is toprepare and integrate citizens intothe working field, linked to prospectsof personal growth' (Celani, 2000)il .Advan tages o f be ing a N NST

Going back to the teacher-student interaction, one findsthe teacher struggling hard toaccomplish his tasks, constantlyasking himself how much, as a NNSteacher, he can help his studentsacquire the target language.Doubts about his own capability,language proficiency, appropriatemethodology used etc. oftencross his mind. As far as Englishphonology is concerned, thosedoubts are likely to stem from thefact that, having been throughusually demotivating languagelearning experiences in primary andsecondary school, teachers-to-betend to receive little input, if any,from college education programmesand, although some 'NNST - both

novice and experienced - aspire toa near-native accent, they do notfeel prepared or confident enoughto carry out speech work with theirstudents.'(Lieff & Pow, 2000: 1).

However, the debate about NNSand NS teachers, which has evolvedwith the spread of InternationalEngl ish and its new role globally,has contributed to some extent toreassuring NNS teachers that theyare fit for the job. With this newlyacquired status, several linguistshave resorted to comparing NSto NNS teachers, pointing outtheir strengths and weaknesses atdifferent levels.

The nineties were the stageof myriad publications (Rampton,1990; Taylor, 1991; Davies, 1991& 1995; Medgyes, 1992 & 1994;Swales, 1993; Bennet, 1994; Jenkins,1996; Kershaw, 1996; Saxton, 1997;Braine, 1999) announcing thefavouritism of a NNS teacher andacknowledging NNSTsas membersof a community of practice (Wenger,2002). The studies of such scholarsand researchers were instrumental inencouraging teachers to come forthand share their 'stories of learningand teaching English in differentsociocultural contexts' (Lin, Wang,Akamatsu and Riazi, 2002).

In the context of this discussion,Medgyes (1994) opens hispublication with a very reassuringstatement directed at NNS teachers:

'You may feel that, in orderto teach pronunciation, a speechimprovement or accent-reductionprogramme in an English-speakingcountry will be the solution to whatis called linguistic deficit as a non-native speaker English. That couldwell be of great help, but it may beuseful to show you the 'bright sideof being a non-native teacher': Youshare learners' native language;you can understand the needs anddifficulties of learners; you canprovide a good learner model forimitation; you can anticipate andhelp overcome language difficultiesbetter.'

A very cornprenensive list oipositive aspects is presented andthen developed throughout hisbook. Medgyes coins the terms NESTand non-NEST referring to native andnon-native English speaker teachers.

Widdowson (1994b) and Jenkins(2000) go along similar lines andmake their point based on threemain aspects: knowledge of Engl ish,ability to teach it and previouslearning experience. A chart thatsums up their views can be seen onp.17

A first glance at the chartshows that the advantages whichNNS teachers have outnumberthose of the NS. The linguistic andeducational differences betweenthe two groups may be major orslight, but to this day, 'the N/non-Nissue had been politically avoidedor charmingly 'neutralised' bystating that both sides complementeach other and coexist in peaceand harmony. We know that thisis not true ... Passions run highwhen an issue involves questionsof personal and cultural identity,vocation, status, equal r ights andopportunities, jobs and salaries'.(Suarez, 2000:02).

In fact, an article by Walkinshaw(2007) addresses the NST issue asa fallacy of superiority which isclearly evidenced ' in the situations-vacant sections of ELTnewslettersand websites, commonly stuffedwith ads for NSTs' (2007:8). In thecontext of this discussion, he claimsthat the notion of NS superiorityis still pervasive due to the beliefthat English is becoming a globallanguage, the world's choice of alingua franca, and NST are betterequipped to do the job.So far, what has been donein th e awa re ne ss -ra is in g a re afo r the benefit o f the NNSTs?

Very li ttle. One can find scatteredcourses trying to improve teachers'own pronunciation, while offeringthem tips on how to teach it. Hardlyany undergraduate course includes


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a phonological component of thetarget language with the aim ofdeveloping the future teacher 'scommunicative competence forprofessional purposes. The few thatdo tend to provide an overview ofthe sound system that is meantto be learnt and assimilated to beeventually taught. Why is that so?Some reasons immediately spring tomind.

In the last three decadesphonology has been consideredneither a relevant nor an importantpart of language studies; it is usuallyleft to be dealt with when or ifthere is time to do so. Consequently,teacher education and developmentprogrammes hardly ever meet theteacher's need to construct linguisticcompetence and pronunciationteaching skills, and once he hasgraduated, he will often be left tohis own devices to learn by doing, byreading, by attending workshops onpronunciation etc.

A couple of courses have devisedways of filling the gap betweenteachers' needs and what is lackingin their undergraduate courses.What can be done may align withVygotsky's ZPD (zone of proximaldevelopment: Vygotsky, 1978),although, in this case, adults are theagents of the process which seeslanguage as a mediating activi ty.Individuals' previous knowledge andexperience are considered a mustfor them to move on to the nextlearning step or layer (ZPD). Theyalso serve as a basis to connect andsupport new information (actualdevelopment level). One may claimthis is not new: every learningprocess starts from the known tohelp the unknown be established.True or not, this is where the NNST isahead of the NST: his own experienceas a learner of the language he isteaching, his sharing his students'L1 and all that derives from thoselearning situations that may be

ready to surface with the help ofa more experienced professional,interlocking well with moments ofpeer-tutoring.

There seem to be confl ictingissues to be addressed, then.One the one hand, the NNST'sstrengths have been acknowledged;on the other, if his phonologicaleducation/development continuesto be overlooked, the feelingsof inadequacy, anxiety, low self-esteem and lack of confidence asan English user will tend to pervadehis practice. Such feel ings may alsocontr ibute to perpetuating bel iefsin the NS paradigm. Thus, suchissues may point to the need toconsider the affective dimension ofNNSTs' linguistic and phonologicaleducation. In fact, the affectivecomponent may be just as importantin the NST's education, especial ly i fhe is unaware of his students' mostcommon pronunciation diff iculties.

ADVANTAGESN ativ e S pe ak er T ea ch ers (N ST ) N on -N ative S pe ak er T ea ch ers (N NST )

KnowledgeA re e qu ippe d w ith kn ow led ge o nly of E nglish in an in tuitive K no w E nglish in an e xplic it w ay . tha t is , th ey h ave go ne thro ughs en se , w h ic h in clu de s: id iomat ic u sa ge , s la ng , p hr as al v erb s, p un s, th e pro ces s o f lea rnin g it a s a fo reign la ngu age ste p b y ste p a nd ,p ro ve rb s, c ult ur al a llu sio ns a nd t he lik e. a s a re su lt o f th is , th eir pe da qo qic 'c re de ntia ls ' a re m ore 'c re dib le '.

A bility to te achA re tra in ed o nly to c ertific ate le ve l a t a 4-w ee k te ac he r tra in in g S tu dy th e la ngu age fo r s ev era l y ea rs a nd a tte nd u niv ers ity c ou rs esc ou rs e w he re th ey a re s up po se d to a cq uire te ac hin g s kills a nd in ord er to a cqu ire th e ped ago gic a spe cts w hic h w ill e ntitle th emk no wle dg e o f th e s ub je ct. to teach at both public and private sectors. Those w ho choose to

w ork a t la ngu age in stitu te s d o a dd itio na l o n-th e-jo b tra in in g,P re vi ou s l ea rn in g e xpe ri en ce

D o n ot (as a rule ) spe ak o th er lan gua ges ; m ono lingu alis m is th e H ave be en th rou gh th e proc ess o f lea rnin g a t le as t tw o la ngu age s:norm for both N S teachers and the rest of the N S w orld . th eir ow n a nd E nglis h.

H ave be en th rou gh th e proc ess o f lea rn in g th e s am e la ngua ge a sthei r s tuden ts .S ha re L 1 w i th th eir s tu de nts .H av e le arn t E ng lis h th ro ug h th e s am e L 1 filte r s o a re fa milia rw ith the pronuncia tion system of L 1, to identify and help to so lvep ro ble m a re as s tu de nts m igh t h av e.A re c on cre te e xamp le s o f g oo d la ngu age le arn ers .

Cu lt ur al b a ckgr oundA re im m ers ed in th e c ultu ral ba ckgro un d o f th e ta rge t la ngu age , S ha re L 1 c u ltu re w ith th eir s tu de nts ,h ow ever, su ch 'kno wle dge c an b e lim ited to o ne c ultu re o ro ne E ng lis h-s pe ak in g c ou ntry o nly , w hile th e c urric ula d em an din fo rm atio n o n s ev era l m ajo r E nglis h s pe ak in g c ou ntrie s.' G ill &Rebrova (2001 ) ~~

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Wha t a re th e im plic atio nso f such issues fo r N NSTEducators?

A s te ac he r e du ca to rs in va rio use du ca tio na l c on te xts , o ur s tu die sa nd e xp erie nc e s ugg es t th re e m ainpo ints for the N S a nd N NS teachere du cator to refle ct o n: R esorting to and va lu ing

th e NNST 's kn ow le dg e o fth e p ho no lo gic al s ys te m o fL 1, h is le arn in g h is to ry , o r inCa na ga ra ja h's w o rd s (2 002), h islo cal kno wled ge . W ha t d oe s heknow about L1 tha t can aid h im inl ea rn in g Engl is h ? Wha t s im i la ri ti esa nd d iffe re nc es c an h elp o r h in de ri nt el li gi bil it y in w id e r c o nt ex ts ?Han (2007 :18 ) s e ns ib ly d e sc ri be sh er suc cess a s a N NS T fro m K ore aw orking in the U SA as a result no to f luck but o f a 'constant persona lstru ggle fro m w ith in to o verco mea lab el by w hich I w as jud gin gm y se lf ... m y me nt or e nc ou ra ge dm e to rea lize tha t m y p rese nce inthe classroo m w ould be a cro ss-

c ultu ra l le ar nin g e xperie nc e fo rth e s tu de nts ... a n d I h ave le arn edto use m y background to m yad van ta ge . .. '

The a ffective com ponent inte ac he r e du ca tio n, a nd m orespe c if ic al ly i n t he t ea ch e r'sph on ological e du cation , m ay be agoal to be sought by the teachere du ca to r in d ev elo pin g te ac he rs 'd is cu rs iv e c ompe te n ce i n Engl is h.T ra d it io n al ly , p ro n un c ia ti on h a sb ee n ta ugh t fro m a c og nitivepe rs pec ti ve , wh ic h c o ns id e rsth e me nta l p ro ce ss es in vo lv edin le ar nin g s uc h a s p erc ep tio n,a tt en tio n, in fo rm a tio n p ro ce ss in g,m emo ry a nd in te llig en ce amo ngo the rs (Wil li ams & Bu rd e n, 1997 ),th ou gh d is so cia te d fro m th ea ff ec ti ve d imen si on . However ,b y u nd er sta nd in g th e a ffe ct iv ea nd c og nitiv e s id es o f le ar nin ga s a d yn am ic u nity (V yg ots ky ,1 92 4/2 00 3), b oth c an h elp th eNNST e n ga ge m ore a ctive ly a nda ut on omo us ly in d ev elo pin g

h is d is cu rs iv e c ompete nc e a ndp ro n un c ia ti on i ns tr uc ti on s ki lls .

P ronunciation courses andprogra mm es h ave the ir ow nlim ita tio ns o f tim e a nd s ylla bu s.Bes ides , ach iev ing d iscu rs ive /ph ono lo gi ca l c ompe te n ced oe s n ot h ap pe n o ve rn ig ht.S o, e nco ura ging the N NS T t od ev elo p s elf -in str uc tio n a nd s elf-m onito rin g strate gie s cou ld b e are as on ab le go al fo r th e te ac he re du ca to r to p urs ue .'E n glis h is n ow a h ete ro glo ss ic

lan gu age tha t ha s b eco meplu ra lize d ... W e ca n po in t to th ec re a ti ve c ommun ic at iv e s tr at eg ie sadopted by people from their ow ncom munities from w ay back inhisto ry to a cqu ire a nd use E nglishin th eir o wn te rm s.' (C an ag ara ja h,2 000: 1 30 -1 31 )The future fo r N NST

The im pact o f the grow th andspre ad of E nglish as a Lin gu a F ra nca(E LF ) ha s le d p eo ple to b elie ve th at


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th e tim e is rip e fo r N ST sto c apita lizeon it. T hrough the lens o f the B ritishgovernm ent, a lo t has been donesince 1998 to prom ote E LFw hen 'theso -ca ll ed 'B la i r- in i ti a ti ve ' a l lo ca tedfive m illio n po un ds to its p ro mo tio n.. h ow eve r, it se em s th at th e B ritishb ra nd o f E ng lis h . .. is n ot a lw ay sw ha t th e w orld ac tu ally w an ts '( Je n ki ns , 2007 :237) . I nt er es ti ng ly , a nins tance o f tha t w as reported in theEn glis h n ew s pa pe r 'T h e Ob se rv er '(2 4 J uly 2 00 5), w he n K ore an A irlin esc ho se a F re nc h s up plie r fo r its flig hts imu la to rs b e ca u se i ts i nt er na ti on a lE n glis h wa s mo re c omp re he ns ib leand cleare r than that o f the U Kco mp etito r, A nd give n th at K ore anA irlines are by no m eans the firs tto be aw are o f o r sensitive toc om p re he ns ib ility , 'th e fu tu re m a ytu rn ou t to be m ore prob lem atic fo rm any N Ss - unab le to speak o therla ngu age s o r to a da pt th eir E nglishfo r in te rn ation al c omm un ica tio n -t ha n f or m a ny NNSs' (o p. cit .:2 37 ).

E xam ples o f th e sp re ad o f N N S-

NNS in te ra ctio ns a bo un d. D e sp iteth e d en ia l b y d ec is io n-m a ke rs o f th ev alid it y o f E L Fa nd t he ir in sis te nc eo n b ein g g ate ke ep ers o f E ng lis hin th eir in st itu tio ns - g ov er nme nt,un ive rs it ie s , pub li she rs, exam ina tionb oa rd s - re ality is t he re to pro vethe need to open the ir m inds andin co rp ora te E LF as a n ew p ath in ste ado f la be llin g it e ith er a s in te rla ng ua geo r f os siliz atio n (J en kin s, 2 007). N oo ne is s ugge stin g th at w e sh ou lda ll b lin dly ju mp o n th e b an dw ago nof th is new trend . In fact, the re is alo t to be done befo re any m easureis ta ke n to wa rd s E LF .It n ee dsto b e 'fu lly d es crib ed , c od if ie dand considered from a range ofpedagog ic pe rspec ti ves ' ( op.c it .: 244 ).

T he place o f the N NS T is be ingdes igned and it is up to them to takeo ve r w he re th ey b elo ng .

'E nglis h is o fte n th ou gh t of a sb ein g th e p ro pe rty o f B ritish an dAme ric an n ativ e s pe ak ers , a nd B ritis ha nd Am eric an a cc en ts h ave b ec om eth e b en chm arks fo r p ro fic ie nc y in

p ro nu nc ia tio n a nd s pe ak in g. R e ce ntly ,th e a pp ro pr ia cy o f th es e b en chmar ksh as b ee n c ha lle ng ed . T h e peo plep ictu re d [o n th e w eb pa ge ] s pe ak asw ell a s, o r b ette r th an , m an y n atives pe ak er s w h ile r eta in in g a n im po rt an tp art o f th eir p ers on al, s oc ia l, a ndc ultu ra l id en tity - th eir a cc en t.T h ey a re a ll e xp er t c ommu nic at or sin E ng lis h, w ith a cc en ts fro m th eirfirs t la ng ua ge b ac kg ro un ds - P olis h,G e rma n, J ap an es e, e tc . A ll o f th emu se En glis h in th eir p ro fe ss io na l liv es .'(Cauldwe l l, 2006).

Th is a rtic le was fir st publis hedin Co nt ex tu ra s- E n sin o C ritic o d eL ingua Inglesa , n.3, pp-79-91.ReferencesE dito r's n ote : th e lis t o f re fe re nc es is s oextensive tha t it needs m ore space than w ehave a va ilab le . If y ou w ou ld like a fu ll lis t o fr efe re nc es , e m ail th e e dito r a t: n ew sle tt er@b ra zte so l.o rg .b r w ith s ub je ct lin e 'R e fe re nc elis t' and we w ill g ladly send it to you .I L eis d e D ir et riz es e B as es is a n o ffic ia l

d ocu me nt w hic h lay s d ow n n atio na le du ca tio na l p olic ie s fo r p rim ary a nds e co n da ry s ch o ol s.

ii Our t rans la t io n .

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Advantages of Being Non-native Teachers