Administration of the Marine Mammal Protection …...Authority The passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of1972, hereafter referred to as the Act, gave the Department of the

Administration of theMarine MammalProtection Act of 1972Annual ReportJanuary 1, 1997 to December 31, 1997

Marine Mammal Protection ActReport of the Department of the Interior

The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. 1361-1407, 86 Stat. 1027 (1972)),as amended (95 Stat. 979 (1981), 98 Stat. 440 (1984), 100 Stat. 3741 (1986), 102 Stat. 4755(1988), and 108 Stat. 532 (1994)), states in Section 103(f) that:

“Within six months after the effective date of this Act [December 21, 1972] and everytwelve months thereafter, the Secretary shall report to the public through publicationin the Federal Register and to the Congress on the current status of all marinemammal species and population stocks subject to the provisions of the Act. His reportshall describe those actions taken and those measures believed necessary, includingwhere appropriate, the issuance of permits pursuant to this title to assure the well-being of such marine mammals.”

The responsibility of the Department of the Interior is limited by Section 3(12)(A)(ii)of the Marine Mammal Protection Act to those marine mammals that are members ofthe Orders Carnivora (polar bear, sea otter, and marine otter), Pinnipedia (walrus),and Sirenia (manatees and dugong). Accordingly, published herewith is the report ofthe Department of the Interior for the period of January 1, 1997, to December 31,1997, on the administration of the Marine Mammal Protection Act with regard tothose mammals.

Issued at Washington, D.C.

Director Chief BiologistU.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Biological Resources DivisionDated 7/17/00 U.S. Geological Survey

Dated 8/18/00

U.S. Department of the InteriorU.S. Fish & Wildlife ServiceU.S. Geological Survey/Biological Resources Division

Administration of theMarine MammalProtection Act of1972Annual ReportJanuary 1, 1997 to December 31, 1997

U.S. Department of the InteriorU.S. Fish & Wildlife ServiceU.S. Geological Survey/Biological Resources DivisionWashington, D.C. 20240

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Species List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Summary of the 1997 Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Appropriations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Marine Mammal Protection Act Expenditures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Endangered Species Act Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Outer Continental Shelf Operations and Environmental Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Research and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Permits and Registrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Scientific Research Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Public Display Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Registered Agent/Tannery Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

International Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18U.S.-Russia Environmental Agreement: Marine Mammal Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Review of the 1973 International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears . . . 18U.S.-Russia Bilateral Polar Bear Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Walrus Activities Under the Area V Environmental Protection Agreement . . . . . . . . 19U.S.-Russia Pacific Walrus Conservation Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Status Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Stock Assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Incidental (Small) Take During Oil and Gas Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Marking, Tagging, and Reporting Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Co-Management with Alaska Natives of the Subsistence Use of Marine Mammals. . . . 24Northern Sea Otter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Pacific Walrus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Polar Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Sea Otter-Southern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Sea Otter-Washington State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35West Indian Manatee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Hawaiian Monk Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Table of Contents

AuthorityThe passage of the Marine MammalProtection Act of 1972, hereafter referredto as the Act, gave the Department of theInterior (Department) responsibility formanatees, polar bears, walruses, sea andmarine otters, and dugong. Within theDepartment, the Fish and WildlifeService (Service) is the primary agencyresponsible for managing these marinemammals and for enforcing themoratorium on taking and importingmarine mammals and marine mammalparts. During 1997, the BiologicalResources Division of the U.S. GeologicalSurvey (USGS/BRD)was responsible forconducting marine mammal research.

1

Species ListSpecies List and Status of Marine Mammals Under Service Jurisdiction Under the Act and the ESA

Species Marine Mammal EndangeredCommon Name Scientific Name Protection Act Species Act

Polar bear Ursus maritimus Yes No

Sea otter-Alaska Enhydra lutris kenyoni Yes No

Sea otter-southern Enhydra lutris nereis Yes Threatened

Marine otter Lutra felina Yes Endangered

Walrus Odobenus rosmarus Yes No

Dugong Dugong dugon Yes Endangered*

West Indian manatee Trichechus manatus Yes Endangered

Amazonian manatee Trichechus inunguis Yes Endangered

West African manatee Trichechus senegalensis Yes Threatened

* The dugong is listed as endangered throughout its entire historic range except when it occurs in the United States.

The Service administers requests forwaiving the moratorium and for thetransfer of management authority toStates, issues permits, enforcesprovisions of the Act, and publishes rulesand regulations to manage marinemammals. The Service also cooperateswith the States, and participates ininternational activities and agreements.In addition, the Service lists and delistsspecies as endangered or threatened andundertakes other Endangered SpeciesAct (ESA)-related responsibilities andmaintains a close working relationshipwith the Marine Mammal Commission(MMC) and its Committee of ScientificAdvisors. Prior to Fiscal Year 1994, the

Service conducted the marine mammalresearch program. Presently, theUSGS/BRD has been charged with thatresponsibility; the Service closelycoordinates with the USGS/BRD onmarine mammal research needs.

During the period of time covered by thisreport, there were no significant changesto the listed status of any of the species ofmarine mammals whose management isthe Service’s responsibility.

Introduction

Marine Mammal Protection Act Expenditures Actual FY 97 Projected FY 98

USGS/BRD Research and DevelopmentAlaska sea otter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 205 $ 238Polar bear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 372Misc. marine mammals (including polar bear, walrus, and sea otter) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838 608

Total USGS/BRD Research and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 1,386 $ 1,218

ManagementPermit activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 100 $ 115Law enforcement activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 675Other management activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,971 1,971

Total Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 2,746 $ 2,761Grand Total MMPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 4,132 $ 3,979

Endangered Species Act Expenditures

Section 6 (Grants-to-States)California — sea otter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 0 $ 61Florida — manatee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0Georgia — manatee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 26

Total Section 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 26 $ 87

Section 15 (USGS/BRD Research and Development)Endangered/threatened otters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 389 $ 389Manatee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556* 600*

Total USGS/BRD Research and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 945 $ 989

Section 15 (Management)Consultation1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 320 $ 320Recovery1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353* 379*Hawaiian monk seal2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 75

Total Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 748 $ 774Grand Total ESA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 1,719 $ 1,850

* In Fiscal Years 1997 and 1998, funds shown for USGS/BRD for manatee research and development pursuant to Section 15 of the ESA includes$152 of Service manatee recovery funds transferred to USGS/BRD to support manatee research (but excludes $41 and $5 of State and privatefunds for FYs 97 and 98, respectively). Section 15 Recovery funds shown were reduced by $152 in both fiscal years to account for this transfer.

1 Funded under authority of the ESA of 1973, as amended. Includes funds for all endangered and threatened marine mammals for which theService engages in consultation and recovery activities.

2 Although the National Marine Fisheries Service has primary responsibility for Hawaiian monk seals according to Section 3(12)(A)(i) of theAct, the species utilizes the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll, and Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuges. Funds reported are spent for monkseal activities on Refuge lands under authority of the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee).

2

Summary of the 1997 ProgramAppropriations

For Fiscal Years (FY) 1997 and 1998, theService’s funding authorization wasunder authority of Section 116(b) of theAct as adopted in the 1994 amendments(108 Stat. 532) to the Act. Calendar Year1997 covered by this report overlaps FY’s 1997 and 1998; funds (in $000)authorized for both years, as well asfunds spent in FY 1997 and projected tobe spent in FY 1998, are presented.

Authorized Expended Projected

Fiscal Year 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $9,400 $4,132 —

Fiscal Year 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $9,900 — $3,979

Outer Continental Shelf Operationsand Environmental Studies

3

In 1997, there were no Service actions toreport for this activity.

The USGS/BRD conducted researchunder the Act during FY 1997 at severalCenters and Field Stations. The AlaskaBiological Science Center (ABSC) isresponsible for polar bear, walrus, andnorthern (i.e., Alaska) sea otter research.The Western Ecological Research Center(WERC, formerly the California ScienceCenter) is responsible for work onsouthern sea otters. The SoutheasternBiological Science Center (SBSC) isresponsible for research on sirenians(manatees and dugongs). The Division ofCooperative Research administersadditional research at cooperative unitsacross the country funded by, and insupport of, the needs of the Service, otherUSGS/BRD Research Centers, and otherbureaus of the Department.

For each project active during FY 1997,the project title and summary, followedby highlights of FY 1997accomplishments are given below byspecies. Previous results andaccomplishments can be found in earlierpublications.

1. Polar bear

A. Project Title and Summary: Population definition and estimation ofsurvival, recruitment and number ofpolar bears in northwestern and northernAlaska.

During March and April, Alaskan polarbears captured in the western portions ofArctic Alaska are permanently marked.Assessment of critical populationparameters are achieved throughcontinued analyses of mark/recapturedata, catch/effort data, and mathematicalsimulations. Work also includes thedevelopment and implementation of aU.S./Russian polar bear census.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ In 1997, three more adult male polarbears were fitted with subcutaneouslyimplanted satellite transmitters in astudy to determine the feasibility of thetechnique for studying movements offree-ranging males. As in 1996,transmitters performed well, but

duration of operation was too brief toguarantee recapture. Hence, causes forpremature failures are still not known. Inthe coming year we will be summarizingwhat we have learned thus far and re-evaluating future efforts to assessmovement patterns of male polar bears.

■ The data base on polar bear movementpatterns was expanded in 1997 and aneditor for the volumes of satellite datagenerated over the past several yearswas established. A main strength of theeditorial procedure is that it greatlyenhances the ability to see sequentialmovements of polar bears and to identifyand eliminate erroneous locations thatperiodically enter satellite data sets.

■ USGS/BRD researchers participatedwith the Service in the annual meeting ofthe Canadian Polar Bear TechnicalCommittee.

■ Studies of polar bear and sea iceinterrelationships are ongoing betweenRussian Academy of Science researchersand USGS/BRD researchers for a studyarea in western Russia. Remotely-sensedsea ice data from Russian satellites arebeing used to determine sea ice types forthe Barents and Kara Seas.

■ Micro-satellite analyses of geneticpatterns in polar bears of Alaska werecompleted in 1997. In the coming year amanuscript will be prepared byUSGS/BRD personnel describing geneticvariation in this region and contrasting itwith the variation previously reported inCanada. An international study of polarbear genetics, which includes cooperatorsfrom Canada, Denmark, Norway, andRussia as well as the United States (i.e.,USGS/BRD) has been completed, and thesenior authors are now draftingmanuscripts.

■ Final preparations were made to host aSurveys, Status, and Trends of MarineMammal Populations Symposium. Thesymposium is sponsored jointly by theABSC and the National Marine FisheriesService’s (NMFS) Marine MammalLaboratory, and will be held in February

1998. It includes speakers from aroundthe world who are authorities on variousaspects of survey. The proceedings will bepublished in book form with allcontributions refereed (Note: TheSymposium took place in February 1998,and the refereed proceedings currentlyare in press.)

B. Project Title and Summary: Population status and trends of polarbears in the Beaufort Sea.

In FY 1997, this project entailedcompletion of data analysis and projectwriting relative to a longstanding projectto refine the boundaries definition ofpopulations of polar bears in the sharedU.S./Canada Beaufort Sea region and toreassess, with a new method of modeling,the size and trend in that population. Inaddition, two methods projects, one toassess denning habitat and one to detectdens, were initiated in pilot phase. Thesetwo new projects will be expanded in FY1998 as separate and distinct units,leaving the original study only as amanuscript completion project in FY1998.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Population bounds of polar bears in theBeaufort Sea continue to be refined.During 1997, mark and recapture andradio location data for the Canadianregion of the northern Beaufort Sea wereobtained. Analysis of polar bear locationdata through measures of centraltendency combined with clusteringmethods indicated a clear delineationbetween polar bears in the southernBeaufort Sea and polar bears in thenorthern Beaufort Sea near BanksIsland, Canada. Location data of polarbears from the northeastern Chukchi Seaand locations from those captured in thesouthern Beaufort Sea do not show clearseparation. This indicates an undefineddegree of mixing between Chukchi andBeaufort Seas stocks. A manuscript isbeing drafted describing the extent ofmovements and the degree of sharing ofjurisdictions among polar bears living inthe region from northern Banks Island tothe northeastern Chukchi Sea.

4

Research and Development

■ Work continues to develop a soundestimate of the population size of polarbears in the southern Beaufort Sea andprovide technical advice to the NorthSlope Borough/Inuvialuit Game Councilon polar bear population status. TheUSGS/BRD developed a new model forestimates of capture and survivalprobabilities and population size. Thisnew model has fewer requiredassumptions than other mark-and-recapture models, and appears to providemore reasonable point estimates andnarrower interval estimates on allpopulation parameters of interest thanpreviously obtained.

■ Mapping preferred denning habitats ofpolar bears in northern Alaska: Polarbears construct maternal dens of ice andsnow throughout their circumpolarrange. In the Beaufort Sea region ofnorthern Alaska, most dens have beenfound on the flat coastal plain.Hydrocarbon extraction is now occurringor planned along 100 miles of theBeaufort Sea coastline. If developmentpushes, as expected, into the NationalPetroleum Reserve, the scope ofdevelopment could include up to two-thirds of the northern coastal region ofAlaska. Human activities are a potentialthreat to denning polar bears, andresource extraction has generatedsignificant concern for the welfare ofdenning polar bears and their habitats.While numbers of humans and theiractivities have increased in northernAlaska, numbers of denning femalespresent along the coast also haveincreased. In this study, two independenttechniques will be used to develop digitalmaps of habitats in Alaska’s ArcticCoastal Plain where polar bears appearto prefer to den. First, high resolution(i.e., 1″ = 1500′) aerial photos will beexamined to attempt to identifydistinctive bank habitats that appear toaccount for greater than 70 percent ofpreviously located maternal dens. Visiblefeatures will be transferred directly totopographic maps of the North Sloperegion between the Canadian border andthe Colville River in Alaska. If the mapsprove useful, their extent can beincreased to cover any areas for whichphotos are available. To further enhancethe ability to predict all habitats in whichpolar bears may den, the USGS/BRDalso will construct a “digital elevationmodel” (DEM) of polar bear denninghabitats in selected areas where BritishPetroleum, the USGS/BRD’s partner inthis project, has high resolution (1:6000)maps. Both mapping products will beavailable in ARC/Info formats that can be

easily transferred among partners orpotential users. Initial photointerpretation and digitization wascompleted in summer of 1996. Finalground-truthing and development oferror estimates was to have beencompleted in summer 1997. However, badweather intervened, preventing most ofthat work from occurring. Data that werecollected in 1997 will be used foradditional digital map adjustments andpreliminary error checking, and finalground-truthing will be rescheduled forsummer of 1998.

■ Detection of denning polar bears withforward-looking infrared (FLIR)imagery: FLIR was investigated as a toolfor detection of active polar bearmaternity dens. In FY 1997, two man-made snow caves with heat sources wereconstructed in order to simulate polarbear maternity dens. The FLIR devicedetected both snow caves, thussuggesting its potential to locate polarbear dens while the dens are occupied bybears. In autumn 1997, five pregnantfemale polar bears were fitted withsatellite radio collars and subsequentlyfollowed to their dens. All five werecaptured near Prudhoe Bay, which is thelocation of the FLIR equipped aircraft.Only two bears denned near enough tothe operations base of the aircraft forFLIR testing. Unfortunately, one ofthose bears abandoned her den and theother denned on sea ice, rather than onland. Since only land denning habitats aretemporally predictable and easily subjectto management actions, dens on the seaice are not being tested. Two other bearsdenned on pack ice far offshore in theChukchi Sea, and the last bear denned ona small island in Canada. To take the bestadvantage of our limited opportunities forFLIR testing, USGS/BRD made severaltrips to the nearby sea ice den, and onelong trip into Canada to see whether theland den located there was visible.Preliminary results are againencouraging. Both dens were plainlyvisible upon the first visit by the FLIR.Unfortunately, the Canadian den was toodistant to replicate tests; thus, all that isknown for sure is that, under theconditions of that day, the den was plainlyvisible. Several visits to the sea ice densuggest that time of day, amount ofambient light, and ambient temperaturecan markedly alter den detectability. It isnot presently known whether thevariation in detectability would be asgreat for land dens, nor are all of thesources of that variation understood.During the coming year, attempts will bemade to instrument additional bears and

test more denning locations in order todetermine whether variations in visibilityto FLIR can be explained well enough forit to have management application.

2. Alaska sea otter

A. Project Title and Summary: Biological information necessary toestablish a zonal management programfor sea otters in Alaska.

In response to real and perceivedconflicts between sea otters andcommercial and recreational fisheriesover shellfish resources, theimplementation of a zonal managementprogram for sea otters has beensuggested. Genetic and enzyme variationwithin the sea otter population isdetermined through the analysis of tissuesamples collected from captured seaotters.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Several publications and presentationson genetic diversity in sea ottersubspecies and populations have beencompleted. A manuscript entitled,“Population demographics and geneticdiversity: case histories from remnantand reestablished populations of seaotters,” has been submitted toConservation Biology.

■ Studies under this project were, inpart, the basis for two papers in the 1997Endangered Species Update oncomparative demographics and status ofsea otter populations. A manuscriptentitled, “Life history plasticity andpopulation regulation in sea otters,” hasbeen submitted to Ecology.

■ Additional work comparing presentgenetic information with “ancient” DNAsamples in sea otters is planned for thepurpose of determining the extent of pre-exploitation stock separation. Sea otterbone samples from Prince William Soundhave been submitted to cooperators atUCLA.

■ One manuscript on the accuracy andprecision in estimating sea otter agesfrom cementum deposits was published inthe Journal of Wildlife Management.

B. Project Title and Summary: Interactions between sea otters andfisheries in Alaska.

Research is being conducted to assess: (1)sea otter diets with an emphasis on theimportance of commercial species ofshellfish; (2) the impacts of sea otter

5

foraging behavior and activity on sub-tidal benthic communities, status of seaotter populations, and assessment ofhabitat; and (3) the recovery of the PrinceWilliam Sound sea otter population.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ The second full field season of theNearshore Vertebrate Predator project,designed to evaluate the state of recoveryof the Exxon Valdez oil spill affectedportions of Prince William Sound wascompleted. One manuscript waspublished on a modeling procedure toidentify potential constraints to sea otterrecovery. Data analysis is in progress andone additional year of field work isscheduled. Papers were presented at the6th Joint Russia/US Workshop in 1997and the World Marine MammalConference in January 1998.

■ Aerial surveys in Glacier Bay NationalPark have documented the movement ofsea otters into previously unoccupiedhabitat and guided the collection of seaotter foraging data in these areas. Agroup of at least 80 male sea otters wasobserved feeding on mussels, clams, andurchins. Various economically valuablespecies of crabs are being consumed atlow rates, however sea otters have notyet found major concentrations of thesespecies in newly occupied areas.Continued monitoring and observationwork along with concurrent subtidalbenthic surveys will provide informationon the effects of sea otter predation onvaluable invertebrate populations. As sea

otters continue to reoccupy Glacier Bay,dramatic changes in the structure of thecoastal communities can be expected.Changes will include reductions in theabundance of many ecologically andeconomically valuable marine resources,including crabs, clams, mussels, andurchins. It is likely that changes will alsooccur in fish populations and perhaps inother bird and mammal populations. Thesea otter induced changes in coastalcommunities will likely precludedetection of potential effects of otheractivities, such as cruise ships orcommercial fishing.

■ A study to determine dive profiles ofsea otters in southeast Alaska usingpressure modulated sonic transmitterswas implemented. The use of thistechnology provided the first dive profilesof free-ranging sea otters. More than2,300 dive records are now available fromten individual sea otters. Most divingoccurs in water less than 50 meters deep,but two of nine animals regularly dove todepths greater than 60 meters. Maximumdive depths are 86 meters (270 feet). InFY 1997, USGS/BRD recovered 2 of 12time-depth-recorders. These instrumentsare the first recovered from this speciesand provided new data on diving behavioras well as the amount of effort anindividual allocates to foraging, ameasure likely to be correlated withpopulation status. It is planned tocontinue this work in FY 1998 to furtherevaluate foraging activity in relation toprey abundance, and the effect sea otters

have on shellfish populations, includingthe importance of depth as a refuge fromsea otter predation. Papers on the resultsof the diving studies were presented atthe 6th Joint Russia/US Workshop in1997 and the World Marine MammalConference in January 1998.

3. Miscellaneous Marine Mammals (work units which study several marinemammal species)

A. Project Title and Summary: Use of DNA to define populations ofbirds, mammals, and fish of Alaska.

Analyses of mitochondrial and nuclearDNA in animal populations are evaluatedto assess their usefulness in quantifyinggenetic relationships among animalpopulations. Animal movement patternsare compared with genetic patterns todetermine information about current andpast levels of gene flow anddifferentiation of subpopulations. Studies(involving the collection, archiving, andanalysis of tissue) are conducted on seaotters, polar bears, and walruses.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ The following papers were published:

Scribner, K., G. Garner, S. Amstrup, andM. Cronin. 1997. Population geneticstudies of the polar bear: a summary ofavailable data and interpretation ofresults. in Dizon et al. (eds). MolecularGenetics of Marine Mammals. SpecialPublication Society for MarineMammalogy. 3:185-196.

Scribner, K., S. Hills, S. Fain, and M.Cronin. 1997. Population genetic studiesof the walrus: a summary of available dataand interpretation of results. in Dizon etal. (eds). Molecular Genetics of MarineMammals. Special Publication Society forMarine Mammalogy. 3:173-184.

Scribner, K., J. Bodkin, B. Ballachey, S.Fain, M. Cronin, and M. Sanchez. 1997.Population genetic studies of the seaotter: a summary of available data andinterpretation of results. in Dizon et al.(eds). Molecular Genetics of MarineMammals. Special Publication Society forMarine Mammalogy. 3:197-208.

B. Project Title and Summary: Population status and trends in marinemammals in Alaska.

More feasible approaches to evaluation ofthe status and trends of marine mammal(walrus, polar bear, and sea otter)populations are being developed to

6

Sea otter

Gw

en J

ames

on

replace present methods which arelogistically difficult and very costly.Objectives to accomplish this include:(1) continued development and evaluationof survey methodologies; (2) constructionof models to evaluate the dynamics ofmarine mammal populations; and(3) identification of characteristics ofpopulations and individuals that enableassessment of population condition andstatus.

■ Plans were finalized to hold theworkshop on census methodologies formarine mammals with varyingsightability and availability. Theworkshop, cosponsored by NMFS isscheduled for February 25-27, 1998.Twenty-six presentations covering aspectrum of surveying issues arescheduled.

■ The joint effort between the NMFSSouthwest Fisheries Science Center andUSGS/BRD’s ABSC scientists onapplying individual-based models toPacific walrus population data wascompleted. The effort to finalize theextensive data accumulated by the lateDr. Bud Fay was completed and the dataanalyzed by NMFS cooperatingscientists. The results of this modelingeffort will be included in the abovereferenced marine mammal censusworkshop.

■ Blood and tissue samples were againcollected from sedated Pacific walrus atCape Peirce, carcasses, and subsistencehunt kills. These materials are beinganalyzed to develop baseline blood serumchemistries of Pacific walrus. Additionalwork was initiated in cooperation withUSGS’s Geologic Division to use stableisotope technologies to assess trophicstructure of walrus based upon analysesof vibrissae.

C. Project Title and Summary: Alaska Marine Mammal Tissue ArchivalProject.

This study collects and archivesrepresentative marine mammal tissuesfor future contaminant analyses anddocumentation of long-term trends inenvironmental quality potentiallyassociated with oil and gas developmentin Alaskan waters. Collections are limitedto freshly-killed specimens taken underrigorously controlled conditions byresearchers associated with ongoingprograms or subsistence hunters. Tissuesamples are archived with the NationalBiomonitoring Specimen Bank, NationalInstitute of Standards and Technology.

Tissue aliquots are analyzed for qualitycontrol and the results published inannual reports and refereed journals.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Work is proceeding as scheduled.Samples have been collected from avariety of marine mammals includingringed, spotted, harbor, bearded andnorthern fur seals; Steller sea lion;beluga and bowhead whales; polar bears;and Pacific walrus.

■ One of the major accomplishments ofthis ongoing project is the number ofpartners that participate in various waysin the archival of tissue samples. Majorresearch collaborators include:Department of Fish and Oceans(Canada); University of Germany; theService; the North Slope Borough; theState of Alaska; Kawerak and TDXCorporations; the Alaska Sea GrantProgram; and the Cook Inlet MarineMammal Advisory Committee.

D. Project Title and Summary: Bering-Chukchi Sea EcosystemInitiative.

The long-term objectives of this initiativeare to investigate interrelationshipsamong biotic and abiotic components ofthe Bering-Chukchi Sea ecosystem, withfocus on certain species (major predatorsor herbivores of management concern) as indicators of ecosystem health, and tolink those indicators with oceanographicfactors that influence biologicalproduction. This broad initiative involveswork on polar bears and Pacific walrus, as well as eiders, seabirds, and Arctic-nesting geese. The objectives of the polarbear/walrus work are: (1) to determinethe ecological relationships betweenwalrus, polar bears, their respective preyspecies and the sea ice habitats in theBering and Chukchi Seas, and to relatethose ecological parameters to thetrophic structure of the seas; and (2) todetermine the ecological significance ofradio-nuclide contaminants in theRussian Arctic and the potential of thesecontaminants for entering the Bering andChukchi Seas ecosystems. Telemetrytechnology will be developed and used to define movement and habitat usepatterns of polar bears and walruses;remote sensing data will be used to studysea ice characteristics and determineinterrelationships with prey species; and standard sampling protocols andsystematic sampling from harvested and beach-cast animals will be used todetermine environmental contaminantlevels. Biological sampling for radio-

nuclides will be conducted from selectedsites from the Russian Arctic.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Remotely sensed sea ice data andsatellite locational data for polar bears inthe Bering and Chukchi Seas are beinganalyzed to study sea ice habitat use andselection. A manuscript on the results ofthis study is in preparation.

■ The summer movements of satelliteinstrumented Pacific walruses are beingstudied to define at sea feeding areas.The associated land-based haulouts havebeen identified and subsequent studieswill examine the species composition ofprey items in the identified feeding areas.Dive profile data have been collectedfrom several Pacific walrus in conjunctionwith the satellite locational data.

E. Project Title and Summary: Dynamics of Marine Ecosystems in theBering and Chukchi Seas.

Suitable telemetry technology are beingdeveloped and used to define movementand habitat use patterns of topcarnivores in the Bering and Chukchimarine ecosystems. Emphasis is placedon interrelationships between seasonalsea ice habitats and prey species of thetwo apical predators using remotelysensed data on sea ice. Also, potentialimpacts of environmental contaminants,including radio-nuclides and thoserelated to oil and gas leasing are beingassessed. International cooperation willbe accomplished through activeparticipation in the North PacificMarine Science Organization(PISCES), the Conservation of ArcticFlora and Fauna (CAFF) workinggroup, and the International NorthernSea Route Programme (INSROP)during ecological investigations of theBering and Chukchi marine ecosystems.In FY 1995, the Alaska Science Center(now ABSC) received competitivefunding to enhance this effort withfunds targeted to assess oil and gasleasing impacts in the Bering andChukchi Seas for the MineralsManagement Service (MMS). Thoseresults are included below.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ The GPS-linked satellite transmitterdata from 1996 are in analysis with somedata collected well into the ice season andlocational data collected on walrus hauledout on sea ice during the 1977 winter.Dive data were again collected fromseveral adult males at the Cape Peircehaulout.

7

■ In addition, a variety of PTT, TDR, andVHF telemetry and datalogger unitswere deployed as part of efforts todevelop a better monitoring program forthe male walrus haulout complex ofBristol Bay.

■ Bathymetry of the Bering, Chukchi,and Beaufort Seas has been digitized anda geo-referenced ArcInfo coverage hasbeen developed for the areas. These dataare presently being served on the ABSC’sWeb site.

■ Work continued on the Pacific walrusInternational Database, with Russiancooperators preparing data for input intothe database. An integrated masterdatabase is intended.

■ Capture methodologies and relocationtechnologies developed to date for thisproject are being used to develop aproposal for a study of disturbance ofPacific walrus on sea ice by overflyinghelicopters. Poor ice conditions in summer1997 required that field tests bepostponed until 1998.

■ Cooperative efforts with the Servicewere undertaken to develop bettermodels to assess male walrus hauloutnumbers in Bristol Bay, Alaska. Historicalhaulout counts have been entered andproofed for statistical analysis. Theobjective of this effort is to produce astatistically valid, but more cost-effectivemonitoring protocol for estimatingnumbers of male walrus at summerhaulouts. In addition, tests werecompleted to assess impacts of time ofday, observer, and location on hauloutestimates.

4. Manatee and Dugong

A. Project Title and Summary: Movements, Spatial Use Patterns, andHabitat Utilization of Radio-tagged WestIndian Manatees (Trichechus manatus)along the Atlantic Coast of Florida andGeorgia.

Information on movement patterns, areasof importance, and habitat requirementsof Florida manatees is needed by Federaland State managers responsible forprotecting and recovering thisendangered marine mammal. TheService’s 1996 Florida Manatee RecoveryPlan places a high priority on obtainingthese data through the use of radio-telemetry studies. Early telemetrystudies on manatees, which pioneered thedevelopment of a floating transmitterhousing and belt assembly, used solely or

primarily VHF radio-transmitters andwere relatively small in spatial andtemporal scope. With the advent ofsatellite-monitored ultra-high frequency(UHF) transmitters, it became feasible totrack the movements of these largeanimals day and night over long distancesand for long periods of time. As nomanatee telemetry studies had beenconducted on the Atlantic coast prior tothis study, what little was known of theirdistribution and movements was mostlyobtained through photo-identificationstudies of uniquely scarred individualsand aerial surveys of particular areas.The intensive time-series of movementsgenerated by satellite tracking opens adifferent window on manatee biologythan that provided by either aerialcensuses or photo-identification.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ The field work for this ongoing studyhas been nearly completed, spatialdatabase development and quality controlcontinued, and the spatial analysis anddata visualization phase was initiated.Eighty-three manatees were trackedbetween May 1986 and May 1996,resulting in over 70,000 locations betweenthe Florida Keys and Rhode Island(nearly all between southeast Florida andsoutheast Georgia). Between 18 and 26manatees were tracked in each full yearof field work, for a median duration ofseven months (range, 2 days to 6.8 years).

■ Considerable progress was made inupdating, error-checking andcharacterizing four telemetry databases,with emphasis on improving quality

control procedures. The satellitemonitored Platform TransmitterTerminal (PTT) telemetry database nowencompasses the period from December1986 through September 1995, while theVHF telemetry and other databasescover the period from May 1986 to May1996.

■ A progress report describing the fieldmethods, databases, quality controlprocedures, and preliminary results onmovements and spatial use patterns wascompleted (Deutsch et al. 1998). Thestudy has documented individualvariation in seasonal movement patterns,migratory behavior in relation to watertemperature, areas of high manatee usethat vary seasonally, strong site fidelity towarm-season ranges across years, anddiel movement patterns.

B. Project Title and Summary: Seagrass ecology in selected manateefeeding areas.

This study was designed to determine theeffects of manatee grazing activity onseagrass biomass, species composition,shoot density, and nutritionalcharacteristics, in areas that are exposedto manatee grazing versus those thathave been protected from grazing. Theresults of this research will helpbiologists to assess impacts and estimatemanatee carrying capacity of repeatedlygrazed seagrass beds in areas of specialsignificance to manatee conservation. Itwill also help to document and elucidatethe role of manatee grazing inmaintaining seagrass species diversity.

8

Florida manatee with calf

USG

S

Increased awareness of the importance ofseagrasses to the future survival of themanatee should also increase publicappreciation of the greatlyunderestimated value of seagrasses inmarine and estuarine ecosystems.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ In October 1990, two 12.8 x 12.8 metermanatee exclosures were constructed in amixed-species seagrass bed in thenorthern Banana River on the east coastof Florida. A paired open area of thesame size was established near eachexclosure. Species composition wasmapped and random biomass cores weretaken of the co-dominant species, S.filiforme and H. wrightii, in all 4 areas inOctober, February, and July of 2consecutive years (through October of1994). Proximate constituents (protein,carbohydrate, fiber, and total energy)were determined for shoots and roots forboth seagrass species in treatment andcontrol areas across seasons. Amultivariate analysis of variance(ANOVA) on log-transformed biomassindicated that manatee grazing reducedbiomass in the open study areas, but thatdifferences occurred in the impact to andresponse of S. filiforme and H. wrightii.The relative frequency of S. filiforme andH. wrightii changed over time in bothopen and exclosed areas. The open areastended toward dominance by H. wrightii,the pioneering, early successionalspecies, and the exclosed areas tendedtoward dominance by S. filiforme. It ispostulated that, in the absence ofmanatee grazing, H. wrightii is shadedout by the taller, more robust S. filiforme.Manatee grazing may help to maintainmixed-species seagrass beds.

C. Project Title and Summary: Determination of manatee use patternsand characterization of seagrass areasimportant to manatees in Puerto Ricoand Vieques Island.

A recovery plan for manatees in PuertoRico was prepared by the Service in 1986.Tasks outlined in the plan includedmeasures to identify and reduce human-related mortality, identify and protectmanatee habitat, and develop criteria andbiological information needed forrecovery of the Puerto Rico population.Measures for population managementand habitat protection specify the needfor data from radio-tagged manatees onmanatee movements and habitatutilization. Other specific tasks includedetermination of manatee food habits,mapping the distribution of seagrassbeds and sources of fresh water, and

establishing monitoring procedures forimportant habitat components. As nomanatee telemetry studies had beenconducted in Puerto Rico prior to thisstudy, what little was known of theirdistribution and movements was mostlyobtained through aerial and groundsurveys of particular areas. Remotelymonitoring movements of manatees bysatellite tracking provides the firstinsight to the ecology of manatees outsideof the continental U.S. Digitizing nearshore habitats using aerial photographsenables correlation of manatee usepatterns with critical resources.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Field work for this ongoing study hasbeen completed in eastern Puerto Ricoand recently initiated along the westerncoast. Location databases are handledusing the same procedures as thosedeveloped for the Atlantic Coasttelemetry study conducted by theUSGS/BRD. Progress continues onupdating, error-checking andcharacterizing telemetry databases. ThePTT telemetry database nowencompasses the period from April 1992through September 1995. Field personnelmonitoring the newly tagged individualshave been trained in VHF trackingtechniques.

■ Habitat maps for Roosevelt RoadsNaval Station (NAVSTAROOSRDS) anddraft maps for Vieques Island have beenproduced. Final reports for the mappingeffort are in preparation. Copies will beprovided to the U.S. Navy, Puerto RicoDepartment of Natural Resources(PRDNR), and other interestedcooperators.

■ Annual reports to the PRDNR and theU.S. Navy describe the field methods,databases and preliminary results onmovements and spatial use patterns. Thestudy has documented individualvariation in movement patterns and areasof high manatee use.

D. Project Title and Summary: Reproductive traits and populationdynamics of Florida manatees based onphoto-identification techniques.

Life history information gleaned fromthe photo-identification sightingsdatabase is needed by Federal and Statemanagers responsible for protecting andrecovering this endangered marinemammal. The Service’s 1996 FloridaManatee Recovery Plan identifiesdetermination of population parametersbased on photo-identification as an

essential action to be taken to prevent thespecies from declining irreversibly in theforeseeable future. Survival estimatesand sighting information are available toall clients to assist with manateerecovery.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Adult survival estimation for threesignificant manatee populations (CrystalRiver, Blue Spring, and East Coast)have been completed for the period from 1977-1993. Photography andaccompanying life history data collectionare ongoing throughout Florida andsoutheastern Georgia. Sighting records,identity information, and feature codes,as well as image updates, are enteredinto the MIPS database on an ongoingbasis. Specific queries of the MIPSsightings, feature, and identitydatabases are reported to State andFederal agencies by request. Survivalestimation updates are underway for theyears 1994-1996.

■ The MIPS program has been sharedwith the Florida Department ofEnvironmental Protection (FDEP), andplans are ongoing to enable partners(FDEP, Georgia Department of NaturalResources, Mote Marine Laboratory, andthe Service) to access the MIPS databasevia the Internet.

E. Project Activities/Accomplishments: Manatee response to elimination of athermal refuge north of the speciesnatural winter range.

The primary objective of this study is todetermine manatee response to the lossof a significant warm water refuge innortheast Florida. The USGS/BRDhypothesized that, given elimination ofthe warm water source in earlyNovember 1997: (a) some radio-taggedmanatees would move south, particularlyto Brevard County, following one or twocold fronts in early winter; (b) somemanatees would return to northeastFlorida in mid to late winter, dependingon cold front patterns and watertemperature; (c) manatees staying innortheast Florida would visit the formerwarm water site at intervals throughoutthe winter; and (d) manatee movementsand general activities in the northeastFlorida/southeast Georgia region wouldbe correlated to water temperaturefluctuations and tidal regime. The studywill also determine manatee use of otherthermal refuges in this region, anddocument manatee mortality in Georgiaand northeast Florida during the studyperiod (March 1997-April 1998).

9

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Eight manatees were captured andfitted with satellite-monitored radiotransmitter assemblies in March 1997, ateither the Jefferson Smurfit Corp.effluent basin, or the Georgia Pacificpulp plant in Brunswick, Georgia. Twoadditional manatees, which hadoriginally been radio-tagged atJefferson Smurfit in 1996, were re-tagged without capture, one in February1997 and one in June 1997. Five of these10 tagged manatees stayed in the studyregion through Summer 1997; one(TNC-13) ventured as far north as theBroad River in South Carolina. Theother 5 travelled south to BrevardCounty between April and August. Six ofthe 10 radio-tagged manatees weresuccessfully re-tagged without capturein Summer 1997; the tags of 4 manateesdetached at the designed weak-link, andwere recovered. We attempted one morecapture at Jefferson Smurfit on 10November 1997, just before the plantshifted their discharge to the off-shorediffuser pipe. A radio-tagged manatee(TGA-04) that had recently arrived innortheast Florida from Brevard Countywas recaptured with her calf, and foundto have recent, deep propeller wounds.These manatees were transported toSea World for medical care. Anotherradio-tagged manatee (TGA-06) waskilled by a large vessel in the port ofSavannah, Georgia, as she began hersouthward migration in late October1997. Thus, at the start of the winterstudy period, 4 radio-tagged manateesremained, 1 in Georgia and 3 in BrevardCounty.

TNC-13 began her southward migrationfrom South Carolina with a two-month-old calf in early November 1997, muchlater than anticipated. She stayed in theSavannah River for a month (until mid-December), apparently short-stoppedby an industrial discharge. The 25-31o Cdischarge was sufficient to sustainTNC-13, her calf, and several othermanatees sighted at the gypsum plant’sdischarge pipes, despite ambient watertemperatures of 12-16o C. On December12, when water temperatures droppedbelow 12o C, TNC-13 and her calfmigrated southward. TNC-13 arrived atJefferson Smurfit on 16 Decemberwithout her calf. A dead calf wasreported at Fort Clinch State Park on 17 December. TNC-13 resumed hersouthward move, and arrived at a power plant in Brevard County in lateDecember; from there she continuedsouth, reaching Miami in lateJanuary 1998.

Two of the 3 manatees which had stayedin Brevard County through the fallmoved north to the study region inDecember 1997, presumably because ofrelatively mild winter conditions in mostof Florida. TBC-23 arrived at JeffersonSmurfit on December 15, and stayed forseveral days in the vicinity of theunheated, former discharge basin. Shealso visited the nearby Fernandina Beachcity sewage discharge, which was up to 6oC warmer than ambient watertemperatures depending on the tidalstage. She then moved a short distancenorth to the Gilman Paper Co. plant onthe North River, where she was sightedwith several other manatees. Twopreviously tagged manatees weredetected at the Gilman plant discharge bytracking the sonic devices in their belts(part of the radio-tracking assembly).One of these, (TNC-14, a male) was re-tagged on January 17. TNC-15 leftBrevard County on December 29, andarrived at Jefferson Smurfit 4 days later(January 2,1998). By January 4, she hadalso moved north to the Gilman plant’sdischarge. Only 1 radio-tagged manateehas stayed in Brevard County, using thethermal effluents of two power plants inthe upper Indian River.

Although the sample size is small and thestudy is still ongoing, it is clear thatmanatees have a strong affinity fortraditional warm water refuges, and donot necessarily respond to the absence ofa former refuge by returning to moredistant sites further south, wherewarmer water is assured. Some manateesmay have been born in the study region(e.g., TNC-03 and TNC-14), and may nothave developed the typical manateemigratory pattern. Ongoing developmentof population genetics techniques mayhelp to resolve this question. It is alsoclear that secondary warm water sitesare more numerous than was previouslyknown, and should not be underestimatedin attempts to evaluate the impact ofthermal effluent elimination.

F. Project Title and Summary: Genetic analysis of the West Indianmanatee (Trichechus manatus).

Long-term field observations, aided byphoto-identification and radio trackingtechnology, have allowed estimation ofmanatee reproductive parameters andsurvival. Recent advances in moleculargenetic analysis techniques will allowbiologists to further theirunderstanding of manatee kinship-groups (paternity), mating behavior,potential reproductive strategies and

10

success, and analysis of geneticpopulation structure (matrilines).Specifically, the use of microsatellite“fingerprinting” holds great potentialfor better understanding of manateepopulation biology and geneticstructure. This information will benecessary in evaluating current andfuture management and researchstrategies. Studies of mitochondrialDNA haplotype sequencing haverecently been completed by researchersat the Sirenia Project and theUniversity of Florida, and show distinctcorrelations among fragmentedpopulations of West Indian manateesthroughout their range. Currently,progress is being made to isolatespecific primers (probes) to be used inmanatee specific DNA fingerprintingstudies. This work is being conducted incollaboration with researchers at theUniversity of Florida as part of adissertation by the lead investigator.For the past several years the SireniaProject has assisted with this project bycollecting and archiving tissues to beused in future analysis.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ A 403 base-pair fragment has beenexamined in 87 individuals from Florida,Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic,Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyanaand Brazil, and fifteen haplotypes wereidentified. Three distinctive mtDNAlineages were observed in T. manatus,corresponding approximately to Floridaand the West Indies, the Caribbeancoast and rivers of South America, andthe Atlantic coast and rivers of SouthAmerica (Garcia-Rodriguez et al. 1998).The three T. manatus lineages mayrepresent relatively old biogeographicpartitions, based on the manateesstrong affinity for extensive freshwaterhabitats in South America, and periodicextinctions of the Florida manatee atthe northern end of the species’ rangeduring the Pleistocene. The USGS/BRDis awaiting samples from other sitesthroughout the manatee’s range,particularly Central America, to extendthese studies of the phylogeography ofT. manatus. DNA from these samples,as well as others from the Amazonianmanatee (T. inunguis), the West Africanmanatee (T. senegalensis), and thedugong (Dugong dugon), will besequenced to address questions relatedto phylogeny and systematics of theOrder Sirenia. Since mtDNA controlregion sequences reveal no haplotypediversity in Florida, finer resolutionassays are proposed usingmicrosatellite analysis.

G. Project Title and Summary: Determination and quantification of thediet of Florida manatees in high-usehabitats.

Information on habitat requirements ofFlorida manatees is needed by Federaland State managers responsible forprotecting and recovering thisendangered marine mammal. TheService’s 1996 Florida Manatee RecoveryPlan identified food habits studies asnecessary for full recovery of the species.Data obtained will be available to allclients to assist with manatee habitatassessment and utilization. Theprocedures and results also may beuseful to researchers involved in dietstudies of manatees in other parts oftheir range.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Some of the laboratory work for thisongoing study has been completed.Analyses on 40 stomach samples fromLee County, 104 from Brevard County, 25from northeastern Florida and Georgia,and 8 from Puerto Rico have beencompleted. In addition, 50 samples fromsouthwest Florida have beenpreliminarily analyzed. Hundreds ofadditional samples from salvagedcarcasses are available and will beprioritized for analysis by site andinterest from clients. Fecal samplescollected from radio-tagged manatees areexamined on a regular, ongoing basis toassess the food habits of specific, knownindividuals.

H. Project Title and Summary: Evaluation of releases of captive-bornand captive-reared manatees.

The 1996 Florida Manatee Recovery Planmandates the development of protocolsand guidelines for captive manateereintroduction, and for evaluation ofreintroduction success. This studyprovides information critical to thedevelopment of sound reintroductionprotocols. Data on manatee survival,movement patterns, food habits, loss ofhuman-friendly behavior, habitatrequirements, blood chemistry, and fatmetabolism will allow development ofprotocols and guidelines, which can beused by Federal and State managers andveterinarians to establish policies forfuture manatee releases. Theseguidelines and protocols will also begenerally useful to periodically assess thecondition of wild manatees in otherstudies, e.g., before and after habitatchanges have been imposed.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Since April 1993, 17 captive-reared orcaptive-born manatees have beenreleased with satellite-monitored radiotags at eight different sites in Florida. Onthe recommendation of the Interagency/Oceanaria Manatee Working Group, theService constructed a 4.5 acre enclosureon the Merritt Island National WildlifeRefuge, for the specific purpose ofassisting manatees in making a transitionto natural environmental conditions.Eight manatees received pre-release

conditioning in the 4.5 acre enclosureprior to their release. Of these, 4 weredirectly released into the Banana River, 2were released in Biscayne Bay, 1 wasreleased at Blue Spring in the St. JohnsRiver, and 1 was released in Tampa Bay.Nine manatees were released directly(the majority in south Florida), withoutenclosure conditioning. Three manateesare known to have died, 7 are known to bealive and in good condition, 1 was rescuedand is still in captivity, and the remaining6 have lost their tags. The longesttracking period for an individual manateethus far is 2.5 years. One captive-bornmanatee crossed Florida Bay from theeast coast to the west coast, and anothercrossed from the west coast to the east.These are among the first records ofmanatee movement between the east andwest coasts of Florida. The study hasdocumented individual variation insurvivability through winters, seasonalmovement patterns, areas of highmanatee use, strong site fidelity to warm-season ranges across years, and dielmovement patterns. Data on bloodchemistry, hematology, and bodycondition (blubber thickness) have beencollected both pre- and post-release formost of the manatees studied. Progressreports have been presented at biannualmeetings of the Interagency/OceanariaManatee Working Group. A workshophosted jointly by Service, theUSGS/BRD, FMRI, and Sea World isbeing planned for St. Petersburg,Florida, for May 26-27, 1998, to reviewprogress to date, and develop appropriateprotocols and guidelines. (Note: Thisworkshop was held as planned.)

5. Southern sea otter

A. Project Title and Summary: Population biology of sea otters.

The goals of this project are to evaluatetrends in the California sea otterpopulation and causes for its low rate ofincrease. A baseline of information ondistribution, abundance, and mortality isnecessary to determine current andfuture population status, which is ofparticular importance to the RecoveryPlan for the threatened California seaotter population. The study obtainsdemographic and behavioral informationfor sea otters in California, and fromseveral other populations of knownstatus. Causes and consequences ofdifferences among these populations willbe evaluated and population modelingwill be used in the analysis. The work isconducted through censuses,coordination of a beached carcass salvage

11

Note scars from propeller strike on Florida manatee

USG

S

network and mortality databasemaintenance, monthly systematicsurveys for beach-cast carcasses, andstudies comparing demography andbehavior of sea otter populations inCalifornia, Washington, and Alaska inorder to determine the reasons for thelow growth rate in the Californiapopulation. In addition, there are severalassociated studies of the effects ofcontaminants on sea otters.

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ Survey data for the California sea otterpopulation, accumulated from the early1980s through 1994, indicated a steadyrate of increase of about five percent peryear. However, population counts madefrom 1994-96 suggested that the rate ofincrease in the California sea otterpopulation might be approaching zero oreven becoming negative. The 1997 surveydata add further to that concern. Acessation of population growth isparticularly evident in the spring surveyresults, which have traditionally beenused as the best index of populationstatus and change. The possibility thatthe sea otter population in California isexperiencing an altered growthtrajectory is especially notable in view ofthe fact the recovery criterion, asproposed by the Southern Sea OtterRecovery Team, might not be achieved inthe anticipated time frame. It has nowbecome clear that this is the case and thata fundamentally different managementstrategy might be needed to achieverecovery.

■ Field research on sea otters inWashington continued. Fourteen seaotters were captured in Washington in1997; thirteen were surgically implantedwith radio transmitters. For the first timea winter capture was conducted inFebruary 1997. The objective was tocapture and instrument individualsinhabiting the Strait of Juan de Fucaduring the winter months so theirseasonal movements could be monitored.Otters have reoccupied this area onlyrecently and their numbers declinedramatically during the summer months.All otters captured in February weremales. Only one independent male wascaptured in August; the rest werefemales and pups. Monitoring of allinstrumented otters continued. Datacollection on foraging behavior,reproduction, time/activity budgets andmovements continued. A second subtidalsurvey was conducted in 1997 todocument changes in nearshorecommunities as sea otters reoccupy thehistoric habitat. The subtidal surveys and

increased foraging work were supportedby the Olympic Coast National MarineSanctuary.

■ Field work on similar projects wasbegun at Adak and Shemya islands in theAleutian archipelago with support fromthe Department of Defense and incollaboration with partners including theUniversity of California at Santa Cruz,the Alaska Maritime National WildlifeRefuge, the U.S. Navy, the U.S. AirForce, and the USGS/BRD’s AlaskaBiological Science Center. The Adakproject was completed and a final reporthas been submitted to the U.S. Navy.This work has led to several unexpectedfindings. The first was high levels oforganochlorines in sea otters at AdakIsland. This finding, published in 1997,has led to subsequent research where theUSGS/BRD is endeavoring to determinethe source of these compounds and theirpossible effects on sea otter populations.Results indicate that PCB compounds arecoming from several specific sites in theAleutian archipelago, and that elevatedlevels in the marine ecosystem arelimited to localized areas around thesesites. Pesticides, in contrast, seem to becoming from more distant sources. Thesecond is that the sea otter population atAdak Island has declined precipitouslyduring the past several years. It is nowevident that these declines arewidespread throughout at least many ofthe Aleutian Islands, and that the likelycause is recently increased predation bykiller whales. This may representredirected foraging behavior by thewhales following the virtual localextinctions of sea lions and harbor sealsfrom the central and western Aleutianarchipelago.

■ Range expansion of the Washington seaotter population to east of Cape Flattery,an area devoid of sea otters since the furtrade period, continues. The July 1997population survey resulted in a count of502 which is 16 percent above the 1996count. The annual rate of populationgrowth since 1989 is about 12 percent,whereas for the period prior to 1989 itwas more than 20 percent. Thus, whilethe sea otter population in Washingtoncontinues to grow, the rate of populationincrease may be declining. A large groupof males is now foraging and resting afew kilometers east of where they were in1996. Additionally, a group of about 30females and pups is using the areabetween Tatoosh Island and Neah Bay.The USGS/BRD’s subtidal habitat surveyhas shown that sea urchins are abundantin the waters adjacent to Tatoosh Island,

but the survey did not detect anydiscernible differences in urchinabundance between 1996 and 1997.However, with the increased use of thearea, the USGS/BRD predicts that somemajor structural changes in thenearshore marine community will begin.It is hoped that these changes will bedetected during subsequent habitatsurveys.

■ Information on sea otter birth ratesand mortality are now available forcomparison among Amchitka Island,Kodiak, and central California. Thesedata demonstrate that age-specific birthrates are similar, but patterns ofmortality vary substantially. BothAmchitka and California have pre-weaning mortality rates of about 50percent, whereas the Kodiak rate iscloser to 15 percent. Informationobtained from Adak Island shows asimilar birth rate, but a highly elevatedprobability of mortality most likelyexplains the recent population decline inthat area.

■ By the end of 1997 over 10,000 foragingrecords had been accumulated fromsouth of Cape Flattery (Cape); and over1500, and increasing, records from east ofthe Cape. Preliminary analysis indicatesforaging otters south of the Cape have acatholic diet with no one prey speciesdominating. East of the Cape, however,about 70 percent of the diet by numbertaken are red sea urchins(Strongylocentrotus franciscanus). Thisurchin species accounts for less than 1percent of the sea otter’s diet to thesouth. Subtidal surveys conducted by theWashington Department of Fish andWildlife and the USGS/BRD indicateurchin populations have declinedsignificantly in some areas east of CapeFlattery. As the period of occupationincreases east of Cape Flattery, the preybase undoubtedly will change and thischange should be reflected by futureforaging observations collected in thestudy. Sea urchins are expected tobecome less important as the otter’s dietbecomes more diverse.

■ Five trips to San Nicolas Island (SNI)were made in 1997 to monitor thetranslocated sea otter colony. The secondhighest count of independent sea otters(16) since 1989 was obtained in 1997 (thehighest was 17 in 1996). Distribution ofotters is changing, with moreobservations off the north and northwestshores of the island. Five births weredocumented in 1997, bringing the totalnumber of pups born at SNI to 47. There

12

is evidence of some recruitment to thecolony, but most weaned pups are beinglost either to mortality or emigration.This latter finding is surprising in viewof: (1) the abundant food resources atSNI; (2) the known tendency of weanedpups, particularly females, to remainwithin the confines of their parentpopulation, usually near the natal site;and (3) the growth characteristics ofrelocated colonies of sea otters elsewherewithin the species’ range.

B. Project Title and Summary: Interactions between sea otters andnearshore ecological communities.

The goal of this study is to evaluate thegenerality, breadth, and evolutionaryconsequences of the interactions betweensea otters, the benthic invertebrates onwhich they prey, and the kelp forestecosystems in which these invertebrateherbivores graze and sea otters live.Work focuses on the role of sea otterpredation on California habitats, butincludes additional comparative studiesacross the Pacific rim and work onindirect influences on other food webcomponents (e.g., coastal fishes, coastal-feeding sea ducks, subtidal asteroids, andkelp assemblages).

1997 Activities/Accomplishments:■ A study involving sites in California,Australia, and New Zealand to test thehypothesis that the intensity of predationon benthic invertebrates is less in thesouthern than the northern hemisphere,was completed. Additional work on thegenerality of the sea otter’s influence onkelp forests in California and Mexico wasinitiated.

■ Relationships between sea otters andkelp forest communities in BritishColumbia are similar to those that occurin southeast Alaska. In general, areaslacking sea otters have been deforestedby urchin grazing and those with well-established sea otter populations arecharacterized by well-developed kelpforests. The mechanism of change wasfound to be closely tied to the behavioralresponse of sea urchins to damagedconspecifics. Otters discard the uneatenexoskeletons of their prey, which sink tothe bottom. Living urchins flee from theremains of dead urchins, thus creatinghalos within which kelps rapidly recruitand grow.

■ A field study of the populationstructure and predatory role of subtidalsea stars at Attu Island was completed.This study involved a comparison of data

gathered in the late 1970s and early 1980swhen otters were absent from most ofAttu, with data gathered in 1994, afterotters had become reestablished. Long-term data show that the abundance ofpredatory sea stars declined by morethan an order of magnitude following therecolonization by sea otters. Sea starsprey on mussels and barnacles, and thusthe mortality rates of these invertebratesdeclined substantially with the arrival ofotters. Both sea otters and sea stars havebeen shown to function as “keystonespecies”. These findings are of basicinterest to community ecologists becausethey shown how the role of one keystonespecies can be altered by the influences ofanother.

■ Sea urchins are an important elementof kelp forest ecosystems. The influenceof unregulated urchin populations onthese ecosystems can be dramaticbecause of the tendency of urchins toovergraze kelp stands. This tendencyseems to depend most strongly on: (1) theextent to which urchin populations arelimited by predation, and (2) sea urchinbehavior. Over the last several years,USGS/BRD work has begun to focus onthe interaction between these twofactors. Research on sea urchin refugingbehavior shows that where fish predationis strong, the urchins hide during the dayand come out at night to forage.Accumulating information suggests thatthis behavior is genetically fixed intropical species (where predationintensity is strong) and genetically plasticin temperate species (where predationintensity is spatially and temporallyvariable).

■ A study of the influence of marinereserves within the Monterey BayNational Marine Sanctuary wascompleted. Results show that the densityand size of rockfish (Sebastes spp.), acommercially and recreationallyimportant group of species, aresignificantly greater in reserve than non-reserve areas.

■ Sea urchins are the main food staple ofsea otters in many areas. Results fromstudies conducted over many years arebeginning to show some intriguinggeographical patterns in the nature ofinteractions between sea otters and seaurchins. High density otter populationsare capable of reducing the abundanturchin populations to local commercialextinction in a single year. TheUSGS/BRD has found that urchinpopulations on oceanic islands aresustained by: (1) heavy annual

recruitment, and (2) emigration fromdeep water. These processes areresponsible not only for maintaining theurchins, but for sustaining remarkablyhigh density otter populations. Theseprocesses seem to change along thecontinental margins, apparently due tochanges in coastal currents (whichtransport urchin larvae away from shore)and the accumulation of shallow-watersediments which block the emigration ofurchins from deep water. This mayexplain why equilibrium density sea otterpopulations are so much greater onoceanic islands than they are along thecontinental shelf of North America.

USGS/BRD studies at Amchitka Islandhave shown that whereas sea otterpopulations normally are maintained bycoastal production, these food webs areoccasionally massively subsidized fromthe oceanic realm in the form of inshorespawning migrations of smoothlumpsuckers. These episodic foodsubsidies appear to release the otterpopulations from food limitation, thusaltering both their foraging behavior anddemography.

■ Diving surveys completed in thesummer of 1997 have shown that kelpforest ecosystems have collapsed in areasof western Alaska where sea otterpopulations have declined.

13

The Service’s Division of LawEnforcement investigates known, allegedor potential violations of the Act involvingillegal take or importation of marinemammals or their products for which theService is responsible. In addition, itassists the NMFS by makingapprehensions and conductinginvestigations in cases involvingendangered or threatened species underthat agency’s jurisdiction. Results ofthese efforts are referred to the NMFSfor its consideration and appropriateaction. However, under a NMFS/ServiceMemorandum of Understanding, theService retains authority over thoseinvestigations that involve endangered orthreatened species under the jurisdictionof the Department of the Interior.Violations are referred to theDepartment of the Interior’s Office of theSolicitor for civil action or theDepartment of Justice for criminalenforcement action.

Service wildlife inspectors are stationedat five designated ports and six borderports in the Pacific Region to closelymonitor wildlife entering the country todetect the illegal importation of marinemammals and marine mammal products.Emphasis is placed on the designatedwildlife ports of Seattle, Portland, SanFrancisco, Los Angeles, and Honolulu.Special border ports on the Washington/Idaho-Canada border, the California-Mexico border, and at Agana, Guam,continued to receive special attention.Wildlife inspectors reported a total of 79incidents involving the illegal importationof marine mammals in 1997. Seizuresinvolved products manufactured fromwalrus ivory, polar bear, dolphin andwhale bone, and sperm whale teeth.

Special agents in California participatedin two law enforcement task forcesduring 1997, both designed to monitorconflicts between human activity andmarine mammals and identify anyviolations of Federal or State laws whichprotect marine mammals. The Service,along with the California Department ofFish and Game (CDFG), the NMFS, andthe U.S. Coast Guard began a series of

off-shore patrols to monitor the rapidlygrowing “live trap” commercial fishery inCalifornia. The growing demand forseafood caught, transported, and soldlive, for human consumption has resultedin a dramatic rise in the number of livewells, or traps used by the commercialfishing industry. These traps are baitedand as such represent a potential hazardto marine mammals including thesouthern sea otter. These efforts havenot, however, identified any sea otterdeaths to date.

The Service was requested and agreed toparticipate in a multi-agency lawenforcement task force along the centralcoast of California to address the growingproblems associated with a large andincreasing population of elephant seals inthe area of San Simeon, California. TheService is currently in the final stages ofacquiring land adjacent to the seal’s haul-out area as a national wildlife refuge.Service special agents along withenforcement officers from CDFG,NMFS, California Highway Patrol, andseveral county sheriff departments havecome together to share patrolresponsibilities to address the conflictswhich arise from tourists (sometimes asmany as two hundred per day) who enterareas closed to the public. A publicoutreach effort has also begun whichinvolves volunteer “docents” who contactpeople in the area and inform them of theclosed areas and why encroachment maybe both harmful to the seals anddangerous to them. Several citations forviolations of the Act and the NationalMarine Sanctuary Act have been issued.

Special agents and wildlife inspectorsbased in southern California continuetheir active participation in the AsianMedicinal Task Force established toaddress the rising number of incidents ofthe unlawful importation of traditionalAsian medicines which often containprotected wildlife including marinemammals. The U.S. Customs Service, theFood and Drug Administration, the U.S.Public Health Service, and a number ofState agencies have combined theirenforcement resources to inspect

14

Enforcement

shipments entering the United States viapassenger baggage, air and sea cargo,and international mail. Additionally, theTask Force has conducted a number ofunannounced inspections at facilitiesknown to use and sell these products.These efforts have documentednumerous violations ranging from simpleseizures of products to criminalindictments.

In the State of Washington during theexecution of a search warrant, a freshwalrus tusk was found in the possessionof a subject not authorized to possess it.In a subsequent proceeding, the subjectpled guilty in U.S. District Court, andwas sentenced to six months in jail to beserved concurrently with other charges.In another Washington case, a subjectworking on a commercial fishing boatillegally imported two walrus tusks. Hesubsequently paid a $500 fine in U.S.District Court and abandoned the tusks.

In January, an Oregon man pled guilty toone Lacey Act felony count forpurchasing Alaskan polar bear hides,which he would cut into small strips andsell nationally as fly-tying material. Theman explained to a Service undercoveragent how he concealed his illegal activityby claiming the polar bear fur came fromold clothing trimmed with the fur whichwould be exempt from the provisions ofthe Act. The subject was sentenced inPortland in April, receiving a $2,000 fine,three years of supervised probation, and200 hours community service.

A joint task force operation wasconducted on the Banana and IndianRivers in Brevard County, Florida, as aresult of a request from Servicebiologists who supplied data indicatingthat an inordinate number of manateedeaths were resulting from collisions withboats. During a five week period in Julyand September, 1997, a total of 53 Serviceenforcement officers (special agents andrefuge officers) enforced boat speedrestrictions in areas posted by the Stateof Florida, which were established for theprotection of manatees. Service officersapprehended 313 boat operators violating

boat speed restrictions in the manateeprotection areas. Of the 313 violators, 297forfeited $29,710 in fines; one was foundguilty after trial before the localmagistrate and fined $200 plus a $10special assessment; two were acquittedafter trial (civil cases have been filed);and cases are pending on the remainingthirteen.

Guards at the Palmer CorrectionalFacility north of Anchorage, Alaska,requested assistance from Service agentstwice during the year. The first time, theyintercepted a cooler containing twowalrus skulls and four walrus tusks whichhad been delivered to one of the inmates.The guards became suspicious whenService tags affixed to the itemsappeared to have been tampered with,and one skull and two tusks appeared tohave been dyed to make them appearfossilized. Agents determined that thetags had been fraudulently attached tothese items, probably in an attempt to“hide” illegal ivory. The investigationcontinues.

Guards at the same facility alertedagents a second time when theyintercepted two more walrus tuskswhich again bore tags that appeared tohave been tampered with. Agentsdetermined that the tags used wereactually issued to ivory from an animalof a different sex and different size.Civil action is pending in this case.

In May, special agents from theFairbanks, Alaska, field office respondedto information received from a Serviceemployee regarding the suspectedwasteful take of walrus at Little DiomedeIsland, an island in the Bering Sea alongthe Russian border. Traveling to theIsland by helicopter and conductinginterviews with hunters and otherresidents, agents determined that eightAlaska Native hunters had returned tothe Island from a walrus hunting tripwith 33 walrus heads in their boat and farless meat and other parts required by theAct and by Service policy. Five of thehunters had been charged in 1992 withwasteful take of walrus and served jailsentences.

An investigation involving the wastefultake of a walrus on St. Paul Island wassuccessfully resolved through anagreement between the Service and theSt. Paul village government. The subject,who killed the walrus and took only thehead, completed 100 hours of communityservice and alcohol abuse counselingunder the direction of the village

government. The walrus head, which hadbeen seized by agents, was donated to thevillage school for education purposes.

During the first week of November,Alaska Special Agents, in cooperationwith the Service’s Marine MammalsManagement Office in Anchorage and theEskimo Walrus Commission, participatedin the 1997 Walrus Harvest MonitoringProject conducted by the Service byattending hunter meetings in Nativevillages on St. Lawrence Island and theSeward Peninsula. The meetings serve asa cooperative forum for the mutualexchange of information, updatinghunters on current events, and thediscussion of policies and results relatedto walrus harvesting. Agents are involvedin similar outreach activities in otherareas of Alaska throughout the year.

Anchorage agents received threeseparate complaints from high schoolstudents at Chignik Bay, a remote villageover 500 miles southwest of Anchorageon the Alaska Peninsula, regarding theillegal shooting of a sea otter. Agentsinvestigated and identified a suspect whosubsequently confessed. The man wascited and paid a $500 fine.

An Idaho man was cited for illegallyobtaining raw walrus ivory from AlaskaNatives near Togiak. The man worked asa sport-fishing guide during the summerat a lodge that specialized in fishing tripswithin the Togiak National WildlifeRefuge. Investigation by Alaska SpecialAgents revealed that he was tradingalcohol for the ivory. Many villages in thearea prohibit the sale or possession ofany alcoholic beverage. During theinvestigation, agents seized severalwalrus tusks that the individual wasattempting to mail in tubes labeled“fishing rods” to a location in Utah. Theman was cited for violating the Act andthe Lacey Act and paid $1,500 in fines.

Agents investigated the sale of a walrushead and tusks to a Seldovia man from aman in Nelson Lagoon who reportedlyfound the head on the beach. Both mencooperated and claimed ignorance of thelaw. The buyer voluntarily abandoned thehead and tusks; the seller was cited andpaid a $250 fine.

Agents received a tip from biologists onthe Togiak National Wildlife Refugethat a hunting party from Togiak hadkilled a walrus on the refuge and tookonly the tusks and a very small amountof meat, leaving the rest to rot. Agentsinvestigated and subsequently obtained

an admission from a Togiak hunter; hewas cited and paid a $250 fine.

A Barrow man has been charged withthree counts of violating provisions of theAct related to his offering to sell a polarbear hide in Anchorage and Oregon. Thefinal offer was made to a Serviceundercover agent who seized the hide inan Anchorage hotel. Prosecution ispending.

The Clark R. Bavin National Fish andWildlife Forensics Laboratory, located inAshland, Oregon, analyzed 12 cases in1997 that involved marine mammals;species identified included dugong (2),manatee (1), sea otter (3), polar bear (2),and sperm and killer whales (4).

Marine mammal research conducted byLaboratory personnel resulted in threescientific publications in 1997: Scribner, etal, Population Genetic Studies of theWalrus: A Summary of Available Dataand Interpretation of Results; Scribner,et al, Population Genetic Studies of theSea Otter: A Summary of Available Dataand Interpretation of Results; andKretzmann, et al, Low Genetic Variabilityin the Hawaiian Monk Seal.

15

16

The Act prohibits the take or import ofmarine mammals and marine mammalproducts. Exceptions may be made underpermits for scientific research, publicdisplay, import of sport-hunted trophiesof polar bears taken in Canada,photography for educational orcommercial purposes, beached andstranded marine mammals that aredesignated as non-releasable under theAct, or to enhance the survival orrecovery of a species or stock. Anotherexception streamlines the permittingprocess for conducting scientific researchby allowing a General Authorization forthe incidental take of marine mammalsby Level B harassment in the course ofbona fide scientific research.

In order to enable marine mammal hidesto be tanned and to facilitate trade ofproducts among Alaskan Natives,registered agent/tannery permits may beissued to non-Alaskan Natives (i.e.,persons other than Alaskan Indians,Eskimos, or Aleuts). Registered agentsmay purchase and sell raw parts andtanned skins from, and to, AlaskanNatives or other registered agents,provided that only authentic AlaskanNative handicrafts or clothing may bepurchased or sold in interstatecommerce. Raw parts may be transferred(not sold) to registered tanners forfurther processing. Registered tannersmay transfer (not sell) parts received forprocessing to Alaskan Natives orregistered agents only.

Section 104 of the Act authorizes theDirector of the Service, acting on behalfof the Secretary of the Interior, to issuepermits for the activities identified above.Applicable provisions are found in Title50 of the Code of Federal Regulations —50 CFR 18.23(d) for registered agent/tannery permits, 50 CFR 18.30 for sport-hunted polar bear imports, and 50 CFR18.31 for scientific research or publicdisplay permits. During 1997 the Servicefinalized the regulations proposed in 1995,to establish application procedures andmake legal and scientific findings to allowfor the issuance of permits under section104(c)(5)(A) of the Act to import personal

sport-hunted polar bear trophies taken inCanada. Regulations will be developedfor issuance of

permits for enhancement of the survivalor recovery of a species or stock,photography for educational orcommercial purposes, and beached orstranded marine mammals that aredesignated as non-releasable under theAct.

During 1997 four new permits wereissued, and three permits were amendedor renewed for scientific research. Tenpermits were issued for public display.Eleven parties either registered orrenewed their registration as agentsand/or tanneries. One hundred and thirtyone permits were issued for import ofsport-hunted polar bears from Canada(Table 1).

The following is a brief description ofother permit actions taken in 1997.

Scientific Research Permits1. Permit 766818, reissued February 7,1997, through February 7, 2002, to theAlaska Biological Science Center forscientific research of Alaskan sea ottersand California sea otters as described inthe 1993 annual report.

2. Permit 801562, amended July 17, 1997,and October 1, 1997, through December31, 2000, to the Alaska Biological ScienceCenter for scientific research of Pacificwalrus. The permit was amended in Julyto include the use of specific alternativedrugs for immobilizing walrus andauthorize helicopter over-flights. TheOctober amendment authorizes the use ofunspecified new drugs and new drugcombinations to immobilize walrus.

3. Permit 740507, reissued May 15, 1997,through May 15, 2002, to the AlaskaBiological Science Center for scientificresearch of Alaskan sea otters asdescribed in the 1994 annual report.

Permits and Registrations

Table 1. Polar Bear Trophy Import Permits Issued in 1997 by Population1,2

Approved Permits Deferred Populations PermitsPopulations Issued (Pre-Amendment only) Issued

McClintock Channel 24 Baffin Bay 3

Northern Beaufort Sea 40 Davis Strait 2

Southern Beaufort Sea 32 Foxe Basin 5

Viscount Melville 5 Gulf of Boothia 1

Lancaster Sound 19

Subtotals 101 30

Total = 131

1 Populations approved or deferred as per the Service’s February 18, 1997, final rule [62 FR 36382]. The Norwegian Bay and Kane Basin populations are new populations andare presently considered “deferred” populations by the Service.

2 No applications for permits were received for bears taken in the following populations:(Approved) Western Hudson Bay; (Deferred) Southern Hudson Bay, Queen ElizabethIslands, Norwegian Bay, and Kane Basin.

4. Permit 831922, issued September 3,1997, through September 3, 2002, to SeaResearch Foundation for import of up to200 polar bear serum samples previouslyobtained by Canadian researchers forscientific research related tomorbillivirus infection.

5. Permit 832903, issued December 22,1997, through December 22, 2002, to theUniversity of Alaska Museum, for importof polar bear and Pacific walrus biologicalsamples from Canada and the RussianFederation and for re-import of polarbear and Pacific walrus biologicalsamples previously loaned to researchersin foreign countries.

6. Permit 834120, issued October 30, 1997,through October 30, 2002, to the AlaskaBiological Science Center, for import ofup to 100 salvaged specimens of sea otterfor the purpose of scientific researchincluding investigations of die-off eventsand collection of biological information.

7. Permit 834406, issued November 26,1997, through November 25, 2002, to theMote Marine Laboratory, foropportunistic take of blood samples frommanatees held in captivity in Florida forscientific research of the manatee cellularimmune function.

Public Display Permits1. Permit 824699, issued April 3, 1997,through April 3, 2002, to Luther Collegeto import a polar bear skull, salvaged bythe Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources, for purposes of public displayand scientific research.

2. Permit 822531, issued January 21,1997, and amended and re-issuedeffective February 18, 1997, throughJanuary 21, 2002, to the Point DefianceZoo to import two orphaned polar bearcubs from Canada for the purpose ofpublic display. The permit was amendedto correct identification information.

3. Permit 823259, issued January 27,1997, through January 27, 1998, to theOregon Coast Aquarium to import andre-export one northern sea otter from,and to, Vancouver Aquarium, Canada, forthe purpose of public display.

4. Permit 821744, issued February 19,1997, through February 19, 2002, to theChicago Zoological Park to import threePacific walrus for the purpose of publicdisplay.

17

5. Permit 823560, issued February 24,1997, through February 24, 2002, to SeaWorld, Inc., Orlando, Florida, to importone captive-born female polar bear fromGermany for the purpose of publicdisplay.

6. Permit 823561, issued February 24,1997, through February 24, 2002, to SeaWorld, Inc., Orlando, Florida, to importone captive-born male polar bear fromGermany for the purpose of publicdisplay.

7. Permit 834418, issued November 20,1997, through November 20, 2002, to TheSeattle Aquarium to take for publicdisplay one female northern sea otterwhich was recovered as an orphaned pupin Alaska.

8. Permit 827717, issued November 3,1997, through November 3, 1998, toHelmuth Pfennig to import for thepurpose of public display one fullymounted polar bear legally hunted in theNorthwest Territories, Canada.

9. Permit 832098, issued September 15,1997, through March 14, 1998, to LeGrand Aquarium de Saint-Malo to takeup to 24 and export two northern seaotters to France for public display.

10. Permit 834423, issued September 15,1997, through March 14, 1998, toOceanario de Lisboa to take up to 24 andexport six northern sea otters to Portugalfor public display.

Registered Agent/Tannery Permits1. Permit 704234, renewed theregistration of Richard Stewart, TheBears Den, Inc., Olympia, Washington, asan agent on November 24, 1997.

2. Permit 748545, renewed theregistration of Alaskan Treasures,Anchorage, Alaska, as an agent onFebruary 19, 1997.

3. Permit 764052, renewed theregistration of D. Cohn Fur Processors,Inc., Greenville, South Carolina, as atannery on September 16, 1997.

4. Permit 797559, renewed theregistration of Chukotka-Alaska,Anchorage, Alaska, as an agent on March21, 1997.

5. Permit 799658, renewed theregistration of Prince of WalesTaxidermy, Craig, Alaska, as an agent onJuly 10, 1997.

6. Permit 809257, renewed and amendedthe registration of Jenny Pompura,Anchorage, Alaska, as an agent onFebruary 19, 1997.

7. Permit 824291, The Wildlife Gallery,Inc., Blanchard, Michigan, wasregistered as an agent on February 5,1997.

8. Permit 826563, Association of VillageCouncil Presidents, Bethel, Alaska, wasregistered as an agent on March 26, 1997.

9. Permit 827696, Louie Szurleys, WardCove, Alaska, was registered as an agenton April 28, 1997.

10. Permit 831167, Shawn McCrary,Palmer, Alaska, was registered as anagent and a tanner on July 10, 1997.

11. Permit 831726, Quality Fur DressingCompany, Spring, Texas, was registeredas a tannery on November 26, 1997.

U.S.-Russia Environmental Agreement:Marine Mammal ProjectThe Service, in partnership with theUSGS/BRD, NMFS, State of Alaska, and colleagues from universities and non-governmental organizations, joinedstaff of the Russian State FisheriesCommittee, Russian Academy ofSciences, and Russian State Committeefor Environmental Protection inconducting marine mammal managementand research activities in 1997. Under theauspices of the bilateral marine mammalproject, four U.S. personnel traveled toRussia, while 26 Russians traveled to theU.S. for cooperative activities.

One Russian walrus specialist cooperatedwith staff of the University of Alaska inFairbanks for two weeks in January foranalysis and reporting of data pertainingto Pacific walrus morphometrics.

A nine person Russian delegationattended the fourteenth biennial U.S.-Russia Marine Mammal Project meeting,held on Oahu, Hawaii, in April. The twosides reported on research andmanagement activities and developedplans for cooperative field work.

One Russian scientist visited the U.S. forthree weeks in April to participate ingray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) cow-calf surveys in California waters.

Three Russian marine mammalspecialists attended the 25th AnniversaryMeeting of Area V of the U.S.-RussiaEnvironmental Agreement held inWashington, D.C., in June. Presentationsaddressed the history of bilateral wildlifeconservation efforts. Russian Chairmanof the State Committee on EnvironmentalProtection, Viktor Danilov-Danilyan,addressed the group. U.S. Department ofthe Interior Secretary Bruce Babbitt alsomet with meeting participants.

One Service specialist visited Russia forone month in the third quarter of theyear to discuss Pacific walrus abundanceand distribution, and to conductexaminations of Chukotka Peninsulahaulouts.

In August, a Russian researcher joinedU.S. colleagues in Alaska for studies ofice-associated harbor seals (Phocavitulina).

One Russian specialist visited Alaska inSeptember and November for work withAlaska Department of Fish and Game(ADF&G) scientists to complete analysesof satellite tag data on spotted seals(Phoca largha pallas) and prepare theresults for publication.

The sixth biennial U.S.-Russia Sea OtterWorkshop was held in Forks, Washington,in November. The Workshop was attendedby eight delegates from the RussianFederation, and thirty-six Federal,university and non-governmentaldelegates from the United States.Additionally, the attendance ofrepresentatives from Canada and Japan was welcomed. Topics includedpopulation status and trends, ecology andresource interactions, health status,mortality patterns, genetics, and captivebiology and husbandry.

Cooperative research and monitoring of gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus)off Sakhalin Island was addressed at a November meeting in Seattle,Washington, attended by two Russianspecialists.

In December, one NMFS cetaceanspecialist traveled to Moscow to meetwith Russian officials during the annualmeeting of the U.S.-Russia Area VWorking Group on Cooperation in theField of Environmental Protection. TheU.S. Area V marine mammal projectleader (NMFS) and Area V coordinator(Service) also participated in the meeting.

Throughout 1997, the U.S. and Russiansides continued their dialogue onimproved management of the sharedAlaska-Chukotka population of polarbears.

Review of the 1973 InternationalAgreement on the Conservation ofPolar BearsThe provisions described in this sectionconcern both the domestic andinternational review of the effectivenessand implementation of the 1973International Agreement on theConservation of Polar Bears, andconsultation with Russia concerningcooperative research and managementprograms.

In 1995 the United States conducted areview of U.S. implementation of theAgreement, as directed in the 1994amendments to the Act. A draft report toCongress has been prepared and ispending review within the Department.

Regarding international implementationof the 1973 Agreement, Section 113 of theAct requires the Secretary of the Interiorto consult with the other signatories tothe Agreement to review its effectivenessand to establish a process for futurereviews. In February 1997, the Serviceinitiated this review by writing to the fourother contracting parties. By the end of1997, responses had been received fromCanada, Greenland, and Norway. Aresponse from Russia is expected in 1998.

Canada believes that the 1973 Agreementis being effectively implemented inCanada and that further review isunwarranted. Improvement can be madefor populations that lack adequatepopulation and/or harvest data.

The hunting regulations in Greenlandaddress the provisions of the 1973Agreement through the protection ofdenning females and females with cubs,encouragement of traditional huntingpractices, and protection of certainhabitat areas from hunting. Although thecurrent population and harvest data arepoor and the concept of sustainableharvest is not well developed, effort isbeing made to improve harvestmonitoring. As of January 1993,Greenland residents are required toobtain permits to hunt polar bears; thisrequirement has allowed for increased

18

International Activities

monitoring and collection of information.Greenland considers the 1973 Agreementto be successful and does not believe thatfurther review is warranted.

In Norway, hunting polar bears isprohibited and all important habitat,except offshore in the Barents Sea, isprotected. Development of industry andtourism in the Barents Sea has thepotential to impact polar bears and is ofconcern with respect to compliance withArticle II of the 1973 Agreement. AnEnvironmental Impact Assessment toaddress oil and gas development in thenorthern Barents Sea is being developed.As with Greenland and Canada, Norwayconsiders further review of theeffectiveness of the 1973 Agreementunnecessary.

Overall, the countries party to the 1973Agreement believe that the 1973Agreement is working well and providesa sound foundation for conservation andmanagement of polar bears in the Arcticregion. The United States, Canada,Greenland, and Norway agree thatoversight of the 1973 Agreement throughthe Polar Bear Specialist Group is anadequate means for periodicallyreviewing the implementation andeffectiveness of the 1973 Agreement andthat further review is unwarranted.

U.S.- Russia Bilateral Polar BearAgreementThe Service continues work on thedevelopment of a conservationagreement between the United Statesand Russian governments. The purposeof this agreement is to provide foreffective conservation and managementof the polar bear population in theChukchi/Bering Seas through regulationof take, conservation of habitat, andcoordinated research and managementprograms. The treaty between theUnited States and Russia would providethe basis for developing a unified andcomprehensive management programwhich includes provisions for regulationof take (quotas), enhanced bio-monitoringand research opportunities, increasedhabitat conservation, and non-consumptive as well as consumptive uses.The treaty between governments wouldbe implemented in part through acompanion Alaska-Chukotka Native-to-Native agreement and would beconsistent with the 1973 Agreement.Oversight of the implementation wouldbe through a joint commission ofgovernment and Native representativesfrom each country. (Note: Delegates fromthe United States and Russian

Federation Government, and Nativerepresentatives from Alaska andChukotka attended a meeting inEastsound, Washington, during February6-13, 1998, the purpose of which was tonegotiate the treaty language.)

Walrus Activities Under the Area VEnvironmental Protection AgreementThe Pacific walrus is represented by asingle stock of animals which inhabits theBering and Chukchi Seas. The populationranges across the internationalboundaries of the U.S. and Russia, andboth nations share common interestswith respect to the conservation andmanagement of this species. Over thepast 25 years, the U.S. and Russia havecarried out many cooperative studies onwalrus under the Area V EnvironmentalProtection Agreement.

In April 1997, Service staff attended aMarine Mammal Working Group meetingto exchange walrus harvest informationand plan for future cooperative studies.In August, a Service biologist traveled toChukotka Russia to participate in walrushaulout monitoring studies at Rudderand Meechkin Spits, the two main walrushaulouts in the Gulf of Anadyr. One of thegoals of this trip was to discussdevelopment of coordinated Russia/U.S.walrus haulout and harvest monitoringprograms.

U.S.- Russia Pacific WalrusConservation TreatyThe need to address internationalconservation issues such as monitoringthe status and trend of the Pacific walrus

population, meeting Native subsistenceneeds, and assessing potential impactsresulting from commercial activities, arerecognized priorities for Governmentofficials and Native leaders in bothcountries. In 1995, representatives of theU.S. and Russia met in Petropavlovsk-Kamkchatskiy, Russia, for discussions onjoint conservation and managementactivities and the need for a bilateralagreement for the conservation of Pacificwalrus. During the meetings, jointprotocols were issued that established abasis for future discussions leadingtowards bilateral agreements that wouldprovide for the conservation, research,habitat protection, and Nativesubsistence use of Pacific walrus.

In November 1997, an informal workinggroup consisting of representatives ofFederal and State agencies, AlaskaNative organizations and non-government organizations held a meeting to consider proposed objectivesand guiding principles for a walrusconservation agreement between theUnited States and Russia. Participantsagreed that international coordinationwould further the conservation of thePacific walrus population, andrecommended that Alaskan Nativesshould be fully involved in thedevelopment of the proposedconservation agreements. The workinggroup also recommended that initialefforts to develop an internationalconservation agreement for walrusshould focus on consultations withaffected parties in the United States.

19

Arctic walrus

Stev

e A

mst

rup

Stock AssessmentsThe 1994 amendments to the Act includednew Section 117 requiring the Service andthe NMFS to prepare, in consultationwith Scientific Review Groups created bySection 117, stock assessment reportsthat assess the current status of allmarine mammals occurring in waters ofthe United States. Each stockassessment report is to include adescription of the stock’s range, aminimum population estimate, currentpopulation trends, current and maximumnet productivity rates, optimumsustainable population levels, andestimates of annual human-causedmortality and serious injury; and apotential biological removal level is to becalculated and included. The Act definespotential biological removal level as the“…maximum number of animals, notincluding natural mortalities, that may beremoved from a marine mammal stockwhile allowing that stock to reach ormaintain its optimum sustainablepopulation.”

Appropriately, the Service during 1995completed Stock Assessment Reports forall marine mammal species under Servicejurisdiction occurring in waters of theUnited States. These include Pacificwalrus, polar bears, and sea otter inAlaska, sea otters in Washington Stateand California, and manatees in thesoutheastern United States. Notice oftheir completion and availability wasannounced in the FEDERALREGISTER on October 4, 1995 (60 FR52008). These reports containedinformation regarding the distributionand abundance of the stocks, populationgrowth rates and trends, estimates ofhuman-caused mortality from all sources,descriptions of the fisheries with whichthe stocks interact, and the status of eachstock.

Section 117 also requires the Service,consistent with any new information thatindicates that the status of a stock haschanged or can be more accuratelydetermined, to revise these reportsannually for strategic marine mammalstocks (as defined in Section 3(19) of the

Act), and every three years for stocksdetermined to be non-strategic. During1996, the Service reviewed all eight of its1995 Stock Assessment Reports anddetermined that it would be appropriateto revise Reports for the southern seaotter in California, the northern sea otterin Washington State, and the Florida andAntillean stocks of West Indian manateesfrom the southeastern United States andPuerto Rico, respectively. Although theService decided to revise these Reports,the status of the four stocks has notchanged; both West Indian manateestocks and the southern sea otter stock inCalifornia are still classified as strategic,while the northern sea otter stock inWashington State is still classified as non-strategic. By the end of 1996, work wasunderway to develop these draft revisedStock Assessment Reports. On April 25,1997, the Service published a FEDERALREGISTER notice (62 FR 20201) toannounce their availability for publicreview; the 90 day comment periodexpired on July 24, 1997. By the end of1997, the completion of these reviseddocuments was pending final approval.

For polar bear, Pacific walrus, andnorthern sea otter in Alaska, the Servicedetermined during its 1996 reviewprocess that no significant newinformation was available that wouldprovide substantial benefit to thesestocks, or necessitate revising StockAssessment Reports for these marinemammals during the review cycle.However, during 1997 the Servicereviewed and developed draft, revisedstock assessment reports for northernsea otter, polar bear, and Pacific walrus inAlaska. Based upon these reviews andsubsequent draft documents, stocks of allspecies remained non-strategic and nochanges were proposed to the estimatedpotential biological removal level forpolar bear or walrus stocks.

In developing draft, revised stockassessment reports, the Service workedwith the Alaska Scientific Review Groupand the NMFS on the development ofguidelines and protocols for stockassessments. Some proposed changes

were made to Stock Assessment Reportsfor Pacific walrus and northern sea otter.For walrus these included minorformatting and editing changes to allowfor better consistency with other stockassessment reports, and updatedfisheries and harvest information. Theinclusion of the latest fisheries andharvest information resulted in a slightlylower estimate of average annual human-caused mortality. Proposed changes tothe northern sea otter Stock AssessmentReport include the delineation of threepopulation stocks (i.e., southeast,southcentral, and southwest) in Alaskawith all stocks remaining non-strategic.(Note: The Service published in theFEDERAL REGISTER on March, 5,1998, a public Notice of Availability ofDraft Revised Marine Mammal StockAssessment Reports for Alaska SeaOtter, Walrus, and Polar Bear (63 FR10936). The comment period for thisNotice closed on June 3, 1998.Subsequently, on September 14, 1998, theService published a FEDERALREGISTER Notice of Availability ofRevised Marine Mammal StockAssessment Reports for Pacific Walrusand Polar Bear in Alaska (63 FR 49132).Final revised sea otter stock assessmentswere neither completed nor announced asavailable in this Notice; the Noticeexplained that “…sea otter stockassessments for Alaska are not finalpending resolution of a request by theAlaska Sea Otter Commission for aproceeding on the record (pursuant toSection 117(b)(2) of the MMPA. Thisrequest is related to the Service’sidentification of three sea otter stocks inAlaska in the draft stock assessmentreports…as opposed to the one stockidentified in the [Service’s originalOctober 4,] 1995 report.” The Servicefurther explained that the finalization ofthe sea otter stock assessments would notoccur pending final action on theproceeding on the record.)

Incidental (Small) Take During Oil andGas OperationsThe Act authorizes the Secretary of theInterior to allow, upon request, theincidental, but not intentional, taking of

20

Status Reports

small numbers of marine mammals in aspecified activity within a specifiedgeographical region if it is found that thetotal of such taking will have a negligibleimpact on the species or stock and willnot have an unmitigable adverse impacton the availability of such species or stockfor subsistence uses. Generalimplementing regulations in the Code ofFederal Regulations (at 50 CFR 18.27)provide for development of specificregulations to govern incidental takeactivities and for issuance of Letters ofAuthorization (LOA) to applicantsproposing to conduct activities under thespecific regulations. Regulations can beissued for a period of not more than fiveconsecutive years. LOA’s prescribespecific stipulations and monitoringrequirements for each applicant and mustbe reviewed annually.

On November 16, 1993, the Service issuedregulations, “Marine Mammals;Incidental Take During SpecifiedActivities” [58 FR 60402], for theincidental, but not intentional, take ofsmall numbers of polar bears and Pacificwalrus during oil and gas operations(exploration, development, andproduction) year-round in the BeaufortSea and adjacent coast of Alaska. OnAugust 14, 1995, the Service modified andextended the regulations throughDecember 15, 1998 [60 CFR 42805].

During calendar year 1997, 13 LOA’s wereissued under the Service’s implementingregulations that authorize and govern theincidental, unintentional take of smallnumbers of polar bears and walrusduring oil and gas operations year-roundin the Beaufort Sea and adjacentnorthern coast of Alaska (Table 2).

Marking, Tagging, and Reporting ProgramThe Act established a moratorium on thetaking (i.e., hunting, harassing,capturing, or killing) of marine mammals.Coastal Alaska Natives were granted anexception and may legally harvest marinemammals in order to continue traditionallifestyles through subsistence practicesand creation of handicrafts. The Service’sMarking, Tagging, and ReportingProgram (MTRP) was implemented inOctober 1988 to monitor the subsistenceharvest of polar bear, sea otter, andwalrus by coastal Alaska Native people.The MTRP collects biological informationfrom the harvest and assists incontrolling illegal activities in specifiedmarine mammal parts. During 1997,MTRP staff traveled to 50 coastalvillages to hold village meetings, hire andreplace taggers, provide training, and

work with hunters to gain bettercompliance with MTRP requirements.To help inform village residents of theserequirements, 12 school presentationswere made during the village visits.MTRP staff hired or replaced 16 taggersand added 6 new villages to the program.

The MTRP currently has 139 taggers and30 alternates located in 103 villagesthroughout coastal Alaska (Table 3).Usually, local Native residents are hiredand trained to tag polar bear and seaotter hides and skulls, and walrus tusksin the villages where they live. TheMTRP employs 57 sea otter, 28 polarbear, and 91 walrus taggers. The numberof taggers per village varies dependingon the magnitude of the harvest. Somevillages have several taggers for eachspecies, while a few village taggers tagmore than one species where the harvestnumbers are low. Numbered, color coded,locking tags are placed on all polar bearand sea otter skulls and skins presentedfor tagging. Premolar teeth are extractedfor aging purposes from each bear andotter skull. A lead-headed wire tag isattached through a hole drilled in the rootsection of each walrus tusk tagged and aliquid marker is applied to two sides ofthe tusk. Tag numbers, location and dateof tagging, place of kill or find, sex, age,and measurements of specified parts arerecorded by taggers. Harvest data werereported from 56 villages during 1997.

Twenty-five sea otter taggers reported631 otters being tagged in 1997 (Tables 4,5). Sea otter hides are used to make hats,gloves, slippers, blankets, and other artsand crafts. A few hunters trade sea otterhides for walrus ivory, polar bear and seal

skins, or other items that are used inmaking crafts. Compliance to the taggingregulation by sea otter hunters appearsto be high.

Sixty-one polar bears were tagged in10 villages during the 1996-97 huntingseason (Tables 6, 7). Compliance by thepolar bear hunters to the tagging ruleappears to be good.

Forty-two walrus taggers reportedtagging 1,154 walrus in 1997. Walrus tuskssometimes become separated before theyare tagged. In order to accuratelyaccount for the harvest, a weight factorvariable is added that interprets eachrecord in terms of take. Estimation of thetotal harvest is made by summing thisweight factor. Walrus records where onlya single tusk was tagged are given aweight factor of 0.5, because thepossibility exists that the second tuskmay be tagged at a later date. Foranalytical purposes, the lower estimate iscalculated with the assumption thatsingle-tusk records in the databaserepresent half of one walrus. The upperestimate is calculated assuming that eachrecord represents a whole walrus. If allwalrus tusks are tagged as pairs, theupper and lower bounds are equal. As aconservative approach to management,the upper estimate is considered to be theactual figure for the walrus harvest(Tables 8, 9).

Hunter success varied greatly fromvillage to village and between hunters.Many hunters reported poor weather andmarginal ice conditions during the walrusmigration making hunting conditionsdifficult. Often the villagers could hear or

21

Table 2. Letters of Authorization Issued in 1997 for the Beaufort Sea and AdjacentNorthern Coast of Alaska.

Date Company Activity05/02/97 BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. Exploration05/16/97 BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. Exploration05/16/97 BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. Development05/21/97 Fairweather E&P Services Exploration11/07/97 Western Geophysical Exploration11/07/97 Western Geophysical Exploration11/07/97 Western Geophysical Exploration11/07/97 BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. Exploration11/07/97 BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. Exploration11/14/97 Western Geophysical Exploration12/09/97 Northern Geophysical Exploration12/09/97 ARCO Alaska, Inc. Exploration12/16/97 ARCO Alaska, Inc. Exploration

even see the walrus but because of badice conditions they were unable to getclose to them.

Compliance with the MTRP regulationsby walrus hunters needs improvement.Despite an aggressive campaign by theMTRP staff and Law Enforcementspecial agents, some walrus hunters stilldo not comply with the tagging rule.Village meetings, radio and newspaper

announcements, letters, and posters wereutilized in 1997 to encourage the huntersin all villages to have every kill recorded.The most common reason for ivory notbeing tagged was that hunters carvetheir own harvested ivory; some huntersdo not see the use of tagging their ivory ifthey are going to use it themselves. Inthe past, when raw ivory was sold to thevillage store or registered agents,compliance with the rule was high.

Assessment of compliance is subjectivelybased on personal observation anddiscussions with village taggers andothers. We have not determined afeasible way to quantify the levels ofcompliance. Enforcement of the taggingrule has been limited to only a few casesand those were related to otherenforcement actions. However,information from the MTRP data basewas valuable in several enforcement

22

Table 3. Villages With MTRP Taggers and Species Tagged.

Village Species* Village Species Village Species

*Species Key: SO = Sea Otter PB = Polar Bear W = WalrusFor names, addresses, and telephone numbers of village taggers, contact the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Marine Mammals ManagementOffice; Marking, Tagging, and Reporting Program; 1011 East Tudor Road; Anchorage, Alaska 99503. Telephone: (800) 362-5148.

Adak SOAkhiok SOAkutan SOAleknagik WAnchorage SO/PB/WAngoon SOAtka SOBarrow PB/WBethel SO/WBrevig Mission WBuckland WChefornak WChenega Bay SOChevak WChignik SO/WChignik Lagoon SOChignik Lake SO/WClarks Point WCold Bay SO/WCordova SO/WCraig SODeering WDillingham SO/WEgegik SO/WElim WEmmonak WEnglish Bay SOFairbanks SO/PB/WFalse Pass SOGambell PB/WGolovin WGoodnews Bay WHomer SO/WHoonah SOHooper Bay W

Hydaburg SOIvanof Bay SOJuneau SOKake SOKaktovik PB/WKarluk SOKenai SO/WKetchikan SO/WKing Cove SOKing Island WKing Salmon SO/WKipnuk WKivalina PB/WKlawock SOKodiak SO/WKongiganak WKotzebue PB/WKoyuk WKwigillingok WLarsen Bay SOLittle Diomede PB/WManokotak WMekoryuk WNaknek WNelson Lagoon SONewtok WNightmute WNikolski SONome PB/WNuiqsut PBOld Harbor SOOuzinkie SOPelican SOPerryville SO/WPetersburg SO

Pilot Point SO/WPlatinum WPoint Hope PB/WPoint Lay PB/WPort Graham SOPort Heiden SO/WPort Lions SOQuinhagak WSand Point SO/WSavoonga PB/WSeldovia SOShaktoolik WSeward SOShishmaref PB/WSitka SO/WSt. George WSt. Michael WSt. Paul SO/WStebbins WTatitlek SOTeller PB/WTogiak WToksook Bay WTuntutuliak WTununak WTwin Hills WUnalakleet WUnalaska SO/WValdez SOWainwright PB/WWales PB/WWrangell SOYakutat SO

23

Table 4. Sea Otters Tagged by Tagging Location and Year.

Location Pre-Rule 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 TotalAdak 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2Akhiok 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Akutan 0 0 0 0 0 1 10 0 0 0 0 11Anchorage 117 2 44 11 8 25 9 56 37 50 22 381Angoon 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 39 56 0 0 99Atka 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2Bethel 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 5Chenega Bay 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 6 0 20Chignik 1 0 9 5 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 21Chignik Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2Cold Bay 0 0 0 1 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 9Cordova 31 0 12 9 34 13 50 120 171 173 34 647Egegik 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1English Bay 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 6 0 12 0 35Fairbanks 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2False Pass 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 3 3 16Homer 18 22 9 9 0 0 25 14 0 24 8 129Hoonah 0 0 0 0 0 51 230 7 4 0 3 295Hydaburg 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 20 27Juneau 11 0 1 26 0 14 27 93 21 3 33 229Kake 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 2 3 5 0 28Kenai 0 0 8 6 33 0 0 19 0 0 0 66Ketchikan 2 0 0 0 0 194 83 6 11 3 24 323King Cove 8 0 0 25 0 8 1 5 1 0 13 61King Salmon 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1Klawock 57 3 118 10 74 4 220 19 52 25 98 680Kodiak 157 0 31 16 5 27 120 6 30 41 23 456Larsen Bay 31 0 0 0 17 14 2 16 7 77 22 186Mekoryuk 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5Nikolski 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1Old Harbor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 53Ouzinkie 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 0 0 0 0 29Pelican 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 4 12Perryville 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 4Petersburg 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 10Pilot Point 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2Port Graham 0 3 0 0 1 6 6 101 32 13 0 162Port Heiden 1 0 5 0 0 1 0 1 2 7 0 17Port Lions 11 0 0 1 0 0 0 23 3 18 0 56Sand Point 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Seldovia 0 0 1 0 0 12 20 8 0 0 27 68Sitka 44 25 35 47 39 163 218 131 38 67 59 866Tatitlek 0 0 0 0 19 27 4 0 0 0 0 50Unalaska 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5Valdez 0 0 0 0 0 73 102 135 121 56 164 651Wrangell 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 2 0 3 0 26Yakutat 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 13 15 4 10 56Totals 500 55 274 166 231 637 1,248 832 629 606 631 5,809

24

Table 5. Sea Otters Tagged by Age Class, Sex, and Year.

Pre-Rule 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 TotalAdultsFemale 88 9 35 15 44 172 426 166 99 82 72 1,208Male 231 44 182 120 149 367 585 466 442 420 407 3,413Unknown 121 0 19 2 23 17 39 80 25 38 54 418SubadultsFemale 8 1 2 9 5 25 55 25 18 20 35 203Male 8 1 15 16 3 35 74 66 26 31 37 312Unknown 14 0 3 0 3 5 7 21 2 3 10 68PupsFemale 0 0 0 1 1 5 3 1 2 5 4 22Male 1 0 2 3 0 6 7 5 5 5 9 43Unknown 6 0 1 0 1 2 3 1 8 2 3 27UnknownFemale 0 0 1 0 0 1 7 0 0 0 0 9Male 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4Unknown 23 0 13 0 0 1 42 1 2 0 0 82All AgesFemale 96 10 38 25 50 203 491 192 119 107 111 1,442Male 240 45 200 139 154 409 666 537 473 456 453 3,772Unknown 164 0 36 2 27 25 91 103 37 43 67 595Totals 500 55 274 166 231 637 1248 832 629 606 631 5,809

actions in past years. In most cases,enforcement has had a positive effect andheightened awareness.

Success of the MTRP depends on avillage presence by the Service androutine contacts with taggers. MTRPstaff will continue to hold villagemeetings, train and retrain taggers asnecessary, work with Native leaders andorganizations, and expand the use ofinformational and educational materialsthat relate to the MTRP and othermarine mammal issues.

Because of the extensive exposure of theMTRP staff throughout coastal Alaska,MTRP personnel are often called uponby other programs in the Service thatneed an introduction to, or assistanceworking in, a village. MTRP staff willcontinue to provide information that isobtainable only by being acquainted withthe residents of remote villages and/orfamiliarity with traditional village life.

The Service’s Alaska Region MarineMammals Management Office continuedto publish and distribute a quarterlybulletin to all taggers and otherinterested people. The bulletin hasproven to be a valuable tool indisseminating pertinent information in a

timely manner to a state-wide villageaudience.

In May 1997, the Service, theUSGS/BRD, the Alaska Sea OtterCommission, the Association of VillageCouncil Presidents, the Eskimo WalrusCommission, the Indigenous PeoplesCouncil on Marine Mammals (IPCOMM),and the Alaska Nanuuq Commissiondeveloped a co-management visiondocument for the subsistence use of seaotters, polar bears, and walrus. Thedocument is intended to guide thedevelopment of cooperative agreementsby mutual biological goals and objectives.

Co-Management with Alaska Natives ofthe Subsistence Use of Marine MammalsRecognizing the importance of marinemammals as resources for subsistenceand materials for handicrafts for AlaskaNatives, the 1994 amendments to the Actincluded provisions for funding certainco-management activities regardingsubsistence uses of marine mammals. In1997, Native organizations, Federal, andState agencies completed a series of co-management agreements and plans forguiding future resource managementpractices and increasing involvement ofAlaska Natives in the development ofmanagement policies, prioritization of

research needs, and collaboration onmonitoring programs and researchprojects. In August 1997, an umbrellaMemorandum of Agreement wascompleted between the Service, theUSGS/BRD, the NMFS, and theIndigenous People’s Council for MarineMammals. It provides a framework forpreparing co-management agreementsand the transfer of co-management fundsfrom the Service to Native organizations.

To facilitate co-management activities in1997, the Alaska Nanuuq Commission(ANC), the Eskimo Walrus Commission(EWC), and the Alaska Sea OtterCommission(ASOC) completed individualcooperative agreements with the Servicefor the implementation of Section 119which was added to the Act in 1994. Theco-management framework in Section 119outlines shared responsibilities forimplementation of marine mammalconservation programs. The separateagreements included scopes of work forco-management activities conducted in1997 and funded under Section 119.During 1997, the Service transferredfunds (of which $250,000 wasappropriated for co-management ofsubsistence uses pursuant to Section 119)to the ANC, the EWC, and the ASOC forco-management activities.

25

Table 7. Polar Bears Tagged by Age Class, Sex, and Harvest Year.a

1987/ 1988/ 1989/ 1990/ 1991/ 1992/ 1993/ 1994/ 1995/ 1996/88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 Total

AdultsFemale 8 3 13 6 5 10 15 11 1 10 82Male 12 5 28 41 25 25 29 40 12 18 235Unknown 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 2 7 1 17SubadultsFemale 0 0 7 7 13 3 10 10 4 15 69Male 1 2 27 12 12 13 26 18 10 11 132Unknown 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 0 1 1 6CubsFemale 0 0 2 0 0 2 6 4 0 1 15Male 3 0 4 2 1 5 7 2 0 3 27Unknown 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 2 7UnknownFemale 38 31 1 1 3 0 14 0 0 0 88Male 58 78 6 5 0 2 4 4 0 0 157Unknown 3 12 11 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 30All Age ClassesFemale 46 34 23 14 21 15 45 25 4 26 253Male 74 85 65 60 38 45 65 60 20 32 544Unknown 3 13 11 2 0 5 10 3 8 3 58Totals 123 132 99 76 59 66 121 92 36 61 865

a Harvest year is from July 1 through June 30 of the following year.

Table 6. Polar Bears Tagged, by Tagging Location and Harvest Year.a

1987/ 1988/ 1989/ 1990/ 1991/ 1992/ 1993/ 1994/ 1995/ 1996/Location 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 TotalAnchorage 2 0 3 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 13Barrow 12 31 14 14 22 24 29 11 15 28 200Brevig Mission 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Fairbanks 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Gambell 25 13 10 11 4 4 28 9 0 7 111Kaktovik 6 8 0 0 0 3 5 1 1 2 26Kivalina 5 1 5 3 2 1 1 2 0 0 20Kotzebue 0 0 4 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 8Little Diomede 15 9 6 3 6 6 8 10 0 1 64Nome 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 6Nuiqsut 3 2 0 0 0 0 3 1 1 0 10Point Hope 9 8 22 14 7 12 6 19 2 11 110Point Lay 2 2 0 0 0 3 1 1 0 5 14Savoonga 13 13 9 12 6 0 23 10 0 1 87Shishmaref 13 23 14 6 3 5 5 17 2 0 88Wainwright 9 13 7 6 3 4 10 7 14 4 77Wales 5 9 3 3 2 3 1 2 0 1 29Total 123 132 99 76 59 66 121 92 36 61 865

a Harvest year is from July 1 to June 30 of the following year.

26

Table 8. Walrus Harvest Estimate, From MTRP Data, by Tagging Location and Year.

Location Pre-Rule 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 TotalAnchorage 295 0 37 19 19 3 3 13 15 8 5 417Barrow 1 1 11 7 23 22 31 16 10 12 35 169Bethel 13 0 10 18 18 24 13 7 1 1 10 115Brevig Mission 3 0 0 6 1 27 4 3 2 1 47 94Chevak 11 0 2 1 2 4 4 3 2 0 0 29Chignik 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 5Chignik Lake 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3Clarks Point 8 0 1 0 14 5 0 0 3 0 0 31Cold Bay 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 3Cordova 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13Deering 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6Dillingham 25 0 10 15 5 9 24 48 37 63 61 297Egegik 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 6Elim 0 0 0 2 4 0 1 0 1 1 1 10Emmonak 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3Fairbanks 9 0 2 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 3 18False Pass 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2Gambell 12 4 188 756 629 403 464 522 287 676 353 4,294Golovin 1 0 0 0 1 3 0 1 1 1 2 10Goodnews Bay 4 0 2 1 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 12Homer 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 6Hooper Bay 3 0 1 15 5 3 2 3 1 1 8 42Kaktovik 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1Kenai 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2Ketchikan 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1King Cove 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3King Island 2 0 0 7 77 346 30 12 0 120 8 602King Salmon 3 0 0 1 3 2 2 0 2 0 1 14Kipnuk 3 0 0 3 1 1 2 5 1 23 0 39Kivalina 0 0 46 0 0 1 0 0 1 12 11 71Kodiak 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2Kongiganak 1 0 3 0 4 6 3 6 3 5 0 31Kotzebue 30 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 22 15 70Koyuk 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 0 1 0 0 8Kwigillingok 3 0 0 2 1 6 0 1 1 0 0 14Little Diomede 3 0 1 236 532 99 91 377 197 89 152 1,777Manokotak 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 6Mekoryuk 23 0 4 14 49 22 25 7 10 8 13 175Naknek 3 0 0 3 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 10Nelson Lagoon 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3Newtok 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1Nome 50 0 1 15 39 14 16 19 4 47 3 208Perryville 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Petersburg 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2Pilot Point 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 4Platinum 20 0 9 5 2 10 3 0 3 0 14 66Point Hope 3 0 2 5 0 5 5 6 0 0 3 29Point Lay 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4 4 7 17Port Heiden 5 0 0 0 2 4 5 1 3 12 0 32Quinhagak 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3Sand Point 1 0 0 1 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 11Savoonga 426 0 221 198 520 545 302 158 394 329 265 3,358Shaktoolik 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2Shishmaref 491 0 122 87 35 69 50 7 12 65 24 962Sitka 15 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 21St. George 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3St. Paul 0 0 0 2 1 1 5 0 1 1 0 11Stebbins 0 0 1 5 17 0 8 0 0 0 0 31Teller 0 0 0 0 0 3 11 1 4 0 0 19Togiak 13 1 9 25 6 6 24 32 17 43 37 213Toksook Bay 4 0 0 0 2 3 4 2 0 5 3 23Tuntutuliak 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 5 4 0 0 14Tununak 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 4Unalakleet 6 0 1 5 5 0 0 2 2 0 0 21Wainwright 4 0 43 0 32 48 44 68 83 24 48 394Wales 10 0 10 10 81 15 3 0 8 1 2 140Totals 1,530 6 739 1,467 2,165 1,717 1,192 1,335 1,116 1,583 1,154 14,004

polar bears in Alaska. The ANCrepresents Native villages in Northernand Northwest Alaska. (Note: The ANCsummarized its accomplishments andprogress on co-management operations,and the draft U.S.- Russia BilateralAgreement for the Conservation of PolarBears, at the second ANC meeting heldin Nome, Alaska, on January 12-13, 1998.)

The allocation of funds under Section 119and scopes of work are negotiatedannually. During 1997, these funds wereused for a variety of activities such asoverseeing development of the Native-to-Native Agreement for the

conservation of polar bears in theChukchi/Bering Seas, conducting villagemeetings to discuss subsistence issuesand progress on the draft U.S.- RussiaBilateral Polar Bear Agreement and therelated Native-to-Native Agreement,participating in a National Public Radiolive broadcast, and assisting in thedevelopment of a co-managementagreement.

Northern Sea OtterDuring 1997, the Alaska sea otterprogram was involved in the followingactivities. Several constitute co-management activities and were done incooperation with the Alaska Sea OtterCommission (ASOC).

Biological Monitoring ProgramThe Service, in cooperation with AlaskaNatives and the ASOC, continued theongoing training of Alaska Nativehunters in standard sea otter necropsytechniques. By the end of 1997, more than40 Alaska Natives had been trained incommunities throughout Alaska. This hasresulted in the collection of sea otterbiological samples for contaminantanalyses and life history studies. One-hundred-eighteen sea otters (hunted andbeach-found dead) were sampled during1997 by Native samplers and Servicebiologists.

Local Population Trend SurveysA new effort aimed at monitoring localsea otter population trends in variousAlaska communities was initiated in 1997.The Service developed surveymethodologies and training programssuitable for implementation by localAlaska residents to be initiated by theService and the ASOC on a pilot basis in1998. This program will provide localAlaska Native communities with theability to annually track distribution andrelative numbers of sea otters availableto hunters in their communities. TheService is hopeful that this data, althoughlimited in geographic extent, may be offuture use in identifying areas of concernif sea otter distribution or abundancechanges are noted by Native surveyors.

27

Sea Otter-AlaskaThe ASOC and the Service continued towork together on the development ofregional and local management plans;collection and use of traditional Nativeecological knowledge; sharing of scientificinformation; implementation of thebiological monitoring program,implementation of the MTRP, and ASOCinput into certain ongoing Serviceactivities. Mortality surveys wereconducted by Alaska Native villagers inthe villages of False Pass and Cordova.

Pacific WalrusThis was the first year of a cooperativemanagement agreement with the EskimoWalrus Commission (EWC) as authorizedunder Section 119 of the Act. Theagreement provided for operational fundsfor the EWC, programs for increasingcooperation in law enforcement andharvest monitoring efforts, and initiatingpreliminary discussions with RussiaNaive counterparts to develop a bilateralnative-to-native agreement for theconservation and management of Pacificwalrus.

Polar BearLast year was the first year of aCooperative Management Agreementwith the ANC, which represents Nativeissues and concerns on the conservation,subsistence use, and management of

Table 9. Walrus Harvest Estimate, from MTRP Data, by Age Class, Sex, and Year.

Pre-Rule 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 TotalAdultsFemale 236 0 215 530 895 743 427 720 480 622 437 5,305Male 606 6 351 518 883 727 603 501 490 687 617 5,989Unknown 585 0 154 55 63 104 86 52 21 52 40 1,212SubadultsFemale 5 0 2 4 16 7 6 7 11 14 2 74Male 26 0 6 21 39 53 22 28 20 38 19 272Unknown 49 0 3 8 6 6 10 1 4 15 4 106CalvesFemale 0 0 0 0 61 0 2 0 0 0 0 63Male 0 0 0 0 58 1 3 1 0 0 0 63Unknown 1 0 4 331 144 74 32 25 90 155 35 891Unknown Unknown 22 0 4 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 29All AgesFemale 241 0 217 534 972 750 435 727 491 636 439 5,442Male 632 6 357 539 980 781 628 530 510 725 636 6,324Unknown 657 0 165 394 213 186 129 78 115 222 79 2,238Totals 1,530 6 739 1,467 2,165 1,717 1,192 1,335 1,116 1,583 1,154 14,004

Mortality SurveysSea otter mortality or carcass surveyswere continued in Cordova, Alaska, andinitiated in False Pass, Alaska. Althoughadditional communities were contacted(Kodiak and Sitka), local interest was notsufficient to complete surveys in 1997.Additional efforts will be made by theASOC in subsequent years.

Contaminants MonitoringA three-year program was initiated bythe Service in 1997 to monitor pollutantlevels in sea otter tissues. Over theduration of the study, it is anticipated thatliver and kidney tissues from over 50 seaotters from throughout the State will beanalyzed for heavy metals andorganochlorines. The Service anticipatescompleting the analytical work by 1999.To date, sea otters from the followingareas have been included in this study:southeast Alaska (16 otters), PrinceWilliam Sound (11), Kodiak archipelago(5), Cook Inlet (2), Alaska Peninsula/Aleutian Islands (4) and the RussiaKamchatka Peninsula (2).

Initial 1997 results from theorganochlorine screens indicate lowconcentrations of certain compounds in asubset of the submitted samples.(Rigorous application of qualityassurance criteria have not beencompleted, therefore, this informationshould be considered preliminary innature.) Of the 21 sea otter kidneyssampled in 1997, three had concentrationsof PCBs that equaled or exceededdetection limits, 15 had concentrations ofbeta BHC that equaled or exceededdetection limits, and one hadconcentrations of p,p’–DDE thatexceeded detection limits. Of the 21 seaotter livers sampled in 1997, four hadconcentrations of PCBs that equaled orexceeded detection limits, two hadconcentrations of beta BHC that equaledor exceeded detection limits, and threehad concentrations of dieldrin thatequaled or exceeded detection limits.

Research Activities in Conjunction Withthe USGS, UC Santa Cruz CooperativeField Unit, and University ofWashington Cooperative Field UnitThe Service provided continuing supportto the USGS/BRD (i.e., the AlaskaBiological Science Center (ABSC) andthe University of WashingtonCooperative Field Unit) and the ExxonValdez Trustee Council on restorationprojects following the Exxon Valdez oilspill. These projects continue to monitorthe recovery and recovery mechanisms ofsea otter populations injured as a result

of the spill. Although there is someevidence of ongoing recovery of sea otterabundance, the slow recovery rate andmechanisms which are confoundingrecovery are not yet understood.Additional collaborative efforts in 1998between the ABSC and the Service willfocus on detection of hydrocarbons in seaotter tissues as well as ongoing mortalityassessments, abundance surveys, andevaluation of food resources.

Additionally, the Service providedassistance in the conduct of a researchproject considering the diving behaviorand habitat use of sea otters through theuse of sonic tags and time-depthrecorders. The Service remainsinterested and supportive of this work asit will provide needed information toevaluate the impacts of the burgeoningsoutheast Alaska sea otter population oncommercial and subsistence importantcrab stocks.

Efforts undertaken by the USGS/BRD’sCooperative Field Unit (UC Santa Cruz)continue to highlight a precipitous declinein sea otter numbers in areas of theAleutian archipelago. Service biologistscontinued to provide assistance andlogistical support to researchers on Adakand Amchitka in 1997.

Placement of Stranded Sea OtterDuring 1997, one “abandoned” sea otterpup was picked up in Kodiak, Alaska, andsuccessfully placed in permanentcaptivity at the Seattle Aquarium.Additional efforts are being undertakento educate the public to “Leave PupsAlone in the Wild.”

Aleutian Island and Yakutat Sea OtterSurvey ReportsTwo reports were completed whichsummarize results of (1) 1992 sea otterabundance survey throughout theAleutian Archipelago and (2) 1995/1996sea otter abundance and distributionsurvey in Yakutat Bay and adjacentnorthern Gulf of Alaska areas.

Pacific WalrusSubsistence Walrus Hunt on RoundIsland, Bristol Bay, AlaskaThe year 1997 marked the third yearsince the resumption of subsistencewalrus hunting on Round Island,Walrus Islands State Game Sanctuary,Bristol Bay, Alaska. A 35-yearprohibition on hunting was amended in1995 after the Alaska State Board ofGame adopted a proposal to resumehunting on Round Island from thevillage of Togiak. Consequently, in 1995,the Service entered into a cooperativemanagement agreement with theQayassiq Walrus Commission, theEskimo Walrus Commission, and theAlaska Department of Fish and Game(ADF&G). The agreement outlined aco-management approach for theharvest of walrus on the island. In 1997the agreement was modified to increasethe Native’s self-imposed harvest limitto 20 walrus and shift the huntingseason to the period betweenSeptember 20 and October 20, 1997.Hunt activities were monitored by theService, the ADF&G, and the Nativewalrus commissions to assess theimpact of the harvest on walrusabundance and behavior.

28

Arctic Sea otter

Stev

e A

mst

rup

Between September 13 and October 8,1997, biologists from the Service and theADF&G were stationed on Round Islandto monitor walrus responses to huntingactivities and to collect biologicalinformation from each walrus harvested.Hunters participated in the huntmonitoring program by coordinatinghunting activities with walrus behavioralobservations and by providing theService with biological samples collectedfrom harvested walrus.

In the fall of 1997, 15 of the 20 allocatedwalrus were harvested from RoundIsland, an additional 4 were struck andlost. Samples collected from each animalincluded: teeth for age determination;tissue samples for contaminant,histological, and genetic studies; and,tissue samples for the Alaska MarineMammals Tissue Archival Project(AMMTAP). The AMMTAP is aninteragency project dedicated to thecollection and long-term storage ofmarine mammals tissues suitable fordetermining levels of organic andinorganic toxic substances.

Walrus fled the beaches in response tothe presence of hunters or shooting.Although weather prevented huntmonitors from watching cleared beachesevery day, it appeared that some walrusreturned to deserted haulouts within 3days after hunting activities. At this time,limited hunting in the late fall does notappear to affect long-term use of theRound Island haulouts.

Pacific Walrus Research ActivitiesAt 5-year intervals between1975 and1990,the United States and Russia collaboratedon a series of aerial, ice-edge walrussurveys to attempt to assess the status andtrend of the Pacific walrus population.These surveys have provided the bestavailable estimates of the walruspopulation. However, because ofmethodological problems such as theinability to determine the number ofwalrus present but under water (andundetectable to observers) during countsand the extreme variability of thedistribution of walrus aggregations, thereliability of the estimates and their utilityfor determining population trend arelimited. Re-evaluation of aerial surveydata indicated that with current methods,the amount of effort required to detectpopulation trend is impractical. Because ofthese limitations and the expense, range-wide surveys have not been repeated since1990. Recently, encouraging results havebeen obtained from satellite imagerywhich appears to be potentially useful in

detecting and counting walrus on land andon ice. This technique may potentially bemore accurate and cost effective thantraditional aerial surveys. Its usefulness isunder further assessment by the Service.

In their efforts to study walrusmovements and habitat needs, theUSGS/BRD is testing methods of taggingand tracking free-ranging walrus withvarious telemetry devices. During thesummer of 1997, 18 satellite tags weredeployed on adult male walrus in BristolBay with the hopes of following themnorth as they leave their summer feedinggrounds for winter breeding areas. Inaddition, five time-depth recorders weresuccessfully deployed and recovered fromwalrus in Bristol Bay. Informationgathered by these devices will provideinsight into diving and foraging patternsof walrus at sea.

Future research plans by the USGS/BRDinclude continuing telemetry studies andexploring alternative methods forevaluating status and trend of the walruspopulation, including monitoring changesin animal body condition, andreproductive parameters.

Bristol Bay Walrus Haulout MonitoringDuring the summer months of 1997, theService continued to participate in acooperative program involving its MarineMammals Management Office, the TogiakNational Wildlife Refuge, and theADF&G to monitor walrus at three of thefour largest terrestrial walrus haulouts inNorth America: Round Island, CapePeirce, and Cape Newenham in BristolBay, Alaska. Results from counts in 1997indicate that as many as 9,400 (anincrease of 15 percent over the last 5-yearaverage) walrus were present at thesenorthern Bristol Bay haulouts.

Walrus Harvest Monitoring ProjectThe Service continued two programs tomonitor the size and structure of thewalrus harvest. The already discussedMTRP assessed the number of walrusharvested at all coastal Alaska villagesthrough the collection of tusk registrationcertificates by village taggers. TheWalrus Harvest Monitoring Project(WHMP) monitored the spring harvest inthe walrus hunting villages of Gambell,Savoonga, Diomede, and Wales. Thesecommunities are responsible for 60-80percent of the annual reported U.S.walrus harvest. Service and villagetechnicians worked together to collectinformation on the size and demographicsof the spring harvest by conductinghunter interviews and obtaining

biological samples. This information wasused to assess the size and composition ofthe harvest and to study aspects ofwalrus population dynamics and lifehistory. Samples collected through theWHMP included teeth for agedetermination, adult female reproductivetracts to determine reproductive status,and occasional anomalous tissues whichwere used to identify specific pathologies.

In 1997, a total of 859 harvested Pacificwalrus were recorded during springsubsistence hunts in Alaska at the Nativevillages of Little Diomede, Gambell,Savoonga, and Wales. The recordedharvest consisted of 142 calves (16.5percent), 11 yearlings (1.3 percent), 54subadults (6.3 percent), 647 adults (75.3percent), and five animals of unknownage class (0.6 percent). The sex ratio ofthe walrus harvest was 55 percentfemales to 45 percent males. Frequencydistributions of age estimates indicatedsuggest differences in age structure ofthe harvest between sexes; the mean ageof sampled females was lower than themean age of sampled males. The age-sexcomposition of the harvest also variedbetween villages. Examination ofsampled female reproductive tractsindicated that approximately 34 percentof the mature females had ovulated in themost recent reproductive cycle.Approximately 49 percent of the maturefemale samples examined indicatedrecent birth of a calf.

Polar BearHarvest SummaryThe Service’s MTRP in 1997 continued tocollect information from polar bearstaken by Native hunters for subsistencepurposes. The 1996/97 Alaska harvest(Beaufort, Chukchi/Bering Seaspopulations) of 85 bears was comprised of42 males, 31 females, and 12 with sexunknown (Table 10). This harvest wasmore representative of long-termaverages than the low harvest recordedduring the 1995/96 season. This is thesecond consecutive year that the harvestfrom the Chukchi/Bering Seas populationhas been well below the mean harvest of73 for this population. The late arrival ofthe ice and relatively warm temperaturesduring November 1997 may have resultedin low polar bear harvests from theSouthern Beaufort Sea and Chukchi/Bering Seas stocks, similar to the 1995/96harvest season.

Statewide, polar bears were harvested inevery month except June, July, andAugust. The peak monthly harvestoccurred in October (30 percent) and

29

during the period from February throughApril (44 percent) (Table 11). The sexratio of polar bears of known-sex duringthe 1996/97 harvest season was 58percent males to 42 percent females. Thisrepresents an increase in the number offemales taken when compared to thelong-term sex ratio average of 66 percentmales to 34 percent females.

Analysis of ages from cementum annuli ofthe first premolar, by sex and age classfor the 1995/96 harvest season, wascompleted during this reporting period.The mean age and age class arepresented in Table 12 and Table 13,respectively. Teeth were obtained fromonly 47 percent of the bears harvestedduring the 1995/96 season. The mean agefor females (6.3 years) and males (5.6years) in the harvest for the 1995/96season was close to the long-termaverage of 7.2 and 6.4 years, respectively.Age determinations from tooth annuli arebased on completed years of life.Although the sample size was small, theage class of the harvest approximated thelong-term average of 50 percent adults,32 percent subadults, and 18 percentcubs. Using this system, cubs are 0-2.3years old, subadults are >2.3-5 years old,and adults are >5 years old. Completesex and age information from the hunterwas obtained for 81 percent of the killduring the 1996/97 season.

Polar Bear Management Agreement,Beaufort Sea StockThe harvest for villages of the NorthSlope party to the managementagreement with the Inuvialuit, was 51animals; 23 males, 20 females and 8 ofunknown sex. The harvest of known-sexanimals (85 percent) was 55 percent maleand 45 percent female. The mean age forfemales (n=2) and males (n=8) harvestedduring the 1995/96 season was 4.0 yearsand 5.75 years, respectively. Fifty percentof the polar bears were harvested inOctober 1996. All bears were takenduring the prescribed season whichextends from September 1 to May 31.

The harvest from the Alaska region ofthe southern Beaufort Sea represented60 percent of the total Statewide harvest.Normally, 66 percent of the bearsharvested in Alaska come from theChukchi/Bering Seas population and 34percent from the Beaufort Seapopulation. Although the SouthernBeaufort Sea stock polar bear harvestwas 11 over the allocation of 40 animals,the mean yearly harvest since 1988 is 36,which is four below the harvestguidelines of 40 indicated in the North

Slope Borough/Inuvialuit Game CouncilAgreement. The North Slope Boroughand Inuvialuit Game Council meeting ofJoint Commissioners and TechnicalAdvisors will take place March 18-20,1998, in Inuvik, Northwest Territories,Canada.

Polar Bear Bio-MonitoringThe second year of the polar bear bio-monitoring program to documentcontaminant levels in polar bears inAlaska, began in fall/winter 1997-98. TheService, working cooperatively with theNorth Slope Borough, the AlaskaNanuuq Commission, and Alaska Nativehunters is collecting liver, kidney, muscle,and fat tissues from 50 adult male bearsto determine metal and organochlorineconcentrations.

Twenty five adult males were takenduring the 1996/97 subsistence harvestbut we received contaminant specimensfrom only eight adult males and twosubadult males. To date we have collectedsamples from 12 adult males. The numberof polar bears harvested in any oneseason is very dependent on themovement of sea ice. During years withlow harvest, the ice often remainsoffshore until late in the fall and thenbreaks up early and recedes quickly inthe spring. In addition to the iceconditions, the number of samplescollected from the available adult males

during normal subsistence activities isdependent upon hunter selectivity andparticipation.

All the specimens received during the1996-97 season were submitted to labs foranalysis. To date the Service has receivedonly the results on organochlorineanalysis. Levels of total PCBs (S-PCBppm. wet weight) averaged 2.89 ppm(range 1.31-7.55 ppm), but were not highcompared to levels found in Hudson Bay,Canada, and Svalbard, Norway, two areaswhich have some of the highestdocumented levels in polar bears. Thehighest levels of S-PCB were found in thetwo subadults from Point Lay (7.55 ppmand 3.26 ppm ) and one adult male fromBarrow (5.05 ppm). Six congeners (99,153, 138, 180, 170, and 194) constitutedapproximately 92 percent of the S-PCB inthe sample.

Mean levels of totalhexachlorocyclohexane (S-HCH ppm.wet weight) for the 12 bears recentlyanalyzed was 0.732 which is similar to therelatively high levels reported for theChukchi and Bering Seas by Norstrom etal. (in press). Beta-HCH, the mostpersistent HCH isomer, constitutedabout 92 percent of the sum HCHs. Thelevels of S-HCH in the Chukchi andBering Seas are some of the highestreported levels within the Arctic region.Suspected sources are from Asia and

30

Table 10. Village Polar Bear Harvest, Alaska, 1996/1997.

Village Male Female Unknown TotalKaktovik* 1 1 2 4Nuiqsut* – – – 0Barrow* 18 18 2 38Atqasuk* – 1 – 1Wainwright* 4 – 4 8Point Lay 4 2 – 6Point Hope 7 3 2 12Kivalina – – – 0Kotzebue – 1 – 1Shishmaref – – – 0Wales – 1 1 2Ageklekak – – – 0Little Diomede 3 – 1 4Savoonga 1 1 – 2Gambell 4 3 – 7Total 42 31 12 85Percent (49.4) (36.5) (14.1) (100)

* Denotes villages party to the IGC/NSB management agreement. Harvest season extends from July 1, 1996, to June 30, 1997.

31

Table 11. Monthly Polar Bear Harvest, Alaska, 1996/1997.

MonthVillage Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun TotalKaktovik* – – 1 1 – – – 1 – 1 – – 4Nuiqsut* – – – – – – – – – – – – 0Barrow* – – – 22 5 1 1 2 5 – 2 – 38Atqasuk* – – – 1 – – – – – – – – 1Wainwright* – – – 2 1 – 1 – 1 – 3 – 8Point Lay – – – – – 1 1 3 – 1 – – 6Point Hope – – – – – – 1 – 6 4 1 – 12Kivalina – – – – – – – – – – – – 0Kotzebue – – – – – – – 1 – – – – 1Shishmaref – – – – – – – – – – – – 0Ageklekak – – – – – – – – – – – – 0Wales – – – – – – 1 1 – – – – 2Diomede – – – – – 1 – 2 – 1 – – 4Savoonga – – – – – – – – 1 1 – – 2Gambell – – – – – – – 2 4 1 – – 7Total 0 0 1 26 6 3 5 12 17 9 6 0 85Percent 0 0 1.2 30.2 7.0 3.5 5.8 14.0 19.8 10.5 7.0 0 100

* Denotes villages party to the NSB/IGC management agreement. Harvest season extends from July 1, 1996, to June 30, 1997.

Table 12. Mean Age* of Polar Bears Harvested in Alaska, 1991-1996.

1991/92a 1992/93a 1993/94a 1994/95a 1995/96a

Sex N M SD N M SD N M SD N M SD N M SDMale (22) 11.8 7.4 (24) 9.6 6.7 (52) 7.2 7.4 (48) 7.6 7.1 (9) 5.6 4.0Female (12) 8.2 4.8 (12) 11.5 7.2 (39) 7.0 5.5 (24) 6.1 6.4 (3) 6.3 4.0Unknown (0) – – (1) 3.0 – (2) 8.0 2.8 (1) 3.0 – (8) 5.5 5.9

* Ages are based on cementum annuli of the first premolar. N = Number of Bears Analyzed. M = Mean Age. SD = Standard Deviation.a Harvest season extends from July 1 to June 30.

Table 13. Age Class* of Polar Bears Harvested in Alaska, 1991-1996.

Age Class 1991/92a 1992/93a 1993/94a 1994/95a 1995/96a TotalAdults (5+ yrs) 26 (76) 24 (65) 44 (47) 30 (41) 9 (45) 133 (52)Subadults (3-4 yrs) 5 (15) 10 (27) 33 (36) 32 (44) 7 (35) 87 (34)Cubs (0-2 yrs) 3 (9) 3 (8) 16 (17) 11 (15) 4 (20) 37 (14)Unknown Age 30 39 32 22 23 146Total 64 76 125 95 43 403

* Ages are based on cementum annuli of the first premolar. Two year old bears are consideredsubadults after April 30. ( ) = percentage by harvest year.

a Harvest season extends from July 1 to June 30.

Russia. One common source of HCH islindane which is used as an insecticide totreat seeds. Lindane, a highly water-soluble neurotoxin, has been linked toreproductive, liver, and immune systemdysfunctions.

U.S./Russia Den SurveyThe priority for polar bear managementin Alaska is to determine the populationsize for the Chukchi/Bering Seas stock ofpolar bears. An aerial census of theChukchi/Bering Seas population usingicebreaker support is proposed and themethods have been developed and testedin a joint project between the Service andthe USGS/BRD. However, inadequatefunding has precluded implementation ofthis study. As an alternative, polar bearbiologists from the United States andRussia have been developing methods forconducting a den survey as an index ofstatus and trends for this sharedpopulation. In December of 1996, aworkshop was held in Anchorage, Alaska,to standardize protocols for conducting ajoint U.S./Russia den survey on WrangelIsland, Russia; workshop proceedings arein preparation. The protocols provide thetechnical guidance for developing thebest method to conduct polar bear denssurveys in the Chukchi/Bering Seas.

Marine Mammal Carcass SurveysIn August 1995, the Service completeddevelopment of the HabitatConservation Strategy for Polar Bears inAlaska (Strategy) in accordance with therequirements set forth in regulationsallowing the incidental, unintentionaltake of small numbers of polar bearsduring year-round oil and gas operationsin the Beaufort Sea and adjacentnorthern coast of Alaska (58 FR 60402).One purpose of the Strategy was todevelop and implement measures toidentify and conserve habitat importantto polar bears for denning, feeding, andseasonal movements. In Alaska, marinemammal carcasses represent tons ofpotential food for polar bears and may beparticularly important for the survival offemales with cubs and younger bearsduring the fall.

In the Strategy, areas along the coasts ofthe Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seaswere identified by knowledgeable Nativeresidents as important polar bear feedingareas. The Service conducted aerialsurveys from 1995 to 1997 along thecoastline of the Bering, Chukchi, andBeaufort Seas to determine thedistribution and abundance of marinemammal carcasses and their availabilityto polar bears as a food source. The study

area included the coastline and seawardside of barrier islands between Nome(Bering Sea) and Demarcation Point(U.S.-Canada border, Beaufort Sea).Table 14 provides a summary ofpreliminary findings. A final report isexpected to be completed by the end ofMarch 1998.

The use of marine mammal carcasses bypolar bears as a food source raises threeprimary questions: (1) where are thecarcasses distributed; (2) what sex/ageclass of polar bears is using marinemammal carcasses; and (3) what is theenergetic value of marine mammalcarcasses as a food source to polar bears?The first question has been addressedthrough the aerial carcass surveys. Toaddress the second question, the Serviceproposes to conduct a pilot study inKaktovik (alternate, Barrow) in the fallwhen polar bears feed on hunter-harvested whale carcasses.

In 1994, the Service collected localknowledge concerning polar bear habitatuse in Alaska. A Technical Report:Collection of Local KnowledgeRegarding Polar Bear Habitat Use inAlaska, was completed in August 1997.This information, which was incorporatedinto the Service’s final Strategy in August1995 has greatly increased the knowledgeof polar bear denning and feedinghabitats and has been used to guidemanagement decisions concerning humanuses of polar bear habitat.

Sea Otter-SouthernSea otters historically rangedthroughout the north Pacific fromHokkaido, Japan, through the AleutianIslands, the Alaskan peninsula, andsouth along the Pacific coast to BajaCalifornia, Mexico. In the mid-1700’s,sea otters were recognized as a valuablefur-bearing animal and were subject toan intense commercial harvest. By theearly 1900’s, the species had beenextirpated from most of its historicrange except for 13 remnant populations,including one numbering approximately50 individuals in central California. Thisremnant population in the near-shorewaters of California is referred to as thesouthern sea otter, and was firstrecognized as a subspecies in 1904. Thehistorical sea otter population size inCalifornia is estimated to havenumbered 16,000-18,000 individuals.Today, the southern sea otter populationnumbers over 2,200 (Table 15) and itsrange extends between Pigeon Point,San Mateo County, to Purisima Point,Santa Barbara County.

The Service listed the southern sea otteras threatened under the ESA in 1977because of its small population size,limited distribution, and its risk ofexposure to oil spills throughout itsrange. The most serious threat to thesouthern sea otter is a major oil spill froma tanker in the waters in the vicinity of itsrange.

The USGS/BRD, the CaliforniaDepartment of Fish and Game (CDF&G),and the Service continued the spring andfall population surveys in 1997. The areasurveyed included the entire 220-milelong established range of the southernsea otter, from Point Año Nuevo in SantaCruz County to the Santa Maria River inSan Luis Obispo County, plus additionalperipheral habitat. The number of otterscounted during the Spring 1997 surveywas 2.2 percent below the Spring 1996count (Table 15). This represents thesecond consecutive year that the springpopulation counts have declined. This iscoupled with three consecutive years ofrecord high mortality (as indicated bybeached sea otter carcasses). The springpopulation count has declined by 6.2percent since the record high count of2,377 in 1995. Spring counts areconsistently higher than fall counts, andthis may be the result of more favorablesighting conditions in the spring than inthe fall. Most otters are sighted betweenAno Nuevo, San Mateo County, and AvilaBeach, San Luis Obispo County.

Translocation of Southern Sea OttersBetween 1987 and 1990, 139 southern seaotters (31 males, 108 females) weretranslocated to San Nicolas Island (SNI),off of southern California, in an effort toestablish a second breeding colony. Thepurposes for establishing a second colonywere two-fold: (1) to eliminate thepossibility that more than a smallproportion of the population would bedecimated by any single natural orhuman-caused catastrophe; and (2) toobtain data for assessing translocationand containment techniques, populationstatus, and the influence of sea otters onthe structure and dynamics of the nearshore community. The latter informationis particularly important in attempting tounderstand the characteristics andimpacts of a sea otter population at itsoptimum sustainable population level asrequired by the Act.

Public Law 99-625 provides the authorityand establishes the guidelines forcarrying out the translocation program.The regulations designating the colony asan experimental population (50 CFR

32

17.84) established the boundaries of aTranslocation Zone to which otters wouldbe translocated and given protectionsimilar to that of the source population,and a Management Zone to bemaintained otter-free by non-lethalmeans.

Status of ColonySea otters surveys are conductedquarterly by the USGS/BRD. In the past,these surveys were conducted everyother month. During 1997, counts ofindependent otters ranged from 9 to 16;five new pups were verified in 1997. Bythe end of 1997, 49 pups are known tohave been born at SNI. Because pups arenot marked, assessment of recruitmentinto the population is difficult.

ContainmentThe containment program is designed toprevent sea otters from colonizing theManagement Zone through a cooperativeeffort between the Service and theCDF&G. The containment operation, asoutlined in the Translocation Plan and theService’s Containment Plan, consists ofthree interrelated and interdependentactivities: surveillance of theManagement Zone, the capture of seaotters in the Management Zone, and postcapture relocation.

Since 1987, 20 independent (10 males, 10females) sea otters and 4 dependent pupshave been captured in the ManagementZone. Eleven of the otters had beentranslocated to SNI, four had apparentlyswam down from the mainland range,and nine either swam down from themainland range or were born in theManagement Zone or at SNI. Two of theotters mentioned above were capturedand removed from the Management Zonetwice.

In February 1993, all sea ottercontainment activities were haltedfollowing the deaths of 2 independentotters that died shortly after theirrelease. By that date, four (16 percent) ofthe total of 24 sea otters relocated wereknown to have died shortly after beingmoved for containment purposes. Anevaluation of containment techniquesproved to be inconclusive, andrecommendations were made to continuesea otter containment activities withmodifications. Since 1993, sea ottercontainment activities have been limitedby funding within both the Service andthe CDF&G.

33

Table 15. Comparison of Southern Sea Otter Counts Since Spring 1982.a

Number of Number ofSeason Independent Otters Pups Total1982 Spring 1,124 222 1,346

Fall 1,204 147 1,3511983 Spring 1,156 121 1,277

Fall 1,060 163 1,2231984 Spring 1,180 123 1,303

Springb 1,151 52 1,203Fall No survey

1985 Spring 1,119 242 1,361Fall 1,065 150 1,215

1986 Winterc 1,231 181 1,412Spring 1,358 228 1,586Fall 1,091 113 1,204

1987 Spring 1,435 226 1,661Fall 1,260 110 1,370

1988 Spring 1,504 221 1,725Fall No Survey

1989 Spring 1,571 285 1,856Fall 1,492 115 1,607

1990 Spring 1,466 214 1,680Fall 1,516 120 1,636

1991 Spring 1,700 241 1,941Fall 1,523 138 1,661

1992 Spring 1,810 291 2,101Fall 1,581 134 1,715

1993 Spring 2,022 217 2,239Fall 1,662 143 1,805

1994 Spring 2,076 283 2,359Fall 1,730 115 1,845

1995 Spring 2,095 282 2,377Fall 2,053 137 2,190

1996 Spring 1,963 315 2,278Fall 1,858 161 2,019

1997 Spring 1,919 310 2,229Fall 2,008 197 2,205

aIn 1992, survey data since Fall 1982 was reviewed and counts were corrected as appropriate.b California Department of Fish and Game aerial survey with ground truth stations.c Experimental.

Table 14. Number of Marine Mammal Carcasses Observed During Aerial Surveys of theBering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas Coastline of Alaska, 1995-97.

Jul 26-28, Sep 25 and Sep 25-26, Jul 22 and Aug Sep 25-27,1995 27, 1995 1996 9-10, 1997 1997

Pacific walrus 83 68 168 229 148Whale species 6 6 0 5 22Seal species 79 20 10 23 12Total 168 94 178 257 182

During 1997, the Service received only afew reports of sea otters in theManagement Zone. Reports of sea otterswere coordinated with the CDF&G.Although the containment activities havebeen substantially decreased since 1993,no sea otter colonies were observed in thedesignated Management Zone in 1997.

Law EnforcementSea otters have been intentionallyharassed, shot, clubbed, and founddrowned in legally and illegally setcommercial fishing gear in past years.Service law enforcement officers conductsurveillance operations andinvestigations, and seek prosecution ofindividuals who harm sea otters.

There were no sea otters known to havedied of gun shot wounds in 1997 (threewere identified in 1996). Identified casesof shot sea otters likely represent afraction of southern sea otters killedannually by malicious activities. In 1996,six incidences of shooting were underinvestigation by Service law enforcementagents. However, due to lack of evidenceidentifying suspects, these cases wereclosed. There were no new cases in 1997.

Incidental Take Within the MainlandRangeSeveral lines of direct and indirectevidence indicate that incidentaldrowning of sea otters in gill andtrammel entangling nets has been asignificant source of mortality. There iscurrently no monitoring of fishingactivities to identify incidental take of seaotters. Based on 1997 stranding reports,no mortalities of southern sea otters wereattributed to entanglement in fishinggear. In summation, from June 1982 toDecember 31, 1997, a total of 75 ottershave been observed or otherwise knownto have drowned in legally setcommercial fishing nets: 6 in 1982, 6 in1983, 16 in 1984, 12 in 1985, 3 in 1986, 5each in 1987 and 1988, 11 in 1989, 9 in 1990,0 in 1991 and 1992, 1 each in 1993 and 1994,and 0 in 1995, 1996, and 1997.

California Senate Bill #2563, whichprovides additional restrictions on theuse of gill and trammel nets in coastalwaters, was enacted in 1990 andpromulgated on January 1, 1991. This billprohibits the use of gill and trammel netsin waters shallower than 30 fathomsbetween Waddell Creek in Santa CruzCounty and Point Sal in Santa BarbaraCounty. The 30 fathom contour wasselected based on analysis andrecommendation by the Service usingdata obtained during a study by the

Minerals Management Service. Theanalysis indicated that currently only anextremely small number of sea otters usewaters deeper than 30 fathoms. TheService recommended to the NMFS thata 30 fathom closure should beimplemented to likely reduce theincidental take of sea otters to near zero.The state legislation has significantlyreduced the number of sea otters founddrowned in fishing nets. The NMFS andthe CDF&G will continue observations ofthe set net fishery occurring in watersoutside this restricted area.

The small group of sea otters, currentlyfound at Purisima Point, Santa BarbaraCounty, are at risk of incidental take.Purisima Point is between Point Sal andPoint Conception, Santa Barbara County,an area in which no restriction of gill ortrammel net fishing exists for theprotection of sea otters. Observations ofset-net fishing activity in this area is notconvenient and therefore not covered byany observer program. The Service hasrequested that the CDF&G enact anemergency closure and close the area toset-net fishing. The CDF&G has chosennot to close the area because there is nodirect evidence that sea otters are beingtaken by the set-net fishery in the area.

The crab and lobster pot fisheriescontinue to be a concern as a source ofmortality for otters. Sparse data andanecdotal records indicate that southernsea otters are incidentally taken in thepot fishery. Sea otters are known to betaken occasionally in Alaska’s crab potfishery. However, Alaska’s pot fisheryutilizes different types of gear and is notdirectly comparable to the Californiafishery. The Service continues to evaluateincidental take in crab and lobster pots.

A live finfish (trap) fishery continuesalong the coast. This fishery isunregulated, i.e., there are no regulationsregarding the number of fishers allowedin this fishery, or the types of traps ortheir design that can be used. Traps forfinfish are set within the kelp beds nearshore. In areas where this fishery occurs,the number of beach cast carcasses hasincreased. The Service is concernedabout the potential impact from thisfishery on the southern sea otterpopulation.

Sea Otter MortalityOver 100 sea otter carcasses wash ashoreevery year. In 1997, 152 southern seaotter carcasses were recovered frombeaches, 27 less than the record highrecorded in 1996. Although a short-term

elevated mortality event occurred thisyear, it did not compare to the massmortality event observed in MontereyBay during July 1995.

The USGS/BRD’s National WildlifeHealth Center (NWHC) has conductednecropsies on fresh, beach cast sea ottercarcasses since 1992. The immediategoals of this program are to identify themajor causes of death in sea otters and toestablish their relative frequencies. Thenecropsy program at the NWHCcontinued in 1997; however, due toincreasing costs and workload, thenumber of carcasses submitted fornecropsy was reduced to 25 percent ofpast levels.

In 1996, 52 southern sea otter carcasseswere necropsied by pathologists at theNWHC. Most sea otter deaths have beenattributed to infectious diseases (42percent); other causes of death weretrauma (17 percent), emaciation (6percent), other factors (16 percent), andundetermined (19 percent).

From 1992-1996 a total of 247 sea otterswere examined. Of these, most deathswere attributed to infectious disease (40percent). These diseases includeacanthocephalan peritonitis (32 percent),protozoal encephalitis (21 percent),coccidioidomycosis (9 percent), bacterial(35 percent), and uncertain, probablyinfectious (3 percent). Other sources ofmortality include various types of traumaincluding shark bite, lacerations, etc. (19percent); emaciation (9 percent), andother causes including gastro-intestinalconditions, neoplasia, and miscellaneous(13 percent). The cause of death of 19percent of animals is undetermined atthis time.

Stranding and Rehabilitation ProgramThe Monterey Bay Aquarium has beenthe primary facility involved in the rescueand rehabilitation of stranded southernsea otters. In 1994, the Service authorizeda second facility, The Marine MammalCenter of Sausalito, California, to rescueand rehabilitate stranded southern seaotters for the purpose of returning themto the wild. Most strandings are cared forby the Monterey Bay Aquarium. A totalof 14 sea otters (6 male and 8 female ofwhich 10 were pups — 3 male and 7female) were cared for by the MontereyBay Aquarium in 1997. Six pups werereleased of which three are still in thewild.

Rehabilitated sea otters that lack theskills to survive in the wild are placed in

34

permanent housing in a number offacilities. As of 1997, those facilitiesinclude the Monterey Bay Aquarium, SeaWorld of San Diego, the Aquarium forWildlife Conservation (New York), andthe New England Aquarium. (In the 1996report, we reported that the OregonCoast Aquarium was housing southernsea otters; in actuality, sea otters housedthere are Alaskan animals).

Section 7 ConsultationsPursuant to Section 7 of the ESA, theService reviews proposed Federallyfunded, conducted, or permitted activitiesthat may affect the southern sea otter.The Service received no requests forformal consultation in 1997.

Section 6 of the ESANo ESA Section 6 funds were providedfor the southern sea otter in 1997 (FY1997).

Oil Spill ActivitiesThe Service’s sea otter oil spillcontingency plan is still in draft andneeds to be revised to incorporatepertinent aspects of the Federal OilPollution Act of 1990, and CaliforniaSenate Bill #2040 which created a new oilspill division within the CDF&G. Theramifications of both Federal and Statelegislation have yet to be realized orapplied to the existing document. TheService, in coordination with theCDF&G, plans to update and make finalthe contingency plan. The completiondate is still to be determined.

In 1997, the Service was invited by theMonterey Bay National MarineSanctuary and the U.S. Coast Guard toparticipate as a member of a workinggroup assembled at the direction ofCongress to develop a proposal thatwould reduce oil spill risk to theMonterey Bay Sanctuary. This group islooking at various vessel routingschemes, reporting requirements, andpossible regulations that would reduce oilspill risk and have a likely probability ofbeing implemented. The proposal will becompleted and released for public reviewin 1998.

Guadalupe Oil FieldThe Union Oil Company of California(Unocal) has operated the Guadalupe OilField in San Luis Obispo County since1953. A thinning agent, called K-Ddiluent, which has been used to improveoil production, has been found to be thesource of extensive contamination in andaround the oil fields, including the localmarine environment. An estimate of 8-20

million gallons of diluent have beenreleased into the soil, ground water, andlocal marine environment in the past 34years. Full determination of the extent ofcontamination is underway. The southernsea otter is one of several listed speciesthat may have been affected by thesereleases. Since 1994, the Service hasparticipated as a trustee representativefor the Department’s trust resources.The settlement for resource damages isstill being discussed.

Avila Beach Oil Spill SettlementUnocal and the trust resource agencies,the Service, and the CDF&G, reached asettlement agreement for $100,000 to beused for sea otter restoration activitiesresulting from natural resource damagessustained during the a 1992 oil spill nearAvila Beach, San Luis Obispo County.Approximately 60 otters were in the AvilaBeach area at the time of the spill. Atleast four sea otters came in contact withthe oil. Two were found dead, coveredwith oil; one was captured and died whilebeing transported to a rehabilitationfacility (this otter apparently died ofcoccidioidomycosis although it was oiledat time of capture); and one oiled otterwas captured, cleaned, and released.

Projects for settlement monies for seaotter restoration have been identified andevaluated. Contracts for restoration havenot yet been awarded.

Sea Otter-Washington StateEnhydra lutris kenyoni historicallyranged throughout the Aleutian Islands,originally as far north as the PribilofIslands and in the eastern Pacific Oceanfrom the Alaska Peninsula south alongthe coast to Oregon (Wilson et al. 1991).This subspecies was extirpated frommost of its range during the 1700’s and1800’s as the species was exploited for itsfur. In 1969 and 1970, a total of 59 seaotters captured at Amchitka Island,Alaska, were released in Washington.The estimated carrying capacity inWashington has not been determined.

For management purposes pursuant tothe Act, the range of this stock currentlyis being considered as within the bordersof the State of Washington. TheWashington population currently rangesfrom Neah Bay south to DestructionIsland.

The reintroduced population was notsurveyed between 1970 and 1977. In 1977,the Service surveyed the coast andcounted only 19 sea otters. Thepopulation was surveyed again in 1978.

Between 1981 and 1989 the populationwas surveyed every other year. Since1989, data on size and distribution of theWashington sea otter population havebeen gathered annually using combinedaerial and ground counts. Beginning inFiscal Year 1994, this survey work wasconducted by the Department’s thennewly created National Biological Survey(later changed to the National BiologicalService, and now the BiologicalResources Division of the U.S. GeologicalSurvey, i.e., USGS/BRD).

Minimum Population Estimate andCurrent TrendBased on the 1997 summer survey count,the minimum population size is 502animals. This represents an increase ofnearly 17 percent compared to the 1996count.

Based on count totals from 1977 to thepresent, the Washington sea otterpopulation is continuing to increase.Since 1989 (when the current surveymethod was initiated) through 1997, thepopulation has grown at an average rateof 12 percent per year. Counts since 1989are: 1989 (208), 1990 (212), 1991 (276), 1992(313), 1993 (307), 1994 (360), 1995 (395),1996 (430), and 1997 (502).

Mortality and Incidental TakeSea otters are susceptible to drowning ingill nets in Washington’s coastal gill netfisheries conducted by tribal fishermen,but documented incidental takes are rare.At least three sea otters are reported tohave been killed in a tribal fisherychinook salmon set-net in the vicinity ofPoint of Arches (Spike Rock) on the northWashington coast. At present, there hasbeen only one recorded otter-fishery takein the current sea otter range inWashington. Set gill nets are used byMakah fishermen to catch salmon alongthe north coast of Washington and theStrait of Juan de Fuca. This fisheryoperates out of Neah Bay. As theWashington sea otter population movesnorth and east into the strait, or if thefishery moves south, the probability offisheries-related incidental take willincrease. There was no known fishery-related sea otter mortality in 1997.

As sea otters expand their range north orsouth, they will encounter several sportand commercial shellfish fisheries(urchins, razor clams, Dungeness crabs)along the coast. Evidence from Californiaand Alaska suggests that incidental takeof sea otter in crab traps may occur.

35

Other sources of human-caused mortalityaffecting the Washington population ofsea otters are not well documented.Documented sources of human-causedmortality for the southern sea otterinclude shooting, boat strikes, captureand relocation efforts, oil spills, andpossibly elevated levels ofpolychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) andother toxic contaminants. In Washington,an uncertain number of sea otters mayhave been killed in recent years by oilspills.

West Indian ManateeThe West Indian manatee in Floridarepresents the northernmost and largestremaining component of a manateepopulation once found throughout theCaribbean basin in suitable coastalhabitat. Geographically isolated from itscounterparts, the manatee in Florida hashistorically been viewed as rare anddeclining in number. The manatee wasfirst afforded protection by the State ofFlorida in 1893. The manatee is nowvariously protected by the State ofFlorida’s Manatee Sanctuary Act of 1978,the ESA, and by the Act.

As a Federally listed endangered species,efforts to recover the species are guidedby the Service’s manatee recoveryprogram. This program, through therevised Florida Manatee Recovery Planof 1996, coordinates Federal, State, localand private manatee recovery efforts.Recovery activities incorporate bothresearch and management. Researchefforts have focused on monitoring thestatus of the manatee and its habitat andon better defining various components ofits life history. Management initiativeshave concentrated on protecting essentialmanatee habitat and reducing human-related causes of manatee mortality.National Wildlife Refuges administeredby the Service have played an integralrole in the manatee recovery process.

More than twenty years of manateeresearch and management initiativeshave shown that the manatee’s futuredepends upon a better understanding ofits status and life history and on betterprotecting the manatee and its habitatfrom direct and indirect impacts. Theprotection of these essential componentsin the face of increasing humanpopulation, development, and use ofwatercraft underscores the need tocontinue to balance the needs of themanatee with its human neighbors.

StatusA total of 242 manatees died in 1997.While this number is down significantlyfrom 1996 when a record 415 manateesdied, it is the second worst year formanatee deaths since 1974 when thecarcass salvage program began. Includedin the year’s mortality were fifty-fivemanatees that died from watercraftcollisions, eight that were crushed andkilled in flood gates and water controlstructures, and eight that died from otherhuman-related causes.

The Florida Department ofEnvironmental Protection (FDEP)coordinates a series of synoptic aerialsurveys during peak cold periods. Thesesurveys focus on warm wateraggregation sites and are used to assessmanatee abundance. Two statewidesurveys were flown in 1997. One, flown onJanuary 19-20, 1997, yielded a count of2,229 manatees (900 on Florida’s eastcoast and 1,329 on the west coast). Duringthe second survey (flown on February 13,1997) 1,709 manatees were counted (719on the east coat and 918 on the westcoast). Despite record mortalitiesobserved on Florida’s west coast in 1996,the January 1997 west coast countincluded the highest number of manateesever recorded in that area.

Based on synoptic surveys and otherinformation, it has been suggested thatthe Florida manatee population has beenstable or slowly increasing since the mid-1970s. This general trend has beenattributed, in part, to a number of factorsincluding, but not limited to, the cessationof hunting, an abundance of native andexotic food plants, the establishment andenforcement of manatee protection zones,the relatively recent existence of non-natural warm water refuges, and publiceducation. Despite these factors, the rateof population increase may have beenslowed or even reversed by recent recordmortalities.

ManagementManatee behavior and habitat have beenclosely monitored for more than 20 yearsthrough the carcass salvage program,USGS/BRD’s photo-identificationsystem, aerial surveys, tracking projects,and other studies. These studies haveprovided a wealth of information, most ofwhich has been made available tomanagers through a variety of media,including Geographic InformationSystems (GIS). These data are used todevelop population models and to assistFederal, State, and local agencies inprotecting manatees from direct threats

such as watercraft and water controlstructures, and from indirect threatssuch as habitat loss.

Comprehensive manatee protection plansare being developed on a county-by-county basis throughout Florida. Theseplans address ways to reduce humanimpacts to manatees. At this time, theseplans are in varying stages of completion.Twelve of the 13 counties involved in thisprocess have either permanent or interimcounty-wide speed restrictions in effectand the remaining county is partiallyprotected in certain critical areas. Thecounties are also addressing such issuesas guidance on boat facility siting,recommendations for limiting boatdensities in certain areas, and sea grassprotection, and most counties havesummarized these in draft form. TheFDEP has taken a primary role in thisinitiative and is supported in its efforts bythe Service.

Service efforts to protect manateehabitat rely heavily on Section 7 of theESA. The Section 7 process involves aService review of Federal actions forimpacts to listed species, including themanatee. If it is determined that anaction may affect manatees, the Servicerequests consultation with the actionagency to evaluate the effect of the actionon the manatee and its habitat.

An emergency sanctuary was designatednear the Service’s Crystal River NationalWildlife Refuge at Three Sisters Springs.The spring is a place used by winteringmanatees and heavily visited by thepublic, who recognize the site as an areawhere they can interact with manatees.The sheer number of visitors and theundisciplined actions of a few individualscause these animals to leave the area at atime when they need it most. To minimizeharassment, a sanctuary was created togive manatees a warm water area freefrom visitors. The Service plans topermanently designate a sanctuary atthis site in 1998.

Water control structures have been apersistent source of manatee mortality.Manatees are crushed or impinged bythese structures, which are owned andoperated by the South Florida WaterManagement District (SFWMD) and theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps).Through the Section 1135 process of theWater Resources Development Act of1986, the Corps has secured funding toretrofit problem structures with devicesto reduce mortality. The Service hasreviewed and commented on SFWMD

36

and Corps proposals to reduce thenumber of manatees being killed by thesestructures and takes an active role on thetask force that plans and reviews theseactions.

Besides addressing manatee mortalityand habitat protection, recovery effortsalso support a manatee rescue andrehabilitation network. Injured or sickmanatees often require some form ofassistance. In 1997, thirty-four rescueswere completed. A network of rescueteams has been developed and each teamresponds as necessary. Manateesrequiring rehabilitative care are typicallytaken to one of five authorized facilitiesfor treatment. Due to serious statewideovercrowding problems, the Serviceauthorized three out-of-state facilities in1997 to operate rehabilitative carefacilities. Fifty-one manatees were inrehabilitation facilities as of the end of1997.

In an effort to reduce the number ofdeaths and injuries associated withwatercraft, the Service formed a lawenforcement task force to patrol highmortality areas in Brevard County,Florida. Officers stopped more than athousand violators and issued over 300citations to boaters caught speeding inmanatee protection areas.

A contingency plan for catastrophicmanatee rescue and mortality events wascompleted in 1997. This plan identifiedrisk factors that might cause a manateemortality event, listed agencies, supportpersonnel, and facilities that could becalled upon to help during an event, andprovided a framework for coordinatingService and FDEP activities.

SummaryThe long-range recovery goal for theFlorida manatee, as required by the Actis to maintain the health and stability ofthe marine ecosystem and to determineand maintain manatee numbers atoptimum sustainable levels in thesoutheastern United States. In 1997,significant progress was made towardthis goal. Recovery team membersfurthered efforts to reduce water craft-and water control structure-relatedmortality. Various habitat conservationinitiatives promoted and enhancedessential manatee habitat areas.Researchers continued to identifymanatee habitat and to assess manateedistribution, abundance, and the status ofthe manatee.

Hawaiian Monk SealService personnel from the PacificRemote Islands National Wildlife RefugeComplex cooperate regularly with NMFSpersonnel on various research andrecovery actions recommended in theHawaiian Monk Seal Recovery Plan.Refuge staff provide a variety of supportservices, including transportation ofequipment and supplies aboard Service-funded charters, radio-monitoring andmessage relays and maintenance of theTern Island Field Station. As part ofproduction and population surveys,Service biologists worked with NMFSresearchers on Refuge islands taggingweaned monk seal pups, resightingtagged seals, and reporting sealsentangled in marine debris. Servicebiologists assisted with the deployment ofsatellite tags and critter cams. They alsoconducted regular population censuses ofmonk seals at French Frigate Shoals andMidway Atoll, as well as intermittentsurveys on other Refuge islands.

Service staff actively patrol and removenets and other entangling debris fromRefuge beaches and reefs to reduce thelikelihood of entanglement of monk seals.Seals occasionally became disoriented orentrapped behind the deterioratingseawall at Tern Island. Refuge staff freedentrapped seals.

The Service funded the Army Corps ofEngineers to produce a report outliningoptions for shore protection at TernIsland. The report was completed during1997 and provides options and costestimates for shore protection measuresto reduce erosion on the Island andminimize entrapment of Hawaiian monkseals.

Refuge staff served on the NMFSAnimal Care Committee.

Observations of other marine mammals,including spinner dolphins, bottlenosedolphins and humpbacked whales werelogged in station, camp and expeditionrecords following sightings.

The activities described here are fundedthrough the normal refuge operationsbudget. No specific funding from othersources is received.

37

38

Deutsch, C.J., R.K. Bonde, and J.P. Reid.1998. Radio-tracking manatees from landand space: Tag design, implementation,and lessons learned from long-termstudy. Marine Technology SocietyJournal, 32(1): 18-29.

Garcia-Rodriguez, A.I., B.W. Bowen, D.Domning, A.A. Mignussi-Giannoni, M.Marmontel, R.A. Montoya-Ospina, B.Morales-Vela, M. Rudin, R.K. Bonde, andP.M. McGuire. 1998. Phylogeography ofthe West Indian manatee (Trichechusmanatus): How many populations andhow many taxa? Molecular Ecology 7:1137-1149.

Kretzmann, M.B., W.G. Gilmartin, A.Meyer, G.P. Zegers, S.R. Fain, B.F. Taylor,and D.P.Costa. 1997. Low geneticvariability in the Hawaiian monk seal.Conservation Biology, V11, No.2:482-490.

Langtimm, C.A., T.J. O’Shea, R. Pradel,and C.A. Beck. 1998. Estimates of annualsurvival probabilities for adult Floridamanatees (Trichechus manatuslatirostris). Ecology 79(3):981-997.

Norstrom, R.J., B. Malone, S.E. Belikov,E.W. Born, G.W. Garner, S. Olpinski, M.A.Ramsay, S. Schliebe, I. Stirling, M.S.Stizhov, M.K. Taylor, and O. Wiig. InPress. Chlorinated hydrocarboncontaminants in polar bears from easternRussia, North America, Greenland, andSvalbard: Biomonitoring of hemisphericpollution. Arch. Environ. Contam.Toxicol.

Scribner, K., S. Hills, S. Fain, and M.Cronin. 1997. Population genetic studiesof the walrus: a summary of availabledata and interpretation of results. inDizon et al. (eds). Molecular Genetics ofMarine Mammals. Special PublicationSociety for Marine Mammalogy. 3:173-184.

Scribner, K., J. Bodkin, B. Ballachey, S.Fain, M. Cronin, and M. Sanchez. 1997.Population genetic studies of the seaotter: a summary of available data andinterpretation of results. in Dizon et al.(eds). Molecular Genetics of MarineMammals. Special Publication Society forMarine Mammalogy. 3:197-208.

Wilson, D.E., M.A. Bogan, R.L. Brownell,Jr., A.M. Burdin, and M.K. Maminov.1991. Geographic variation in sea otters,Enhydra lutris. J. Mammal. 72(1):22-36.

39

Bibliography

U.S. Department of the InteriorU.S. Fish & Wildlife ServiceU.S. Geological Survey/Biological Resources Division

Cover: Polar bears by Steve Amstrup

Documents

Administration of the Marine Mammal Protection …...Authority The passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of1972, hereafter referred to as the Act, gave the Department of the