ARTiKEL

ADOPTING WESTERN CULTURE ORENHANCING INDIGENOUS CULTURE:

Takdir Alisyahbana'sDiscourse on Indonesian Pathtoward Progress

HennanHidayatResearcher Staff of LIPI

It was a historical eventon Indonesian history, white held

a polemic ofculture on June 8-10, 1935in Solo. The urgent topic was discussed by many

participants concerning "Adopting Western Culture orEnhancing Indigenous Culture". Takdir Alisjahbana is one

front who promoted that Adopting Western Culture is a goodchoice for Indonesian path toward progress in the future. KiHajar Dewantara, Sanusi Pane, Poerbatjaraka, Sutomo, etc.,.on

the other fronts that they really promoted on enhancingIndigenous Culture. It seems to tne, that the debating both

sides was a very hard reas~nings.·Ki Hajar Dewan­tara and his group said that we should enhan-

cing Indigenous Culture based oneastern culture which a very

emphasized a spiJ;itual.

They frankly al"gued that eastern that Indonesian people was not egoism asculture was not intellectualism, was done by western. It .was a veryindividualism, materialism, and egoism, misunderstanding said this group, that inbut just it approach towards them ·was our society based on their tradition anddifferent than was realized by western culture, they. really sincere for ··theculture. For example, in case· of egoism, sense of sacrifice that causally OO1"n

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the happiness of their healt and theunlimited sincerely was not hoped bytheir own advantage. According to Takdirthat the future of Indonesian Culturemust be inherent with a development ofour society, but western culture is theonly one of our reference.

Frankly SPeaking, said Takdir,because of the lack of elements whichcontributed a dynamic towardIndonesian Culture, especially onnational education, therefore ournational culture is in Crisis. Towardunderstanding of Crisis term according toTakdir was the lost of sense ofl'esponsibility. Thus, the crisis of cultul'enot by stopping of cl-eativity, but ratherthan separation of creativity from thesense of responsibility. In this sense, ifcultural development not enhancing ofsense of l'eSponsibility, the hope andtoward human development, so theexistence of its culture was in Crisis. Theparticular case of literatul'e aspect, thatthe priority Crisis concerning of moraldeficit. For example, POet who writes anovel without a clear purpose,according to Takdir view was notconsciously realized his task. On theother hand, language is in Crisis, if in itsdevelopment not support man indeveloping his capacity in thought,especially as its manifested in scientific,Philosophy and technology. In order toovercome that condition, our nationalculture must be contributed by WesternCultures concerning intellectual ethos,individualism, mateJialism and egoism.The fear of those spiritual excess above,according to Takdir was not in realistic.Because the backwardness of ournational culture was the lack of thosevital elements, which caused ournation unable to face an InternationalCompetition among a progl'eSS nations.

Therefore, based on thatl-easoning, Takdil' suggested Indonesiannation have to study from the West. Inthe Western Culture, a man has

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responsible for his work, a man mustdevelop intellectualism, manage nature,collect materialism-those efforts

the ultimate target is for thehappiness of their selves. By thosedialogues in this process was bornmaterialism namely man was a veryconcern toward physical apPearance. Onthe other hand, was born intellectualism,was the product of reasoning of man,intellectual discourse among eachothers. From that point, WesternCulture develop based on materialism,intellectualism, individualism, etc.Concerning economics perspective wasborn an Industry, trade, and modernimperialism. At the same timeindividualism is affected on unlimitedcompetition on the economic andsocial issues. After having completedof the owning the vital elements ofwestern culture: materialism,intellectualism, individualism, andegoism, among western nations such asFl'ench, Dutch, British, Spain, German,etc., they effort to develop a neworganization which the main task topromote social justice, Peace andprospelity. Unfoltunately, the idealtarget was not achieved, comparingwith their egoism to colonize amongAsia, Africa, Latin America Nations, Fromthis sides, it was a tragic of westerncultul'e that was lwized amongwestern nations towalU developingcountries. But, it was al'~ued by Takdir,that we should study the positive aspectof western culture which producedscience and technology and economicthat finally dominated the greatest part ofdeveloping countries, rather than weimitated the negative aspect amongwestern nations which causallyimperiliazed toward other nations.

This paper would like to describe adynamic figure of Sutan Takdir as oneof the most prominent Indonesian Scholarin the early twentieth century onfocusing his a short intellectual

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biography, his thought on westerncultural paradigm which resulted aprogressive culture, the strategy of Takdirin order to maintain it, and Takdir'spolicy program oriented to establish it.

A SHORT INTELLECTIJAL BIOGRAPHYOF SlITANTAKDIR (1908-1994)

There is no doubt that TakdirAlisjahbana was one of the mostprominent philosopher and educator inthe early twentieth century of Indonesianhistor~. He was born on 11 February1?08 In N~tal, Tapanuli, the right bankot Natal nver which mounds in theIndian Ocean, slightly north of theEquator. His father came fromBengkulu in the south, and popularlycalled Raden Ali~jahbana or gelarSutan Arbi hailed from west Sumatra.The father was a schoolmaster and alsobecame an Imam, Moslem religiousofficer.

Takdir completed the HollandSchool (which used Malay and themedium of instruction in the Junioryears, and Dutch in the Seniod inSumatra, then went to teacher's trainingcollege in Bandung, west 'ava. Hetaught high-school at PaJembang,south Sumatra, from 1928 to 1930and eventually graduated with a L1.B inJakarta in 1942.

Takdir mal"1.ied a Sumatra wife in1929, hel' name Sumiati who died in1935 and has two children: Iskandarand Sofyan. His second wife was aJavanese, her name Raden Roro Sugiarti,whom he .

manied in 1941 and who died inLos Angeles, USA, in 1952 and has twochildren: Milta and Sri Artaria. His thirdwife is a German academic her nameMal~ret Axer, who at the time of theirmaniage in 1953, was literary andcultural editor of the Rhein Zeitung inCoblenz, Germany. Takdir married withMal~ret has four children: Tamalia,Malita, Mal~a and Malio.

According to a short biography,Takdir began Wliting for the nationalist

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magazine, Jong Sumatran when he wassixteen, and published his first novelwhen he was twenty one. In 1933 hebecame one of the founding editors ofPujangga Bam, the literary magazinewhich is generally considered to havebeen a majo: forum for the developmentof m~ern lIterature. The ensuing birthof PuJangga Baru .and its place inIndonesian literary life has up to nowbeen well documented less known is!hat as an extra-cLtl1.icular enterpriseIt had the SUppolt of one of the highlyplaced Dutch staff members of BalaiPustaka. r. Dahler, of mixed Dutch­Indonesian descent who later sided withthe Indonesians in the revolutionin.trod~ced the now ~ell known literarytnumvlrate of Takdlr Alisahbana AmirHarnzah and Armijn Pane to RoIff'sprinters and publishers at Jakarta. '

Thus, in both his creative writingand his literary criticism, Takdir was anuncompromising modernist in the pre­war years. Pujangga Baru became amajor vehicle for Indonesiannationalism on the cultural front, as themodernist a~ed for the westernconcepts of individualism an rationalismto which their command of the Dutchlanguage had exposed them. PujanggaBaru never got plinted on luxury paper,plinted in 500 copies, its total of paidSUbSCliptions dUling its 20 years ofexistence flum July 1933 onward neverexceeded the initial 150. On the otherhand, Takdir became the mainspokesman for this camp in a long andfrequently tense polemic. Not allIndonesians were as unequivocallycommitted to western style development,Indonesian nationalists were asfrequently ath'acted to a culturalfundamentalism built on the oldIndonesian values. Movements such asTaman Siswa (Ki Hajar Dewantara'scultural-nationalist movement) and theMoslem Muhammadiyah were deeplyambivalent about the ideas of peoplesuch as Takdir, they sought politicalnationalism thought cultural nationalismand hence had a stmng conservative

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inclination which valued the Indonesianhelitage more than the Western promise.These people approached the West andits values tentatively, convinced thatthey needed to consolidated theIndonesian-nest of their heritage beforethey could safely confront the onslaughtof the new values. Ki Hadjar argued that"we wish to retain our identity as long aspossible and to became part of thehigher unity only when we can makeourselves felt as equals in relation' tothe other parts" (Dewantara, 1967:161) but elsewhere he expressed adeeper distrust of the new values:

"It was by popularizing westerneducation that King intellect emel'8ed asthe autocrat, the dictator of our mind.Slowly but surely, loftier feelings gaveway to the tyrant who tolerated no equalbeside him. With such a selfish andmatelialistic ruler dominating ourinner life, it goes without saying thatindividualism very soon appeared aspowetful factor in the process of oursocial disruption" (Dewantara, 1967:153).

Some among the Pujangga Barugroup too med to keep the culturalonslaught at arm's length. Within literarycircles, the tension focuses around thedebate between art for art's sake (theposition advocated by the mystic poet andlater histolian, Sanusi Pane) and alsoTakdir.' The writers of this period wereheavily influenced by EuropeanRomanticism, but takdir's attitudegradually hardened into a philosophy oflife as struggle-part of his poem strugglecries. "Peace and harmony?/No, No, myGod!! It is only in struggle/that one canexperience peace and harmony. "At thesame time Sanusi Pane was declaring" Icreate for art's sake, but this does not~ean agreement with the cry for~ndividualism, rather that art should joinm mystical union of collectivism in itsuni~ with the world and its people".(Jassm, 1967: 107).

Alisjahbana has wtitten that in hiso~n vi.ew the major influences uponhim until 1950:

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"Were the Dutch education Ireceived, and the experiences on thedeath of my wife which resulted in thecollection of poetry Tebaran Mega.In my education as a teacher, whichtook nine years, I strongly felt theinfluence of Dr. G.]. Nieuwenhnis, areformer of Dutch education in Indonesiain the '20's who emphasized theimportance of personality in languageand other expressions. My law educationfrom 1937 to 1942 opened for me thebroad array of the social sciences andreinforced my scientific andphilosophical mind. Especially theHegelian Professor Eggens, who taughtCivil ------------

*) The polemic of Indonesianliterary life in this century arefascinating, and a rich source forunderstanding Indonesian nationalism;Takdir's concept of committed alieventually came to look very non­docmnaire in contl'-ast to the heavyideological content of these polemics inthe Guided Democracy period, whenTakdir ranked as a liberal humanistagainst the LEKRA sponsored socialistaesthetics (LEKRA: Lembaga KesenianRakyat/lnstitute for Popular Art).

Law, sharpened my dialectical logicin a its social implications since fromthe .very beginning I was attracted toHegelian dialectics andcomprehensiveness.

As a result said Takdir, I do not havethe feeling that certain books havedetermined my growth. The totalatmosphere of modern educationawakened the dynamic forces in me, sothat I felt at home with the variousthinkers and wliters of modern culture,be it with a De Kat Angelino, J.J.L.Duyvendak, Henriette Rolland Holst-vandel' Schalk (socialist thinker andpoetess), Rimbaud, Valery and manyothers. I was jumping from one author toanother for the rebellious feeling I felttowards the whole tl"aditional culture inmy favor for the modern attitude.Important in this connection is myintroduction to Puisi Baru (New Poetry)

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where I already clearly based my selfon the Renaissance which has fascinatedme from the beginning. Typical of myunconventional breach through theconfusing array of thought, ideas .andcurrents was my b<xlk· collection whichdrew .the remark of Dr. Verhoeven,Director of the (Dutch) Foundation forCultural Cooperation (Jakarta),whenbrowsing through my bookshelves:"What exactly is your real interest? I cannot see it from your books herel"

Frankly speaking, as told by Takdir,that a person whohadgrea.t influencein my development and cal-eer was Dr.K.A.H. Hidding, who later becameProfessor of Comparative Religion andRector of. the University of Leiden. Iremember him as a person with aliberal philosophical religious mindand with a socialistic undertone.. Ashead of the Balai Pustaka (officialgovernment publishing house) he madegreat efforts to get me a

position as assistant of Indonesianlanguage at the University of Leiden, inorder .to enable me to get an academiceducation. However, at that timeProfessor van Ronkel rejected me,because he considered me too modernin my linguistic and literary writingsand ideas. Later Dr. Hiddingallowed me,while working in the Balai Pustaka, tofinish my studies at the Law School inJakarta. In the mid-30's I regularly spentmy time reading the most difficultDutch poetry with him, for instanceBoutens, H. Roland Holst and others. Iused this OPPOltunity very often tosharpen my cultural insight by bringinginto discussion problems of East andWest, cultural transformations, problenlSof ethics etc. But already at that time Iwent my own way. He accepted myinhoouction .to Puisi Lama (traditionalPoetry) to be published by Balai Pustaka,but rejected my introduction.to Puisi Barn(New~Poetry) which attempted to lookfor its sources in the Renaissance. Heconsidered this view of Western manunacceptable to him, so that Puisi Barncould not be published by Balai

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Pustaka and was later published by myself during the1"evolution.

Besides, Takdir had been active inthe Nationalist Youth Congress in 1926,and after the subsequent congt-ess of1928 which proclaimed for thefit"Sttimethat Indonesia is one people, one nationand possesses one language, .BahasaIndonesia. He and the PujanggaBarugroup called a Language Conference in1938 which argued strongly for themodernization of Bar..asa Indonesia.Takdir's view on a btuadrange ofcultural issues at this time can be foundin his contributions to PolemikKebudayaan (Cultural Polemic) collectedby the novelist Achdiat K. Mihardja(Mihardja, 1954), which gives aclea.roverview of the pre-war debates. A widespectmm of Takdir's writings on theIndonesian Language to 1957 aregathered together in Takdir (1975). Ihave· . discussed more fully elsewhere(Nichterlein,1974: 222-240) the issuessurrounding the growth of theIndonesian Language at this time, hel'e itis sufficient to note that a large sectionof the Indonesian nationalistintelligentsia was COlnmitted to usingIndonesian as the national language ofan independent nation state, and thatfor clear JX)litical reasons the Dutchinhibited the use and development of thatlanguage. It is also significant that whilethe Malay base of Bahasa Indonesia wasin widespread use the Indonesianarchipelago, there is good reason todoubt that it was useful a lingua franca ashas frequently been assumed because thelack of a standardized. grammar andmorphology meant that there weremany. regional variation tantamount todialects. There lav before thelndonesian nationalistS a huge task inorganizing and disseminating thestandardization of. Bahasa Indonesia touse it as a "language of modemconsciousness" to replace the -D\.ttch oftheir political masters.

On top of that, a mdical changein the JX)litical and intellectual climateof the Netherlands East Indies took place

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when the Japanese occupied thearchipelago on March 9, 1942. TheJapanese sought to harness the efforts ofthe Indonesians to the pursuit of theGreater East Asian prosperity Sphen~,

and to this end supported thesuppression of Dutch in favor of BahasaIndonesia which, together withJapanese, became the official languageof the Occupation Administration. OnOctober 20, 1942,

the Indonesian LanguageCommission was established. "Itsmembers, who were later to be theleaders of the Indonesian people, weregiven the task of determining a modernterminology, a standard grammar, andan everyday vocabulary. By the time theJapanese Occupation had ended, thelanguage had been enriched by 7.000new terms. During the Revolution, theprovisional constitution raised Indonesianto the rank of official language, this wasno longer the proclamation of a theorybut the confil'mation of a fact".

Takdir served on the LanguageCommission as "expert secretary" andwas at the same time Head of theOffice of Indonesian Language, but hewas eventually jailed by the Japanese forsubversive activity. The journal PujanggaBarn was banned from the beginning ofthe occupation because of itsindependent character. The Japanesestand point was clearly formulated bywriters such as Uio Tomizawa who"denounced the spirit of the EuropeanRenaissance as something which hadbeen threatening Asian values for severaldecades" (Alisjahbana, 1962: 36)."'>

Finally, after the achievement ofIndonesian independence, Takdirbecame chairman of the re-constitutedLanguage Commission of the Republic ofI!ldonesia from 1945-1950. During thish me he organized the Perkl,lmpulanMemajukan Ilmu dan Kebudayaan(Association for the Advancement ofScience and Culture) which ------------

! It is interesting to note thatTakdlr's opponent in the earlierpolemics, Sanusi Pane, was able to

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cooperate whole- heatedly with theJapanese because he felt that there hadnow occurred a synthesis of theseeastern mysticism values which he heldin higher regard that the individualistmaterialism and rationalism of theWest. established an underground seniorhigh school in Dutch-occupied Jakarta.It was this association that organizedthe Akademi National (NationalAcademy) that later became the

.Universitas Nasional of which ProfessorTakdir Alisjahbana was Rector (I 968­1993). He has held many other academicposts and edited several other journalssince the demise of the revived PujanggaBarn in 1955.

In his 1955 discussion of''Traditional and Modern Values in AsianCulture" Takdir describes the "dilemmaof the Asian intellectual" whoparticipates in the modern era with itsimperative of a broad vision but hebelongs also to an underdevelopednation of which the greater part isupholding the old values. If, inaddition, we realize that the Asianintellectual is fully a ware of the fact thatthe Western world is itself facing a crisis,that its values are menaced by a tide ofsecularism, skepticism, and relativism,we understand his vacillation betweentwo attitudes: his response of the crisis ofAsian culture brought about by the stillcontinuing impact of the West, and hisreaction to that other greater crisis, thecrisis of modern man, embracing thewhole of mankind" (Alisjahbana, 1955:315).

In this paper, Alisjahbana broadlyanticipates some of his later conclusions;he l'eminds us that the five hundl'edyear contrast between East and Westmarks but a small interval in the entiresix thousands years of man's history;while all is skeptic and "everything hadto be re-valued'" it nevertheless "cannotbe denied that the whole of historyproves that matelial progress hasalways been followed by spirituall'l'Ogl'eSS and vice versa, and that thereis an endless dialectic interplay between

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matter and spit;t". (Alisjahbana, 1955:319). He looks fOlward to a time when"the traditional Asian values will nolonger be Asian values alone, butenriched with the values of other parts ofthe world, they will assist in the creationof modern values for the whole ofmankind". Wisjahbana, 1955: 320).

In 1960 his Indonesia in the ModernWorld was published. In the preface tothe second edition of this book (re­titled Indonesia: Social and CulturalRevolution, published in 1966)Alisjahbana noted that the two books aresubstantially the same, though tresecond has two additional chapters.Indonesia in the Mcxlern World wascommissioned by the Congress forCultural Freedom and written in Paris,presumably in 1958. roth booksexpand on the themes tentativelyexplored in the earlier articles.Alisjahbana juxtaposes the dynamicculture of the West against what hesees as the essentially static heritage ofIndonesia: the traditional village life ofthe little tradition is depicted as sterileand unreflective, the prisoner oftradition. The great tradition of thecourts of Indonesian history is similarlydisparaged for its overblownaestheticism and feudal oppression.. Hesees almost· no virtue in the trulyindigenous part of the Indonesianheritage, but regards the Hinduimpact as the first beginnings ofcultural flowering, followed by thestimulus of Islam which insists on a gulfbetween Man and God and thuschallenges the mysticism premises of theanimist tradition. It was the Islamicexperience which paved the

\vay for the influence of Westernculture with all its dynamic promise.But while· Alisiahbana seems stillcommitted to ~ the modernistappropriation of Wester~values inIndonesia, he does recogmze that thereare problems..

Alisjahbana spent the years 1959­1961 KS a Fellow of the Center ·forAdvanced Study in the Behavioral

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Sciences at Stanford, and the followingyear as Visiting Senior Scholar at theEast. West Center of the University ofHawaii. At the end of 1962 he was in adilemma. To go back to Indonesia "wasout of the question, since Sukarno inmy opinion had grown more and moreunreasonable, but nevertheless I wouldlike to stay nearer to Indonesia whel'e Ihave my roots. There was fOl~ me no otherchoice but to go, to Malaysia".(Correspondence, March 25, 1974). In1963 he accepted the Chair as Head ofthe Department of Malay Studies at theUniversity of Malaya, which he held until1968.

Alisiahbana returned to Indonesia in1968 to~ become Rector of UniversitasNasional in Jakarta. After theconfrontations policies of Sukarno,there was a new mood of reconciliationabroad within the region. Alisjahbanabegan to work fulthel'l toward thereconciliation of the Malay andIndonesian languages and in the generalatmosphel'e of Indonesian-Malaysianfraternity he wrote a paper on' "'TheUnity of the Malay Culture" in 1971which returns to the therne, of culturaluniversalism (Alisjahbarul, 1971): "Thecultures of China, India,· the Middle Eastand modern Europe as well as theindigenous Malay culture have enteredhel'e· (Southeast Asia) into a conflict andconfluence as nowhere else in theworld. And it is to be hoped that throughthis unique confluence andamalgamation as well as conflict betweenthe great cultural traditions of the wholeof mankind, Southeast Asia or theMalay culture will be able to contributeto the shaping of the arising worldsociety and culture". (Alisjahbana, 1973).

At the fifteenth World Congress ofPhilosophy at Varna in 1973, ProfessorAlisjahbana presented two papel"S. In his"Modem Secular Man and the Unityof Mankind" he outlines theachievements of Westel-n culture sincethe renaissance, and then discusses theway in which man's very control overnature has come to'threatenhumankind.

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I would like to conclude, that TakdirAlisjahbana might well be seen notonly as an individual constructing hisown ontological framework from a widediversity of sources, but also in relationto the broader intellectual exercise ofIndonesians - and other non-westerners ­who are trying to reconcile two deepcultural impetuses in their writings.

A PROGRESSIVE CULTURE WAS INTAKDIR CONCERN

It has been discussed in the Seminar,that productivity and creativity of ournation since the independent day in1945 is decreased, if we would comparewith our hard stmggle against thecolonizers. 'That phenomenon, gave animpression, that we were exaggeratingour former struggle to be independent,but the opposite was true. We failed togive a significant meaning for ourindependence - with those positivenotions such as, a dynamic mentality,vitality, productivity, clutivity, etc., toour nation and culture after theindependent day (1945). It seems thatfrom the whole aspect of "culturalparadigm" today, our productivity andcreativity are on the stagnantsituation. Therefore, our responsibility tocatch up the brilliant idea and our wishto stmggle and ready to sacrifice withour body and soul are decreasing.Obsen-;ng that static condition,according to Takdir, our nation mustreconstruct the idea of "humanexistence". In order to be human, refineculture and civilization related to thefonner history and to the future ofmankind in the modem would dominatedby science, technology and economicsThe idea of human existence must bedeveloped. The modem culture whichis running for centuries, theconfiguration of its values aredominated with science and economicsand amplified by the development oftechnology.

.This writing would like to describeTakdlr's thought on education. His

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frame of thought that science producestechnology. Therefore, in order to gettechnology, the function of education isto provide well educated people.Because the process of educationpermeates the production of a highquality people that is badly needed by acountry to create its industrial society.Thus, it is an interesting phenomenonin tracing back Takdir's idea about"technology". He states that technologyis the product of theoretical andeconomic evaluating process. Thetheoretical evaluating process gives it thenecessary knowledge of nature, theeconomic makes an efficiency in theproduction of end goods on the basic oftheoretical knowledge. It is clear that thegreatest achievement of technology isfound in the sphere of economic life, i.e.in the production of economic goods.3 Asa result, the progress of technology isthought of as the greatest consequencefor individual, social, and cultural life.Through the tremendous increase inproduction, better satisfaction of humanneeds is made possible. On the otherhand, technology, based on rationalmathematical logic, has the tendency tomake "man himself' as ran abstractsubject in relations to a technologicalsociety end culture. Not only man himselfdisappear in relations to the products ofhis/her labor, but also replaced by thevalue on the amount of money he/shereceives.

Therefore, according to Takdir, thecore of the problems of modem life isthat the process of abstraction threatensto undermine mans personal life as wellas his social relations. The personalityloses the feeling of security, and in sociallife, the feeling of solidarity is weakened.Furthermore, Takdir states thattechnology as a by product of scienceforces us not to forget the fact about therelationship of technology and science asis a dialectical one. New knowledge of thelaws of nature and new discoveries of thepotentialities of nature unavoidably leadto an improvement of technology. Butan improvement of technology, which

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puts at the disposal of man new toolsand implementations, enables him toarrive at more accurate knowledge,more generalized laws. For example, theexpansion of transJXlrtation system tobecome important for travelers andtraders as well as for political centralreceived a strong stimulus. from theinvention of the steam engine, whichwas related to the extensive use of coaland iron, finally the \ use of oil andelectricity instead of coal. Electric power,telegraphy, radio and television made abetter communications and relationsthrough the remotest areas. It is clearthat the most important conttibution oftechnology provides a man opportunitiesto make possible the tremendousprogress of society, eSJ)ecially in theterm of economics. In· this connection,the development of technology-speakingin the broad sense organs, and humanenergy. This means that mans materialas well as spiritual achievements canbe multiplied endlessly. The aboveobservation is clearly make sense forus that the" significant meaning of theexistence of. technology since the 19century for· the whole people hasbecome more apparent. It is told alsoby Soedjatmoko, a former president ofthe United Nations UniversIty in Tokyo(1979-1983), that the homogenizationof modern man and his Increasingother-directness, the growingsupelficiality and spiritual emptinessof modern life, the coming revolt ofthe masses, the rapidly changingfads in dress and mUSIC, and ingeneral the high violability of moodsand lifestyles, culminating inmindless consumerism.4

Apparently, the negativephenomenon of the impact oftechnology for the trend of attitudesamong men must be noticed in orderother majority people still have a goodattitude towards the development oftechnology in the future. fromabove discussion, Takdir reminders usthat a culture which dominated byscience, technology and economics is

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called "a progressive culture.uS Onthe opposite, a culture which thevalues of religion and art aredominant is called "an expressiveculture'\ In the last explanation thatphenomenon is. still at work amongthe majority of people and consideredas the national characteristic orpersonality.

The main different between theclosed static traditional and modernculture is that the traditional cultureviews the purpose of education wasto ensure cultural continuity bypassing on certain inherited values andcustoms to the younger generation intheir purest form, whereas in modernculture education always has arevolutionary role to play. Therefore,one central aspect of thIS problem isthe formulation of educational goalsthat enables us to attain a better way oflife, and a school system that can putthese goals into effect.6 As a result, theimportant aspect of all is to executethe education in order to achieve thestandard of quality of life.

From the above discussion, tIleidea of Takdir is still consistent in theconcern of his support for "westernculture" which dominated by science,technology and economics for the bestchoice of the Indonesian people in thefuture, if they intend to be a progressnation.

It is frankly said by Takdir that:"the intelligence of Indonesian

people must be exercised to be similarwith the Western people. Theconsciousness of indIvidualismmust be survival the Indonesian peoplemust be suggested on thecollection of materials as much aspossible. To all the Indonesian peoplemust be developed".7

All of his idea was really opposedby other participants which defended"traditional culture" such as Ki HadiarDewantara, Sanoesi Pane, M. Amir," R.Soetomo, etc. on the "National Congressof Education" on June 8-9, 1935 inSolo and contillued in the second and

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third polemic with entitled "the clearsymbols" on variaus newspaper (inPujangga Barn, Suara Umum, PewartaDeli, Warsita) on October 1935 untilApril 1936. For example, according toKi Hajar, local cultures are symbolicelements of the capital making ofnational culture; R. Soetomo tended toreceive a middle way, which means toreceive Indonesian culture as well asWestern culture; but on the meantimeSanoesi Pane associated materialism,intellectualism and individualism withthe sense of spiritualism andcollectivism; and for Radjiman, ournationalism, and especially Javaneseculture must be defended, because theWestern culture is really different.8Apparently, between two groups ofpolemics whether those who supportWestern culture and those whosupport National culture do exist. It isinteresting to see the idea of UmarKayam, the senior lecturer in GadjahMada University, Yogyakarta.According to Kayam, "the importantone, how to make the national cultureas the process of dialog betweenelement of local culture and Westernculture as such kind of an "interplay"is fair.9 In the distant past, almost fourdecades ago since the "NationalCongress of Education" in 1935, oneshould note the opinion of Y.B.Mangunwijaya in Kompas newspaperon December 12, 1978, he clearly said,"that Ki Hadjar Dewantara and TamanSiswa dominates the formal concept ofour education. But in reality, Takdirwon the practice of education".10

Let us take another supporterWestern culture, such as B.J. Habibie,the minister of Science and Technologyfor 0992-1997).

His program of Science andTechnology for industrialadvancement is in line with the ideaof Takdir on modernization. Habibiesaid, "I praised Japan which has

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succeeded her industrial program inmany sectors, and also her significantrvle of economic development in theAsia Pacific. So, Indonesia shoulddevelop her industry together withJapan or Europe or not at all".11

As a result, according to Takdir,the defeat of our nation is due to thedominance of "expressive culture"instead of the dominance of"progressive culture" that dominated byeconomics, mathematics, andtechnologyo12 Thus, it was no wonder,in 1950s Takdir loudly spoke the"Crisis" in Indonesian culture,specifically in the field of education,because of lacking the vital elementsand dynamics of the national cultureand national education. This crisiscan be overcome if national cultureprovided by Western Culture,such as intellectualism,individualism, materialism, andegoism. Therefore, the afraid of thoseWestern items, according to Takdir,leads to the backwardness ofIndonesian people and incapability offacing international competition.13

THE STRATEGY TO MAINTAIN APROGRESSIVE CULTURE

How is the strategy of Takdir inorder to maintain a progressiveculture, where the function ofeducation as a tool to modernize theirnation. In order to know it throughoutTakdir's

novels should be observed. First,Takdir said, that education shouldproduce the initiative and creativitymentality to the people. In his novelKalah dan Menang14 (The defeat andvictory), 1978, is more emphasize forgetting the success of initiative andcreativity. For example, Takdirillustrated the role of doctor ToshioMaki, the family of Katsuhiko (themain actor) who lived in Hiroshima.

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While the city of Hiroshima hit bombby America in World War two,August 9, 1945, it caused a bigvictims and terrible accident ofhumanity, he lost his two daughtersand also his wife was injuredseriously. But, with his initiative andcreativity, doctor Maki built"emergency hospital" to treat thevictims of an atomic bomb, aithoughthe facility and capacity of thathospital are very simple, lack ofmedicines and services. But, he neverdespair to that effort to cure thoseserious victims. That true story told bydoctor Maki to Katsuhiko, formerJapanese soldier who had experience inIndonesia, as the fact in histOlyr. Thisnovel commented by Takdir, that itcould not be rejected, that thissoldiers just entirely submitted theirsoul and body ·to sacrifice to the sacredmission of Emperor (H_irohito) as themanifestation of the AmaterasuOmikami (the magnificent of God sun)that full of magic and mystic. But, theopposite, that the real defeat of Japanill \\'o1"ld War two (1945), becauseher backwardness of wealtil, science,economics and technology comparedwith her Western powers.

.Second, Takdir said thateducation has correlation withrationality. Certainly, more higher ofeducation from any person will bemore rational of his attitude andmorality in the

implementation. Thus, throughone of the main characters of his mostimportant pre-war novel, LayarTerkembang15 (with Full

Sails, 1937), Takdir reallyexpressed his disapproval ofreligious attitudes as he .had observedamong villagers who left i religiousmatters completely to Kiyahi, religiousteachel~. Consequently, that tIlevillagers did not and could notunderstand the essence of religion. Forthem religion was just rituals and

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ceremonies led by the Kiyahi whomthey blindly followed. On the samecondition, he did not also agree withthe religion as practiced by tilepriyayi, members of the Javanesebureaucracy. These people, althougheducated, did not understand theirreligion which they in general onlybegan to study seriously upon reachingthe pension age. For them too religionwas confined to rituals andceremonies. However different fromthe villagers who respected religionand the Kiyahi, the priyayi gavethe impression as if they wereashamed of their religion. This wasreflected, for example, in the waySelamatan (meal with a religiouscharacter) were held. The Kiyahiandhis assistants who were to lead theSelamatan ceremony by expressing thenecessalyr dua' (supplication) camestealthily through the backdoor of thepriyayi's house and sat on a mat at areserved but disrespectful sectionclosed to the bathroom. The host· andhis guests, who usually also belongedto the priyayi group sat in chairs in aspecially reserved and respectfulsection of the 110use. They chat witheach other and let the Kiyahi and hisassistants do the dua' withoutparticipating in it. Afterwards, theKiyahi and his aids could go home,while the priyayi continued withtheir ownentertainment.. For Tuty (asactress) in this novel-and this would beapplicable to the author of the noveltoo, the religion which she wanted tohold on should be in line with herrational thinking and her innermostfeelings.

Takdir was also aware of thenew development of the trend ofthought is Islamic circles. Anothercharacter of the same novel, whosename is Jusuf, reminded Tuty that not afew of the educated people wanted tounderstand their religion better bymaking a serious study of it. Thepublication of Koranic translations wasaccording to Jusuf proof of this

43

phenomenon.On the other hand, Takdir's

high valuation of Islam, which hasbeen reflected mOl'e and more in hiswritings in the last decade, is, Ibelieve, based on his recognition of theexistence of God and His Omnipotenceand Omniscience as described in Islam.It should be remembered that Takdirhas always stressed the power of man,the need for the unfolding of hisabilities for which opportunitiesshould be given, and the elevation ofreason. And also the high replacementof rational thinking. However he neverarrived at the idea of discarding God.Furthermore, Takdir stated

that Islam has the potential ofboosting up the economic developmentof a country like Indonesia. He said,"Islam in principle accepts worldlylife to its fullest extent", and urgesits followers to make use of reason inthe widest possible sense which isconsidered as a good deed blessed byGod.16 He also maintain that "morethan any other religion", Islam veryclearly urges his followers to ponderabout nature, to make aninvestigation into it by making use ofreason, and to enjoy nature's wealth.

It seems to the writer, that indiscussing of Takdir's thought oneducation has correlation with theappreciation of rationality by takingan illustration of villagers and priyayitowards their understanding of theirreligion Islam and the potentialmeaning of Islamic teachings in usingof intellect is very important. Eventhough, Takdir does not considerhimself as one of the modernistMuslim thinkers, but it can be said thathe is still searching for the truth as aMuslim as well as human being.

Third, Takdir said that educationhas implication to the attitude ofresponsibility. As was he told in hisnovel Grotta Azzurra17 (the bluecave), that Hitler and Mussoliniwere represented of the fascismregime. They were clear and

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interesting slogan to agitate the people'saspiration until the most of peopleconsidered that they really heard theirconscience. That phenomenon wascovered while Ahmad asked to hisfriend Conrad, as a member of partyHitler, that almost everyday wasindoctrinated of Nazi's doctrines aboutthe myth of Nazi, the sacred duty ofGerman people, the superior of Ariarace, the magnificent of Hitler, etc.Furthermore Conrad commented onthat situation: "On the happiness to thebeloved of my country, I reallyaccepted all doctrines that thought meas a sense of responsibility". As amatter of fact in that condition nochoice for me. The changes were veryrapid on many sectors, almost wholepeople welcomed happily theprogress of Nazi party, because theyfound again their beliefs in dignityafter they got a great mock in Versallesagreement. And after that they foundagain the victory in many battle offields in World -War two until theytruly unrealized their defeat underHitler dictator leadership in 1945.

From above description,apparently it was told us thathowever the shape of regime forinstance "fascism or democracy", therole of education generally tomodernize whole people butparticularly to cultivate the sense ofresponsibility for their attitudes inorder to be progress nation.

It was told by Takdir above thatthe role of education has implicationto the initiative, creativity, rationalityand responsibility. From those views,how important to develop the"education" to the whole people untilthey become well educated people.Furthermore, Takdir discussed thestrategy concerning the involved valueto have a modern education among thepeople. He said, that in the first twodecades of the twentieth centuryparticularly, the desire to go to schoolbecame so strong that "more schools"came to be the most important popular

44

demand.I8 An increasing number ofschools all kinds was, in fact, beingestablished by the colonial government.But, within a short space of time itbecame clear every where that theywere far too few to meet all therequests for admission that were beingmade. The new Indonesian awarenessof the importance of science andlearning for modern life was neverreally divined by the Dutch, whoseprimary purpose, as Takdir hadmentioned before, was to set up theseschools in order to provide thebureaucracies of their variousorganizations with lower and middlegrade personnel. The training given inthose early days amounted to littlemore than five years of reading,writing and a little arithmetic in theelementary schools.19 Consequently,gradually the Indonesian peoplecame to see the advantages ofmodern education. It provided themwith better jobs and higher positions,raised theIr standard of living,improved their social standing, andprovided them with a body of scIentificknowledge of the utmost irnpoliancefor modern living. Therefore, it was avery app'ropriate for the children ofthe nobIlity and the local notables. Byacquiring modern education theycould maintain their former statuswithin the new social order. Therewere also many members of themiddle classes and the intelligence whofound that they could use moderneducation to improve their socialstanding. It was generally recognizesthat in this period, Indonesian parentsmade colossal sacrifices to educatetheir children. Since often there wereno elementary or secondary schoolswhere their children could be thoughtin their own villages or local towns, theparents would often send them wayto other villages and towns. 111emore advanced the schools, the fatherthe children were from their parents.And since, up to the outbreak of thesecond World War, secondary andhigher schools were to be found as a

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rule only in a few large cities injava,20 many children from outsidethese cities, and especially from theouter Islands, had to go to schoolswhich were as much as one or twoweeks sailing distance from theirhomes. As a result, more educatedpeople, of course it was undeniable thateducated Indonesian were learning tores~ct themselves. Thanks mainly totheir newly acquired understanding ofcontemporary concepts and theories offreedom and justice and also the sectsof Independent which they were taughtin school, and their growIngconfidence in their ability to a just tothe atmosphere of modern culture,these Indonesian came gradually to askboth for their themselves and for theirfellow Indonesians all the rights andoppoliunities that defenders of humanrights fought for in Europe from therenaissance on wards. But ironically,the high schools and the colleges Inwhich young Indonesian men andwomen were getting in a good moderneducation-very simIlar to that whichyoung Dutch men and women weregetting in Holland schools as well asIn Dutch schools in Indonesia formedthe central for all the movements ofnational awakening in the beginningof the twentieth century. Thesemovements in turn be the all kinds ofnationalist movements, and were in thelast analysis the decisive factor in thestruggle for Indonesia independenceand for the elimination of Dutchcolonialism from Indonesian soil.

TAKDIR'S POLICY PROGRAMORIENTED

Takdir's policy program oi-ientedin order to establish "an educationalsphere" for young generationthroughout two instruments:

First, by establishing aneducational institution to exercise anintellectual and to develop academicsociety, which was well known"National University". As a privateUniversity, it was built on October 15,

45

1949, in Jakarta. Takdir said,21 that itsdevelopment through the centuries,tIle universities as an institution oflearning has grown into the mostimportant and decisive institution ofour time and in the future. It isespecially in the renaissance whenman, and especially the thinkers andscholars liberated themselves graduallyfrom the dominant position of thechurch, that the univerSIty has growninto a center of research and thoughtand of teaching, and thus providingsociety with the most competent leadersand workers in all fields of socialpolitics and cultural life. In its furtherdevelopment in ourtime the universityhas become an institution withnumerous still expanding branches inthe form of faculties, area studies,departments, programs beside a greatnumber of laboratories and otherresearch institutions, all or notcooperating with each other.

On the other hand, in theConference .of Higher Education andThe Future University in Turki, Finland,on August 1988,22 Takdir emphasized,that in the modern culture which basedon science and technology, the positionof university is a very strategic as ainstitution which efforts objectively todevelop scientifically in whole aspectsfrom nature until human beingbehavior. He also said, that thequality of lecturers, facilities ofbuildings, administration offices,libraries, the completely of laboratorieswere very necessary to improve inorder the quality of a private andpublic universities were guaranteed. Inthis context, in order Indonesiarapidly develop to be modern nation, itis a very necessary to hold the programof "translation" a whole book ofscience and technology intoIndonesian language.. From thatcondition, it is expected all ,Indonesian~ple can read them and directlyInfluence their knowledge 5OOn.23

But the most important task andrespc!nsibility of the universities, saidTakdlr, tllat they have gradually to

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become the highest reflective,integrative and creative intellectualcenters which through themobilization of the best minds thewo'rld over by its reflection, researchand teaching will together and insolidarity spearhead the solution of thepressing global problems of humansurvival, development and welfare.24

Second, by establishing theart institute, which was well knowncalled Toyabungkah (near Batur lake)in Bali, 1977. It is a center ofreflection and creation.25 It intends tobring together creative artists,theoreticians of art and cultureTakdir as the leader of the Art Centerformulates his task as creating an alifor the future which sl10uld expresshuman responsibility, humansolidarity and the Joy of aContinuously expanding creative life. Ithas registered in Toyabungkah Centerthat up to now al.:>out 10 dances havebeen created, among others: A flowerin Blossoming in Toyabungkah,Moonlight on Lake Batur, FromDarkness to LigIlt, Woman at theCrossroads, etc.

Takdir said, tilat to maintain aprogressive culture we need the ethicof creativity in whole aspects.26Because tIle position of "art" is thesources of everything, therefore thestrength of creativity must be grewand finally spread out through thewilole fields of knowledge. Heemphasized once again that the keyword of all thing is the creativity. Hefrankly said, that the growth -ofcreativity through the instrument of thehappiness in learning and work hard.He suggested, tl1at to maintain thestrength of creativity come from tIleyoung around 16-30 years old whichthe most dynamic order..FUltllermore, Takdir said that the"alt" should as a "moral force" not asan entertainer in the crisis worldwhich threatened by various dangers.The alt that we need today is the arttilat has a sense of responsibility to

46

tIle destiny of tlte human being ill thefuture. III this case, tIle position of artis similar with knowledse. Besides that,tIle role of art can drIve of dynamic,the source of new perspective, thewealth of fantasy and vision, the spirit

love and full hope to the newworld. The art can be divided into twokinds. First, painting. Takdir suggestedthat painting should be produced anattractive painting to drive men morecreative in thinking and building thisnation.27 He criticized many artists whoproduced their works which justappeal the sex and the egoism ofcharacteristics. from tllat context, therole of an artist is a very significant ifcompare with other scientists. Forexample, the task of an artist canTable:

"picture" more concretely topotter the peace, the solidarity of mankind and the prosperous of nation.Second, dancing. According to Takdir,that dancing as the result of thinkingand struggle to create a new menwhich has a dynamic mentality basedon positive value and a flew a vision oflife.28 From this context, theexhibition of dancing silouid potter adynamic life, the creativity in new alife and the optimistic in the future­those items are very necessary ill theprocess of nation building.

It can draw conclusion, thatbased on Tadir's tllOUght oneducation, can be seen in the tablebelow:

TAKDIR CONCEPTION ON EDUCATION

SUBJECT

1. The function of ed.ucatioll

TARGET OF EDUCATION

- to provide well educated people- to perlneate the production of a

hi~h Quality people

2. The implication of education, (in ~ the education should produce: Inl-

order to achieve a progressive tiative, creativity, rationality, andculture) responsibility lnentality

3. The image of modern nation

4 .. TIle ideal of tecllnology

5. The ideal of Indonesianpeople

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- c}laractelized by science & technology

- to make more rapid information,transformation, transportatioll,etc.

- to make better life of.\vhole humanbein~.

- to have better education- to llave positive mentalities for ex-

ample, initiative, creative,- to develop a progressive culture

tIlan an expressive culture

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CONCLUDING REMARKS

From the above discussion, theconclusion can be drawn that TakdirAlisjahbana is one of the mostprominent Indonesian philosopherand educator in the early twentiethcentury. Apart from his brilliantthougnt that If Indonesian would liketo be a progress .nation in the futurethe national culture must be fulfilledby Western Culture in order toimprove a dynamic eiements such as,intellectual ethos, individualism,materialism, and egoism. For usTakdir's thought is a very significantto develop our nation in order our fiveyears development (Pelita Six) whichthe main focus the quality of manpowers are rapidly impl'oveci. In thisrespect it is very reasonable thatManzunwijaya should argue 1ttha:t KiHadJar Dewantara alld Taman Slswadominates the formal concept of oureducation, but in reality, TakdirAlisjahbana won the practice ofeducation. Thus, it is fact that amongUniversities which are established inIndonesia which the main task to aexplore science and technology, todevelop creativity and rationality, topublisn translatIon books, to .doteaching and research, etc., that is themanifestation of Western Culture,which Takdir was a very consistentto campaign throughout his worksand discussions up to die. Hisreformism certainly lies in hisceaseless discussion, debating andpublishing works to counter otherphilosopners such as, Ki .HadjarDewantara

hR. Sutomo, SanUSI Pane,

~tc., on w at he regards to keepindIgenous culture.

NOTES

1. Takdir Alisjahbana (Eds.),K~-eativitas (Cl-eativity), Jakarta:DIan Rakryat, 1983, p. 182;Alisjahbana, Takdir, 111eDeve!oplnent of /lldonesianLanguage SlId Litera.ture, NewI laven, 1962; Alisjahbana, Takdir,

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Xavier S. Tllani Nayagam andWang Gungwu (oos) , '71Ie CUltUl1l1Pl't'blelns of Mala.ysia ill tileContext of Southeast Asia'; KualaLumpur, 1967; Alisjahbana,'Traditional and Model?1 Values inAsian Culture'~ In: Confluence,Harvard, 1955; Alisjahbana,"Cus/olnary Law andModel71iza.tion'~ unpublished paperpresented to the Customary LawConference, Singapore, 1964;Alisjahbana, 'The Relations Be/weelltile Advallced and tile DevelopingNations and the Pursuit of WorldPe8ce'~ unpublished paperdelivered to the Conference for thePromotion of World Peace, Tokyo,1964; Alisjahballa '71le Unity ofMalay Culture'~ unpublished paperpresented to the Southeast AsianRegional Conference on the Study ofMalay Culture. Puncak Pass, 1971;Alisjahbana, "Language PlallnillSfor Modernization: 71le Lase ofIndonesia and Malaysia'~ TheHague: Mouton, 1976.

2. Ibid., p. 188.3. S. Takdir Alisjallbana, Values

as Integrating FOl"Ces illPerSOlla/ity, Societyand CultlJre, KualaLumpur: University of MalayaPress, 1974, p. 182.

4. Soedjatmoko, ''L,1J!tllral Identityof 'J1lilr:! World Countries alld 111e/lnpact of Modem Coll11nunications'~

in Mochtar Lubis (Eds.), Pelangi70 Tahun Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana,Jakarta: Akademi Jakarta, 1979, p.169.

5. S.Takdir Alisjahbana, Op.Cit., p.195-198; Abullasan Asy,ari,''Mellcari Perulnusal1 WalisanBlldaya'~ in Suara Pembaharuan(Newspaper), June 17, 1992; illtervie\\Twith Abuhassan Asy'ari (he is aassistant of Takdir).

6. S. Takdir Alisjahbana,111do/1esia.· Social 811d CullultalRevolution, Kuala Lumpur: OxfordUniversity Press, 1975, p. 201.

7. Achdiat K. Mihardja, Polelnik

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Kebudayaan (The Cultural Polemic)?Jakat1a: Pustaka Jaya, 1977, p. 42;Dewantara, Ki Hadjar, ''SomeAspects ofNational EdUcatiOll and theTaman Siswa Institute of jogyakaJ1a ';1933, In: Indonesia 4, Ithaca,1967.

8. Nirwan Dewanto, ''KebudayaanIndonesia: Pandangan SeorangPenyair'~ dalam KongresKebudayaan 1991: KebudayaanIndonesia dan Dunia ('The IndonesianCulture: From the view of Poet", inThe Congress of Culture 1991: VIeIndonesian CultUl"t: and VIeWorld)? Volume V, Jakal1a:Depdikbud, 1992/1993, p. 205.

9. Umar Kayam, ''KebudayaanNasional dan Kebudayaan Baru"(National Culture and the NewCulture), dalam Ibid., Volume II, p.440.

10. Kompas (Newspaper),December 12, 1978.

11. Jimmy Siahaan and HarunUmar interviewed with B.J. Habibie,in Ilmu dan Budaya (magazine), Th.VII, No.6, March 1985, p. 431.

12. S. Takdir Alisjahbana, Kalahdan Menang (The Defeat andVictory), Jakarta: Dian Rakyat, 1981,p.471.

*) Concerning "matel'ialism",Takdir said, That Indonesian peopleshould strongly effort to get materialsthroughout to be business man and notquickly to be despair to do it. We hadsincerely to recognize our GNP (GrossNational Product) if we compare withMalaysia less more than five times andalso will be forty times with Japan(see: Kompas, February, 6, 1992).

13. Ignas Kleden (Eds.) ,Kebudayaan Sebagai Perjuangan:Perkenalan Dengan Pemikiran S.Takdir AlisjahbamJ (Culture asmeans of struggle: The Introductioninto Takdir's Thought), Jakarta,Dian Rak.ryat, 1988, p. xi.

14. S. Takdir Alisjahbana, KalahMenang (The Defeat and Victory),Jakal1a: Dian Rak.ryat, 1981, p. 411-

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423.15. S. Takdir Alisjahbana, Layar

Terkembang? Jakarta: DianRakyat, 1937, 42-44; W. Udin(Eds.) , Spectrum: Essays presentedto S. Takdir Alis;ahbana on hisbiJ1hday (70s), Jakarta, Dian Rakyat,1978; Nichterlem, Sue, '~ Essay nTranscultural Intellectual Biography:Sutan Takdir AJjsjahbana'~ p. 61-89,Loc. Cit.

16.S. Takdir Alisjahbana ''Pemba­llgunan Ekonomi dan Etik EkonomiIslam" (The Economic Developmentand Ethic Economic of Islam), inthe seminar of IndonesiaPhilosophical Association, January13-16,1972, p. 246.

17. S. Takdir Alisjahbana, GrottaAzzura: Kisah Cinta dan Cita(Grotta Azzurra: The Story of love andidea), Jakarta: 1978, p. 81-85.

18. S. Takdir Alisjahbana,Indonesia: Social and CulturalRevolution, Op.Cit., p. 25-26.

19. Ibid., p. 27.20. Ibid., p. 30.21. Ilmu dan Budaya (rna.gazine),

Th VII, No.6, Maret 1985, p. 401­403; see, S. Takdir Ahsjahbana'spaper, '71le Task of the NewUniversity'; for the meeting ofUniversity RectOl'S on December 18,1984 in the International House ofJapan, Tokyo. •

22. Ilmu dan Budaya Th XI, No.6,Maret 1989.

23. Komp.'ts, October 23, 1980.24. Ilmu dan Budaya, Maret

1985, Op.Cit., p. 403; S. TakdirAlisjahbana (Eds.), Dasar-Dasar KrisisSemesta dan Tanggung jawab Kita(the element of World Crisis andour Responsibility), p. 208-210.

25. Kompas, March 14, 1980;S. Takdir Alisjahbana (Eds.) ,Kreativitas (Creativity), Op.Cit., p.183.

26. Ibid.27. Merdeka (newspaper), May 5,

1981.28. Kompas, January 14, 1980.

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