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Advanced Quantitative Methods (ARM3)
An introduction and orientation to research using quantitative
data
Steve Strand
Aims of this session• Locate the research tradition / historical context for
quantitative research
• Be familiar with some key terms: ontology, epistemology, methodology, paradigm etc.
• Recognise paradigm assumptions, but take a pragmatic approach where the research question determines the choice of methods
• Recognised quantitative and qualitative are terms that refer to data, not to methods per se
• Appreciate some of the strengths of using quantitative data in Educational Research
Ontology
• from the Greek on (being) & logos (theory)
So literally theory of being.
• what is the nature of being? What is the nature of the reality we seek to explain? Does it exist out there waiting to be discovered, or only in the human mind?
• Nominalist – realist debate (if a tree falls in the forest……)
Epistemology
• From the Greek episteme (knowledge) and logos (theory) - so literally theory of knowledge
• What constitutes knowledge, how can it be acquired and communicated
• Realist view suggests observer role, determine laws, natural science methods (positivism)- Nominalist view suggests any number of different social worlds
Methodology
• From the Greek methodos (procedure for the attainment of a goal, in this case the acquisition of knowledge) and logos (theory) – so literally theory of the way in which knowledge is acquired
• How should knowledge be produced
• Ontology & epistemological views lead to distinct approaches to methodology – e.g., scientific method, collecting quantitative data, notions of control etc.
Data analysis andconclusions
Linked into paradigms
Ontological assumptions
Epistemological assumptions
Methodological considerations
Methods
Nature of Knowledge
• How do we come to know something?
Common sense doesn’t always hold (e.g. chance occurences & cause-effect relationships). Research is the systematic attempt to find answers.
• Ways of knowing
Intuition/introspection – but wider agreement?
Tenacity – frequent repetition->strong belief (confirmatory bias)
Authority – Bible, government, teacher
Science – objectivity, empirical data, control
Positivism There can be objective knowledge, existing
independently of the observer, that abides by universal laws and can be measured, quantified and predicted.
• Realism (real world independent of observer)
• Determinism (cause & effect relationships)
• Empiricism - strive for objective data observation, classification, quantification
• Through experimentation discern natural laws, and then make generalisations
• Replicability – public scrutiny
The ‘How’ of positivism• Experiment is considered the Gold Standard in many
disciplines (natural science, medicine, psychology)
• Classic features are: Clear testable hypothesis
Operationalise (measure) all concepts
Pre-test and post-test design
Control all extraneous variables (e.g. by random assignment of persons to treatments)
Give one group the treatment/Intervention, the other control group nothing or placebo
Repeat measure & compare groups
Determine causality (time order, controlled confounding variables)
Sufficient detail for replication by other researchers
Example: The US High/Scope Study
Measures taken during school
Achievement Tests, plus
Interviews with children
Social Profiles: questionnaires
Interviews with parents
Behaviour Ratings: teachers
Assignment to Special Education
IQ.
Jobs
Training
Parenthood
Welfare
Crime
Pre
-sch
ool g
roup
Con
trol
(no
sch
ool)
grou
p
3 5 AGE 18 27
Source: Schweinhart (2000)
Experimental research (cont.)
• Advantages:
Strong control over external factors
Best way of determining causality
• Disadvantages:
Often artificial situation
Generalisability to ‘real life’ setting?
Sometimes difficult to put into practice in school settings, ethical issues
People are not static entities (e.g., Hawthorn effects)
Quasi-experimental
• Quasi-experimental designs match individuals receiving different interventions rather than randomly assign
• e.g. effect of smoking on life expectancy, match smokers and non-smokers on key variables (gender, social class, occupation, age, lifestyle etc)
• Less control, may always been some relevant factor that has not been matched, so weaker inferences.
Survey research
• No experimental intervention, impossible or unethical, but detailed observation allows the use of statistical control
• Example is the Effective Pre-school and Primary Education (EPPE) Project
• Advantages
Study phenomenon in natural settings
Flexible approach, statistical control
• Disadvantages
Reduced control means we are never sure of causality, correlations may be spurious
25 nursery classes
590 children
34 playgroups
610 children
31 private day nurseries
520 children
20 nursery schools
520 children
7 integrated centres
190 children
24 local authority day care nurseries
430 children
home
310 children
Example: DfES EPPE Project 2005
Reception 6yrs 7yrs
Pre-school Provision (3+ yrs)
Key Stage 1
600 Schools
10yrs 11yrs
Key Stage 2
800 Schools
Interpretivism
• Social world is not the same as the physical world (no definable / quantifiable social facts or universal laws, socially defined)
• Rejection of natural science as a model (Researcher stands not in a subject-object relation to the social world but subject-subject relation, cannot be objective or unbiased)
• Concerned for a deep understanding of the particular, focus on subjective & experiential, stress multiple meanings
• Many different ‘schools’ of thought (Phenomenologists, ethno-methodologists, symbolic interactionists)
The ‘How’ of interpretivism• Wide range of methods and frameworks e.g.
ethnography
observation
Interview
detailed case study
documentary analysis etc.
• Preference for: words and images rather than numbers
meanings rather than behaviour
inductive, hypothesis-generating research
• Strengths
Portraying a slice of life
Reflexivity
Detailed description of complex phenomena
Triangulation
• Weaknesses
Subjectivity?
Reliability? e.g. adequately reported?
Validity? e.g. is it anecdotal rather than analytical?
Risk of generalising from particular data
Interpretive approaches
Two contrasting paradigms
Positivism InterpretivismRealism nominalism
Universal knowledge - generalisability
context specific, unique
Objectivity - research is unbiased Subjectivity – human element
Measurement & precision - quantities, amount, intensity, frequency
the qualities of entities, processes and meanings
‘Hard’ data - numeric ‘Soft’ data – language, texts
Control, cause & effect Understanding actions / meanings
Value free Value-laden
Discussion Task
• The ‘paradigm wars’ dominated social research most of last century (and still do in some ways)
• How do these issues relate to your planned research? Does you research fit neatly into one of these traditions?
• Is it useful to take an epistimological stand first and then construct your research questions, or should it be the other way round?
Pragmatism (1)• Both extremes are problematic, debate has
isolated ER and made it seem irrelevant “Education researchers write mainly for one another in their
countless academic journals, which are not to be found in a school staffroom (Hargreaves, 1996)”
• Social world is a social constructed, but there is a reality independent of our thinking (magic vs. science)
• We are biased by our cultural and socio-political contexts, but can strive for maximum objectivity
• Research is not a choice of paradigms, methods are determined by the research question
Pragmatism (2)
• Pragmatists argue not “is it true” but “does it work”?
• Quantitative data is good for: When we need quantitative answers (are ethnic minorities over-
represented among pupils excluded from school?)
Numerical change (are standards improving over time?)
Prediction (Do aspirations predict attainment?)
Hypothesis testing (can poverty explain ethnic under-achievement?)
• Qualitative data is good for: Looking at something in depth
Developing hypotheses and theories
Complex and broad issues
Meaning rather than causation
A research task
A parent at a primary school is concerned about the reading of his younger daughter, Ellie. She is age 7. He believes that his elder daughter, Gemima, who is now age 11, was a much more proficient reader at the same age. The parent suspects that something is going wrong in the school.
The governing body have agreed to investigate. They have asked you to undertake research to establish whether there is an issue with the teaching of reading in the school.
How would you go about doing the research?
Working on the task
• In small groups of about 4 people consider the question for 10 minutes;
• decide on an approach to the research and justify your choice of design and methods;
• Be prepared to offer brief feedback to the whole group.
Lastly, don’t confuse methods with data
Quantitative data
Method Qualitative data
Highly structured Interviews unstructured
Closed questions
Questionnaire Open-ended questions
Coding freq Observation Participant observation
Content analysis Documents Impressions and inferences
IQ Score Assessment Formative judgement
References
• For overview of research traditions and paradigms: Cohen et al (2007) Research Methods in Education.
Chapter 1 and Chapter 3. Muijs, D (2004). Quantitative research in education.
Chapter 1.
• For practical advice on methodology and selecting your methods: Bell, J. (2005) Doing your research project. Clough & Nutbrown (2007) A student’s guide to
methodology. Chapters 1 & 2.