ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING - Technologieland Hessen€¦ · a stronger use of additive manufacturing technologies. The speed of the transformation process is influenced by numerous factors

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ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING THE PATH TOWARD INDIVIDUAL PRODUCTION

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CONTENT

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Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1. Introduction: Additive Manufacturing – potentials within the context of the 4th

industrial revolution – the vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2. Additive Technologies and Manufacturing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.1 Fundamental Principles and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2 Data Generation and the Additive Manufacturing Process Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.3 Process Chains integrating Additive Manufacturing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3. The Creation of Added Value with Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.1 Market Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.2 Qualitative Economic Feasibility Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.3 Application Scenarios and Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.4 3D Print Service Providers and Content Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.5 Legal Issues in the context of Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4. Additive Fertigung:

Additive Manufacturing: Selected success stories, potentials and projects from Hessen . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.1 Mittelhessen University of Applied Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

4.2 Kegelmann Technik GmbH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.3 EDAG Engineering GmbH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.4 Heraeus Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.5 FKM Sintertechnik GmbH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.6 sauer product GmbH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.7 IETEC Orthopädische Einlagen GmbH Produktions KG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.8 Philipps University of Marburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.9 Technische Universität Darmstadt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.10 Fraunhofer LBF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.11 Hochschule für Gestaltung Offenbach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.12 FRAME ONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.13 University of Kassel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.14 Tatcraft GmbH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.15 Fraunhofer IGD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.16 Fiberthree GmbH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.17 Continental Engineering Services GmbH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

5. Overview

5.1 Hessian Companies and Research Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

5.2 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Legal Notice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

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FOREWORD

W e are expecting numerous new business ideas relat ing

to addit ive manufacturing. In the high-tech state of Hessen, you wi l l f ind a t ight competence network.“

Tarek Al-WazirHessian Minister of Economics, Energy, Transport and Housing

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With additive manufacturing processes, single-unit pro-duction can be achieved at prices which can already compete with classic mass production: the hearing aid adjusted to an individual ear canal, replacement parts for vintage cars – these are a few examples of where additive manufacturing has already established itself. It is particu-larly suitable for products with complex geometry. Its big advantage is the efficiency of resources. Unlike with material cutting, material is not removed until only the desired shape remains. With 3D printing, the material is only applied where it is required. This means that there is no excess.

This technology is developing at great speed and still shows a great deal of promise. It isn’t just system manu-facturers who are benefiting from the high sales figures, but also material producers and service providers. Big opportunities are presenting themselves to new players.

Since the arrival of the first additive manufacturing tech-nologies in the mid-90s, several pioneers of innovation in Hessen have made a name for themselves. For years, one of the world’s leading fairs in this area has been held in the trade-fair city of Frankfurt. Large Hessen material manufacturers are currently entering the market.

We hope that this brochure gives you some food for thought for innovative plans and new business ideas. And we would be delighted if you should allow us to support you in implementing your ideas.

Yours,

Tarek Al-WazirHessian Minister of Economics, Energy, Transport and Housing

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The development of additive manufacturing procedures (AM for short) in the 1980s made important contributions to the groundwork for the next, the fourth, industrial rev-olution. While the first industrial revolution in the second half of the 18th century refers to the transfer of manual activities into mechanised processes using water and steam power, the second industrial revolution made it possible to mass-produce with divided responsibilities at electrically operated assembly lines. The third big development leap for industrial processes was the use of information technologies to automate production. The intelligent organisation of decentralised production units by linking information and production technology via the Internet of Things will offer the foundation for the fourth industrial revolution where experts see great potential for the German economy among the global competition.

It is expected that in the future, customers will be able to purchase a product via internet portals which can access, modify and archive data for components as well as monitor the status of a production order. The manu-facturing process with decentralised production units will be carried out in an effective location according to the spatial location of the customer and the equipment available at the production units. The products themselves will not be sent around the globe, just the data for their

manufacture – which can be customised well into the production process. The digital factories will no longer only be located in the Far East; instead, they will consist of regional decentralised production units which make it possible to offer ‘individual items from the assembly line’ at prices comparable with mass-produced items.

Products, machinery and transport boxes are linked with the web via microchips. The Internet of Things will allow the self-organisation of intelligent production procedures and increase productivity by up to 50 percent. In addition, the storage of raw material information in the product will promote recyclability and enable closed material cycles. Here, experts estimate a medium-term energy and resource savings potential of around 20 to 25 percent.

The additive manufacturing process is expected to play a crucial role in the context of the fourth industrial revolution. The generative nature of these technologies complete-ly revises the previous understanding of conventional material-cutting techniques such as milling, drilling or turning. Here, it is not just a case of saving resources and avoiding production waste; it is possible to produce product parts with the kind of complex geometries which would not be possible at all if conventional methods such as casting were used.

1. INTRODUCTION: ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING – POTENTIALS

WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF THE 4TH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION – THE VISION

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Experts assume that generative manufacturing will first establish itself as an addition to the existing production processes. Already today though, the large number of small-scale company foundations brought about by the further development of additive manufacturing processes is striking. Operating mini factories with new business models and unique products has been made possible by 3D printing entrepreneurs in almost all larger cities. These entrepreneurs were also able to find the necessary capital on the internet and social media using Crowd-funding campaigns (Cf. Horsch, Florian: 3D-Druck für alle – Der Do-it-yourself-Guide. [3D Printing for Everyone – The Do-It-Yourself Guide] Munich, Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2014).

“There will be plenty of niches”, says internet visionary Chris Anderson as he looks to the future of 3D printing. “We will just be seeing more of everything: more innova-tion in more locations from more people concentrating on smaller niches. As a whole, all these new products will reinvent the industrial economy, often with just a few thousand pieces each time, but these will be exactly the right products for the increasingly demanding con-sumer.” (Source: Anderson, C.: Makers. Das Internet der Dinge: die nächste industrielle Revolution. [The Internet of Things: The Next Industrial Revolution] Munich, Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2013)

This development also appears attractive to countries which have permitted an enormous reduction of industrial production to make room for the service sector over the last few decades. Additive manufacturing technologies are recognised and perceived as the key for the re-in-dustrialisation of national economies.

In his State of the Nation speech in February 2013, former US president Barack Obama described additive manufac-turing as the foundation for a new growth in US production. In total, the White House set aside a billion US dollars to promote the American economy and established a network of support institutions for this. With the research programme Horizon 2020, the European Commission wishes to support the expansion of additive manufactur-ing in Europe and strengthen it with innovations in this area. While primarily American companies dominate the areas of extrusion processes and filament printing, the metal systems necessary for industrial production in the automotive and aerospace sectors are mainly dominat-ed by German system manufacturers such as EOS, SLM Solutions and Trumpf. The takeover of Swedish system manufacturer Arcam and the German technology platform Laser Concept by American engine manufacturer GE Aviation in 2016 shows what a high importance additive manufacturing has gained for the USA.

But the Western world is not alone in striving for a greater use of additive manufacturing processes: Asian countries are also positioning themselves with the provision of financial backing. In China and Singapore, three-figure million amounts have been set aside to prepare the local industry for the transformation process into the age of the Internet of Things. China is already conjecturing a turnover of 1.12 billion US dollars gained in 2016 in the 3D printer and additive manufacturing market. The China Industry Information Institute has forecast an amount of 7.68 billion US dollars for the Chinese AM market in the year 2020, which would correspond to around a third of the global overall market.

The generative manufacturing market is still manageable. It is seen as fact for a few application areas and industry sectors that there will be a transformation process to involve a stronger use of additive manufacturing technologies. The speed of the transformation process is influenced by numerous factors. Above all, the often necessary ex-pense of post-treating components produced in additive manufacturing processes makes even more development efforts necessary. But more and more system manufac-turers are designing the processes and their material logistics for mass production. The products and areas of application most suited for additive manufacture are currently the subject of intensive discussions. Whether we will in retrospect attribute the character of an industrial revolution to the change remains to be seen. The market developments over the last five years, however, allow us to suspect a large potential, above all for German and Hessian companies. For this reason, the following chapters will describe in more detail the essential technological boundary conditions of additive manufacturing processes and their potential for the various industrial sectors.

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In the science-fiction saga Star Trek, the ‘replicator’ is a system which can make components and weapons, food and drink out of individual atoms, in a seemingly arbitrary manner. Marshall Burns named his idea of the digital home factory in 1987 ‘Fabber’ – a small decentral-ised manufacturing unit which was meant to make the vision of the production of individual parts into reality. Since then, over 20 years have gone by and the further development of production technology, software and materials have made the future scenario ever more real-istic (Peters 2011). The foundation for the development

is formed by so-called additive manufacturing principles which, unlike conventional production processes, do not remove material (as with turning, drilling, sawing, milling) or reshape materials (as with bending, drawing); rather, this approach generates the structures respectively. Thus, the term additive (sometimes generative) manufacturing has established itself in the specialist literature. Due to the highly increasing use and commercialisation into the consumer area, the name ‘3D printing’ has now become the blanket term for the various process principles.

2. ADDITIVE TECHNOLOGIES AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

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2.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES

The additive manufacturing processes and system types common today can be subdivided into five additive manu-facturing principles according to the materials used. Here, we assume different semi-finished products with various starting materials and operating principles which effect the layered structure of the components. In this way, the variety of systems used today can be subdivided into the process groups stereolithography, laser sintering/laser melting, binder jet printing, fused layer modelling or layer laminate manufacturing.

A selection of the individual technologies is generally based on the materials which can be used, the precision which can be achieved, the potential mechanical quality, the maximum system construction space, along with the cost framework. Given the current market dynamics, the conditions are in a constant state of flux.

PHYSICAL BASIC PRINCIPLE / TECHNOLOGY

AM PROCEDURE

Wire Powder Film / sheet Liquid bath

Liquid

Fused layer modelling

Plastic metal alloy

Laser sintering

Plastic, ceramic

Laser beam melting

Metal alloy

Binder jet printing

Gypsum, sand, starch, plastic,

metal

Layer laminating

Paper, PVC film,

wood

Stereo- lithography

Resin / thermosetting

plastic

Melting and hardening

Powder-bed-based bonding

Melting and hardening

Material extrusion

Bonding via binder

Binder jet printing

Cutting and joining

Sheet / film lamination

Photo- polymerisation

Material printing

Solid

Division according to Dr. Ing. R. Anderl (Qualified Doctor of Engineering), Technische Universität Darmstadt, September 2017

Classification of additive manufacturing procedures

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2.1.1 Stereolithography (SL)Stereolithography (SL) was developed at the University of Texas in Austin at the beginning of the 1980s and is regarded as the oldest additive manufacturing process. At the end of 1987, 3D-Systems Inc. presented the first system and has marketed it ever since. Stereolithography was registered by Chuck Hall for patent as early as 1984. Stereolithography currently achieves the greatest possible precision. As a result, it is the most important technique for creating master forms for fine casting, polyamide and vacuum casting. FormLabs launched the first SL desktop system on the market in 2012.

The process

Stereolithography creates component geometries based on 3D CAD data by means of locally hardening (curing) a light-sensitive photopolymer with the help of a laser beam. Photopolymer resin is first filled into a resin bath and the component platform is submerged below the surface to a depth equal to the thickness of one layer (usually between 50 and 100 microns). Exposing the lines or layers of the shaped part geometry to the laser hardens the photopolymer. This creates the first layer of the desired component. The component platform is progressively lowered in steps equal to the thickness of one layer. The resin flows onto the platform from the side and a blade distributes the resin equally across the already hardened structure before the next layer is exposed to the laser. The process is repeated until the shaped part has been completed and the desired component height has been reached. For a few new systems, the compo-nent does not move downwards with the construction platform during the process, but moves slowly upwards out of the resin bath.

Thin supporting structures are required to prevent the subsidence of the overhanging layers in the resin bath and to stabilise the geometry. These have to be detached from the component platform after removing the com-ponent. The stereolithography components must then be stored under UV light in order to completely harden the material. As an alternative to the laser, some systems utilise UV lamps and a screen. The screen only allows the UV light to penetrate at the points where the resin should be cured. This eliminates the complex mirror unit required to control the laser beam.

Materials

Stereolithography systems can only process liquid pho-topolymers such as epoxy resin or acrylic resin (vinyl-based polymers even less so). After hardening, these materials possess sufficient stability and temperature resistance between 50-60 degrees Celsius. In the meantime, the different resin systems are available on the market with transparent, opaque, flexible, bendable, thermal stability and biocompatible properties.

A large disadvantage of the process technology is that the classic approach, including resin bath, does not allow different materials to be used during a single working process. Resin systems in liquid form also have a significant environmental impact and, moreover, have a limited shelf life. The further development of the resin mainly focuses on improving thermal stability.

Component sizes, precision, reworking

Stereolithography can achieve the highest precision among additive manufacturing processes. This is primarily due to the thin layers with a detailed resolution of 0.01 to 0.02 millimetres. Today’s components have very good surface qualities, they are smooth and the layer structure is imperceptible. Standard systems have a construction space with dimensions between 250 x 250 x 250 millimetres (LxWxH) and 1000 x 800 x 500 millimetres. When it comes to a construction space of 2100 x 700 x 800 millimetres, the manufacturers refer to a mammoth stereolithography system. Larger components can be assembled from multiple smaller components. Subsequent surface treat-ment using varnishing, coating or metallising is common. However, the semi-transparency of the material is lost as a result. The surface quality can be further enhanced by polishing or material cutting.

Workpiece

MirrorLaser

Wiper

Construction platform

Resin container

(Liquid polymer)

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4

3

1 Wiper distributes polymer

2 Laser passes over the surface

3 Construction platform lowers

4 Polymer hardened by laser

The stereolithography process

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Application

Stereolithography is highly important for model construc-tion as a means of manufacturing demonstration objects. Thanks to their very high quality, the components are also suitable for use as functional prototypes or master models for fine casting and vacuum casting. However, stereolithography components generally cannot be used directly due to their low thermal stability. Process variants can now also be utilised to generate nanostructures and microstructures. Biocompatible resin systems are being used more and more in dentistry and biomedical technology.

Cost-effectiveness

By virtue of its history, stereolithography is the most frequently used additive manufacturing technology. The prices for common stereolithography systems have fallen in recent years. Nevertheless, they still exceed 50,000 eu-ros. As a result, a number of service providers have been established. Since 2012, desktop systems and kits with lower precision have been available from 4,000 euros. However, the material is four times as expensive as the material used in extrusion systems such as FLM (fused layer modelling; see chapter 2.1.3). Furthermore, as the excess material remains in the construction space after the manufacturing process, a material consumption higher than the actual component volume has to be included in the cost calculations.

Special processes and system types

PolyJet Modelling (PJM))

Polyjet technology (also known as Multi Jet Modelling MJM) can be compared to inkjet printing. A printhead applies layers of liquid photopolymer to the component platform. These layers are then immediately hardened using UV light. In this case, the resin bath is not required. However, supporting structures also need to be printed to generate protruding elements. Polyjet modelling achieves very high levels of precision of 16 microns for the Z axis and 42 microns for X and Y axes. Furthermore, it is the only system technology capable of utilising three different materials in one process to create multi-material applications (for example, hard-soft compounds).

Digital Light Processing (DLP)

Digital light processing is another variant of the stereoli-thography process and works with UV light to harden the photopolymer layer by layer. The light first hits the surface of a microchip into which numerous movable micro-mirrors are integrated. The beams of light are then reflected onto the areas of the construction space to be hardened, and serve to successively generate the component structure. DLP systems are very compact, comparatively affordable and are the preferred system in jewellery manufacture or biomedical technology, for example.

Micro-Stereolithography (MSL)

Weighing only 1.5 kilograms and with the dimensions of a milk carton, the world’s smallest stereolithography printer was developed by Professor Jürgen Stampfl and his team at the Technical University of Vienna in 2013. It works with liquid resin, which is selectively hardened through the use of LED light. The layers have a thickness of 0.05 millimetres. The technology is regarded as having major potential for future applications, which is why other research institutions are also working on micro-stereoli-thography.

Samsonite S’cure prototype in the Mammoth stereolithography system (Source: Materialise)

12 ACEO 3D-Silikondruck (Quelle: Wacker)

Lithography-based Ceramic Manufacturing (LCM)

The LCM process for additive manufacturing of high-perfor-mance ceramics was developed at the Technical University of Vienna between 2006 and 2010 and has been mar-keted by Lithoz GmbH since 2011 as a spin-off company. It is based on exposing a photo-sensitive resin contain-ing ceramic particles. The layers of resin are hardened progressively to form a plastic-ceramic blank with the photopolymer as a bonding agent between the ceramic particles. The bonding material is then removed through pyrolysis and the ceramic particles are thermally sintered and permanently melted together. During de-bonding, a degree of shrinkage must be taken into account. Subse-quently, the components have a density of 99.4 percent.

Silicon printing

In 2016, chemistry company Wacker first introduced a technology for the layered construction of components from silicon elastomers. This had not been possible before due to the high viscosity of the material. With the so-called Drop-on-Demand-Jetting, the material is applied to a construction platform from a printhead drop by drop and then cured under UV light. Layer by layer, homogeneous part geometries with smooth surfaces arise which have technical qualities comparable to those of standard injection-moulded silicon parts. This process achieves 85-90 percent of the stability generated by the conventional process. Hollow spaces and overlays can be achieved with water-soluble supporting materials.

Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP)

In the spring of 2015, a new additive printing technology was introduced in the USA based on photopolymerisation, which is supposed to be 25 to 100 times faster than the conventional process and leaves behind no visible layer structures. The additive process takes place in a resin vat, the base of which consists of a light- and oxygen-perme-able membrane. An ultraviolet beam of light illuminates the desired cross-section of the object from underneath through the base of the bath onto a platform which is slowly but continually pulled upwards out of the resin bath. The introduction of oxygen prevents hardening of the entire surface of the construction space. A specially developed software controls the whole process.

Gel Dispensing Printing (GDP)

GDP is a gel-based process which was developed by an Israeli systems builder to create particularly large plastic components. Using an extruder, a highly viscous acrylate-based gel is applied in layers and hardened by way of UV light. The light source is located directly on the printhead. The system has a construction space of 1.17 x 1.5 x 1.8 metres and achieves a construction speed of 0.33 metres per hour along the Z axis with a throughput of up to 2 kilograms per hour.

Futurecraft 4D – a sole for a sports shoe manufactured additively in the CLIP process (Source: Adidas)

The exposure process when 3D printing high-performance ceramics in the LCM process (Source: Lithoz)

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2.1.2 Selective Laser Sintering

Thanks to its ability to achieve qualities similar to the ones of series material, selective laser sintering (SLS) is one of the most important powder-bed processes for industrial applications. It was developed in the mid-1980s at the University of Texas by Joe Beaman and Carl Deckard. Laser sintering works with powdered starting materials which are melted using a laser. It has long been used for mainly prototype and tool construction. In the present day, it is also one of the most important additive manu-facturing processes for direct component manufacture (Direct Digital Manufacturing). At the beginning of 2014, a number of key patents for selective laser sintering ex-pired. This means that we can expect a decrease in the consistently high prices for components and systems over the next few years.

The term selective laser melting (SLM) is now utilised when referring to processing metal powders. As a result of the use of multiple lasers in one system, a productivity increase of 100-fold up to 1,000-fold is expected in the coming years. With the powder-based Multi-Jet Fusion large-scale system, PC printer manufacturer Hewlett Packard entered the 3D product printing market in 2016. GE Additive also introduced an SLM large-scale system under the name of A.T.L.A.S. at formnext 2017, the international additive manufacturing trade fair. In 2016, the first desktop SLS systems appeared on the market for a purchase price of 5,000 to 10,000 euro.

The process

Selective laser sintering is based on the local sintering and melting of powdered materials through the heat generated by a laser beam, utilising 3D CAD data. A roller-shaped coating unit applies a thin, even layer of powder to the printing bed and smooths it. Exposing layers or lines of the corresponding areas results in the melting of the powdered material, which by subsequently cooling and hardening creates a shaped partlayer. Once the exposure of a component layer has been completed, the printing bed moves one layer downwards and material powder is applied again (material thickness between 0.001 and 0.2 millimetres) and the sintering process is repeated for the next layer structure. Because the solidified material composite is surrounded by loose powder, a supporting structure is not required to construct protruding elements. However, additional structures are required to hold the component in position when working with high-energy lasers. The entire printing area in most systems is heated to a temperature below the melting point of the powdered material used to reduce the process time. The entire printing area has to be cooled evenly over a period of several hours before removing the finished component from the powder bed. Unused powder can be reused.

The selective laser sintering process

Mirror

Powder store or powder collecting vessel

Laser

Roller


Workpiece

Powder

1

2

4

3

1 Roller distributes polymer

2 Laser passes over the surface


4 Powder hardened by laser

The laser sintering process (Source: EOS)

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Materials

In principle, any material which can be melted and man-ufactured as a powder is suitable for use with selective laser sintering. Numerous plastics (for example PA 22, PA 12, PS, PEEK, thermoplastic elastomers), ceramics, metal alloys (tool steel and stainless steel, aluminium, titanium, cobalt-chrome, bronze, precious metals, nickel-based alloys) and quartz sand are commercially available. The powders are generally manufactured synthetically be-cause of the need for an even grain size. When handling powdered materials with grain sizes between 20 and 100 microns, the existing legal regulations regarding work safety apply. Furthermore, experts such as representa-tives from the Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA) strictly advise caution when handling the powder as the ultrafine particles can enter the human lung. As such, wearing a mask is recommended. When processing metallic powder, a protective gas such as ni-trogen or argon is normally used inside the compartment to prevent oxidation.

Researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for Laser Technolo-gy (ILT) in Aachen have succeeded in additively manufac-turing components consisting of different copper alloys with a density of 99.9 percent by integrating a 1,000 watt laser system into an existing SLM system. The process also allows objects to be manufactured out of high-strength zirconium oxide ceramic and aluminium oxide ceramic. The market dynamics mean that the range of printable powdered metal alloys is constantly expanding. For exam-ple, Heraeus has specialised in the provision of stainless steel powder for electron beam melting (EBM) and laser beam melting (LBM). Platinum group metals (PGM), gold and silver alloys, refractory metals, amorphous metals, titanium, titanium aluminides and customer-specific alloys are offered. Special developments such as inter-metal alloys, bioresorbable materials, gradient materials and amorphous metals (metallic glasses) are also available. The manufacturer makes the optimal processing param-eters available for each metal powder in the context of the additive manufacturing process.

Component size, precision, reworking

The construction spaces of laser sintering systems are currently between 150 x 200 x 150 millimetres and 1100 x 1100 x 450 millimetres. Some large systems work with up to four lasers to shorten processing time. The construction rate for metal systems is currently between 2 and 100 cubic centimetres per hour. Systems with up to eight lasers are currently in development. Laser-sintered components have rough surfaces as a result of the grain sizes of the powder. As a rule, the components have a precision of +/- 0.1 millimetres, while values of +/- 0.02 millimetres have now been achieved for metal components. The layer thicknesses can vary between 1 and 200 microns. The usual layer thickness for metals such as stainless steel and tool steel is 20 microns or 40 microns, in the case of aluminium, it ranges from30 to 50 microns. Whereas creating highly dense metal components required infil-tration with low-melting metals up until a few years ago, laser beam melting (LBM) now generates highly dense components (> 99.5 percent) with very good mechani-cal characteristics. In fact, the material strength actually exceeds that of commercially produced components in some cases. Depending on the component geometry, significant warpage must be factored in as a result of the thermal influence of the laser, in particular for the LBM of metal parts. The rough surfaces can then be smoothed to a glossy finish using ablative processes such as mill-ing. Before starting a new LBM process, the component platform must generally be face milled.

Removing the component from the powder bed (Source: Evonik Industries)

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Application

Up until a few years ago, SLS or SLM components were primarily utilised as functional prototypes. Today, laser sintering or laser melting can also be employed to directly manufacture customised components and small series. The typical areas of application include biomedical technology (such as tooth inlays, implants, hearing aids), tool and die manufacturing (alloy die casting and fine casting, for example) along with mechanical engineering, aerospace and the manufacture of replacement parts in vehicle construction. Laser sintering has also been utilised in the design and jewellery industry for approximately a decade. GE Aviation has set up a site with additive production facilities in Alabama where laser sintering systems are used to manufacture components for aircraft engines. In 2016, the company took over the two European system manufacturers Arcam and Laser Concept.

Cost-effectiveness

Because of the high system costs (average price of an industrial system: 80,000 US dollars; Horsch, Florian: 3D-Druck für alle – Der Do-it-yourself-Guide. Munich, Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2014) the use of laser sinter-ing must be carefully calculated. In a single work stage, several component geometries are usually manufactured at the same time and the construction platform is densely packed to make operating the system financially viable. The costs for laser-sintered components range from a few hundred to several thousand euros, depending on the material used. As a result, the costs are higher than those of other processes, which still tends to make its use in a small-company context impracticable. With increas-ing rates of construction, the costs will sink in the future. Service providers are widely spread.


Electron beam melting (EBM)

In one process variant an electron beam is used instead of a laser to achieve a higher power output (3 – 10 kilo-watt in comparison to 250-1,000 watt for SLS/SLM). This allows even high-strength steels to be manufactured with a shorter processing duration. Electron beam melting enables the direct manufacturing of metallic components. For this reason, the Swedish systems manufacturer Arcam AB markets its EBM systems under the brand name of ‘CAD-to-Metal’.

Laser-sintered handles of the Nikon Metrology Scanner with flocking (Source: Materialise)

SLS extension cable ‘Double Helix CABLE’ (Source: CIRP, Design : Yusuke Goto)

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Desktop SLS

After key patents for selective laser sintering expired, new system manufacturers appeared in the market. Here, among other things, the market focus is on small and affordable desktop solutions. One of the first mini-laser sinter systems was introduced in 2015 and comes from Polish start-up “SinterIT” from Cracow. The system has dimensions of 66 x 62 x 40 centimetres, weighs only 40 kilograms and has a maximum construction space of 150 x 200 x 150 millimetres. With a laser diode output of 5 watt, layer thicknesses between 0.075 millimetres and 0.175 millimetres can be achieved. With the black polyamide powder (PA12), the companies are offering a material with which rubbery, flexible components can be implemented. Further suppliers of affordable SLS systems are Swiss company Sintratec and Italian manufacturer Sharebot.

HP Multi Jet Fusion

The powder bed technology from Hewlett Packard is a large-scale system (construction space: 406 x 406 x 305 millimetres) for additive product printing which was pre-sented in 2016. It works with an infra-red energy source rather than with a laser. The plastic powder is applied in layers, using an inkjet printhead, two bonding liquids with different thermal conductivity are incorporated. One is particularly thermally conductive and strengthens the melting effect of the particles in the areas of the desired component. The other liquid is applied to the edges of the part geometry and acts as a thermal blocking layer. The result is sharp edges, smooth surfaces and a clean print result. Layer thicknesses of 70-80 microns are possible. The system is first optimised for the use of a fine-grained PA 12 powder from Evonik. With a print speed of 4,500 cubic centimetres per hour and a possible resolution of 1,200 dpi, the system is a competitor of plastic injection moulding in small-series production.

Multi-material laser beam melting

Until now, laser sintering processes could only process one material. With a view to expanding additive production, the generative manufacture of composite structures or the combination of various material qualities in metallic high-performance components would be very interesting. For more than three years, scientists at the Fraunhofer IGCV have been conducting research on the simultaneous processing of two metal alloys in a construction process using laser beam melting (LBM). In summer 2017, the first 3D printed multi-material component was presented. The success is the result of a new kind of application method of an LBM system which was integrated on a software and hardware basis. Here, a 3D multi-material component could be produced from tool steel 1.2709 and a cop-per-chrome-zirconium alloy (CCZ) in an additive manner.

Laser powder coat welding

Laser coat welding (LMD) is a process which has been established for years for the application of thick metallic layers as a wear-resistant coating or to repair a compo-nent. It is not a laser sintering process, however, it is used today in the context of metallic 3D product printing. Here, metal powder is blown into a laser beam. The high energy output of the laser beam melts the powder and binds it metallurgically into a permanent layer. On the basis of 3D-CAD data, 3D metal structures can be created. The component size is not limited when using the laser powder coat welding process. The smallest structural resolution is 30 microns. Steel, titanium, aluminium, nickel and cobalt alloys can be processed. Inter-metallic titanium aluminides and nickel-based high-temperature materials are currently in development.

Desktop SLS system (Source: Sintratec)

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2.1.3 Fused Layer ModellingAs a result of the expiry of a number of important industrial property rights in 2009, there has been a development boost for so-called fused layer modelling processes. Systems following this process approach are now among the most important additive manufacturing techniques for use in creative professions and private contexts. This is due to the less complex design of the systems, the easy handling and the broad range of available materials. The good mechanical qualities also play a role. Because the systems generally work with fusible filament materials, the terms fused filament fabrication (FFF) and fused layer modelling (FLM) have become prevalent. The commonly used term fused deposition modelling (FDM) is a trade-mark of the American company Stratasys Ltd. Besides the filament printers, so called fused granular fabrication (FGF) printers using granulate have also been established on the market. These allow for quick 3D printing of particu-larly large components. Cincinnati Inc. (USA) operates a BAAM system (Big Area Additive Manufacturing) with a construction space of 6 x 2.3 x 1.8 metres.

The process

Fused layer modelling processes work with a material which softens when heated. Similar to a hot glue gun, the material is pressed through a heated nozzle and ap-plied either in lines (for example FLM) or in droplets (for example freeformer). A control mechanism regulates the distribution of the layers of the material on the component platform or on the existing structure, where the material then cools and hardens immediately. The component is manufactured successively by fusing the individual layers. The print bed is lowered a fraction of a millimetre after every layer. The layer thickness is determined by smoothing with the nozzle. Common layer thicknesses are between 0.025 and 1 millimetre. Undercuts and hollow spaces are only possible to a limited degree with this process. As such, fine supporting structures are required to manufacture steep component geometries. On new system types, the supporting material is simultaneously supplied from a second coil and applied. The supporting construction has to be removed after printing. The use of a water-soluble or an alkaline-soluble thermoplastic is helpful for this.

Materials

Lange Jahre waren die für das Fused Layer Modeling For many years, the materials which could be utilised for fused layer modelling were restricted to a few thermoplastic materials such as ABS, polyester or polycarbonate, or various types of wax. With the invention of bioplastics, PLA became the new standard material. Due to the widespread use of filament printers in creative professions, the market reacted with new materials and composites to meet the demand for more versatile design options. Filaments are now available which are capable of generating wood-like (such as LAY-Wood), ceramic (such as LAY-Ceramic) or

The extrusion process


Roll construction

material

Roll supporting material

Supporting material

Workpiece

1

3

4

1 Supporting and construction material is drawn into the printhead

2 Extrusion head heats the supporting and construction material


4 Construction and supporting material is applied

2

Extrusion nozzlesExtrusion

head

The extrusion process in operation (Source: Delta Tower, Thorsten Franck)

18

sandstone-like surfaces (such as LAY-Brick) or which have electrically conductive, magnetic or visual properties. Fila-ment solutions for the implementation of 3D membranes and porous filters or bendable, rubber-like objects are also available on the market. The BioFabNet project has been developing organic-based materials solutions, for printers in the consumer sector in particular, since the end of 2013. Several scientists and designers have also been focusing on the development of filament solutions based on waste materials and recycled goods. In autumn 2014, American Mark Forged from Boston presented the world’s first carbon fibre filament printer. In 2017, several manufacturers of metal filament also joined in to make it possible to manufacture metal components in an affordable manner by using filament printers.


The sizes of the systems available on the market range from just a few square centimetres to more than a square metre. Generally, the process technology is not limited to one construction space as the nozzle with the filament could also be moved with a robotic arm. Reworking is a complex process, given that thermoplastics are generally used. ABS surfaces, for example, can be vaporised, edged and smoothed with acetone. Imprecision along the Z axis must be factored in because of the nozzle diameter, in particular with small components. Due to different solidification rates within the printed part, warpage has a negative impact on the quality of the component. Additionally, individual layers may become de-bonded.

Application

Although additive extrusion systems were primarily used for manufacturing demonstration models, they are now seeing more widespread use in direct product manu-facturing and in private applications. More and more companies are entering the market for systems suitable for office use. Applications for the furniture industry and interior design are currently being tested as a result of the development of higher quality materials. DIY shops have also expanded their range of 3D printers and services to include options for the creative DIY fan.

Cost-effectiveness

The prices for filament-based printers have decreased significantly since it has become possible to purchase construction kits on the internet. They can now be pur-chased from trade dealers at prices between 500 and 800 euros. Construction kits are available for less than 200 euros. However, the low-cost systems do not deliver high precision. Higher quality systems in the consumer sector are available at prices between 1,500 and 3,000 euros and industrial systems at a price no less than 10,000 euros. The filaments are offered for 10 to 50 euros per kilogram in various colours.


BIG Fused Granular Fabrication (FGF)

The start-up, BLB Industries from Värnamo in Sweden presented the first European FGF large-scale printer in 2016. This can process standard granulate and ad-ditively produce plastic parts in a construction space with the dimensions of 1.5 x 1.1 x 1.5 metres and with a throughput of 6 kilograms per hour. The system is based on the platform concept and can be adjusted according to size. The developers state that the maximum size is 5 x 5 x 5 metres and the maximum production capacity 35 kilograms per hour.

Freeformer

The die casting systems manufacturer Arburg entered the additive manufacturing market at the end of 2013 with the freeformer. As such, the mechanical engineering company was the first manufacturer to use commercially available material in the form of standard granulate. This is melted in a heated plastifying cylinder and applied in the form of plastic droplets. The patented nozzle cap

Lay-Wood wooden filament (Source: ccproducts)

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utilises high-frequency piezo technology which enables rapid opening and closing for up to 200 plastic droplets per second and a precise material application. Using the series material generates components which have 70 to 80 percent of the strength of comparable die-cast parts. The freeformer has a construction space of 230 x 135 x 250 millimetres. Components featuring different plastics (for example hard-soft-compounds) can also be created with the use of a second nozzle.

High-performance PEEK plastic filament

The start-up Apium Additive Technologies from Karlsruhe is the first company to make it possible to use filament printing for high-performance polymers such as PEEK (polyether ether ketone) for industrial applications with its system. This was not possible before because of the special material qualities. As well as the PEEK filament with its printing system, Apium also offers a filament solution with carbon fibres. This means that filament printing can also be applied in mechanical engineering and biomedical technology for high-strength components.

Composite 3D printing

The American company Markforged presented the world’s first FLM system at the end of 2014, with which fibre-reinforced components can be produced. The system works with carbon fibre as well as with fibreglass reinforcement and has a maximum construction space of 320 x 154 x 132 millimetres. The standard version costs 6,500 euros. According to developer information, the carbon fibre-reinforced components are 40 percent more stable than comparable components made from ABS. In addition, they are supposed to have a significantly better stability-to-weight ratio than those made from 6061-T6 aluminium.

3D printed implant made of PEEK (Source: Apium Additive Technologies)

Fibre-reinforced 3D printing (Source: Mark Forged)

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Metal filament

The XERION group, in collaboration with the Fraunhofer IFAM in Dresden, is currently developing a process to be able to produce metal parts with filament printing. The plastic-based printing filament is enriched with metal pow-ders; after printing, the excess plastic parts are expelled using heat. Subsequently sintering the so-called “green compact” at a high temperature solidifies the component and retains the component thickness typical of metal, as well as the stability. Here, a significant degree of shrink-age must be taken into account. The special feature of the plan is placing the printer, the oven system and a mechanical mill in one single unit. All three systems will have the same controls, including recipe management.

Reflect-o-Lay

The printing filament developed by cc-Products contains millions of the smallest reflective pigments. This allows for the visual effect of retroreflection, which we see in high-viz traffic clothing, for example, to be transferred to 3D printed objects. Under normal conditions, the material appears in its typical grey colour. But if you shine a light onto it, the rays of light are always reflected back in the precise direction they come from.

3D printing filaments from locally produced algae

Over the last six years, the two Dutch designers, Eric Klarenbeek and Maartje Dros, have developed a biocom-patible material suitable for 3D printing based on algae. In the production process, the algae are first cultivated, dried and transformed into a printable filament with other natural and locally available additives and a biopolymer. The driving force behind this development was not just being able to offer an alternative to classic plastic filaments. Rather, the carbon footprint was the guiding principle, as algae absorb CO2 from the atmosphere as they grow.

Effect when printing with retroreflective filament (Source: Kai Parthy)

3D printed containers from an algae-based printing filament (Source: Eric Klarenbeek and Maartje Dros)

A component printed with a metal filament (Source: Fraunhofer IFAM Dresden)

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Graphene-based FLM printing

Trend researchers at Frost & Sullivan are expecting 3D printing with filaments to be the next development leap in the additive manufacturing market. Graphene is a stable modification of carbon with a two-dimensional structure, where carbon atoms are structured in a way similar to a honeycomb. It has a high degree of rigidity and is suit-able as an electrical conductor. Graphene filaments are expected to have application potential in electronics and printable battery systems.

Laser wire coat welding

An alternative system to laser powder coat welding works with a conventional welding wire. Compared to powder-based coat welding, working with welding wire offers advantages in terms of the process design, mate-rial utilisation, the quality of the surfaces and the simple procurement of starting material. The smallest possible structure resolution is currently 600 microns. Here, in prin-ciple, all welding additives available in wire form can be processed. In summer 2017, Berlin-based Gefertec GmbH presented a large-scale system for wire coat welding to the market. With triple-axis processing, metal components with a volume of up to 3 cubic metres and a maximum mass of 3000 kilograms can be produced additively.

Large-scale system for additive wire coat welding (Source: Gefertec GmbH, Berlin)

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2.1.4 Binder jet printingBinder jetting (historically called 3D printing) was de-veloped at the start of the 1990s by Emanuel Sachs and Michael Cima at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the USA with the aim of providing a technology for use in office environments. Based on the cost struc-ture for these areas of application, filament printers are probably more relevant here today. Due to the possibility of adding colour to the printed components, binder jetting processes have been used for a vast number of application options by private users, for example, when producing images of people.

The process

The process is similar to laser sintering and is based on bonding particles with each other. However, unlike selective laser sintering, these particles are not melted with a laser, but rather bonded locally through the use of a binding agent. The system utilises a printhead which is managed by a control unit and moves in layers over the powder bed. It applies droplets of the adhesive substance to the newly applied layer of powder. The binding agent penetrates the layer below and binds the new layer of powder with the existing printed geometry. Before start-ing to generate the next layer, the print bed is lowered by the thickness of one layer and the process begins again. As the component is completely surrounded by powder during the manufacturing process, supporting structures are not required for protruding elements, just as during laser sintering. The printed components can be infiltrated with resin or wax in order to increase their mechanical strength.

As binder jetting is similar to conventional 2D printing, the technology has proven itself quickly. In comparison to other additive processes, binder jetting is capable of achieving very high speeds. In addition, the components can also be coloured with more than 16 million colours. Unused powder in the construction space can be reused.

Materials

Materials based on starch, gypsum or sand and ceramic composites are the standard materials utilised for binder jetting. A number of systems manufacturers also supply powders made of various metals for use in dental medicine or offer mixtures for industrial applications and casting moulds. When working with ceramic or metal powders, the object undergoes a sintering process in a furnace after printing. The subsequent infiltration with low melt metals fills the pores and increases the density to up to 95 percent. In order to improve the quality, the process for metal powder in layer thicknesses of just 25-100 microns could be optimised. It is possible to attain particularly high stability with hot isostatic pressing.

3D printing process with a binding agent

ColourJet printing – 3D printing system (Source: Materialise)

Powder storage or powder collection container

Roller


Workpiece

Powder

1 2

4

3

1 Roller distributes powder

2 Binding agent is applied by the printheads


4 Powder bonded via binding agent

Printheads5 Printheads for the colours black, clear, cyan, magenta, yellow

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Thanks to the mature inkjet printhead technology, binder jetting is one of the fastest additive processes. Systems with a construction space of up to 4 x 2 x 1 meters are now available (systems manufacturer: voxeljet). A precision of 600 dpi can be achieved. However, the components always have a rough surface with visible printing lines due to the grain size of the powder used. These can be reduced through mechanical reworking. For this reason, current research is focusing on improving the mechan-ical qualities of the printed components. As a result of work carried out at the Fraunhofer Institute for Structural Durability and System Reliability (LBF) in Darmstadt, new material systems and printable inks have been improved to the extent that three-dimensional printing is capable of achieving similar mechanical strengths to die casting.

Application

Until recently, most small systems capable of tinting with more than 16 million colours were primarily utilised for rapid visualisation during the drafting process. The quiet production process and closed system structure make the process suitable for use in office environments. With large office spaces, binder jet printers are now becoming more widespread in industrial fields of application, for example in the manufacture of sand grains for foundries. The printers can also be used for series production. Sand printing has already been used to manufacture architec-tonic structures. Metal and ceramic shapes produced using binder jet printing and subsequently sintered are used in industrial mould construction, for example.

Cost-effectiveness

The system prices range from between just under 20,000 euros to prices in the six digit range. Therefore, usage in a personal or small-business environment is largely ruled out. As a result, there are numerous service providers active on the market who are able to create components at realistic prices.


S-Max – Industrial 3D production printer for sand and metal

ExOne is one of the most prominent providers of binder jetting printers with large construction spaces for shaped parts made from sand or metals. The S-Max offers a robust and reliable solution for all cold-setting binder systems in sand printing. It is suitable for almost all cast materials. Here, large and complex shapes and cores can be man-ufactured even quicker and more reliably. Thanks to the double job box and the large construction spaces, each measuring1,800 x 1,000 x 700 millimetres, the S-Max produces each prototype requirement as well as whole series with efficiency and a high level of performance.

S-Max large-scale system for industrial binder jetting (Source: ExOne)

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VX400 – The world’s largest industrial 3D printer

With a construction space of 4,000 x 2,000 x 1,000 mil-limetres, with the VX4000, voxeljet is offering what is currently the world’s largest 3D binder printing system for sand shapes. As such large volumes have a very heavy weight on the construction platform, the platform is not lowered during the process; the printhead is raised layer by layer instead. Using a rail system, the sand shapes are extended and thus an economical production is made possible. The resolution is 300 dpi, the layer thickness 300 microns.

Ceramic printing

Based on a voxeljet system, American company Boston Ceramics has created a 3D printing process for manu-facturing customisable wall tiles and ceramic decorative objects. This process uses thermally stable and recyclable material including binding agents which bond the pow-der particles together into an object. The system has a maximum construction space of 4,000 x 2,000 x 1,000 millimetres. Ceramic parts with highly detailed surface features can be generated in a lot size of 1.

2.1.5 Layer Laminate ManufacturingLayer laminate manufacturing (LLM) consists of systems based on the use of individual films or paper layers. In recent years, the systems have not developed as much as other system types because it is difficult to create hollow spaces and the excess material must be removed manu-ally. The term laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is also common and is a protected trademark of American manufacturer Helisys Inc., who has been marketing the first systems since the mid-1990s. When working with paper, the term paper lamination technology (PLT) is also currently used.

The process

LLM systems manufacture components by bonding layers of individual films or thin sheets with each other. First, the initial layer is placed on the component platform and the contour of the layer is shaped with a laser, a sharp blade or a hot wire. The platform moves downward and a new material film is moved into place and bonded to the layer below using a thermal roller with a temperature of around 300 degrees Celsius. The next contour cut is made and the process is repeated from the beginning. The excess film material is cut into small square pieces in order to simplify removing the component at the end of the process. The resulting cubes can be disposed of easily. At the same time, the excess material also serves to support protruding elements, eliminating the need for any additional supporting structures. The process can be stopped to integrate functional elements or to remove excess material from the hollow spaces. Due to the nature of the process, layer laminate manufacturing is regarded as an additive process but demonstrates fewer advan-tages, particularly with regard to saving resources, when compared to other additive manufacturing processes.

Mirror

Rollers with adhesive-coated material

Laser

Hot roller


Workpiece

1 1

2

4

3

1 Endless belt with adhesive-coated material

2 Laser passes over the cut surface


4 Material bonded with a hot roller

The layer laminate manufacturing process

Construction space of a MCor system after the layer lamination process (Source: 3D-Picture, Photo: Dieter Bielert)

25

Materials

A variety of different film materials and coated papers are available on the market for layer laminate processes. These range from a variety of different plastics (such as polyester) to fibre-reinforced composite materials. Further-more, ceramic and metal films have also been processed successfully in trials. When working with metal materials, the individual layers are not bonded but welded. Although processing paper already creates an appearance which resembles wood, a special system variant was developed for generating wooden components. With this system, the component platform is located at the top and the material is milled with a cutter head. This arrangement makes it easier to create hollow spaces because gravity causes the excess chips to fall out of the construction space.


The layers that can be processed with LLM systems range from between 0.08 and 0.25 millimetres in thickness with the most common thickness being 0.1 millimetres. A number of manufacturers also specify the material thickness of standard paper used with the conventional grammage. In this case, 80 grams per square metre is typical. LLM systems available on the market have a max-imum construction space of 800 x 600 x 550 millimetres with a precision of +/- 0.1 millimetres. The mechanical strength of the components depends on the construction. As such, the direction of lamination must be considered when reworking. When using paper, the surfaces must be sealed afterwards with clear varnish due to their hy-groscopic properties. New systems dip the workpiece in synthetic resin after the excess paper has been removed. This gives the printed object a silky, shiny surface.

Application

Owing to the component-independent process speed, LLM processes are particularly advantageous when creating particularly large part geometries with limited complexity. No tension occurs when bonding the layers and largely distortion-free shaped components can be manufactured as a result. They are frequently used for model construction (such as for foundry models). Yet, these processes have clear disadvantages when compared to other additive processes because only limited hollow space contours can be created. A paper-based layer laminate system for office usage is now available on the market.

Cost-effectiveness

LLM systems are relatively cost intensive compared to other types of systems and prices begin at 4,000 euros. Moreover, the low-cost systems are also limited to specific film materials.


MCor paper-based layer laminate system

The company MCor was founded in Ireland in 2005 and manufactures layer laminate printers that work with con-ventional A4 letter paper. As such, the operating costs are significantly lower in comparison to other additive manufacturing technologies. The layers of paper are bonded to each other, the layer contours cut and then tinted using conventional printing technology. Given that more than one million colours are available, photo-realistic objects can be created. The ink penetrates the individual layers of paper and creates a saturated colour effect. The colour resolution along the component axes is 5,760 x 1,440 x 508 dpi (x-y-z). A maximum component size of 256 x 169 x 150 millimetres can be constructed. A desktop system for a maximum component size of 245 x 205 x 125 millimetres has been available on the market since 2016.

Plate press brazing

Neue Materialien Bayreuth GmbH developed a new additive process under the name of plate press brazing (PPB). It is based on a combination of milling and brazing and offers the option of generating large-surface tool in-serts with complex internal structures such as contoured cooling ducts. Four-millimetre thick metal plates coated with brass solder serve as the basic material. The layer geometry is milled on the individual panel, the panels are then stacked to form a perfect fit, and permanently bonded with each other by means of contact soldering. Uneven areas are removed by specifically applied pressure via the closing device. The process is now so advanced that a precision of 80 microns can be achieved.

26

2.1.6 4D Printing and 4D TextilesIn 2013 at the Self Assembly Lab of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT, a research team led by Skylar Tibbits first presented 4D printing technology. Here, the scientists used printing material developed by American systems manufacturer Statasys which changes it shape under the influence of temperature, light, moisture or a magnetic field and can trigger functions. The scientists expect the new process technology to present applica-tion options for self-building structures in space, piping that can adjust according to the flow volume, automatic windows or self-building furniture.

Research groups worldwide are now showing interest in the new technology and testing which areas of ap-plication 4D printing can have for a few of the largest industry fields. As well as use in biomedical technology, for example for implants or exoskeletal structures, there are also application options primarily in architecture and the textile and furniture industry. Shape-changing compo-nents on wings or changeable body parts for vehicles are currently being investigated in studies in the aerospace and automotive industry. Due to the numerous research plans and potentials, 4D printing was first incorporated as one of the up-and-coming technologies in the Gartner Hype Cycle in 2016.

Gartner Hype Cycle for Emerging Technologies 2017 (Source: Gartner Inc., USA)

Plateau will be reached in:

less than 2 years 2 to 5 years 5 to 10 years more than 10 years

Expectations

InnovationTrigger

Peak of Inflated

Expectations

Trough ofDisillusionment

Slope of Enlightenment Plateau ofProductivity

As of July 2017

Time

Smart Dust

NeuromorphicHardware

Artificial GeneralIntelligence

Deep Reinforcement Learning

HumanAugmentation

5G

Serverless PaaS

Digital Twin

QuantumComputing

Brain-ComputerInterface

Smart Workspace

Augmented DataDiscovery

Edge Computing

Smart Robots

IoT Platform

Virtual Assistants

Connected HomeDeep Learning

Machine LearningAutonomous Vehicles

Nanotube ElectronicsCognitive ComputingBlockchainCommercial UAVs (Drones)

Cognitive Expert Advisors

Augmented Reality

Virtual Reality

Software-DefinedSecurity

Enterprise Taxonomyand Ontology Management

Volumentric Displays

ConventionalUser Interfaces

4D Printing

27

Wet and light-sensitive printing materials

The MIT collaborated with software company Autodesk to develop various printing materials which can be used for 4D printing. The first successful tests lead back to a hydrophilic acrylate monomer which hardens under UV light and forms a hydrogel with a volume enlargement of up to 50 percent when placed in water. Light-sensitive printing materials have already been tested successfully for changing carbon fibre structures.

Hydrogel and cellulose fibrils

Scientists at Harvard University have succeeded in using a printing ink made from a hydrogel and cellulose fibril to reconstruct the natural movement of plant blossoms under the influence of moisture. Cellulose is particularly highly hygroscopic. Under the influence of moisture, it tends to curl up more along the fibre direction than horizontally to it. After the material was 3D printed in two directions, the material composite began to incline and bend under the influence of moisture. As well as the printing ink, an algorithm was developed to predict the transformation. The result was the reconstruction of natural functions from the world of plants.

Hygroscopic wooden printing filament

David Correa followed a similar approach with a research team from the University of Stuttgart. The printing tech-nology was developed for a hygroscopic wooden filament insofar as architectonic structures could be created which react to fluctuations in environmental influences. In the future, the scientists want to print window elements out of wood which can close when it rains and open themselves when it is sunny.

4D printing with hydrophilic acrylate monomer (Source: MIT, USA)

This series of images shows the transformation of a 4D printed hydrogel-composite structure after being dipped in water (Source: A. Sydney Gladman, Elisabetta A. Matsumoto, L. Mahadevan, Jennifer A. Lewis: Harvard University and the Wyss Institute for Bioinspired Engineering, USA)

4D printing of a form-changing window structure (Source: David Correa, ICD/University of Stuttgart)

28

Shape-memory polymer

At the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETH Zurich), scientists are investigating how flat assembly kits can be formed into load-bearing three-dimensional objects by 4D printing a shape-memory polymer in a multi-material structure under the influence of external factors. At the centre of the investigations, there is a lifting element which undergoes changes between two possible states and can either be drawn in or pushed out. Struc-tures with several stable positions are also conceivable. The scientists want to use software to predict the shape change with precision.

Shape-memory alloy

The Laser Zentrum Hannover (LZH) successfully produced a cochlea implant for the deaf in 2014 by laser sintering a powdered nickel-titanium alloy shape-memory material which first moves into its final position within the ear under the influence of heat and optimally adjusts its geometry according to the cochlea shape of the individual. Implants for facial surgery have also already been developed. These can adjust to the individual’s body and can even grow along with children.

This object was printed as a flat structure (left) and can then be reshaped into two stable and load-bearing shapes (middle and right) (Source: ETH Zurich, Tian Chen)

Laser-additively produced microactor for cochlea implants (Source: Laser Zentrum Hannover LZH)

29

4D textiles

The ability to change shape can also be achieved by printing a prestressed textile. Here, the deformation is possible without any external energy being added, as the required energy has already been stored in the textile. The self-assembly lab at the MIT has already published various shape-changing textile structures under the con-cept “programmable textiles”, and these were created by printing a prestressed textile. In collaboration with Swiss designer Christophe Guberan, the scientists have also developed the “active shoe” as an application example for the fashion industry. The 2D-treated textile takes the shape of its final design independently after the printing process. Designers from Cologne are coming up with approaches for using the process for manufacturing acoustically effective 4D textiles. At the RWTH, scientists led by Professor Thomas Gries are working on applica-tions for biomedical technology, among other things. By printing a prestressed textile with a polymer, the wearer of an exoskeleton should have an easier time when carrying out various movements thanks to the energy stored in the textile.

An exoskeleton supporting the human gripping force. It was produced by 4D printing a plastic on a prestressed textile (Source: ITA Institut für Textiltechnik at the RWTH Aachen)

Active shoes project (Source: Christophe Guberan, Carlo Clopath, MIT self-assembly lab)

30

2.2 DATA GENERATION AND THE ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING PROCESS CHAIN

In addition to access to a production system, designing a component geometry with additive manufacturing technol-ogy also requires the complete 3D geometry information. 3D CAD programs can be used to create the geometry information and can convert the three dimensional data into a facet model (STL, AMF Additive Manufacturing File Format). The facet model is required for the entire process of additive manufacturing. The shaped part surfaces are approximated using triangles (triangulation). As such, a certain level of imprecision and deviations from the actual component draft may occur with curved surfaces, depend-ing on the number of triangles used. The data quantity increases with the number of triangles and the desired precision. The triangular facets, which can frequently be identified on printed components, are the result of the geometry approximation via the STL format.

If existing objects or bodies should be utilised to generate the data, then tactile or optical measuring techniques now provide the ability to do so (for example 3D scanning). In recent years, a variety of technologies have been developed which are capable of generating the data with different resolution qualities. Working with photos is the simplest option for 3D scanning. Today, a digital camera is sufficient to generate a 3D model through the use of at least 20 photos of an object, and with the help of software. What is currently the world’s largest mobile 3D scanner is offered by the start-up company botspot from Berlin, and, depending on the version, has 60 or 70 integrated cameras or photosensors for scanning bodies and large objects. The data collection is possible in less than 0.01 seconds. A detail accuracy of 0.1 to 0.2 millimetres is achieved.

In addition to working with photos, 3D scanning can also be carried out using light-sections or stripe projections. The procedures are more expensive; however the quality is generally higher. Lines or striped patterns are projected onto an object, the object is rotated and the changes to the angles recorded. Software can transform these into a 3D geometry model.

Regardless of whether the data is created with a 3D CAD system or by means of optical or tactile techniques, the subsequent preparation of the data represents a critical step within the additive manufacturing process. The reason for this is that errors often occur in the course of deriving the facet model from the CAD data, which then delay further processing. Such errors include the incorrect orientation of individual facets, gaps between the triangles or duplicated triangulation. These errors often have to be rectified manually.

In the case of slicing, the STL data is converted into the layer information (SLI data) required for the additive process via a separate software application. To make optimal use of a system’s construction space, multiple components are distributed on the component plat-form and aligned in such a way that there is no need for supporting structures. If, however, supporting structures cannot be omitted, then these are incorporated into the slicing process. The necessary software is available from the systems manufacturers and is delivered as part of the purchase. Defining the process parameters, such as the laser speed for SLS or the layer thickness for FLM, can have a decisive influence on the quality of the component surfaces and the manufacturing duration. The SLI data subsequently enables precise control of the machine.

The parts may require subsequent cleaning after additive manufacturing of the component geometry, depending on the process utilised. For example, the supporting struc-tures need to be removed in the case of some processes. Components can also be subjected to further treatment to improve the mechanical stability or the surface quality. The options range from simply polishing the component surfaces to the infiltration of porous structures with low-melt materials, or flocking or metallising to refine the shaped parts.

The world’s largest mobile 3D scanner(Source: botspot)

3D data in STL format SLI data with supporting structures

(Source: Anderl, R.: Additive Manufacturing or generative production process – from prototypes to mass production?” Presentation at the “Additive Manufacturing” event held by the Hessian Ministry for Eco-nomics, Energy, Transport and Regional Development, Hanau, 2014

31

2.3 PROCESS CHAINS INTEGRATING ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Since additive manufacturing became prevalent for pro-totype construction in the mid-1990s, it has also been utilised for over15 years in toolmaking. Given that these are generally complex shaped parts, additive manu-facturing processes have significant cost advantages in comparison to conventional techniques. Where the direct manufacturing of tools by means of laser sintering and laser melting of metals is the focus of the development in an industrial context, lower cost processes are now in use among the trades. In this case, the additive production techniques are generally integrated into a process chain. Laser melting or laser coat welding can also be utilised for tool repairs.

Glass-blowing

One variant of the integration of additive manufacturing procedures is the manual glass-blowing of large objects, which is almost impossible to carry out with conven-tional process steps. The glass body is first designed three-dimensionally on the computer and then printed as a shaped part using a large-scale FLM system. This is followed by moulding with plaster and the use of two tool halves which are then utilised for the actual glass-blowing and enable highly precise manufacturing of the desired component. Currently, the use of low-cost 3D printers in combination with materials such as metal or porcelain has been opened up experimentally.

Fine casting

When cast parts with a complex shaped part geometry need to be manufactured as cast metal, for the aerospace industry or biomedical engineering for example, then additively manufactured master forms also represent a suitable means of shortening the process chain. Previously, the master form had to be created in a complex process. Today, just a few hours are usually necessary to generate the model geometry. Stereolithography is the common choice due to the fact that high surface qualities can be achieved. Following additive manufacturing, the model is reworked and a ceramic coating is applied which becomes the fine casting forming tool after the master form has been burnt out. The process chain described can create cast components with a length of up to 1.20 metres. The shaping accuracy is very high. The deviations amount to a maximum of +/- 0.2 percent.

Vacuum casting

Function models made of two-component polyurethane can generally be created in small batches by means of vacuum moulding. An additively manufactured master form produced using stereolithography or laser sintering is suitable for the manufacturing process. This is formed out of silicone and cut into two halves with a view towards the necessary parting planes. The casting process takes place in a vacuum to prevent air bubbles or hollow spaces. Owing to the high flexibility of the silicone forms, even undercuts and complex structures can be implemented.

Reaction injection moulding RIM

Reaction injection moulding is a well-established process in the automotive industry for manufacturing plastic parts in small batches through the low-pressure injection of thermoset resins. To manufacture the necessary tool shapes, a master form first has to be additively produced on the basis of 3D CAD data, and this form then shaped with silicone or resins. Depending on the material se-lection, the low-pressure forming process can result in different batch sizes. Today, epoxy resin layers with glass fibre reinforcement are generally selected for particularly large components.

Silicon tools

(up to 25 – 50 injections)

Hybrid tools

(50 – 100 injections)

Resin tools with fibreglass reinforcement

(200 – 300 components)

Resin tools with aluminium reinforcement

(up to 300 – 1,000 components)

Material selection for the tool and achievable unit quantities (Source: Materialise)

32

Additive manufacturing principles have the potential to partially replace conventional production techniques such as milling or turning, and develop new value creation opportunities. In particular when combined with digiti-sation and increased flexibility of large-scale industrial production right up to aligning production processes toward batch size 1, additive manufacturing processes offer options that traditional processes only provide to a limited degree. Generative technologies provide qualities which make them essential for implementing the ‘Zukunftsprojekt Industrie 4.0’ [Industry 4.0 project for the future] as part of the German government’s high-tech strategy.

The current keen interest in the possibilities of additive production and the media attention since 2012 is primarily due to the convergence of two developments. Firstly, the manufacturers have improved the manufacturing and material systems to such an extent that they can compete with conventional production processes. They can now be utilised in direct component production for a whole host of market segments, meaning that in part, traditional production has been replaced by the processes built upon it (for example, medical products such as hearing aids).

3. THE CREATION OF ADDED VALUE WITH ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

33

Secondly, the expiry of a number of patents and prop-erty rights for a number of important processes such as filament printing in 2009 or laser sintering in 2014 has triggered a wave of development and a drop in prices which has made additive manufacturing attractive for end consumers. Between 2008 and 2011, the systems manufacturers in the low-cost sector (systems up to 5,000 US dollars) achieved annual increases of 346 percent. Hundreds of new manufacturers of filament printers and desktop laser sintering systems have now appeared on the market. In 2015, 278,000 low-cost 3D printers were sold globally (Wohlers’ Report 2016).

The ‘Hype Cycle’, published annually by the Gartner Incorporation, lends itself well to a detailed examination of the development and illustrates the technological developments, the expectations placed on them and the media interest using a curve graph. In the experience of market researchers, technical developments follow the following pattern: When a high level of media interest combined with a high level of expectation occurs after a specific technological innovation becomes public, this is followed by a phase of disillusionment regarding the

forecast potentials and thus a decline in the estimated value with regard to the financial opportunities. A sustainable development toward a productive technology does not take place until after this phase. Every new technology passes through the hype cycle at a different speed. How-ever, one assumes a period of at least ten years.

The hype cycle from 2017 clearly shows that additive man-ufacturing has developed into a promising technology in the industrial context, and that it is actively being used in production in a variety of different industries. In contrast, market researchers believe that the hype of recent years surrounding the use of 3D printing in the consumer sector has peaked. In the subsequent consolidation phase the economic potential and the opportunities will be critically examined. The productive use of 3D printers in a private context will not develop until after five or ten years. In bioprinting technology and the aerospace sector, the next few years will also see a consolidation of technical possibilities. The option of the additive production of replacement human tissue right up to the production of whole organs is still at the beginning of development, as is the ability to 3D print consumer goods.

Gartner Cycle from 2017 with a special focus on additive production systems (Source: Gartner Inc. 2017)

less than 2 years 2 to 5 years 5 to 10 years more than 10 years obsolete before plateau

Years to mainstream adoption:

Expectations

InnovationTrigger

Peak of Inflated

Expectations

Trough ofDisillusionment

Slope of Enlightenment Plateau ofProductivity

As of July 2017

Time

3D Printing Workflow Software

3DP of Consumable Personal Products

4D Printing

Nanoscale 3DP

3D PrintedWearables

3D BioprintedOrgan Transplants

IP Protection in 3DPMacro 3D Printing

Sheet Lamination

3D Printing in Oil and Gas

Powder Bed Fusion

Classroom 3D Printing

3D Printing in Retail

Directed EnergyDeposition

3D Printing in Supply Chain 3D Printed Surgical Implants

3D Bioprinting for Life Sciance R&D3D Printing of Medical Devices

3D Bioprinted Human TissueCunsumer 3D Printing

3D Printing in Manufacturing Operations3DP in Aerospace und Defense

Stereolithography

3D Printing of Hearing Devices3D Printing for Prototyping

3D Printing Service Bureaus

3D Print Creation Software

3D Scanners

Material Extrusion

Enterprise 3D Printing

3DP in Automotive

Binder Jetting

Material Jetting

3D Printing of Dental Devices

3D Printed Electronics and Fabrication

3DP PresurgeryAnatomical Models

3D Printed Tooling,Jigs and Fixtures

3D-Printed Drugs

34

3.1 MARKET ASSESSMENT

The overall market for additive manufacturing has ex-perienced significant growth over recent years and by 2022 is expected to have reached 34 billion US dollars (2016: 6.4 billion US dollars) and a forecast average growth between 2016 and 2022 of an average of 28.5 percent (Source: Mordor Intelligence 2017). Around 50 percent of the forecast market volume is expected in the automotive industry, in aerospace and space travel as well as in mechanical and systems engineering (Source: Melz, Thyes 2017). Based on their qualitative disadvantages with regard to the strength and stability requirements, up until approximately ten years ago, additive technolo-gies were exclusively restricted to rapidly manufacturing prototypes (rapid prototyping) and tools (rapid tooling). Since 2013, the market is undergoing a transformation and a redistribution in part towards the direct production of components using additive manufacturing processes. These developments induce a positively developing materials market for additive production. In 2016, the worldwide market for AM materials was at 447 million US dollars and by 2022 with an average growth of 21.4 percent, should increase to the forecast 1.268 billion US dollars (Source: Mordor Intelligence 2017).

In the industrial sectors named, 3D printing techniques have a disruptive nature for a few product areas. The possibility of reducing the number of parts and saving materials based on topological optimisation for the same or even better mechanical qualities allow additive pro-duction processes to become indispensable for some components and to substitute traditional production. In addition, in the next five to ten years, the manufacture costs for additively produced parts using high-speed printers are supposed to drop dramatically. The LZN Laser Zentrum Nord expects a cost reduction of around 100-fold (Sander 2017). Financial experts at the Dutch ING Bank even state in a study from September 2017 that by 2040 additive production will take on a proportion of 50 percent of overall industrial production, provided the growth of investments in additive production systems continues as it has been in recent years. The authors of the study also expect that additive production will lead to a lower growth in trade because work with 3D printing system requires less labour and the import requirements of pre-materials and end products from low-wage countries will decrease (Source: ING Bank 2017).

As well as the substitution of traditionally manufactured parts with parts manufactured additively, the market entry barriers, particularly for new companies and start-ups with innovative business concepts in commercial production, will be reduced. A large number of new company founda-tions is expected, where the business models push other value added potentials to the fore through a combination of additive manufacturing and digital networking. Idea, design and construction gain more importance in the value chain, while production will become a regional and thus constantly available resource. It is expected that the international, immaterial flow of goods and the transfer of data will increase in the future.

3D-printed kit to upgrade a normal bike into an electric bike (Source: Faraday Motion)

ING Bank study reaches the conclusion that 50 percent of all products will be produced using additive production processes in the future (Source: ING Bank, October 2017)

2017 2040 2060

Production with 3Dprinters, Scenario II

Production with 3Dprinters, Scenario I

Production with traditional machinery

0

11250

16000

37500

35

3.2 QUALITATIVE ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY STUDY

The meaningful use of additive technologies in produc-tion is already possible to a far greater extent than is currently being discussed (Cf. Breuninger, J.; Becker, R.; Wolf, A.; Rommel, S.; Verl, A.: Generative Fertigung mit Kunststoffen: Konzeption und Konstruktion für Selektives Lasersintern [Generative production with plastics: design and construction for selective laser sintering]. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 2013). In addition to the material and machine costs, additive processes can also reduce a number of other costs which previously resulted from the necessity of production-oriented design, material usage and the logistics of semi-finished products and waste materials in conventional production processes.

Resource efficiency, weight reduction and assembly work

Since the component complexity does not have an influ-ence on the production costs, merging design elements can significantly reduce the number of parts and the amount of assembly work. This has a positive effect on both the production costs and also on the possibility of reducing resource and material usage through complex hollow structures which are impossible to create using conventional techniques. Software-supported topological optimisation by using bionic structural principles allow an optimised distribution of material to be achieved, taking into account the mechanical loads. The material requirement can thus be reduced to a minimum. The accompanying reduction in weight has positive economic and ecological effects, in particular for aerospace, elec-tromobility and in biomedical technology.

Design work and the creation of drawings

Reducing the number of parts also reduces the company’s overall design work. Although the component construc-tions must be designed for the corresponding additive system technology, the additive manufacturing principle enables designs which were previously only possible with a significant amount of work. Furthermore, merging parts also reduces the necessity of creating drawings for the production. The simplified data management represents another saving potential for the production industry.

Semi-finished product expenses and waste management in production

When operating additive production facilities, one can also expect reduced logistics overheads for the provi-sion of semi-finished products or materials compared to those previously required when operating conventional production facilities. This applies to the provision of cooling lubricants and also to the disposal of waste ma-terial resulting from machining production. Furthermore, neither the clamping devices nor equipment still found in classical production operations are required.

Using the services offered by 3D printing service provid-ers or operating low-cost systems in an office or private context can also create even greater savings potentials in comparison to the conventional process between production, assembly, packaging, logistics and sales. Downloading component data from the internet combined with additive production and the ability to directly use the component significantly shortens the classic value chain. In 2013, researchers from Michigan University discovered significant savings potentials in comparison to the store price when comparing 20 printed test objects for prod-ucts from the electronics and consumer goods sectors.

LightHinge+: Weight reduction through topological optimisation (Source: EDAG Engineering GmbH)

36

Weight (gram)

Power consumption

(kilowatt hour)

Cost of plastic

Cost of electricity

Total RepRap cost

Retail cost (total, low)

Retail cost (total, high)

Savings potential for the manufacture of products based on Open Source design using a 3D printer from American company RepRap; all costs and prices in US dollars (Source: Michigan Technology University, Joshua Pearce)

Product

iPhone 5 dock

iPhone 4 dock

iPhone 5 case (custom)

Jewellery organiser

Garlic press

Caliper

Wall plate

Shower curtain ring (12 units)

Shower head

Key hanger (3 hooks)

iPad stand

Shoe inserts

Safety razor

Pickup

Train track toy

Nano watchband (5 links)

iPhone tripod

Kitchen roll holder

Pierogi mould

Spoon holder

46,2

19,5

7,5

19,63

45,01

6,37

15.,7

33,6

71,32

17,03

11,24

39,08

9,9

39,31

11,27

9,15

12,88

63,44

18,9

11,6

0,28

0,1

0,04

0,08

0,26

0,05

0,07

0,24

0,27

0,08

0,1

0,13

0,09

0,19

0,06

0,05

0,08

0,31

0,07

0,06

1,62

0,68

0,26

0,69

1,58

0,22

0,55

1,18

2,50

0,60

0,39

1,37

0,35

1,38

0,39

0,32

0,45

2,22

0,66

0,41

0,03

0,01

0,00

0,01

0,03

0,01

0,01

0,03

0,03

0,01

0,01

0,02

0,01

0,02

0,01

0,01

0,01

0,04

0,01

0,01

1,65

0,69

0,27

0,70

1,61

0,23

0,56

1,20

2,53

0,61

0,41

1,38

0,36

1,40

0,40

0,33

0,46

2,26

0,67

0,41

3,56

16,99

20,00

9,00

5,22

6,08

2,30

2,99

7,87

6,98

16,99

99,00

17,00

9,99

39,48

16,98

8,50

11,20

6,95

4,95

29,99

39,99

56,00

104,48

10,25

7,88

22,07

2,99

437,22

49,10

49,00

800,00

78,00

22,99

58,98

79,95

29,95

25,00

24,99

15,00

3.3 APPLICATION SCENARIOS AND INDUSTRIES

The following illustration of the technology maturities indicates that the opportunities additive manufacturing offers for the main industrial branches are developing in different ways. It can clearly be seen that additive principles have already become established in biomedical technol-ogy. In recent years, these principles have also gained a

certain importance in toolmaking and in the aerospace industry. In contrast, a major effort will be required to in-crease the application diversity in the automotive industry to transfer the systems from their fundamental suitability for the industry to mass production capability.

• Fuel nozzles• Structural

elements• Stator

components

• Tools• Inserts

• Air channels• Formula 1

components

• Crowns and veneers

• Artificial hip joints

• Medical instruments

Production at full capacity 10 10 10 10

Production at partial capacity 9 9 9 9

Capabilities of a pilot line demonstrated 8 8 8 8

Production validated in the production environment 7 7 7 7

Production systems manufactured 6 6 6 6

Basic capabilities proven (production-related) 5 5 5 5

Technology validated in the laboratory 4 4 4 4

Feasibility study carried out 3 3 3 3

Production concept identified 2 2 2 2

Functional principle identified 1 1 1 1

Examples

(Quelle: Roland Berger, Experteninterviews )

AutomotiveAerospace ToolmakingBiomedical technology

37

Increasing sales figures in metal systems and particularly the jump in sales of systems for additive manufacturing of metallic components between 2012 and 2016, imply that the industry is preparing for an increase in the use of additive manufacturing processes.

3.3.1 Vehicle IndustryVehicle manufacturers number among the first companies to adopt additive technologies as part of development processes for rapid prototyping, and have used the tech-nologies since the mid-1990s. However, in contrast to the aerospace industry, the quantities are so large that the integration of additive manufacturing techniques into the automotive industry’s automated production processes has not been possible thus far from an economic point of view. Although complex individual components and spare parts are already being produced using additive manufacturing principles in individual cases, mainly in the plastics sector, widespread usage has not yet taken place. This is expected to occur in the 2020s with the increasing productivity of additive manufacturing systems (Source: Herzog, Ernsberger 2017).

The large number of projects from recent years in which the direct additive manufacturing of vehicle components including complete chassis elements has been tested already indicates the approaching entry of additive pro-duction methods into the automotive industry. EDAG Engineering GmbH located in Fulda, in particular, has already drawn attention with a series of additive manufac-turing concept vehicles such as the EDAG Genesis study or the prototype “EDAG Light Cocoon”. Above all, the EDAG designers are expecting additive manufacturing processes to have the possibility of creating lightweight structures from nature to reduce the vehicle weight and the integration of functions.

Market potential

Due to the fact that the mass-production capability of additive manufacturing processes has only existed to a limited extent for the automotive industry thus far, hybrid approaches are being developed for the medium term and include the integration of laser coat welding into a classical processing centre (Abele 2014), for example. Experts believe that industrial 3D printing can only play out its series advantages if the observations go well beyond optimisations with regard to structural mechanics and lightweight construction, and if the additive production of whole components becomes economically conceiv-able in the future. The market analysts at Lux Research calculate a market volume in the automotive industry at just under four billion US dollars for 2025 (Lux Research 2013). Furthermore, the ability to manufacture ‘on de-mand’ will transform the value chains and production will take place precisely where a custom fit component or spare part is required. According to a 2016 study, the trend researchers at Frost & Sullivan expect an increase in the vehicle industry AM market of 34 percent between 2015 and 2020.

Metal systems sales figures (Source: Wohlers’ Report 2017)

0100200300400500600700800900

10001100

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

474 %

957

GENESIS study (Source: EDAG)

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Projects and special developments

3i-Print: additively produced front section for VW Caddy

In summer 2017, the companies Altair, APWORKS, csi entwicklungstechnik, EOS GmbH, GERG and Heraeus demonstrated that industrial 3D printing could have a great deal of potential for the automotive industry in the future, using the example of an additively produced front section structure of an old VW Caddy in the joint development project 3i-PRINT. As well as a particularly lightweight structure, the team were able to integrate a large number of functions into the structure and thus generate real added value. In this way, the additively manufactured front section structure has details for the active and passive cooling of batteries and brakes. In the project, the design for the simulation, calculation and planning of all process stages were mapped out, right up to the construction and reworking of the component.

Autonomous shuttlebus OLLI

As part of the future concept “personal transport of the future”, Deutsche Bahn has been testing an autonomous bus line on the Euref campus in Berlin since the end of 2016 as a forerunner of self-driving vehicles in public transport. The test vehicle is the shuttlebus “Olli” from American company Local Motors, who already caused a sensation in 2014 with the electric car Strati and its 3D printed vehicle chassis at the International Manufacturing Technology Show (IMTS). The shuttlebus “Olli” was the prize-winner in the 3D Printed Car Design Challenge 2016. Components of the self-driving minibus were produced using 3D printing technology.

Cordless screwdriver race 2016

In 2016, the ninth cordless screwdriver race took place, set up as usually by the Faculty of Design at the HAWK University of Applied Sciences and Arts in Hildesheim. The idea behind the competition is for student teams to compete against one another and develop a vehicle for one person which is only powered with the energy from a cordless screwdriver. The theme in 2016 was the possibilities of using additive production methods when creating the vehicles. According to the rules, solutions were permitted which were partially produced with 3D printers and generative technologies. Here, the load-bearing structure should travel a distance of at least half a metre with the help of the 3D printed component between the axles alone.

The structure is particularly light and at the same time, stable, and has many integrated functions (Photo: Haute Innovation)

Vehicle with a 3D printed load-bearing structure (Source: University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Faculty of Design)

Autonomous shuttlebus OLLI with 3D printed chassis elements (Source: Deutsche Bahn)

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Spare part logistics using additive production

The provision of spare parts in the vehicle industry using 3D printing is currently the subject of intense discussion. Additive technologies would not just be interesting for vintage cars where it is no longer possible to find spare parts. Vehicles older than ten years could also find value in the implementation of a system with additive process-es. The data would be made available to the workshops where the desired component could then be printed out on site when required. There would be no need to keep parts stored at the site of manufacture. In the project ‘Kfz-Service-Engineering 2020’, Professor Rolf Steinhilper, who holds the chair for Environmentally-Oriented Pro-duction Technology at Bayreuth University, is currently investigating the option of reducing the labour involved in replacing parts. Instead of exchanging a complete part, the faulty area could be recorded using a scanner and a new component produced using additive manufacturing technologies. This method would save resources and reduce repair costs for the vehicle owner and the added value would remain with the workshops. In 2016, Deutsche Bahn AG started a network of additive manufacturing in the mobility and logistics sector under the name of “Mo-bility goes Additive” and is establishing a system for spare part management. In August 2017, Mercedes Benz trucks recorded the successful production of a replacement part for a thermostat cover for trucks of older model ranges. At Renault, the potential of reducing the weight of trucks has been investigated since the beginning of 2017 for the production of components for the Euro-6 motors.

3D printed tyres

Car tyres number among the few parts of the vehicle which have changed very little in both their design and in their material composition over the last decades. Now, French tyre manufacturer Michelin has set itself the task of completely rethinking the tyre within the conceptual study “Movin’On by Michelin”. The result is a tyre pro-duced using 3D printing which has a complex, delicate lightweight structure similar to bones and which has a 3D printed tread. In this way, Michelin wants to make the tyre adaptable to suit differing road surfaces and climate conditions. If a change is needed, the driver is led to the next printing workshop and receives a new tyre profile. All the printed materials used should also be biodegradable.

3.3.2 Biomedical Technology Additive manufacturing methods are extremely important for biomedical technology because they enable the imple-mentation of individual geometries with a batch size of 1. This makes it possible to test for operative interventions in printed models at a manageable cost. Furthermore, the layered construction allows the option of creating hollow interior structures, such as those found naturally in bones, for example. This was not possible with conven-tional techniques such as milling or turning. Biomedical technology is the industrial area where the use of 3D printing technologies has established itself the most for direct component production. For a few product areas such as individual hearing aids, it has almost completely replaced conventional production processes.

Additive processes have the inherent potential to mix materials in order to precisely adapt shaped parts to the individual requirements of the human body, whether in the form of implants, prosthetics or dental prostheses. In recent years, bioprinting has developed into a new field for the use of additive technologies. This refers to processes with the ability to manufacture human or animal tissues through the 3D printing of cultured cells in an organic ink by utilising tissue engineering techniques.

4-cylinder motor block in AISi10Mg. Additively manufactured in one of the largest laser sintering systems available, an X-Line 2000, with two lasers of 1,000 watts each. Construction space: 80 x 40 x 50 centimetres (Source: FKM Sintertechnik)

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Market potential

Over recent years, medical institutions have increased their investments in systems, services and software related to additive manufacturing. According to a current study from the end of November 2017, Gartner trend researchers believe that three percent of all large hospitals and med-ical research institutes have now established resources (systems, personnel, material, etc.) and knowledge in this area. Furthermore, the authors of the study also believe that by 2021, around a quarter of all surgeons will attempt the actual surgery on 3D printed models of the patient and thus reduce the number of unsuccess-ful operations. The provision of ready-to-use solutions regarding operation preparation and tools for surgical training and simulations will be the subject of increasing demand. Market researchers at Lux Research forecast the proportion of biomedical technology compared to the total market volume for generative production at over 391 million for 2025. This also refers to the manufacture and adaptation of prosthetics and implants, as well as applications in dentistry, medical device construction and surgical single-use equipment. The market for bio-printing is not expected to develop until after 2025 (Lux Research 2013).

Projects and special developments Individual dental prostheses and additively produced titanium hearing aid shells

Additive manufacturing methods have established them-selves in the market for the production of individual dental prostheses and dental applications such as bridges, inlays or crowns. Dental technicians value the option to manufacture solutions tailored to the patient at an af-fordable cost. Additive production has now also become accepted for hearing aid shells. These were traditionally made from acrylic. In summer 2017, Swiss-based Sono-va Group announced the additive manufacture of the world’s first hearing aid shell from titanium. This is 15 times more resistant than their acrylic counterparts and can be designed to be so small that even patients with a small ear canal can wear a hearing aid, although they were not able to before.

Bone drills with integrated cooling channels

In summer 2017, the Leibniz University Hannover pre-sented a bone drill with an integrated cooling system in cooperation with Toolcraft. When using a conventional drill during operations, so much heat can be produced that healthy tissue can be permanently damaged. Addi-tive manufacturing makes it possible to integrate internal cooling channels into the drill. In this way, the undesired development of heat can be eliminated. Water is fed into the tool as a coolant during drilling and reduces the temperature to a value which is safe for the patient.

3D printer for medications

American start-up Vitae Industries has developed a so-called AutoCompounder 3D printer which can print medicines and pharmaceutical jelly pastilles in just a few minutes, designed for individual patient requirements. The founders of the start-up want to make the treatment process of patients much simpler with the personalisation of medication and dosing and the fast provision of pills. With the concept of polypills, several active ingredients can be combined in a single tablet.

Tailor-made titanium hearing aid shells (Source: Sonova Group)

Additively produced bone drill with integrated cooling channels (Source: Toolcraft)

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Bioprinting / tissue engineering

A number of institutes worldwide are currently working on options for additively manufacturing organs and human tissue. The medium term goals are to create or-gans for testing purposes and produce human tissue for implants. Biological ink containing human cells is used to construct the organic tissue structure, layer by layer. Numerous scientific publications have already reported the reproduction of human skin (Wake Forest University), the artificial creation of a meniscus (Cornell University), an auricle (University of Melbourne) and 3D printed bio-logical materials which break down toxic substances (ETH Zurich). A team of scientists led by James Yoo has reported successfully printing a large section of skin on the back of a pig. However, creating a complete organ consisting of multiple types of tissue remains just as impossible as manufacturing a network of functional blood vessels. In view of this, a mature system for artificially creating organs will not be available for the next ten to 15 years. Bioprinters are currently available from manufacturers such as Envision Tech, Organova and Advanced Systems, and are primarily utilised for scientific purposes.

3.3.3 Aerospace IndustrySince components manufactured by means of laser melt-ing have been able to demonstrate similar mechanical strengths as those made using conventional milling technologies, additive manufacturing processes have become increasingly important in aircraft construction. In mid 2011, Southampton University announced the first successful additive manufacturing of an unmanned aircraft. In September 2014, NASA sent the first 3D printer to the ISS. In April 2016, Airbus announced the use of the first 3D printed components in an engine for the next gener-ation of A320. In 2017, parts of the hydraulics of an A380 were produced using additive manufacturing processes. Over recent years, the large aircraft manufacturers have increasingly expanded their production capacities with additive manufacturing methods. Airbus has already carried out over 250 development projects related to 3D metal printing and bionics (Sander 2017).

Fuel connectors produced using laser melting in Ti6-4 (Source: Airbus)

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In addition to the freedom in design and geometry, laser melting also provides faster processing times in compar-ison to conventional casting or milling processes, along with reduced tool costs as well as significant savings in materials, energy and time. Cost reductions ranging up to 50 percent and a weight reduction of up to 40 percent were successfully achieved for a number of selected com-ponents. Whereas milling aircraft components resulted in a waste quantity of approximately 95 percent, laser melting reduces the waste to 5 percent. Furthermore, additive processes provide the opportunity to create a design aligned with the lines of force and address the lightweight design requirements even more effectively. In view of these benefits, Airbus plans to additively pro-cess approximately 40 tons of metal powder per month using 100 systems.

The use of generative processes in the aerospace in-dustry will create new design options with regard to the complexity and functionality of components. This, in turn, will have a positive effect on flight behaviour and energy consumption. This also applies to implementing cooling channels and the geometry of entire structural compo-nents for the wings and engines. Aircraft manufacturers are already examining the possibilities for implementing designs based on nature’s role models through the uses of additive technologies.

“There is a good reason why nature has optimised function-al and lightweight design principles over millions of years and cleverly minimised resource usage. Airbus is currently carrying out a structured analysis of the applicability of these natural solutions,” said qualified engineer Professor

Dr. Ing. Emmelmann (CEO, Laser Zentrum Nord GmbH, Hamburg; www.maschinenmarkt.vogel.de/themenkanaele/additive_fertigung/articles/461436/index3.html). He sees major potential with regard to structural components with dimensions of up to one metre, in particular, along with engine components.

Market potential

Additive manufacturing is primarily of interest to the aer-ospace industry given that the sector tends to work with small and medium-sized quantities. High tool costs have a significantly greater influence on the production costs than those of the automotive industry’s mass or large-series production. As such, additive manufacturing processes are expected to provide a significant reduction in the cost per unit. Furthermore, experts also expect an additional, positive cost effect through the transformation of spare parts logistics toward ‘on demand’ supply. Decentralised supply networks could safeguard on-site supply and re-duce delivery times for spare parts, along with downtimes and inspection times. According to trend researchers at Gartner, 75 percent of all new commercial and military aircraft will use additively manufactured components in the airframe, engines and other components by 2021 (Source: Gartner 2018). Pioneers for additive production in the aerospace industry are engine manufacturers GE Aviation as well as Boeing and Airbus.

Thor is an unmanned test engine by which the possibilities of using 3D printed materials in

aerospace technology can be tested (Source: Airbus)

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GE Aviation

As one of the pioneers in the aerospace industry, GE Aviation has been systematically expanding its produc-tion capacities since 2011 with additive manufacturing processes. As one of the world’s largest manufactures of aircraft engines, the company expects additive man-ufacturing to provide long-term cost advantages. The components require less material and are also more durable than those manufactured using conventional production processes. By 2020, GE Aviation wants to have increased the revenue in additive manufacturing to a billion US dollars. By purchasing the German manu-facturer Concept Laser (Printing process: SLM selective laser melting) and the Swedish systems manufacturer Arcam (EBM electron beam melting) in summer 2016, the company has secured its access to technology com-petence for the planned company expansion and, at the same time, taken over the influence of more than a fifth of the worldwide market for metal printers.

Partition

With the Bionic Partition in 2016, Airbus created the world’s largest additively produced aircraft component from metal at that time. This is a partition wall between the onboard kitchen and the passenger cabin which, thanks to bionic construction methods, could be made 45 percent lighter than comparable solutions and shall be used in the A320. The weight reduction was achieved due to orientation towards the complex growth ratio of slime fungus which organises its network of veins in a particularly efficient manner. The joints are designed in such a way that the organism can always find the short-est way between several food sources. When designing the partition wall, the Airbus developers simulated the growth mechanism and transferred this to the structure. The weight reduction reduces the CO2 emissions of the aircraft each year by up to ten tons. Thanks to additive production and the modular structure, the partition walls can also be incorporated into existing aircraft cabins. Indi-vidual components can also be replaced when required.

3D printed hydraulics

In cooperation with TU Chemnitz and Airbus, Liebherr Aerospace developed a spoiler actuator valve block in spring 2017 using 3D metal printing (SLM of titanium powder) and thus presented the world’s first 3D printed hydraulic component of primary flight control. It was used in a test flight for the A380 and is 35 percent lighter than the common solution used previously. Liebherr-Aerospace expects that the weight reduction at a system level will lead to a significant reduction in CO2 and NOx emissions in future aircraft.

Airbus cargo drone challenge

In 2016, the Airbus group and Local Motors from the USA brought about the first Airbus cargo drone challenge and searched for future application scenarios for drones within the framework of an open innovation model. In concrete terms, they were looking for a drone with a load-bearing capacity of three to five kilograms. In total, there was a prize fund of 100,000 US dollars. Above all, the Airbus representatives were enthusiastic about the number and diversity of the submitted ideas. There was a total of 425 suggestions from 53 countries. The winner of the competition was Russian architect Alexey Medvedev from Omsk with his freight drone “Zelator”.Market spread in metal printing

(Source: Wohlers’ Report 2017)

Additively manufactured partition wall Bionic Partition

(Source: Airbus)

EOS 25,9 %

Concept Laser 16,3 % (GE acquisition)

SLM Solutions 10,9 %

Renishaw 6,2 %

Trumpf 6,2 %

Arcam 5,2 % (GE acquisition)

Others 29,3 %

Germany UK Sweden

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3.3.4 Construction Industry and Architecture

Additive processes (in particular LLM processes) have been used successfully for model construction for a number of years. However, the fact that additive technologies may also be suitable in construction and for manufacturing architectural structures has become a topic of discussion once again since ESA announced a project to construct a space station on the moon. Dr. Behrokh Khoshnevis was one of the first scientists to develop a concept for the use of additive technologies for construction at the University of Southern California in 2004 with the name ‘Contour Crafting’. The system utilises a portal robot to spray rapidly hardening special concrete onto the surface in layers to create buildings according to digital construction plans in less than 24 hours. In addition to constructing private residences, the application scenarios are visualised for situations in which architectural structures have to be con-structed in remote regions in the shortest possible time. Series maturity was initially forecast for 2008. However, difficulties with the strength of the construction material, along with problems implementing the floor slabs and overhanging structures, have continued to delay the de-velopmental maturity. There is yet to be a breakthrough in terms of series maturity. There is a number of pilot pro-jects or models which could demonstrate the potentials of these production principles in construction.

In the context of the NASA Innovation Advanced Concepts Program (NIAC) a robot controlled solution for constructing a space station on the moon was presented in 2012, and is based on the previously developed concept. In spring 2014, the Chinese construction company WinSun from Shanghai announced the successful development of a simple building structure with the help of an additive manufacturing process. According to the developers’ statements, it should be possible to construct a building with the shape and size of a garage in less than 20 hours for under 5,000 US dollars. The construction of a 6-storey apartment building using additive manufacturing was presented by WinSun in January 2015 with a significant savings potential.

Since then, a number of other model attempts and re-search plans have become known for establishing additive manufacturing processes in the construction industry. Since 2015, Imprimere AG from Switzerland has been the first supplier of a portal printer for concrete in Europe. In 2017, Dr Behrokh Khoshnevis founded Contour Crafting Corporation to bring the first large-format printer for buildings onto the market in mid-2018 and to offer 3D printing in architecture himself as a service. At the Milan Design Week 2018, the first 3D printed building in Eu-rope was presented on the Piazza Cesare Beccaria in the centre of the capital of the region of Lombardy under the name of “3D Housing 05”. A robotic arm printed their own developed fast-hardening concrete mixture from cement supplier Italcementi to create the unusual building struc-ture with kitchen, bathroom, living room and bedroom and a surface of 100 square metres.

Concrete 3D printing with steel reinforcement (Source: Imprimere)

BIG 3D concrete printer (Source: Imprimere)

3D Housing 05 – the first 3D printed building in Europe (Photo: Haute Innovation)

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Market potential

The use of additive processes in construction is in an early phase of development. The market researchers’ analyses rarely define the size of the market. In his report from 2017, Terry Wohlers states the market segment for architecture (including model construction) as three percent of the overall market of additive production (Wohlers’ Report 2017). It can be expected that in the near future, this market will experience significant growth.


3D printed office building in Dubai

The first printed office building with floor space of 250 square metres including furniture and interior features was opened after a build period of 17 days at the end of May 2016 in Dubai, as part of the “Museum of the Future”. Here, a portal printer with a construction space of 36 x 6 metres was used. The construction costs for the building were estimated at 140,000 US dollars. The Dubai admin-istration plans to use additive production technologies for 25 percent of all new buildings by 2030.

The world’s first 3D printed pedestrian bridge

At the end of 2016 in the city of Alcobendas near Ma-drid, the world’s first 3D printed pedestrian bridge was opened. It is 12 metres long, 1.75 metres wide and part of a walking route in the Castilla La Mancha park. The microfibre-reinforced concrete structure was topologically optimised according to biomimetic structure principles and the quantity of building materials used was reduced to a minimum. A D-shape portal printer from Enrico Dini was used for the 3D printing. The development was the result of collaboration between the Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia (IAAC) in Barcelona and the construction materials manufacturer ACCIONA.

CONPrint 3D

The research project CONPrint 3D was carried out at the Dresden University of Technology in order to transfer 3D printing into the construction industry. Here, no portal robots were used; instead, a large-scale robot fitted with a printhead. For the scientists, this was a question of de-veloping a quick-hardening special concrete which can be applied layer by layer and without formwork based on geometrical data. The team at the Dresden University of Technology estimate a savings potential of 30 percent for the solid concrete construction.

3D printed pedestrian bridge (Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia IAAC)

CONPrint 3D – Large-scale robot fitted with a printhead (Source: TU Dresden)

3D printed office building in Dubai (Photo: Haute Innovation)

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Delta WASP 3D clay printer

In autumn 2014 in Rome, the first large 3D clay printer with a height of 6 metres was introduced with the aim of creating affordable housing in the poor regions of Afri-ca. The printer is made up of three moveable rods and, according to the developers’ statements, can process several types of clay to form a structural height of up to three metres. Here, a mixture of clay, natural fibres and silt is used to build igloo-like structures. The BIG Delta WASP can now achieve a height of twelve metres.

Robot-controlled metal coat welding process

Since 2015, Dutch designer Joris Laarman and his company MX3D have been working in collaboration with Autodesk and construction company Heijmans on a robot-controlled coat welding process for the additive manufacture of a metal bridge over a canal in Amsterdam. During this process, conventionally available welding wire is melted and applied in layers. The speed of the process is set in such a way that cooling and hardening take place as fast as is necessary to eliminate the need for a support structure for overhangs and undercuts. The 3D printed metal bridge is expected to be finished in autumn 2018. The bridge will be installed in 2019.

10 Smart Kvadrat

In 2016, the Swedish systems manufacturer BLB Industries presented a large-scale printer for plastic components based on fused granular fabrication technology (FGF) which can be adapted to each application in terms of dimension and execution. In the context of the model project “10 Smarta Kvadrat”, a building component as a wall structure with an embedded window made from the polymer PLA with a 20 percent wood fibre composition was 3D printed in collaboration with a Swedish construction company. The additive manufacturing process, carried out with a two millimetre nozzle and with a scope of ten components, lasted a total of one week.

3D printed metal bridge (Source: MX3D, Amsterdam)

3D printed room corner from the project “10 Smarta Kvadrat” (Source: BLB Industries)

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3.3.5 Electronics Additively produced and 3D printed electronic systems are being introduced in numerous areas of application: in biomedical technology, in the development and pro-duction of electronic devices, in vehicle construction, in the aerospace industry, for mobile digital systems and in the energy sector. Certain functions and properties can be created much quicker and more simply using 3D printing than they can with traditional manufacturing methods. This includes applications with electrically con-ductive structures as well as insulating areas or sensory components. Above all, additive production in electronics is expected in all areas where economic advantages are created compared to the previously used methods with regard to reductions in component size and weight. In the biomedical development processes in particular, the quick provision of circuit boards is highly relevant.

A vast number of methods and technologies have been developed to allow the additive application of electrically conductive inks or pastes through screen printing, dis-persion processes and ink or aerosol jetting. In addition, additives embedded in plastic objects are important for 3D printed electronics. This includes electrically conductive filaments where it is possible to create simple electrical systems on conventional FLM printers. The next devel-opment boost for additive production in electronics is expected in graphene-based filament printing (Frost & Sullivan 2016). Battery systems are expected to have 3D printing possibilities. At the moment, scientists are work-ing on AM methods for manufacturing nano electronic solutions. The first 3D printer for electronics came onto the market in 2015.

Market potential

Die 3D-gedruckte Elektronik ist ein Markt, der sich in der 3D printed electronics is a market which should develop in a very positive manner over the next decade. A mar-ket volume of one billion US dollars is forecast for 2025 (Harrop 2015). The applications suggest a strong reference to traditional two-dimensional printing techniques. Here, bent, but still two-dimensional, surfaces are printed, but no three dimensional objects are created.


3D printed antenna

Neotech AMT GmbH in Nuremberg specialises in the development of 3D printers and processes for electronic applications. By using a patent-protected technology, the additive production systems can build electronic components and systems onto even and complex three-di-mensional shaped substrates. The area of application of Neotech’s technology also covers injection-moulded circuit carriers (moulded interconnect devices, 3D MID), integrated sensors and materials to protect and connect sensitive electronics. An application example is a 3D printed antenna for mobile communication applications.

Printed battery (Source: Fraunhofer ENAS)

3D printed electronics for the automotive industry (Source: Neotech AMT GmbH)

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Voltera V One circuit board printer

With a printer for conductive pastes and inks, a student developer team at the Canadian Waterloo University won the race for the acclaimed James Dyson Award at the end of 2015. The investment capital of £ 331,000 collected via a Kickstarter campaign was used to bring Voltera V-One onto the market. The quick provision of circuit boards is particularly important for the development of digital devices and biomedical applications. Small changes to the design of switches mean a lot of labour-intensive proto-types when conventional methods are used. With Voltera V-One, the effort required for the creation of versions of electronic switches can be reduced to a minimum in the development phases of the electronic industry. With the V-One, a conductive liquid with silver particles is applied onto conventional platinum material. A second, non-con-ductive, liquid then ensures that the layer is electrically insulated between the individual layers.

3D printing technology for the integration of electronics

In 2017, the University of Sheffield in cooperation with Boeing developed an additive manufacturing process to integrate electrical components, optical systems or structural elements into a component during 3D printing. Using this method, complex functional elements can be manufactured in one production stage in a way which saves time and costs. The development was registered at the patent office under the name of “Thread”. The function has only been tested on plastic up until now. According to the Boeing development engineers, however, the process is also transferable to other 3D printing systems. The scientists’ primary aim was to be able to create com-ponents with interruption-free cables, filaments and wires in all three dimensions and to give additively produced parts additional functions.

3D printing for permanent magnets

The creation of permanent magnets with a strong magnetic effect is today’s state of the art technology. However, the creation of complex geometries with a specific magnetic field effect is quite a challenge for scientists and producers. Shaping processes such as injection moulding cannot be used for reasons of economy. Scientists at the Vienna University of Technology developed a 3D printer in 2017 to produce permanent magnets with custom magnetic fields in an additive manufacturing process for the first time. Special filaments for the magnet printer were de-veloped out of a magnetic micro-granulate, which was bonded in a polymer matrix. The magnetic particles are so finely distributed in a thermosetting plastic that the filament softens in a heated nozzle and can be applied layer by layer. The new printer produces permanent magnets which consist of around 90 percent magnetic material and ten percent plastic. After shaping, the not yet magnetic material is placed under a strong external magnetic field and the permanent magnet is created. During this process, the field can be set specifically in terms of effect.

Fluidic force microscopy

An additive production process is currently being re-searched under the name of fluidic force microscopy (FluidFM) for extremely fine metallic structures. In the future, this will allow micro-components for biomedical technology, the electronic industry and the watch indus-try to be manufactured. Using a computer-controlled micropipette, a copper sulphate solution is applied to a conductive substrate. When electrical current is applied, pure copper is separated electrochemically. With a pixel size of just 0.8 microns, this process can produce compo-nents which are half as thick as a human hair (Caviezel, C. et al. 2017).

Voltera V One – Circuit board printer for printed electronics (Source: Voltera)

3D printed permanent magnets (Source: Vienna University of Technology)

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Aerosol jet printing

Mit dem Aerosol Jet Printing der US-amerikanischen Fir-With aerosol jet printing created by American company Optotec, conductive, di-electric semi-conductive and biological inks available on the market can be printed onto a number of flat and three-dimensional substrates made from plastic, ceramics or metals. The conductive inks are transferred into a cloud containing the printing medium using an atomiser. The cloud is separated from the substrate using a nozzle. A protective environment surrounding the cloud ensures that the atomised ink re-mains focused and prints them out in one to five micron droplets onto the substrate.

3.3.6 Consumer GoodsThe authors of the study “Predicts 2018: 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing” by American analysis company Gartner Inc. states that by 2021, around one fifth of the 100 leading companies in the consumer goods industry will use additive production processes for the develop-ment and manufacture of their products. The main focus will remain on fast prototype construction to shorten the development cycle and minimise the investment risk for new developments. The Gartner market researchers also expressly point out that additive production processes will not replace traditional mass production in the con-sumer goods industry with regard to the cost structure. It will only be used where product adjustments offer a significant added value and where the user expects a custom product feature.

Market potential

In some areas of the consumer goods industry, supply chains will significantly change under the influence of 3D printing technology. New business models will arise, which offer a clear advantage over the previous range. Companies expect significant savings potentials through additive production procedures, particularly in spare part logistics. In 2017, some DIY shop chains started to offer 3D printing services to their customers.

3D printed, custom LUMIX camera casing (Source: Materialise)

The aerosol jet printing process (according to OPTOMEC, Fraunhofer ENAS)

Gas inlet

Thick aerosol

Ink

Section 1: Atomising

the inkSection 2: Focusing

the aerosol

Section 3: Coating process

Sheathing gas inlet

3 to 5 mm distance Ray focused at < 10μm

Substrate

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Futurecraft 4D

As one of the first sports shoe manufacturers, Adidas started to use additive production processes to manufac-ture soles individually tailored to the athlete in 2015. In a first project with 3D printing service provider Materialise, the running movement of an athlete on a treadmill was measured, the data of the foot impressions captured and, using a laser sintering process, the individual intermediate soles were custom produced from flexible polyurethane for the sports shoe. These corresponded exactly to the contours and pressure points of the runner and adapt-ed to the movement processes. In spring 2017, Adidas announced that it would be working in partnership with Californian company Carbon 3D to additively manufac-ture the midsole of the Futurecraft 4D shoe using CLIP technology (Continuous Liquid Interface Production). The digital light synthesis process cures a resin system using the influence of light. By the end of 2018, a series of more than 100,000 pairs of shoes should have been produced.

AM printing services in DIY shops

Some large DIY shop chains in Germany started to establish 3D printing services for their customers in 2017. To do this, internet platforms were developed which allow the customer to order components in various materials such as polyamide, alumide (powder mixture from PA12 and aluminium), ceramic, ABS or steel without prior knowledge. Either already available 3D-CAD data of the component can be uploaded, scaled and processed, or enquiries can be sent based on sketches and drawings such as images. The necessary data for 3D printing are then generated from these in collaboration with a service provider.

3D printed toys

Additive production possibilities offer diverse potential for the toy industry in developing new business and sales models. This becomes particularly clear with the incor-poration of the customer in helping to design the toys. In this way, some providers have entered into partnerships with 3D printing service providers in recent years and offer children the chance to design and print their own toys at the computer in toyshops. Children have the op-portunity to help create their own toy on the computer and to use additive manufacturing methods to produce this on site (Leupold, Glossner 2016). In spring 2016, the Fischerwerke presented a 3D printer as a modular system for children at the Nuremberg toy fair. This gives adolescents simple access to technology and allows them to print out building blocks and elements themselves. On the fischertechnik eLearning portal, children can obtain printing data, component examples, didactic accompa-nying information and videos.

Futurecraft 4D – sole manufacture using the CLIP process (Source: Adidas)

3D printer as a modular system for children

(Source: fischertechnik GmbH)

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3.3.7 Design, Jewellery, InteriorAdditive manufacturing has always been highly attractive for the creative sector. The reason behind this is that additive technologies seem to enable the implementa-tion of designs which previously required an extensive knowledge of manufacturing processes or which were simply impossible to implement due to technical or financial restrictions. Additive manufacturing even per-mits products and concepts with complex geometries, hollow spaces, undercuts and movable components to be created. This changes the way in which the designers and product developers work due to the fact that only a limited knowledge of production-oriented design is required. As a result of new material developments, additive technologies are currently being utilised in the fashion industry.

The availability of construction kits and information about the design and operation, along with the software and component data, has resulted in a flood of developments by designers and architects. Representatives of the creative economy have developed a vast array of new systems and patented some of these, transforming them into a successful business model. In this way, developments for 4D printing mainly came from designers and architects at the MIT media lab. The development of a process for robot-controlled metal coat welding for the manufacture of a bridge came from designer and artist Joris Laarman from Amsterdam. The world’s first 3D printed cantilever chair “Cellular Loop” was designed by designer Anke Bernotat from Fulda and produced using laser sintering technology.

Market potential

Additive manufacturing offers an enormous range of opportunities for the creative and design sector. As such, a separate market attributable to members of the crea-tive economy will arise in the future and possess its own products, scenarios and business models. This will focus less on business processes in terms of mass production as per conventional understanding and more on solutions with an individual or customisable design, functionality and manufacturing method. In the jewellery industry, in particular, additive manufacturing processes are already utilised as an alternative to the conventional process chains. In 2015, the 3D Pioneers Challenge was started in cooperation with Rapid.Tech to display the potential of the design sector by using additive manufacturing pro-cesses. The competition takes place in Erfurt every year.

Image: The world’s first 3D printed cantilever chair “Cellular Loop” (Design: Anke Bernotat)

Winner of the 3D Pioneers Challenge 2017 – Project T.O.S.T. Topology Optimised

Skateboard Trucks (Source: Philipp Manger, Ernst-Abbe-Hochschule Jena)

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Open rugs

In April 2017, the Dutch designers at Studio Plott first presented a 3D printed rug with a structure than can be customised on the computer. The 3D printed pattern is given a coating of flock fibres after the additive manu-facturing process which produces the approximate soft texture of a textile surface.

Ceramic printing

Dutch designer Olivier van Herpts has developed a 3D printer for large ceramic parts based on Delta Tower technology. To do this, he fitted the printer with an ex-truder for paste-like materials. With this, he can produce ceramics with a maximum height of 80 centimetres and a diameter of up to 42 centimetres.

3D glass printing

Probably one of the most spectacular developments in the generative processing of glass materials was presented at the end of 2015 by the Mediated Matter Group at the MIT. 3D glass printing (3DGP) follows the FDM process principle, however rather than melting plastic materials, glass is melted when heated to suitably high tempera-tures. A team led by Professor Neri Oxman integrated an extruder into an oven, allowing the glass materials to be incorporated and processed. The system has produced expressive bowls and vases with impressive light-reflec-tive qualities.

The first glass printer was brought onto the market at the start of 2017 by Israeli company Micron 3DP. This system can additively process borosilicate glass from glass specialists Schott from Mainz.

Cellular Loop

In Kooperation mit dem Fraunhofer UMSICHT hat die DeIn cooperation with Fraunhofer UMSICHT, designer Anke Bernotat examined the lightweight construction potential of nature for weight optimisation and introduced the world’s first additively produced cantilever chair. The furniture was subdivided into identical cuboid cells along its contours and a numerical simulation of the mechanical qualities was carried out. The result is a geometry, created using the selective laser sintering method, which is ideally set up to suit the effective forces.

3D printed rug with flock coating (Design: Studio Plott)

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3D weaver loom

Durch Kombination von 3D-Drucken und Weben pro-duziThrough a combination of 3D printing and weaving, designer Oluwaseyi Sosanya produces hexagonal woven structures with auxetic features with his 3D weaver loom. These features mean that the woven structure can resist impacts of more than 300 grams and are particularly suited to dampening recurring external stresses. The zig-zag weave is light and extremely flexible, and suitable for applications in biomedical technology, vehicle and sportswear industries.

InFoam printing

In cooperation with chemistry company Covestro, de-signers Dorothee Clasen, Adam Pajonk and Sascha Praet have developed a process to influence the properties of flexible foam by way of a robot-supported injection of structures from a two-component polyurethane synthetic resin. The InFoam printing can be used in an array of dif-ferent applications and allows free-moving solid bodies to develop in the foam which have a partial stiffening effect. The various degrees of hardness can be used to improve the sitting or lying properties of upholstered furniture and mattresses. Under pressure, for example, the fabric is able to bend.

Rapid liquid printing

Scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) selected a similar approach to InFoam printing. During rapid liquid printing, however, material is not incorporat-ed into soft foam, instead, a gel is used as a supporting material basis for printing into the space. The gel allows structures to be printed into the space completely without restrictions. After a few minutes, the printing material reacts with the gel and grid structures appear which can be put to good use in furniture construction.

3D weaver loom for manufacturing zig-zag weave with auxetic features (Design: Oluwaseyi Sosanya, Photo: Zuzanne Weiss)

InFoam printing (Design: Adam Pajonk, Dorothee Clasen, Sascha Praet; Source: Covestro)

Liquid printed bag (Source: MIT self-assembly

lab, Christophe Guberan)

Rapid liquid printing (Source: MIT self-assembly lab, Christophe Guberan)

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Metsidian table

Mit dem Metsidian Table kreierte der finnische Designer The metsidian table is a piece of furniture made from copper and the volcanic rock obsidian, created by Finn-ish designer Janne Kyttanen using a combination of a 3D printed structure and explosion welding. Explosion welding is used if materials can only be welded when high temperatures are used. While the melting point of copper is just under 1,100 degrees Celsius, volcanic stones usually only melt in temperatures well above 1,400 degrees Celsius.

3.3.8 Food IndustryIn 2014, the market for 3D printing processes also ex-panded in the food industry as a result of so called food printers. The costs for the systems lie in the four-digit range and, thus, operating a system is currently only profitable in the restaurant and catering industry, and for creating unique products. This includes customised baked goods, cakes or pralines, along with sculptures made of sugar or chocolate. The Italian food company Barilla has launched a system for 3D printing of pasta. In the USA, a system is being developed to produce meat by printing animal muscle cells.

Market potential

It is very difficult to assess the development and overall potential as the market is still in its infancy. Food printers will enable the restaurant and catering sector to implement new business models which will include event gastronomy. In 2016, a start-up company in London opened the first pop-up restaurant for 3D printed food under the name of Food INK. Private usage is definitely linked with the price of the system and the availability of the ingredients. Dutch scientists mainly see food printers as having the potential to provide foodstuffs with personalised nutrient contents for the medical sector. Thus, special nutrients or omega-3 fatty acids could be added to foods in the future. Foodstuffs could also be printed using more sustainable caloric sources by processing algae proteins instead of resource-intensive animal proteins, for example. In addi-tion to the economic potential, this would also serve as an opportunity to reduce greenhouse emissions resulting from livestock farming.

Metsidian table (Design: Janne Kyttanen)

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Sugar Lab / ChefJet

In autumn 2013, 3D-Systems became one of the first major systems manufacturers for additive production to enter into the emerging food printer market. The company took over Sugar Lab in Los Angeles, a company run by an American designer and an architect, after they created a sensation in May 2013 when they presented an exhibition of printed sugar sculptures. The two designers created the sculptures with a colour jet printer and utilised sugar powder together with an edible, coloured binding agent. In January 2014, 3D Systems presented the first ChefJet at the CES electronics exhibition in Las Vegas. The basic variant is primarily offered to bakeries, confectioners and for designer gastronomy.

Foodini / Natural Machines

After NASA presented the concept for a pizza printer in 2013, the start-up company Natural Machines from Barcelona set out to launch and market the first pizza printer, the Foodini. In addition to the Italian speciality, the Foodini can essentially be used to prepare any type of food which requires a paste-like mass, or where the ingredients can be melted by means of heat. As such, the Foodini is also suitable for producing baked goods such as cookies, chocolate sculptures or dishes made with minced meat. The ingredients are supplied in a heated stainless steel cylinder and applied via a nozzle. Every individual ingredient is contained in a cartridge which is pressurised in accordance with the consistency of the mass. Recipes can be downloaded from the Internet.

Pasta printer / Barilla

In collaboration with the Dutch research institute TNO in Eindhoven, Italian pasta manufacturer Barilla developed a 3D printer for pasta and presented this to the public in mid 2016. However, the device is not intended for mass production, but rather private usage or at restaurants. In a manner similar to a coffee dispenser, the printer operates with dough cartridges which contain the ingredients for a variety of different pasta types. With the pasta printer, 15 to 20 pieces of pasta can be manufactured within two minutes, the shapes of which cannot be achieved with traditional methods.

Shape-changing pasta

At the MIT in the USA, fields of application for shape-chang-ing 3D printed geometries are currently being examined for the food and transport industries. The idea is to print pasta dough with different proportions of gelatine and thus create shape-changing pasta shapes. Once the printed pasta comes into contact with water, the mass absorbs moisture. As gelatine expands to a great degree, the printed pasta mass reacts by changing its shape. In the 3D printer, different geometries can be created layer by layer which ensure that the flat pasta mass stands up in water. With this development, the MIT scientists have a reduction in transportation costs in the food industry in mind. For example, in a packet of macaroni from the supermarket today, 50 percent of the packet volume is air.

Pizza printer Foodini (Source: Natural Machines)

3D printed shape-changing pasta (Source: Massachusetts Institute of Technology / MIT)

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Candy2Gum

Polyvinyl acetate solid resins are important components of chewing gum raw mixtures. Wacker Chemie has now developed recipes for chewing gum which are suitable for processing with a 3D printer. Using an innovative boiling process, water-based, fatty and natural ingredients are first processed into chewing gum. This then allows them to be shaped into a 3D form with the specially developed 3D printer of the company. The process has been optimised to ensure that even the soft components of chewing gum can be processed. This allows natural ingredients such as milk, cacao, coffee, caramel, chocolate or plant extracts to be incorporated into the chewing gum.

Print a Drink

The world’s first 3D printer for liquid foodstuffs and drinks was presented at the end of 2016 by Austrian Benjamin Greimel. Drops of oil are injected into a thick liquid drink using a robotic arm. This creates 3D cocktails as customis-able creations in the context of forward-thinking molecular gastronomy. “Print a Drink” was awarded a prize in the 3D Pioneers Challenge in 2017.

Mealworm printer

Almost a fifth of the greenhouse gases responsible for climate change are produced in livestock farming. One of the main reasons for this is the inefficient use of biomass for mammals and fish. An alternative would be to obtain meat from insects. According to a study conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1,400 species of insect could secure a worldwide food supply. In Asia, research work is already being carried out on this issue. Designer Carolin Schulze was given the national ecode-sign award in 2015 for developing an insect printer as a possible solution for sustainable and ethically responsible nutrition. First, the designer produces a malleable mass from the insects and transforms this into an attractive shape using the printer.

Print a Drink (Source: Benjamin Greimel, Philipp Hornung, Johannes Braumann; Photo: Philipp Moosbrugger)

Mealworm printer from the pilot project “Falscher Hase – Bugs’ Bunny” (Design: Carolin Schulze)

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3.4 3D PRINT SERVICE PROVIDERS AND CONTENT PLATFORMS

Given the high purchasing costs for industrial systems using additive processes, service providers have already become established on the market some years ago. Whereas before they worked primarily for company de-velopment departments which did not wish to operate their own systems, the increasing interest in direct additive production for the creative economy and among private individuals has now seen online platforms become es-tablished on the market. 3D parts data can be uploaded and the construction ordered with a specific material and the desired colour. A number of service providers also support the generation of the required data and offer contacts with designers. The online print services generally also provide an overview of the available final designs which can be selected and customised. Several print service providers (such as 3 Faktur, Materialise) also provide online support for the pricing or offer to create 3D print files based on 2D sketches (such as Pagu 3D).

3D-Colorprint: www.3d-colorprint.de

3 Faktur: www.3faktur.com

Fabberhouse: www.fabberhouse.de

Materialise: www.imaterialise.com

Pagu: www.pagu-3d.de

Ponoko: www.ponoko.com

Sculpteo: www.sculpteo.com

Shapeways: www.shapeways.com

Trinckle: www.trinckle.com

Overview of some online 3D printing service providers

In recent years, the platforms have expanded increasingly and have a more user-friendly design. In addition, the business model of a number of platforms is developing in a direction which offers new sales opportunities for product designers and artists. These portals enable them to upload and sell the data while paying a commission to a third party. In some cases, it is also possible to download the 3D blueprints and modify them to a certain degree.

In addition to the online print service providers, content platforms have also become established on the Internet, and allow users to store and share their own 3D designs and component plans. A search function can be used to find the desired design for one’s own print from among the thousands of object datasets. Generally, one or more STL files are available for downloading. On some platforms, the source data is also available in addition to the STL data.

Archive 3D: www.archive3d.net

(over 40,000 datasets, focus: furniture, interior, lamps, accessories)

Blend Swap

(over 20,000 datasets, focus: figures, interior, accessories)

GB3D Type Fossils: www.3d-fossils.ac.uk

(over 2,000 datasets, focus: 3D models of fossils)

GrabCAD: www.grabcad.com

(over 2,580,000 datasets, Focus: technical assemblies and components)

Smart Exchange: exchange.smarttech.com

(over 5,000 datasets, Focus: biological processes, organs, technical components)

Thingiverse: www.thingiverse.com

(over 1,000,000 datasets, focus: small parts, accessories, lights, games)

Trimble 3D-Warehouse: 3dwarehouse.sketchup.com

(over 5,000 datasets, mostly 3D architecture)

TurboSquid: www.turbosquid.com

(over 300,000 datasets, buildings, 3D architecture, objects, animals))

Yeggi: www.yeggi.com

(over 1,300,000 datasets, focus: technical components, small parts, accessories)

Overview of a few content platforms

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Local print service providers are now present in a number of cities, in addition to the online service providers. Their services range from a complete service with multiple systems to do-it-yourself (DIY) print shops, as well as FabLabs and 3D Hubs. 3D print shops generally sell both finished printed components as well as printing services for customers. In the case of DIY print shops, it is possible to rent a 3D printer and carry out the printing process at home or at the office.

The idea of the FabLab originates from the MIT Media Lab in Boston. The first FabLab (fabrication laboratory) was opened here in 2001 under the supervision of Prof. Neil Gershenfeld. This refers to a small workshop with its own printers and other systems such as milling machines or laser cutters which can be used by a community utilising open source software together or under the supervision of voluntary helpers. The community idea ensures that every single individual has access to all of the technical options of additive manufacturing and also receives the necessary software. The individual FabLabs are run as associations, are organised regionally and form a network with other FabLabs.

A code of conduct and self-commitment for all of the open workshops are compiled in the FabLab Charta which is published by the Fab Foundation. Open FabLab appointments are generally arranged for beginners so that everyone can use the printers and software independently. In April 2014, a FabLab was opened in Darmstadt close to the Fraunhofer IGD. Makerspaces have also started up in Wiesbaden, Gießen (MAGIE) and Frankfurt (tatcraft). A FabLab with the name FabLab FFM is also planned for Frankfurt.

The community idea not only extends to the workshops that maintain the printers, but also to private individuals who have purchased an additive manufacturing system but do not utilise it around the clock. The 3D Hubs business model originates from the Netherlands. A platform lists 3D printer owners who allow other people and companies to use the system for a fee. This allows the systems to be used to capacity and also enables the printer owners to generate revenue. With every order processed via 3D Hubs, the platform operators from Amsterdam also earn revenue due to the commission of 15 percent of the printing price. More than 7,200 systems operators are now registered worldwide.

MAGIE – experiment space, implementation workshop and creative meeting place for Gießen (Source: Daniel Körber and Christian Hain)

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3.5 LEGAL ISSUES IN THE CONTEXT OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

DISCLAIMER

It is explicitly stated that the information provided in this chapter represents neither a conclusive presentation nor individual legal advice. The information solely serves to illustrate current issues and perspectives in order to

provide an overview of the problems described and the context. The information is in no way intended to replace individual legal consultation from appropriately qualified persons.

An increasing number of questions regarding the legal conditions have arisen, in particular since the emergence of the first platforms for sharing 3D printing data. Although the legislation regarding the development, sale and use of three-dimensional objects and products has a broad scope with the copyright, brand, patent, utility model and design laws as well as the legislation about the protec-tion of personal data, the digital exchange and additive replication of components contains a number of risks of legal violations of which the user may be unaware. These include claims for damages in the event of failure of an additively manufactured component, the use of privately printed objects on commercial premises or scanning a legally protected product to generate data for 3D printing. The distribution of data for constructing weapons via the Internet represents the most obvious legal problem. The issues generally do not differ with regard to the private or commercial use of a printed component or product due to the fact that copyright and trademark laws apply equally in both cases. Legal violations can occur when recording the data of a protected product, when sending or accessing three-dimensional data and also through the additive manufacturing of a component geometry or its sale. In a working report from the European Parliament’s legal committee (JURI) from 2017, the establishment of a global database of 3D printable objects was suggested as a possible solution approach to monitoring the reproduc-tion of components protected by copyright. In addition, a legal upper limit for the number of private copies could be set for 3D objects or a tax levied as compensation for copyright violations. In the future, 3D printed components will be retraced, identified and authenticated with the use of forensic marks. These can be introduced to the object data as a digital signature before the printing process and captured by 3D scanners after the additive production process for approval. Changed legal conditions for ad-ditive manufacturing companies have also existed since the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) came into force. This is because personal data is not just processed in service provider and personnel management during the additive manufacturing process, but can also be present in order fulfilments characterised by individual product development and data-driven production. Corresponding measures and adjustments of the affected processes are necessary to meet the new data protection requirements.

Copyright

Copyright serves to protect a person’s ‘intellectual prop-erty’ which reaches a certain threshold of originality. This refers to works of literature, photography, film and music, as well as scientific works and free and applied art. Copyrights can be asserted without having to register a creation as such with the patent and trademark office. In the context of additive manufacturing, this primarily applies to three-dimensional works of art and sculptures, along with design objects and pieces of furniture. Cop-ying for private use may be permissible, provided that no data which has obviously been published illegally is utilised. Depending on the case at hand, multiple copies are permissible. However, sending the data to a service provider is not permitted. Duplication for commercial pur-poses without the permission of the originator can result in prosecution. Even the digitisation of a work protected by copyright represents a copyright-relevant action. Only the copyright owner is permitted to obtain or scale digital data from his or her own work (VDI: Statusreport “Additive Fertigungsverfahren”, Verein Deutscher Ingenieure e.V., September 2014). The copyright does not expire until 70 years after the copyright owner’s death.

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Design rights

In addition to copyright claims, the design of products and consumer goods can be further protected by designers or a company through registration with the patent and trademark office. The registered design is protected for a period of 25 years. Novelty and uniqueness are pre-requisites for the registration but are not checked by the patent and trademark office. The reference to a registered design can prohibit both the duplication of a product, consumer good, designer and/or fashion article, along with the marketing or use thereof. As such, these design rights also have a strong influence on issues regarding the legal framework for additive manufacturing.

Utility model protection and patent law

Patents and utility models are industrial property rights which allow the inventor and/or company the protected commercial use of a technical invention. Whereas granting a patent requires a significant level of invention, utility models only represent an inventive step. As such, the protective framework for patents is significantly greater and the maximum protection duration of 20 years far exceeds the ten years for utility models. Possible patent rights should be checked when reproducing parts or components of a product by means of additive manu-facturing. After the expiry of a patent, the technical solu-tions published in the course of the patenting process become freely available. The issue of whether copying design features of a product represents a direct breach of patent has not yet been resolved definitely. In view of the prevailing jurisprudence, the concrete copying of geometry data appears to be sufficient to represent a breach of property rights (VDI: Statusreport “Additive Fertigungsverfahren”, Verein Deutscher Ingenieure e.V., September 2014).

Trademark law

Trademark law enables the protection of the labels of a product or a company in the form of images (design mark), words (word mark), their combination (word and design mark) or graphical illustrations in two-dimensional and three-dimensional form. Products and goods with protected trademarks may not be reproduced, offered or marketed in an identical or similar form. Due to the fact that the protected marks on a product may be reproduced as a result of the increasing popularity of 3D printers and scanners for recording 3D geometries, legal violations cannot be excluded.

Thus far only a few legal violations within the context of additive manufacturing are known. However, in view of the growing market for additive manufacturing during the coming years, this could grow in a manner similar to the situation observed in the music and film industry at the beginning of the millennium. The European Court of Justice has clarified that the operators of internet platforms cannot directly be held liable for making available the technical means for the trademark infringing goods. The Federal Supreme Court has also rejected their aiding and abetting liability for trademark violations of third parties (Leupold, Glossner 2016).

Liability issues

In addition to the possible violation of proprietary rights, the issue of product liability for the market with additively manufactured products has not yet been clearly resolved. Product liability law provides for possible claims against the manufacturer or seller with regard to faulty parts or components. Due to the fact that additive manufacturing allows the production of products in a private context based on 3D CAD data, this gives rise to new liability issues. The current jurisprudence assumes that the producer is liable for damages to legal assets which result from an incorrectly manufactured product. Whereas the Federal Supreme Court emphasises the producer liability as a result of a behaviour-related error, European product liability law does not focus on the incorrect behaviour of a company when assessing the liability issue but rather the product fault as such.

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In view of the fact that the design, fabrication and assembly take place virtually in additive manufacturing, and are often carried out at different locations and by different people and companies, the “special aspects of the division of labour in production are particularly visible” (VDI: Status-report “Additive Fertigungsverfahren”, Verein Deutscher Ingenieure e.V., September 2014). One can assume that within the context of industrial manufacturing, the final manufacturer will be liable for product errors with a view toward the design responsibility and liability claims will arise within the internal relationships in the case of faulty designs. However, differences arise within the context of additive manufacturing when the manufacturing is carried out for a private individual as the end consumer. In this case, the final manufacturer can be made comprehensively liable for the errors of an additively generated product. The lawyer Dr. Markus Bagh advises companies who are intending to do business creating 3D prints to include an ‘exclusion of liability for print on demand’ clause in their terms and conditions (Horsch, Florian: 3D-Druck für alle – Der Do-it-yourself-guide. Munich, Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2014).

It remains unclear whether the jurisprudence with regard to the situation as to whether a private individual can become the manufacturer within the context of product liability law by operating his own additive manufacturing system. According to paragraph 4 of the Product Liability Act, the manufacturer of a product is the party “which has manufactured the end product, a basic material or a sub-product”. Given that the legislative authority always uses the product term as per paragraph 2 of the Product Liability Act together with the manufacturer term, lawyers doubt whether a liable independent action on the part of a private individual can actually occur in the case of the private creation of a product with the help of an additive manufacturing system on the basis of finished design data. If the data is not independently modified, then printing a component can also be regarded as a pure assembly activity in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifica-tions. As a result, the designer would then be responsible (VDI: Statusreport “Additive Fertigungsverfahren”, Verein Deutscher Ingenieure e.V., September 2014).

A clear judgement has not yet been reached regarding liability in the context of consequential damages – where an additively manufactured component causes damage to the machine in which it is constructed – and the effect this then has on warranty, guarantee or compensation for damages.

Data protection law

The data protection law is based on the legal concept of the general right to privacy, according to which, each person may decide for themselves with whom, when and which of their personal data they wish to make accessible. The GDPR forms a uniform legal framework at a European level for the processing of personal data. This affects every process where information is handled which relates to an identified or identifiable natural person. Risks of vio-lating data protection law essentially occur when data is unlawfully collected, not deleted after the corresponding time has elapsed, lost or accidentally passed on to third parties, or when incorrect data is processed, as well as data theft. As such, each company must analyse their individual structures and processes to identify the data affected by the data protection law and to take precautions to avoid these risks.

As regards the additive manufacture of products, the scope of the data protection regulations substantially depends on how and to what extent personal data is pro-cessed. The extent to which a company is even affected by it differs according to sector and production-specific characteristics. In biomedical technology in particular, personal data - which includes sensitive health data, for example when 3D printing dental prostheses - is pro-cessed. In the lifestyle and food industry, personal data can be present well into the production process, while in additive manufacturing for the automotive, tool and mechanical engineering industries, the processing of personal data tends to be limited to ordering processes or account settlements. Where there tend to be business relationships only between companies, the character of data processing is different from transactions with private persons, for example in manufacturing personalised glasses or shoes.

An information leaflet (2018) offers more in-depth infor-mation on these issues ar-ranged by theme and the corresponding support materials on which meas-ures could be necessary to comply with data protec-tion regulations. (Available in German only)

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4. ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING: SELECTED SUCCESS STORIES, POTENTIALS AND PROJECTS FROM HESSEN

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4.1 MITTELHESSEN UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES: AddiFeE additive manufacturing of metal components for mechanical and automotive engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

4.2 KEGELMANN TECHNIK GMBH: AutoAdd – Automation of the process chain for customer-specific additive production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.3 EDAG ENGINEERING GMBH: Additively manufactured lightweight structure and weight-reduced bonnet hinge with pedestrian protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.4 HERAEUS ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING: Sophisticated metal powder for additive production in the aerospace or automotive sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.5 FKM SINTERTECHNIK GMBH: Factory of the future for the age of additive manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.6 SAUER PRODUCT GMBH: Faster introduction to market thanks to additive manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.7 IETEC ORTHOPÄDISCHE EINLAGEN GMBH PRODUKTIONS KG: Tailor-made insoles for diabetes patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.8 PHILIPPS-UNIVERSITÄT MARBURG: Additive manufacturing of individual dental prostheses and jawbones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.9 TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITÄT DARMSTADT: Individual mass production of medical products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.10 FRAUNHOFER LBF: Polymerisable printing ink for low porous 3D printing and Piezo actuators with SLM casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.11 HOCHSCHULE FÜR GESTALTUNG OFFENBACH: Projects related to additive technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.12 FRAME ONE: Customising bicycles using additive production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.13 UNIVERSITÄT KASSEL: 3D printed cement-bound shaped parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.14 TATCRAFT GMBH: The largest makerspace in the Rhine-Main area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.15 FRAUNHOFER IGD: Voxel-based 3D printer driver Cuttlefish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.16 FIBERTHREE GMBH: Using carbon fibres to create more efficient additive components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.17 CONTINENTAL ENGINEERING SERVICES GMBH: Additive Design and Manufacturing competence centre (ADaM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

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4.1 MITTELHESSEN UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

AddiFeE – Additive manufacturing of metal components for mechanical and automotive engineering

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This project (HA project no.: 464/15-06) was supported as part of the LOEWE - Landesoffensive zur Entwicklung Wissenschaftlich-ökonomischer Exzellenz, funding line 3: KMU-Verbundvorhaben..

Laser beam melting has been used for the additive pro-duction of metal components in the aerospace industry as well as dentistry and biomedical technology for some years. There is still a vast array of applications for the technology to be discovered in mechanical engineering and in the automotive industry. For this reason, we lack essential knowledge of suitable production parameters. A research project conducted at Mittelhessen University of Applied Sciences from 2015 to 2017 addressed questions about the manufacture of metal series components for vehicle construction using additive production processes.

In the project, issues related to the optimum layer thickness, positioning in the construction space and the track width as well as the power density of the laser were clarified. For decades, there have been known parameters for the construction and assembly of a component made of common materials such as rolled steel or die-cast alumin-ium. In the project, scientists have now also been able to determine reliable material parameters for additive production. A particular highlight is the first determination of cyclic material parameters (cyclic stress-strain curve and Wöhler curve) for additively produced aluminium for practical and theoretical use.

“In the investigations, we were looking at mechanical properties such as tensile strength, stiffness and elasticity, resilience or porousness”, explains Professor Heinrich Friederich. The partner consortium was able to deter-mine parameter sets for additively produced aluminium (AlSi10Mg) and additively produced tool steel (1.2709). The team were able to basically establish the relationships between production parameters and product properties, which will have a positive effect on component quality in the future, particularly with regard to safety relevant parts.

Using the example of several parts for vehicle air-con-ditioning systems (compressors) which were additively manufactured and tested as prototypes in the project, the team were able to explicitly prove quality and prac-ticability. This possibility can now also be used directly for other companies and applications.

“We have summarised the results in concrete instructions which describe how these components can be produced with reliable and reproducible properties. These serve as a means for the builders to construct components with a high level of process safety and quality”, summarised Professor Udo Jung from the Automotive, Mobility and Material Research competence centre (AutoM for short). In 2017, the specialist book “Additive Fertigung von Bauteilen und Strukturen” [The Additive Manufacturing of Components and Structures] (Springer Verlag, 2017) was published and describes the essential results of the project in the overview chapter “Rapid Prototyping in Machine and Automotive Construction – Fatigue Characteristics of Additively Produced Components”.

The research project at Mittelhessen University of Applied Science lasted for two years with an overall cost of 415,000 euros. Partners of the university were FKM Sintertechnik from Biedenkopf, Sanden International (Europe) based in Bad Nauheim, Henkel Modellbau from Breidenstein and the faculty of material mechanics at Technische Universität Darmstadt. The state of Hessen supported the project with 300,000 euros as part of the “Landes-Offensive zur Entwicklung Wissenschaftlich-ökonomischer Exzellence (LOEWE) [State Programme for the Development of Scientific and Economic Excellence]

Mittelhessen University of Applied SciencesProf. Dr.-Ing. Udo Jung (qualified engineer)Kompetenzzentrum für Automotive, Mobilität und Materialforschung (AutoM)Am Dachspfad 10, 61169 FriedbergTelephone: +49 6031 604 337Email: [email protected]

Determination of material parameters in the project AddiFeE (Source: Mittelhessen University of Applied Sciences, Photo: HA Hessen Agentur GmbH, Jan Michael Hosan)

4.2 KEGELMANN TECHNIK GMBH: AutoAdd – Automation of the process chain

for customer-specific additive production

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4.2 KEGELMANN TECHNIK GMBH: AutoAdd – Automation of the process chain

for customer-specific additive production

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This project (HA project no.: 500/16-12) was supported as part of the LOEWE - Landesoffensive zur Entwicklung Wissenschaftlich-ökonomischer Exzellenz, funding line 3: KMU-Verbundvorhaben.

The project aim of AutoAdd covers the construction and implementation of a digital, automated and continuous process chain for customer-specific additive production. AutoAdd was recommended for funding as part of the LOEWE 3 support programme run by the state of Hes-sen and started on 1 July 2016. The partner companies Kegelmann Technik GmbH (Rodgau, Jügesheim) and :em engineering methods AG (Darmstadt) are constructing a digital, automated and continuous process chain for customer-specific additive production as part of the project, in collaboration with the Technische Universität Darmstadt, Computer Integrated Design (DiK) faculty.

This demonstrates all processes from the receipt of the customer orders, to the computer processing of the orders and the pre-processing of CAD data, to preparation for production, production itself, as well as post processing, right up to the sale, supply, delivery and distribution of the additively produced components. With AutoAdd, the customer experiences a reduction in costs when procuring additive components and the order processing time is significantly shorter. The possibility of requesting custom components is also made significantly easier for the customer. The enormous market potential of additive production and the increasing demand for customer-spe-cific products is relevant to all known sectors. From aircraft construction, to the automotive industry, to machine and systems construction, right up to the consumer market, all branches will benefit from this new kind of process chain and order processing.

Typical, representative components were used to test the overall developed system. In this way, the team were able to ensure that a solution was developed that is ready to market. After the successful development and testing of the prototype software demonstrators, this is tested in reality with customer orders. The aim is to adapt the acquired solutions for more processes directly after the end of the project in order to achieve a broad market entry and to strengthen the Hessen location.

Kegelmann Technik GmbHStephan Kegelmann, Managing DirectorGutenbergstraße 15, 63110 Rodgau-JügesheimTelephone: +49 6106 8507-10Email: [email protected]

Reference projects of additive production, such as a vehicle door (Source: Kegelmann Technik GmbH)

Removal of components from the construction space after laser sintering (Source: Kegelmann Technik)

4.3 EDAG ENGINEERING GMBH: Additively manufactured lightweight structure and weight-reduced bonnet

hinge with pedestrian protection

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Additively manufactured lightweight bonnet hinge LightHinge+

(Source: EDAG Engineering GmbH)

The continual improvement of lightweight construction of vehicles is one of the strategically relevant topics in the automotive industry. Ambitious weight targets and the market introduction of a whole range of electric cars in the coming years represent current drivers for lightweight construction. In recent years, Wiesbaden engineering specialist EDAG was able to expand its engineering com-petence in additive manufacturing with the development of additively manufactured vehicle chassis such as the studies Genesis and Light Cocoon.

In 2017, EDAG continued with the development of an ultralight space-frame concept as a technology platform by using additive manufacturing methods. At the IAA 2017 in Frankfurt, the “NextGenSpaceframe 2.0” was presented as an intelligent modular system with bionically designed and additively manufactured joints in combination with extruded profiles. The concept is produced in an extremely flexible manner to be able to also depict the increasing number of vehicle derivatives with a focus on economy. It was constructed completely out of the material aluminium and has an additional savings potential in terms of weight.

NextGenSpaceframe 2.0: Additively manufactured joints in combination with extruded profiles (Source: EDAG Engineering GmbH)

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EDAG Light Cocoon study (Design: EDAG Engineering GmbH)

The lightweight structure was produced with few tools and on demand, and developed by EDAG together with Constellium (Singen), Siemens PLM Software (Cologne), Laser Zentrum Nord (Hamburg) and Concept Laser (Licht-enfels) as well as the associated partners of BLM Group (Levico, Italy), KW Automotive (Fichtenberg) and 3M (Neuss). Here, software for the continuous engineering of the additively manufactured chassis joints and alumin-ium extruded profiles was used for the first time in the development stage.

Laser beam welding or adhesive bonding, for example, can be used to combine the additively manufactured chassis joints with the aluminium profiles using multi-chamber technology. For the former, various materials are possible. In trials and calculations for the longitudinal beam area, it could be proven exemplarily that the crash areas of the “Spaceframe” absorb energy in a controlled manner and the joints do not fail structurally. In the continuing development, the production costs were further reduced by minimising the support structures within the joints. The continuous engineering data process chain contributed to the achievement of significantly better performance in development as well as in production. Compared to traditional vehicle lightweight structures available on the market, the weight could be reduced by a further 20 percent for high-end vehicles and super-sports cars.In a further project, EDAG developed a lightweight bonnet hinge with integrated passenger protection with its part-ners under the name of “LightHinge+” and also achieved an enormous saving in weight of 50 percent compared to the reference thanks to the use of additive production technologies. The hinge was produced in collaboration with “voestalpine Additive Manufacturing” (Düsseldorf) and with “Simufact Engineering” (Hamburg).

Thanks to the use of topology optimisation and bionic construction principles, the team succeeded in working out the minimum material requirement. The lightweight structure was then further developed in such a way that during production using laser beam melting on part of voestalpine, very little support structure was required, and thus only minimal reworking. In addition, the produc-tion-specific thermal distortion of the component could also be compensated with a reforming of the geometry, thanks to the use of simulation software.

The integration of the active hinge function represents a particular feature of the “LightHinge+”. If a pedestrian collides with the vehicle, a pyrotechnic actuator is triggered which impacts with a defined area of the hinge. At this point, complex break structures have been integrated in a monolithic fashion which release an additional joint when external force is exerted and as a consequence, the motor hinge can be elevated. The impact of the pedestrian is therefore absorbed by the free space which has been created. The “LightHinge+” combines safety, lightweight construction and production-ready design.

EDAG Engineering GmbHDr. Martin HillebrechtHead of CC Lightweight Construction, Materials & TechnologyReesbergstraße 1, 36039 FuldaTelephone: +49 661 6000-610Email: [email protected]

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4.4 HERAEUS ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING: Sophisticated metal powder for

additive production in the aerospace or automotive sectors

Heraeus develops, supplies and tests the right powder for additive manufacture (Source: Heraeus)

Since 2015, the Hanau technology company has been developing sophisticated metal powders and the related processes for 3D printing. Their portfolio also includes amorphous metals (metallic glasses), precious metals (gold, silver and platinum alloys), high-melting refractory metals such as molybdenum, niobium or tantalum, the most varied of metal alloys as well as bioresorbable ma-terials and gradient materials. The provision of refractory metal powders for additive manufacturing in particular is completely new ground for metal printing technology, because these materials require such high temperatures (up to 2,500°C) that purely from a physical perspective, only a few companies can even work with them. Heraeus develops, supplies and tests the right powder for the layered construction of components for industrial man-ufacture. Metal and process knowledge are therefore crucial, because the metal powder and printing process must be perfectly matched.

Five ultralight 3D printed components from Heraeus feature in the new Technische Universität Darmstadt racing car for the

current Formula Student race series (Source: Heraeus)

Additively manufactured steering shaft bracket (Source: Heraeus)

3D printed steering shaft bracket for student racing cars features 50 percent weight reduction

Five ultralight 3D printed components from Heraeus fea-ture in the new Technische Universität Darmstadt racing car for the race series Formula Student 2017. A steering shaft bracket from the aluminium alloy AlSi10Mg is almost 50 percent lighter than its predecessor. The steering shaft bracket by Heraeus, designed precisely according to the racing team’s requirements and produced using additive production methods, weighs just under 300 grams with the mechanical strength and stability remaining the same. “We completely reconstructed the component and opti-mised it again and again using simulations to achieve the maximum weight reduction possible. The combination of material competence, construction expertise and printing know-how was crucial for us achieving this ambitious goal”, explains Tobias Caspari, head of additive manufacturing at Heraeus. A total of four motor shafts were also printed for each wheel suspension on the new Technische Uni-versität Darmstadt racing car, which are also around 50 percent lighter than the former models.

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The 3i print project shows the full potential of industrial 3D printing for the automotive industry with the front bonnet structure of an old VW Caddy (Source: csi entwicklungstechnik)

Race series “Formula Student”

The race series “Formula Student” is an international construction competition where teams of students from all over the world compete against each other with racing cars they have designed and built themselves. First known as Formula SAE 1981 in the USA, the race series came to Europe in 1998 as Formula Student. The Technische Universität Darmstadt has founded an association to compete in Formula Student: The TU Darmstadt Racing Team e.V. (DART). It is both recognised as charitable organisation as well as a university group at Technische Universität Darmstadt.

Heraeus Holding GmbHTobias CaspariHead of Additive Manufacturing at HeraeusHeraeusstraße 12-14, 63450 HanauTelephone: +49 6181 35-0Email: [email protected]

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Heraeus also makes it possible to create complex shapes from amorphous metals. This innovative material class, also known as the metallic glasses, is suitable for an unusual number of high-tech applications. Amorphous metals are shock-absorbing, scratch-resistant and also have many other good suspension properties - inter-esting, for example, when it comes to membranes for injection nozzles, casings for entertainment electronics or as loudspeaker caps.

“3D printing will be the choice for many areas of technology in the future. In the aerospace or automotive industries, additive manufacturing makes savings in weight possible which can no longer be achieved using classic shapes. Much lighter and yet, more stable functional parts can be produced with completely new design possibilities. At the same time, we save resources and can recycle any excess powder”, says Caspari.

The diversity of applications ranges from weight-reduced bearing plates for the Formula Student racing cars addi-tively produced from curable aluminium casting alloys right up to the resource-saving production of control nozzles made from platinum alloys for satellites. The current Heraeus collaborations include the 3i print pro-ject, where the example of the front-end structure of an old VW Caddy shows the full potential of industrial 3D printing for the automotive industry. In a further project with the company Moog, hydraulic control blocks are additively produced for robot applications (for example, salvage robots). Heraeus supplied and tested the technical high-strength aluminium alloy Scalmalloy® to produce the components. Using the example of a hydraulics application, it was also shown how additive production of metal sets out towards economic industrialisation and series production. As part of a joint project, a hydraulic servo-valve was optimised by Bosch Rexroth, specialist for drive and control technology. Aside from Heraeus, powder specialists with comprehensive material knowl-edge, the partners also included systems manufacturer Trumpf with their industrialisation competence.

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4.5 FKM SINTERTECHNIK GMBH: Factory of the future for the age

of additive manufacturing

New laser factory in Biedenkopf (Source: FKM Sintertechnik GmbH)

FKM Sintertechnik has been active as a laser sintering provider for more than 20 years. The company has long regarded laser sintering as a fully viable production pro-cess extending beyond prototype construction. When the company opened its new plant in Biedenkopf near Marburg in July 2014, it put into operation a complete manufacturing facility with laser sintering systems, bring-ing additive manufacturing up to the level of industrial production. The unique aspect: The new production facility is designed consistently to industrial standards while taking into consideration demanding environmental principles. The energy requirements, for example, are met using green electricity. Furthermore, the consistent recuperation of heat energy from the production process allows the factory to function without a heating system. The energy recuperated is sufficient to heat both the warm process water and the building itself down to an external temperature of -15 degrees Celsius.

The centre of the facility is a manufacturing hall with ap-proximately 3,700 square metres and 39 laser sintering systems for manufacturing finished plastic and metal components. The facilities are primarily supplied with pow-dered material via a fully automatic system consisting of a closed-circuit with multiple silos and a central distribution station. All of the upstream and downstream processing activities are carried out in a process-optimised infrastruc-ture. A flexible production control system manages and monitors all of the processes from the quality-control of the delivered powder material to the quality assurance of the finished sintered parts. “This enables us to guarantee the optimal use of the systems and the customers profit from shorter lead and delivery times,” explains Jürgen Blöcher, Managing Partner of FKM Sintertechnik.

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Additively produced component for a storage compartment from polyamide (Source: FKM Sintertechnik GmbH)

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Production hall with 39 laser sintering systems and automated control of the material circuits (Source: FKM Sintertechnik GmbH)

A variety of different materials can be used for the manu-facturing process, depending on the customers’ individual requirements. Polyamides such as PA 11 and PA 12, the flexible elastomer TPU (thermoplastic polyurethane) with its rubber-like properties or the chemical and heat-re-sistant polyetheretherketone PEEK HP3 can be used as plastics. The metals include tool steel, stainless steel and aluminium, along with cobalt-chrome, for example, for dental applications, and Inconel 718, a nickel-chrome alloy which is resistant to extreme environments and used for high-temperature applications such as turbochargers or turbine blades.

A current example for the use of additive manufacturing in small-series production, individualisation and spare parts is the multi-part storage compartment for monetary notes which are integrated into the side panel on the left side of the drivers’ seat on Mercedes Benz city buses. This complex component consists of a casing with insert compartments and a lid. Hinges, assembly clips and a handle are integrated. It is manufactured in “one piece” in an additive manner using a laser sintering process. The surface is then smoothed and given an anthracite colour. This means that the component meets the prescribed production standards, comparable to traditional produc-tion processes. In conventional construction practices, it would have been necessary to produce the individual parts with several expensive plastic injection moulding tools and then assembling the individual parts.

The cost advantages arise from the elimination of the need of special tools in the production processes, as well as no longer having to keep the necessary stock. Individual components and spare parts can be produced in precisely the desired amount in a quick and economical manner.

FKM Sintertechnik GmbHJürgen BlöcherManaging Director Zum Musbach 6, 35216 BiedenkopfTelephone: +49 6461 75852-10Email: [email protected]

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4.6 SAUER PRODUCT GMBH: Faster introduction to market thanks to

additive manufacturing

Metallic 3D print of a structural component (Source: sauer product GmbH)

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sauer product, a company from Dieburg in southern Hes-sen, is an additive manufacturing pioneer for prototypes and has been using the technology since 1988. Over the course of time, more and more new technologies have arisen in combination with new materials. In order to offer optimum solutions for specific applications, the company provides a broad spectrum of prototyping technologies. The product portfolio includes both con-ventional processes as well as innovative technologies such as laser sintering.

As a result of the company’s extensive experience, sauer product is now capable of manufacturing even those workpieces with extremely complex geometries rapidly, at affordable prices and with the precision required for the application. The company is one of the pilot users and has already been utilising SLM processes for ten years. It has gained in depth experience and now numbers among this technology’s leading providers.

sauer product offers materials including stainless steel, hot-working steel and cobalt-chromium steel, along with aluminium and titanium. As such, the company offers a broad range of metallic materials for additive manufacturing.

Additive manufacturing procedures have proven highly successful for prototype construction. One outstanding example is the “Carrier and covering panel for a vacu-um cleaner” project carried out by sauer product. This seemingly simple component required a prototype for stress and functional testing. However, if using conven-tional methods, this prototype can only be manufactured using an expensive, multi-stage forming and punching tool. The SLM process utilised by sauer product is en-tirely different: Based on the 3D CAD volume model, the production process was programmed in just one hour, while the approximately 90 x 230-millimetre carrier panel was manufactured in twelve hours by the fully automatic system. Thus, the user received the finished prototype for testing only one week after placing the order.

In fact, the significant time savings that sauer product was able to offer were more valuable than the savings in tool costs for manufacturing the prototype. The manufacturing of the conventional tools alone otherwise would have taken approximately four weeks. Thanks to additive manufactur-ing using SLM processes and sauer product’s expertise, the customer was able to reduce the originally planned time to market by approximately 15 percent. The critical factor was that the additively manufactured workpieces possessed the same mechanical characteristics as the conventionally processed original material.

sauer product also creates benefits when it comes to specially designed unique systems such as those for power stations. These components are often subject to highly specific requirements. In view of this, the SLM pro-cess often proves to be the prevailing method for series production given that the “series” in this case consists of small quantities.

sauer product GmbHStephan SperlingFrankfurter Straße 73, 64807 DieburgTelephone: +49 6071 2070-170Email: [email protected]

4.7 IETEC ORTHOPÄDISCHE EINLAGEN GMBH: PRODUKTIONS KG Tailor-made insoles for diabetes patients

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4.7 IETEC ORTHOPÄDISCHE EINLAGEN GMBH: PRODUKTIONS KG Tailor-made insoles for diabetes patients

By using a combination of various structures in an insole, the hardness required in specific places can be set digitally (Source: Fraunhofer IWM)

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Diabetes patients often experience atrophy of the nerve endings in their feet. The affected patients then no longer feel painful spots, which can lead to pressure points and the formation of sores. Insoles which are very soft at the injured area and which are hand-made and customised from various materials by orthopaedic shoe technicians promise relief. The unique character of the insoles means that the desired success has barely been proven scientifi-cally. As such, health insurance providers in particular are interested in digitising the insole process and in doing so, making them accessible for the scientific collection of data.

In the BMBF project “LAUF” (Lasergestützter Aufbau von kundenindividueller Fußbekleidung, or creation of custom footwear using lasers), scientists at the Fraunhofer-Institute for Mechanics of Materials IWM and for Environmental, Safety, and Energy Technology UMSICHT work together with industry partners in material development and digiti-sation. A software package was developed which is used by orthopaedic shoe technicians to design the soles for each individual patient and print them on their own 3D printer. This in turn brings about even more benefits: on one hand, as desired by the health insurance companies, you can see which mechanical properties each insole has. On the other hand, the insoles will be produced more affordably in the future.

The foundations for 3D printing the soles were laid a few years ago by industry partners Covestro and Lehman-n&Voss&Co. They first developed an elastic material for selective laser sintering (SLS) using thermoplastic poly-urethane (TPU). This was very well suited to orthopaedic insoles. Together with material experts from Fraunhofer UMSICHT, further types of plastic powder were developed to make the insoles more applicable for the orthopaedic sector.

Scientists at Fraunhofer IWM are optimising the 3D struc-tures that this plastic should form in the insole. The mate-rial itself does not determine how hard or soft the insole will be; the shape also plays a role here. Using applica-tion-oriented stress simulations, the team can investigate which structures are required at each point to achieve the desired properties. The data for the various insoles are passed on to industry partners rpm GmbH and Sintermask who print them using SLS systems. The partner Explius is responsible for the 3D data processing. At the end of the project, the software is available for orthopaedics technicians at IETEC Orthopädische Einlagen GmbH.

IETEC Orthopädische Einlagen GmbH Produktions KGJürgen Stumpf, Managing Director Am Frankengrund 3, 36093 Künzell Telephone: +49 661 380070Email: [email protected] www.ietec.de

3D structures made from TPU for insoles. The structures were created using CAD, their properties simulated and compared using experiments (Source: Fraunhofer IWM)

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4.8 PHILIPPS-UNIVERSITÄT MARBURG: Additive manufacturing of individual dental prostheses

and jawbones

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Given the individual nature of dental prostheses and the individual pieces required, additive processes have devel-oped into a viable alternative to traditional manufacturing methods. Additive processes have also become increas-ingly important when replacing jawbones, compensating for tissue atrophy (known as resorption processes) which occurs after tooth loss or with tissue that has to be removed as a consequence of accidents or tumours. Replacing missing teeth through tooth implants has now become a routine activity in modern dental medicine. However, due to the resorptive processes following tooth loss, the jawbone volume often needs to be restored first before the dental prosthesis can be implanted. The areas of the jawbone requiring restoration are even more extensive in the case of cancer. The jawbone is generally restored by removing bone material from another part of the body (such as the fibula) and applying it to the jawbone. However, this treatment method frequently results in complications with the jawbone and also at the site where the bone material has been removed.

At the Philipps Universität Marburg, dental specialist Prof. Christine Knabe-Ducheyne has been researching new bioceramics for additive manufacturing since 2011. These are intended for restoring collapsed jawbones and stimulating the growth of the body’s own bone before disappearing naturally after a period of three to six months. In a series of tests carried out on sheep, she successfully demonstrated the bioactivity of calcium alkali orthophosphate as a replacement material. A current research project is investigating manufacturing bone material by means of tissue engineering with additive manufacturing processes. The geometry of the jawbone is first scanned by means of computed tomography and the required bone structure generated three-dimensionally. The structure is then printed using a bioceramic material. The so called scaffold can then be enriched with bone cells and growth hormones and may also contain microscopic blood vessels. When attached to the jawbone, the scaf-fold then stimulates the bone growth and should merge with the natural tissues before disappearing after a few months. The implant can be fitted after this procedure.

Professor Knabe-Ducheyne has been pursuing this goal for over 25 years. The process is currently being tested on animals as part of an endowed professorship financed by the Hanau company Heraeus-Kulzer with one million euros. Scaffolds containing blood vessels are implanted in the femur, the tissue growth is examined and the resorption characteristics of the bioceramic tested. “In the series of tests, we are examining a variety of different scaffolds in order to optimise the materials and conditions. We then want to carry out large animal tests with the best scaffold,” states Christine Knabe-Ducheyne, describing the research project’s approach. “It would be wonderful if I could spare patients the unpleasant bone removal process in the future.” (Source: Marburg Uni Journal no. 44, Summer/Autumn 2014, ISSN 1616-1807)

Philipps-Universität MarburgProf. Dr. Christine Knabe-Ducheyne, DDS, PhDGeorg-Voigt-Straße 3, 35039 MarburgTelephone: +49 6421 5863600Email: [email protected]

3D printed bone scaffold for tissue engineering segmental lower jaw bone defects (Source: Philipps University of Marburg)

4.9 TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITÄT DARMSTADT: Individual mass production of medical products

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4.9 TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITÄT DARMSTADT: Individual mass production of medical products

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Additively manufactured SLM semi-finished product (1) and milled reworked SLM semi-finished product for comparison (2) (Source: Technische Universität Darmstadt)

Biomedical technology is recording a rapid transformation in all areas. The change in demographic, new medical materials, increasing cost pressure and the demand for customer-specific biomedical products are the main chal-lenges for the future. In dental technology in particular, these trends will lead to a significant change of today’s processes over the next few years. The production tech-nologies used must be able to keep up with development and make efficient methods for the development of new and adapted products and production systems available for medical customers. The current multi-levelled and long-term treatments are characterised by recursive processes in dental laboratories.

The aim of the COMMANDD research project (COMputer MANufactured and Designed Dental Products) was the development of a dental design environment to simulta-neously develop the product and the production system. The new system allows the doctor or dental technician to use a method to develop a high-quality individual denture for the patient at a faster rate and with lower parts costs. By using ablative and additive manufacturing processes and thanks to significant changes of the overall digital process chain, a software development environment was created for medical specialists who are not trained in technology which makes a “one-button” system available for all products.

The development and prototypical implementation of a data management system (FDDM) has allowed a reduc-tion of the number of process stages in manufacturing dentures from 12 to 6. The meaningful linking of coating processes (SLM) with ablative processes (milling) contrib-utes to the more economical manufacturing of dentures. This was achieved by optimising the CAM system as well as transferring the position location of the component from the machine with the coating process to the milling machine. The findings are not just relevant to dentistry, but can also be transferred to the decentralised production of custom patient endoprostheses. It is also possible to use these findings in other industrial areas such as gen-eral mechanical engineering or in turbine production. In particular, the weight reduction demands in connection with flow surfaces with less roughness offer great market potential. The project results were made available to dental specialists at Technische Universität Darmstadt by means of a process chain demonstrator.

Technische Universität DarmstadtInstitute for Production Management, Technology and Machine Tools (PTW)Prof. Dr. Ing. Eberhard Abele (qualified engineer)Otto-Berndt-Straße 2, 64287 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 16-2156Email: [email protected]

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4.10 FRAUNHOFER LBF: Polymerisable printing ink for low porous 3D printing and

Piezo actuators with SLM casing

Piezo stack actuator which is housed in an SLM produced monolithic casing (Source: Fraunhofer LBF)

A number of projects at the Fraunhofer Institute for Struc-tural Durability and System Reliability (LBF) focus on the advancement of additive manufacturing technologies or their application within the context of direct product man-ufacturing. As part of his dissertation in 2013, Christoph Kottlorz described a project for developing polymerisable inks and rapidly soluble powder for three-dimensional printing. Despite the simple process, which is similar to conventional 2D printing and the ability to simultaneously utilise multiple printing jets, 3D printing is not yet being used to its fullest potential for manufacturing of plastic parts in small series. There are numerous reasons for this and many arise from the porosity and low mechanical strength of the components. That is why the goal of the project was to develop new material systems for printing low-porous bodies with significantly higher strength.

The project tested both new inks based on radically po-lymerisable monomers along with the rapid, yet controlled polymerisation with new powder mixtures. A two-com-ponent initiator system was used for the polymerisation of the monomer ink. The powder primarily consisted of a soft elastomer and a small amount of hard polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). The best results were achieved with HEMA (hydroxyethylmethacrylate) as the polymerisable monomer. During 3D printing, the pores in the powder were able to be filled with sufficient quantities of ink and the porosity was significantly reduced. As a result, the first low-porous and mechanically stable test part geometries with adequate translucency were successfully manufac-tured using 3D printing. Practical testing determined a similar strength and elasticity as attained by injection moulding of comparable industrial polymers.

Another research area of the Fraunhofer LBF focuses on developing adaptronic systems to enable advanced methods of structural dynamics and signal processing including the use of new forms of actuators and sensors. Mass production processes such as injection moulding have not been suitable for manufacturing durable housings for piezo actuators. That is why scientists at the Fraunhofer LBF have been working to use additive technologies. In one project they have successfully tested the construction of a monolithic housing for a piezo stack actuator manu-factured by selective laser melting (SLM).

Individual production of sensors (Source: Fraunhofer LBF)

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Tension test of fibres: 3D printed brackets with ultrasonic transducers (Source: Fraunhofer LBF)

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In the SLM process, a laser beam heats metal powder to its melting temperature, fusing the individual particles together. This approach enabled the researchers from the Fraunhofer Institute in collaboration with the Institute of Production Management, Technology and Machine Tools (PTW) at Technische Universität Darmstadt to generate a sealed and durable housing and individually adapt the characteristics to the corresponding task. The process successfully eliminated the majority of the work for tool-making and noticeably reduced the manufacturing costs of the complex component produced in a small quan-tity. The researchers selected a commercially available piezo-ceramic stack actuator with the dimensions 7 x 7 x 32 millimetres and a maximum blocking force of two kilonewtons with a maximum extension of 45 microns.

The greatest challenge consisted of integrating the piezo actuator into the housing being produced during the additive manufacturing process itself. The layer by layer laser melting process was paused, the actuator inserted and the process continued. At the same time, the heating of the powder bed had to be taken into consideration. The process temperatures ultimately had a positive effect. The thermal contraction resulting from cooling served to mechanically preload the actuator inside the housing, which had a beneficial effect on the drive performance without impairing the hermetic seal.

According to Professor Tobias Melz, the Head of the Fraunhofer LBF, additive manufacturing processes enable additional design options and, thus, optimised product topologies. Print materials have been developed at the Fraunhofer LBF which now enable similar strength and elasticity to conventional injection moulding. In addition, working together with the PTW department at Technische Universität Darmstadt under the supervision of Professor Abele, a process for additively manufacturing housed pi-ezo stack actuators was patented, enabling a completely new range of applications such as for vibration reduction and energy harvesting.

Fraunhofer Institute for Structural Durability and System Reliability (LBF)Prof. Dr. Ing. Tobias Melz (Head of the Institute, qualified engineer)Bartningstraße 47, 64289 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 705-252Email: [email protected]

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4.11 HOCHSCHULE FÜR GESTALTUNG OFFENBACH:

Projects related to additive technologies

Formetric 4D – 3D/4D spinal column and posture measurement (Design: Stephan Brühl)

AudioView – orientation using sound (Design: Frauke Taplik)

One example for the use of generative technologies in biomedical technology is the earplug system AudioView, developed by designer Frauke Taplik. This enables blind people to acoustically locate objects marked by RFID. It consists of a customised earbud generated with a 3D

printer and a serial transmitter or speaker. The system determines the position of obstacles in the room and uses acoustic signals to indicate their location to the blind person. The signals are only audible for the wearer and simplify orientation. The shape of the earplugs has been designed so that the auditory canals remain open.

Formetric 4D, a device for optically measuring the spinal column for posture analysis, was developed in coop-eration with Diers GmbH. A graphical striped pattern developed by the optical company is projected onto the patient’s back and is then recorded with a camera system. Software calculates the position of the spinal column and the hips using anatomical fixed points and derives a three-dimensional model. This enables postural defects to be diagnosed while the patient is standing, along with the analysis of sequences of movements. The mammoth stereolithography manufacturing technology developed by Materialise was utilised to produce the system. This is the first technology capable of additively generating components with a length of more than two metres. The additive manufacturing principle made it possible to reduce the material requirements and wall thickness to a minimum. A diamond-shaped internal geometry analogous to the spinal column was used as reinforcement, and is visible from the outside due to the semi-transparent resin.

4.12 FRAME ONE: Customising bicycles using additive production

Hochschule für Gestaltung OffenbachOffice for Knowledge TransferUlrike GrünewaldSchlossstraße 31, 63065 Offenbach am MainTelephone: +49 69 800 59-166www.hfg-offenbach.de/transfer

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4.12 FRAME ONE: Customising bicycles using additive production

FRAME ONE – 3D printed bicycle frame (Source: Mervyn Bienek, Felix Pappe, Philip Hunold, Hochschule für Gestaltung, Offenbach am Main)

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Crowded cities, too many cars, high volume of traffic, environmental pollution: the topic of mobility does not just face logistical challenges, but also ecological ones. An answer to the problems of the age: switching to cycling. However, traditional bicycles have never been arranged according to the individual needs of the cyclist and are mainly imported cheaply from abroad.

At the Hochschule für Gestaltung Offenbach, designers Mervyn Bienek and Felix Pappe have developed a business model for the regional provision of custom-made bicycles in cooperation with economist Philip Hunold. Under the brand name FRAME ONE, bikes are available at prices equalling those of high-quality bikes off the shelf. The high degree of customisation is made possible thanks to the partially 3D printed bicycle frame. The frame is produced locally and sustainable in the company’s own stores and then assembled to form a complete two-wheeler.

The FRAME ONE frame consists of 3D printed nodal points which are adapted individually to the cyclist and standardised carbon tubes, which are assembled with the nodal points into a frame, fork and handlebars. The screw system means that all parts can be disassembled and recycled separately. Mass production makes the

frame much simpler; the need for saddle supports and handlebar stem is eliminated.

The bicycle is tailored to the cyclist to attain the best cy-cling performance and allow an ergonomic, healthy cycle without poor posture. FRAME ONE is customised by the customer to match up with their aesthetic and functional requirements. The additive production system means that every desired position and frame type can be created. Here, 3D printing is not just a production method, but has become the new aesthetic of FRAME ONE.The business model was awarded first place of the Hessen Idee 2017 Founder’s Prize.

FRAME ONE Mervyn BienekBismarckstraße 10, 63065 OffenbachTelephone: +49 157 54517715Email: [email protected]

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4.13 UNIVERSITÄT KASSEL: 3D printed cement-bound shaped parts

Prototype of a parametric module without formwork (Source: University of Kassel, J. Frankenstein-Frambach, A. Fromm)

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Note: still to be clarified

In architecture, where large-scale and geometrically complex components are often required in small batch sizes, 3D printing technologies have remained largely unexploited. Cement is a familiar material, and is also of interest for this manufacturing technology given that it is inexpensive and thus also suitable for large-scale parts.

As part of a research project initiated by the University of Kassel and carried out together with industrial partners, a process for additively manufacturing cement-bound shaped parts was developed in 2012 and 2013. The via-bility of the resulting products for the architectural field and construction industry was also investigated as part of a dissertation in the field of supporting structures and solid construction.

In this process, a cement material is combined with addi-tives and applied in layers in a construction space of up to eight cubic metres using a system from voxeljet. The mixture is also hardened selectively and in layers with an aqueous solution. Processing a cement material using 3D printing represents a fundamental break from the former processing methods given that the conventional mechanical mixing to ensure an even mixture of liquid and cement powder no longer takes place.

Investigations have shown that the physical properties of the final product change considerably as a result. This is due to anisotropies which occur as a result of the layered structure and can be seen in the following scanning elec-tron microscope picture.

In trials accompanying the development strength devia-tions of up to 50 percent were found, depending on the angle of incidence to the layer. These undesired effects could be reduced through subsequent treatment, and the overall strength increased simultaneously. When the DIN EN 1992 standard is applied to such products for exterior usage, then the relevant characteristics have not yet been fulfilled. However, regardless of this, the goal to manufacture a cement-bound shaped part using an additive process which offers the designer the greatest degree of design freedom could be achieved using the 3D printing process.

Further testing is required to utilise these new products in the architectural field and construction industry due to the fact that long-term studies found unexpected de-terioration of the strength of the cement materials used. Furthermore, strategies for permanently monitoring the production process also have to be developed.

University of KasselDepartment of Civil EngineeringProf. Dr. Ing. Ekkehard Fehling (qualified engineer)Kurt-Wolters-Straße 3, 34109 KasselTelephone: +49 561 804-2608Email: [email protected]/fb14bau

4.14 TATCRAFT GMBH: The largest MakerSpace in the Rhine-Main area

Layered structure of a cement-bound material after 3D printing (Source: University of Kassel, A. Fromm)

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4.14 TATCRAFT GMBH: The largest MakerSpace in the Rhine-Main area

View of the Tatcraft MakerSpace workshops (Source: Tatcraft GmbH)

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Tatcraft GmbHFabian Winopal (Managing Director)Gwinnerstraße 42, 60388 Frankfurt am MainTelephone: +49 176 8314 04 68Email: [email protected]

In June 2017 in a brick hall on the earlier premises of sys-tems manufacturer Lurgi in the Seckbach industrial area, the largest Makerspace in the Rhine-Main area celebrated its opening under the name of “Tatcraft”. On around 1,500 square metres, designers, creative craftspeople, hobbyists or furniture and interior designers are offered everything they require to create their ideas and designs. As well as a wood workshop, CNC mill, laser cutter and a water jet cutting system to process glass, stone and metal, at Tatcraft, the makers also have one of the world’s largest industrial filament printers from BigRep in Berlin.

The two Tatcraft founders, Fabian Winopal and Tim Fleischer, invested around half a million euros to make a high-tech machine park available to young creatives and small businesses. While membership of the Tatcraft MakerSpace costs € 179 per month for an individual user, students and apprentices pay a reduced amount of € 125. Companies pay a higher amount for intensive use of the machinery. Among other things, the business model is to get companies in contact with young creatives. The systems manufacturers see the Tatcraft MakerSpace as a kind of showroom in the Frankfurt area. This is why the start-up company was able to put together the machine park on more favourable terms.

“The Rhine-Main area is the ideal place for our idea”, says Fabian Winopal. “Many creatives and artists work on exciting projects here. There is also a vast array of colleges which specialise in design.”

MakerSpaces arose from so called Fablabs (“fabrication laboratories”) which were brought into being by computer scientist Neil Gershenfeld at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2002. Gershenfeld wanted to teach laypeople about how to handle digital production technology such as 3D printing, CNC milling and laser cutting, and bring the open-source idea to a wider pub-lic. As at the Technische Universität Darmstadt, the first Fablabs and Makerspaces were opened at colleges and universities. We are now seeing a second generation of professionally-driven, commercial facilities with equip-ment used in particular by creatives from a professional background. This development has become known above all throughout the USA and China.

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4.15 FRAUNHOFER IGD: Voxel-based 3D printer driver Cuttlefish

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With the ever-increasing importance of additive pro-duction processes for the industry, the requirements of functional scope and construction space of the systems are also increasing. The desire for multi-material systems and large-scale systems in particular can be recognised on the market. This also significantly increases the control software requirements. Above all, the accurate positioning of materials to correctly replicate geometric and visual characteristics presents a huge challenge due to the immense volumes of data.

The Fraunhofer IGD is developing a streaming-ready, Voxel-based printer driver to control multi-material 3D printers under the name of “Cuttlefish”. Cuttlefish only calculates the information required for the current print-ing process, in order to minimise the necessary storage space consumption and to be able to start the additive manufacturing process within seconds, even for complex and large 3D models.

Stratasys presented the GrabCAD Voxel Print solution for its full-colour multi-material 3D printer J750 at formnext 2017 which opens up the system for use with third-party software. The printer driver Cuttlefish by the Fraunhofer IGD works seamlessly together with GrabCAD Voxel Print. “The Fraunhofer IGD was one of the first users of our GrabCAD Voxel Print solution, which allowed the institute to develop Cuttlefish in such a way that the colour and translucence capabilities of the full-colour Stratasys 3D printer J750 could be fully utilised”, says Tomer Gallimidi (Education Product Leader at Stratasys).

The most recent version of Cuttlefish supports RGBA textures which contain both colour and translucence information and can range from completely opaque to completely transparent. The driver allows users to print several overlapping models, each with one or several RGBA textures.

“3D models based on RGBA data are supported by 3D file formats such as OBJ or WRL and can be generated by many design and texturing tools”, Professor Philipp Urban (Head of the 3D Printing Technology department at the Fraunhofer IGD) explains the development. “RGBA textures can also be generated or modified by popular image processing programmes such as Adobe Photo-shop. Cuttlefish closes the quality gap between virtual design and its reproduction as a 3D printed model. We now support Polyjetting, FDM, SLM and DLP printers and can quickly connect new printing technologies thanks to the modular workflow.”

These capabilities were demonstrated with a 3D anatomy model consisting of 28 parts. Each of these was assigned a different material which, all in all, were described by 425-megapixel colour textures. Transparent parts of the model were simply generated by modifying the RGBA data..

Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research IGDProf. Philipp UrbanHead of Competence Center 3D Printing TechnologyFraunhoferstraße 5, 64283 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 155-250Email: philipp.urban@igd.fraunhofer.dewww.igd.fraunhofer.dewww.cuttlefish.de

4.16 FIBERTHREE GMBH: Using carbon fibres to create more efficient

additive components

Cuttlefish creates complex models in 3D printing with highly precise colour and translucence reproduction (Source: Fraunhofer IGD)

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4.16 FIBERTHREE GMBH: Using carbon fibres to create more efficient

additive components

3D printed drilling template (Source: Fiberthree GmbH)

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Fibre-reinforced plastics are widespread in today’s tech-nical applications. They mainly increase stability while also reducing weight. In order to harness the benefits associated with additive manufacturing for utilising the known material advantages of injection moulding and composite production, the founders of new Fiberthree GmbH have specialised in the development and sale of technical FFF filaments with fibre additives for processing on standard market printers.

Fibres cannot currently be incorporated into additive multi-jet or powder bed processes. The melting or fused layer modelling process with fibre-filled materials therefore does not have an alternative if highly filled plastics are to be used, and this requires less investment than the SLS process, for example.

“We are a company which specialises in high-strength components that can be produced quickly and affordably without having to detour via special injection moulding or composite structural shapes. We develop the material and the components to be able to print it on machines. Applications are mostly parts which should be mobile and retain their high level of stability. The use of material at the user end requires a professional environment for the additive production process. If this proves too laborious, we offer our expertise in engineering and job order pro-duction. Our printer park is available for customers who do not have a meaningful alternative in terms of cost. Our customers value our quick execution”, Klaus Philipp explains the Fiberthree GmbH business model.

Assembly aids or measurement gauges are examples of applications which are particularly good for showing the advantages of the material. These can be produced completely flat and accurate in the 3D printer. The pro-portion of fibre prevents distortion; for reinforced plastic, fitting sockets or threaded inserts can be reworked after printing. This means that a ready-to-use tool can be produced directly from the CAD specification. When compared to traditional metal cutting production with aluminium, as well as the reduction in the material used, the CNC processing stage is also substituted. The costs savings result from the shortened process chain and the lower expense of storing the materials. When companies use their own printers, a saving of more than 50 percent is not a rare occurrence.

The focus of material development for FFF filaments is currently on polyamides, as in many respects, these meet the technical requirements of professional use in compo-nents, allow good thermal and media resistance and do not release any critical degradation products. During the layered production process, anisotropic material values prevail, yet the stabilities, even the structural stability in the height axis, which is to say between the layers, is so high that new possibilities of use are opening up.

Application example “additive orthesis production”

Ortheses are currently laminated by hand or produced in series unit sizes. In a complex production process, a light core, externally reinforced with carbon fibre in a resin matrix, is normally milled. The 3D printed component from carbon fibre reinforced polyamide has an internal woven structure to save on weight. The part takes 24 hours to print. The weight corresponds to the laminated version at around 280 grams. The orthesis can be adapted to the customer individu-ally in CAD and is additively produced directly in a production process.

Fiberthree GmbHKlaus Philipp (Managing Director)Nieder-Ramstädter-Straße 22, 64283 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 734 75 900Email: [email protected]

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4.17 CONTINENTAL ENGINEERING SERVICES GMBH:

Additive Design and Manufacturing competence centre (ADaM)

Continental Qualification Laboratory Karben (QL KRB) (Source: Continental Automotive GmbH)

Continental Additive Design and Manufacturing (ADaM) (Source: Continental Engineering Services CES)

Additively produced pipe flange (Source: Continental Engineering Services CES)

The market surrounding additive manufacturing process-es has developed in a very positive manner over recent years. In the near future, we expect the opening up of new potential for using additive production methods, above all in the automotive and electronics industries. Some of the large supply industry companies are preparing for this development and grouping their competences in AM centres with a focus on the direct additive production of small series, spare parts and prototypes.

One of these competence centres in Hessen is ADaM (Additive Design and Manufacturing) in the CES Product Solutions technology park, owned by Continental Engi-neering Services (CES) in Karben, near Frankfurt am Main. Here, the worldwide Continental knowledge is gathered, and all internal areas are made available. On an area of 560 square metres, a team of technicians and engineers make use of a high-tech production workshop with all current 3D printing processes. As well as high-tech ad-ditive production, the CES Product Solutions technology park also covers classic processes in mechanics, such as metal cutting production or laser, bending, welding and punching technologies, as well as injection moulding and vacuum casting systems, and electronics production.

As a complete service provider, Continental Engineering Services (CES) offer tailor-made development work for automotive and industrial applications, but also the relat-ed creation work: the production of prototypes, tool and fixture construction as well as small series manufacture and spare part production in one production location. After over 40 years of experience, today more than 30,000 prototypes and samples are produced each year, as well as around 20 small series. Customers are predominantly areas within the company group and external companies from the automotive industry. The demand for this expertise is also increasing among customers from other industries.

Continental Engineering Services GmbHCES Product SolutionsStefan KammannDieselstraße 6 - 20, 61184 KarbenTelephone: +49 6039 981 541Email: [email protected]

iBattery cooling with adapted cooling channels (Source: Continental Engineering Services CES)

In this way, a sports car manufacturer had them print a brake calliper in an SLM process in Karben. The result: the 14-week prototype production time could be reduced to seven days with the same material properties. As well as tools, complex cooling elements are also in demand, for example, which can be adapted to the surface they are designed to cool, and can also dissipate heat effectively through integrated cooling channels. The combination of an assembly to form a single component such as double-walled pipe flanges is also an application. In this way, the reduction of welded flanges and walls saves on weight and sustainable joining processes.

Whether it’s a question of simple mechanical parts or highly complex control devices, for example, the best, most suitable production technologies are selected, or well-combined with each other, for each project. The corresponding plastic or metal materials are processed for 3D printing, either by means of selective laser melting (SLM), selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modelling (FDM) or stereolithography (SLA). Integration into the CES Segments Product Solutions machine park gives ADaM the ideal prerequisite to combine additive manufacture with comprehensive technology advice, reworking processes, classic production processes, du-rability testing and validations.

With their qualifications laboratory at Continental’s group site in Karben, there are modern facilities for the valida-tion or assessment of parts available, from mechanical function tests to environmental simulations to computer tomography scans. Altogether, the material portfolio for additive production is constantly being developed, analysed and qualified. The product quality along the entire value added chain is ensured thanks to certification in accordance with the quality management standard for the automotive industry IATF 16949.

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5. OVERVIEW 5.1 ESSIAN COMPANIES AND

RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS

apc-tec Process.EngineeringAlexander PetriBackhausstraße 28a, 65555 LimburgTelephone: +49 6431 529175Email: [email protected]

Alesco Muster- Modell- und Prototypenbau GmbH Rüdiger IrleJustus-von-Liebig-Straße 40, 63128 DietzenbachTelephone: +49 6074 918 848 01Email: [email protected]

B&S Zerspanungstechnik Franz Jürgen BenzKleyerstraße 7, 64295 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 371 368Email: [email protected]

C.F.K. CNC-Fertigungstechnik Kriftel GmbH Uwe WötzelGutenbergstraße 8, 65830 Kriftel/TaunusTelephone: +49 6192 9945 0Email: [email protected]

3D SystemsDeniz Okur (Marketing Manager)Guerickeweg 9, 64291 DarmstadtTelephone: + 49 6151 357 300Email: [email protected]

4D Concepts GmbHAlex Di Maglie (Managing Director)Frankfurter Straße 74, 64521 Groß-GerauTelephone: +49 6152 92310Email: [email protected]

Competence Center Additive Design and Manufacturing (ADaM)Continental Engineering ServicesSascha WörnerDieselstraße 6-20, 61184 KarbenTelephone: +49 151 5267 8812Email: sascha.woerner-ext@conti-engineering.comwww.conti-engineering.com

Conspir3D GmbHJan GiebelsBerliner Straße 1, 64354 ReinheimTelephone: +49 6162 9167296Email: [email protected]

DeguDent GmbHAndreas MaierRodenbacher Chaussee 4, 63457 HanauTelephone: +49 6181 59-5800Email: [email protected]

EDAG Engineering GmbHDr. Martin Hillebrecht (Head of CC Lightweight Construction, Materials& Technology)Reesbergstraße 1, 36039 FuldaTelephone: +49 661 6000-610Email: [email protected]

Evonik Industries AGSylvia Monsheimer (PP-HP-GL-AT Director)Paul-Baumann-Straße 1, 45772 MarlTelephone: +49 2365 49-5911Email: [email protected]

FabLab DarmstadtChristoph TauchertMagdalenenstraße 4, 64289 Darmstadt, room 015Telephone: +49 6151 16-24339Email: [email protected]

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Fiberthree GmbHKlaus Philipp (Managing Director)Nieder-Ramstädter-Straße 22, 64283 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 734 75 900Email: [email protected]

FKM Sintertechnik GmbHJürgen Blöcher (Managing Director)Zum Musbach 6, 35216 BiedenkopfTelephone: +49 6461 9551-0Email: [email protected]

FRAME ONE Mervyn BienekBismarckstraße 10, 63065 OffenbachTelephone: +49 157 54517715Email: [email protected]

Fraunhofer-Institut für Graphische Datenverarbeitung IGDProf. Dr. Philipp Urban (Head of Competence Centre 3D Printing Technology)Fraunhoferstraße 5, 64283 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 155-250Email: [email protected]

Fraunhofer-Institut für Betriebsfestigkeit und Systemzuverlässigkeit LBFProf. Dr.-Ing. Tobias Melz (Head of the Institute)Bartningstraße 47, 64289 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 705-252Email: [email protected]

Heraeus Holding GmbHTobias Caspari (Head of Heraeus Additive Manufacturing)Heraeusstraße 12-14, 63450 HanauTelephone: +49 6181 35-0Email: [email protected]

Herbert Maschinenbau GmbH & Co. KGBernd Schmitt (Leiter Vertrieb)Industriestraße 10, 36088 HünfeldTelephone: +49 6652 609-0Email: [email protected]

Hochschule für Gestaltung OffenbachOffice for the Transfer of KnowledgeUlrike GrünewaldSchlossstraße 31, 63065 Offenbach am MainTelephone: +49 69 800 59-166Email: [email protected]/transfer

HP Deutschland GmbHBastian Weimer (3D Printing Channel Manager)Hewlett-Packard-Straße 1, 61352 Bad HomburgTelephone: +49 6172 26 888 05Email: [email protected]

IETEC Orthopädische Einlagen GmbH Produktions KGJürgen Stumpf (Managing Director)Am Frankengrund 3, 36093 KünzellTelephone: +49 661 380070Email: [email protected]

invenio GmbH Engineering ServicesEisenstraße 9, 65428 RüsselsheimThomas Repp (Business Development Area Manager)Telephone: +49 6142 899-266Email: [email protected]

JM Kunststofftechnik GmbHJürgen Merschroth (Managing Director)Akazienweg 25-27, 64665 Alsbach-HähnleinTelephone: +49 6257 96997-0Email: [email protected]

Kegelmann Technik GmbHStephan Kegelmann (Managing Director)Gutenbergstraße 15, 63110 Rodgau-JügesheimTelephone: +49 6106 8507-10Email: [email protected]

Makerspace Gießen MAGIEflux – impulse: Seipel, Nils & Schmid, Johannes GbRGeorg-Philipp-Gail-Straße 5, 35394 GießenEmail: [email protected]/magie

Makerspace Wiesbaden e.V.Wandersmannstraße 60, 65205 WiesbadenTelephone: +49 152 292 260 92Email: [email protected]

Matsuura Machinery GmbH Berta-Cramer-Ring 21, 65205 Wiesbaden-DelkenheimTelephone: +49 6122 78 030Email: [email protected]

medacom GmbH Olaf GerlachR.-Samesreuther-Str. 25, 35510 ButzbachTelephone: +49 6033 74888-0Email: [email protected]

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O.R. Lasertechnologie GmbH Dieselstraße 15, 64807 DieburgTelephone: +49 6071 209 890Email: [email protected]

Perlon 3D Printing Filament Ralf HellingerHauptstrasse Nord 67, 69483 Wald-MichelbachTelephone: +49 6207 9460Email: [email protected]

Philipps-Universität MarburgProf. Dr. Christine Knabe-Ducheyne, DDS, PhDGeorg-Voigt-Straße 3, 35039 MarburgTelephone: +49 6421 58636-00Email: [email protected]

RKM – RotorKonzept Multikoptermanufaktur GmbH Daniel SchmittHauptstraße 113, 69518 AbtsteinachTelephone: +49 6207 2033 533Email: [email protected]

sauer product GmbHMartin Sauer (Managing Director)Frankfurter Straße 73, 64807 DieburgTelephone: +49 6071 2070-0Email: [email protected]

Schmitt Ultraschalltechnik GmbH Stephan JeßbergerAlbert-Schweitzer-Straße 6, 63165 MühlheimTelephone: +49 6108 793 441Email: [email protected]

Tatcraft GmbHFabian Winopal (Managing Director)Gwinnerstraße 42, 60388 Frankfurt am MainTelephone: +49 176 8314 04 68Email: [email protected]

Mittelhessen University of Applied SciencesFaculty of Maschinenbau, Mechatronik undMaterialtechnologie/Mechanical engineering, Mechanics and Material TechnologyProf. Dr.-Ing. Udo JungAm Dachspfad 10, 61169 FriedbergTelephone: +49 6031 604 337Email: [email protected]

Technische Universität DarmstadtFaculty of Mechanical EngineeringProf. Dr.-Ing. Reiner AnderlPetersenstraße 30, 64287 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 16-6001Email: [email protected]

Technische Universität DarmstadtInstitute for Production Management, Technology and Machine Tools (PTW)Prof. Dr.-Ing. Eberhard AbeleOtto-Berndt-Straße 2, 64287 DarmstadtTelephone: +49 6151 16-2156Email: [email protected]

Technische Universität Darmstadt Centre for Structural MaterialsState Materials Testing Institute DarmstadtFaculty and Institute for Materials TechnologyProf. Dr.-Ing. Matthias OechsnerTelephone: +49 6151 16-24900Email: [email protected]

Trondesign creators + engineers Achim ReitzeJohanna-Waescher-Str. 5, 34131 KasselTelephone: +49 0561 92 88 080Email: [email protected]

Umicore AG & Co. KGAndreas Brumby (Innovation Manager)Rodenbacher Chaussee 4, 63457 HanauTelephone: +49 6181 59-4886Email: [email protected]

University of KasselFaculty of Massivbau/Solid ConstructionProf. Dr.-Ing. Ekkehard FehlingKurt-Wolters-Straße 3, 34109 KasselTelephone: +49 561 804-2608Email: [email protected]/fb14bau

University of KasselInstitut für Werkstofftechnik / Metallische WerkstoffeProf. Dr.-Ing. Thomas NiendorfSophie-Henschel-Haus,Mönchebergstraße 3, 34125 KasselTelephone: +49 561 804 7018Email: [email protected]

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5.2 LITERATURE

Abele, E.: Allocation and outlook of additive production processes from a technical production view. Presentation at the event “Additive Manufacturing” organised by the Hessen Ministry for Economics, Energy, Transport and Regional Development, Hanau, 23. September 2014.

Abele, E.; Anderl R.; Weiß P.: Computer aided Develop-ment and Production of Dental Products. Aachen, Shaker Verlag, 2015.

Anderson, C.: Makers. The Internet of Things: the next industrial revolution. Munich, Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2013.

Anderl, R.: Additive Manufacturing or Generative Pro-duction Processes – from Prototypes to Mass Production? Presentation at the event “Additive Manufacturing“ organised by the Hessen Ministry for Economics, Energy, Transport and Regional Development, Hanau, 23. September 2014.

Breuninger, J.; Becker, R.; Wolf, A.; Rommel, S.; Verl, A.: Generative Production with Plastics: Design and Construction for Selective Laser Sintering. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 2013.

Caviezel, C.; Grünwald, R.; Ehrenberg-Silies, S.; Kind, S.; Jetzke, T.; Bovenschulte, M.: Additive Production Process-es (3D Printing). Published by the Office of Technology Assessment at the German Parliament. Work report no. 175, March 2017.

Fromm, Asko: 3D Printing Cement-Bonded Shaped Parts. Fundaments, Development and Use. Kassel, Hessen: Kassel University Press, 2014. Frost & Sullivan 2016: Global Additive Manufacturing Market. Forecast to 2025, Frost & Sullivan‘s Global 360° Research Team, USA, Mai 2016.

Gartner 2018: Predicts 2018 – 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing. 29. November 2017, Gartner Inc., Stamford/USA.

Gebhardt, A.: Generative Production Processes: Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing for Prototyping – Tooling – Production. Munich, Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 4th edition, 2013.

Harrop, J.: 3D printed electronics and circuit prototyping. 2015–2025. IDTechEx, 2015.

Herzog, R.; Ernsberger, M.: Metal 3D Printing on the road to Industrial Series Production. Presentation at the event “Additive Manufacturing for Industrial Requirements“ organised by the Hessen Ministry for Economics, Energy, Transport and Regional Development, TU Darmstadt, 12. September 2017

Horsch, F.: 3D Printing for Everyone – The Do-It-Yourself Guide. Munich, Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2014.

ING Bank 2017: Economic and Financial Analysis „3D printing: a threat to global trade“, 28 September 2017, Amsterdam/NL.

Leupold, A.; Glossner, S.: 3D Printing, Additive Production and Rapid Manufacturing. Legal Framework and Enter-prise Challenge. Munich: Vahlen Verlag, 2016.

Lux Research: How 3D Printing Adds Up: Emerging Materials, Processes, Applications, and Business Models. 30. März 2014.

Melz, T.; Thyes, C.: Additive Production Systems to produce Adaptive Systems. Presentation at the event “Additive Manufacturing for Industrial Requirements“ organised by the Hessen Ministry for Economics, Energy, Transport and Regional Development, TU Darmstadt, 12. September 2017.

Mordor Intelligence: Additive Manufacturing & Material Market – By Technology, Material and End-user. Geogra-phy, Trends, Forecast (2017-2022). Mordor Intelligence, November 2017.

Peters, S.: Material Revolution – Sustainable and Multi-Functional Materials for Design and Architecture. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag, 2011.]

Peters, S.: Handbook for Technical Product Design. Published by Kalweit, Paul, Peters, Wallbaum. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 2nd edition, 2011. Peters, S.: Material Revolution II – New Sustainable and Multi-Functional Materials for Design and Architecture. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag, 2014.

Richard, H. A.; Schramm, B.; Zipsner, T.: Additive Produc-tion of Components and Structures. Wiesbaden: Springer Vieweg, 2017.

Sander, P.: 3D Printing in Civil Aircraft Manufacture. Presentation at the event “Additive Manufacturing for mobility“ organised by the Hessen Ministry for Economics, Energy, Transport and Regional Development, TU Darmstadt, 2. November 2017.

VDI: Status Report “Additive Production Processes“, Asscociation of German Engineers, September 2014.

Warnier, C.; Verbruggen, D.; Ehrmann, S.; Klanten, R.: Printing Things– How 3D Printing is changing Design. Berlin: Gestalten Verlag, 2014.

Wohlers, T.: Wohlers` Report 2015, 2016, 2017. Wohlers Association, USA.

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TECHNOLOGIELAND HESSEN

Under the brand name of “Technologieland Hessen“ Hessen Trade & Invest GmbH combines measures for technological innovations on behalf of the Hessen Min-istry for Economics and supports the Hessen economy in the development, application and marketing of relevant future and key technologies.

Key technologies from Hessen

In order to keep pace with the current technological and societal developments, it is important to keep individual technologies in mind as well as recognise synergies. In subject-specific areas of competence, “Technologieland Hessen” illustrates the different key technologies of the state. As a competent point of contact, our aim is to push technologies forward and thus to strengthen the position of your company.

We can inform, advise and connect you regarding the following topics:

Material and nanotechnologies Additive manufacturing/3D printing Lightweight construction and bionics Optics technology/photonics

These focuses are some of the key technologies of the 21st century as they contribute to the transformation to a more sustainable economy and to a digitally decen-tralised industry.

Our range of services include:

Networking of agents, cooperation communication

Subject and information events Topic-specific publications Newsletter and “Technologieland Hessen”

magazine Consulting and funding Fair participation and foreign trade support

Use our services and get involved with your own ideas. We look forward to having a discussion with you!

Your points of contact in the area of material technologies:

Daniel Schreck Leading Project Manager Material Technologies Telephone: +49 611 95017-8631 Email: [email protected]

Jerry Sigmund Project Manager Material Technologies Telephone: +49 611 95017-8625 Email: [email protected]

You might also be interested in these publications:

Lightweight Design in Hessen: Potentials, Projects, Players

1st edition, May 2018

Ressourceneffizienz in Hessen – Praxisbeispiele und Fördermöglichkeiten [in German]

1st edition, April 2017

Mit Ecodesign zu einer ressourcenschonenden Wirtschaft [in German]

1st edition, October 2015

Kompetenzatlas Bionik in Hessen [in German], 2nd revised edition, November 2015

Over 20 further publications on the subject of material technologies can be found on our website www.technologieland-hessen.de/publikationen.

91

LEGAL NOTICE

PublisherHessen Trade & Invest GmbHTechnologieland HessenKonradinerallee 9, 65189 WiesbadenTelephone: +49 611 950 17-85Fax: +49 611 950 17-8466Email: [email protected]

Created byHAUTE INNOVATIONFuture Agency for Material and TechnologyDr. Sascha PetersFidicinstr. 13, 10965 BerlinTelephone: +49 30 8095 6958Email: [email protected]

EditingSebastian Hummel,Hessen Ministry for Economics, Energy, Transport and Housing

Nicole Holderbaum,Dr. David Eckensberger Hessen Trade & Invest GmbH

Date of publicationAugust 2018

Image sourcesTitle: Kegelmann Technik GmbH,Heraeus Holding GmbH, EDAGEngineering GmbH, FRAME ONE,P. 2: Marina Grigorivna | shutterstock.com,P. 4: Hessen Ministry for Economics, Energy, Transport and Housing (HMWEW),P. 6: Zapp2Photo | shutterstock.com,P. 60: vege | Fotolia.com,P. 62: Frauenhofer LBF, FRAME ONE,Frauke Taplik, Kegelmann Technik GmbH,sauer product GmbH,EDAG Engineering GmbH,P. 90: Dr.-Ing. Carsten Ott,Hessen Trade & Invest GmbH

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ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING - Technologieland Hessen€¦ · a stronger use of additive manufacturing technologies. The speed of the transformation process is influenced by numerous factors