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ADB—Education at a Glance
Broad Education Sector Development
13%
TechnicalEducation and
Vocational SkillsTraining
21%
Preprimary and Basic Education
37%
NonformalEducation
4% Tertiary and
Higher Education
12%
Upper Secondary Education
13%
Education is a Core Operation Area of ADB.
ADB. 2008. Strategy 2020: The Long-Term Strategic Framework of the Asian Development Bank 2008–2020. Manila.
How We WorkADB provides project financing and technical assistance to help develop comprehensive education sector plans and support sustainable development of education at all levels.
ADB’s Community of Practice in Education supports education sector operations through knowledge generation and sharing lessons and best practices from the field.
ADB regularly undertakes studies on education development in the region and prepares timely publications and other knowledge products to share knowledge on important topics in education.
ADB proactively pursues partnerships with stakeholders of education, including the private sector, to help leverage financing for education and improve inclusiveness, quality, and relevance of education service delivery.
ADB Support to Education Development, 1970–2013*
Country
Afghanistan
BangladeshBhutanCambodiaChina, People’s Republic ofCook IslandsFiji IndiaIndonesiaKazakhstanKiribatiKorea, Republic of
Kyrgyz Republic
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
MalaysiaMaldivesMarshall IslandsMicronesia, Federated States ofMongolia
Myanmar
NepalPakistanPapua New Guinea
Philippines
SamoaSingapore
Solomon IslandsSri LankaTajikistanThailandTimor-LesteTuvaluUzbekistanVanuatuViet NamRegional
* Includes loans, grants, and technical assistance (TA).
Shadow Education
Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia
In all parts of Asia, households devote considerable expenditures to
private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring may contribute to students’
achievement, but it also maintains and exacerbates social inequalities,
diverts resources from other uses, and can contribute to inefficiencies in
education systems.
Such tutoring is widely called shadow education, because it mimics
school systems. As the curriculum in the school system changes, so does
the shadow.
This study documents the scale and nature of shadow education in
different parts of the region. For many decades, shadow education has
been a major phenomenon in East Asia. Now it has spread throughout the
region, and it has far-reaching economic and social implications.
About the Asian Development Bank
ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is
to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve
the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it
remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live
on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day.
ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth,
environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the
region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries
are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and
technical assistance.
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Shad
ow
Edu
cation
Bray and
Lykins
Shadow Education
Private Supplementary Tutoring
and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia
Mark Bray and Chad Lykins
CERC Monograph Series in
Comparative and International
Education and Development
CERC
No. 9
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8
Publication Stock No. RPS114214
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
HIGHER EDUCATION ACROSS ASIA
An Overview of Issues and Strategies
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Administration and Governance of
Higher Education in Asia
Patterns and Implications
ISBN 9
78-92-
9092-7
62-4
The National Qualifications Framework for Skills Training Reform in Sri Lanka
The National Vocational Qualifications Framework of Sri Lanka was developed in
conformity with the socioeconomic milieu and the needs of the labor market with the
participation of industry stakeholders. It has enhanced the role of the government in policy
and regulation, and the role of the private sector in providing skills training. A unified
system with seven levels covering 96 occupations at the craft level, 14 fields at the middle
technician level, and 4 courses of study at the degree level, it has reduced the complexity
and ambiguity of training and selecting competent workers. This publication describes
the progress and challenges in developing, implementing, and monitoring this ambitious
scheme, with lessons for developing skills qualification frameworks in other countries.
About the Asian Development BankADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its
developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life
of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the
world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling
on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive
economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main
instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity
investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-221-6Publication Stock No. TIM112959
Printed in the Philippines
The National QualificationsFramework for Skills TrainingReform in Sri Lanka
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-518-7
Publication Stock No. RPS124228 Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL QUALITY
Focus on Faculty Development
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
ACCESS WITHOUT EQUITY?
Finding a Better Balance
in Higher Education in Asia
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8
Regional Cooperation and Cross-Border
Collaboration in Higher Education in Asia
Ensuring that Everyone Wins
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-734-1
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8
Publication Stock No. RPS114214
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
COUNTING THE COST
Financing Asian Higher Education
for Inclusive Growth
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Private Higher Education Across Asia Expanding Access, Searching for Quality
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Improving Transitions
From School to University to Workplace
ISBN 9
78-92-
9092-8
24-9
ADB—Education at a Glance
Broad Education Sector Development
13%
TechnicalEducation and
Vocational SkillsTraining
21%
Preprimary and Basic Education
37%
NonformalEducation
4% Tertiary and
Higher Education
12%
Upper Secondary Education
13%
Education plays an increasingly critical role in ensuring sustainable human resource development in Asia and the Pacific. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) provides financing and technical assistance to its developing member countries (DMCs) in the region to help improve education systems to become equitable and inclusive, cost-efficient, of high quality, and responsive to labor market needs. In the past 4 decades, ADB has provided support worth $9.5 billion to its DMCs for the development of education. ADB assistance covers all education subsectors and also supports broad education sector development.
* In this publication, “$” refers to US dollars.
How We WorkADB provides project financing and technical assistance to help develop comprehensive education sector plans and support sustainable development of education at all levels.
ADB’s Community of Practice in Education supports education sector operations through knowledge generation and sharing lessons and best practices from the field.
ADB regularly undertakes studies on education development in the region and prepares timely publications and other knowledge products to share knowledge on important topics in education.
ADB proactively pursues partnerships with stakeholders of education, including the private sector, to help leverage financing for education and improve inclusiveness, quality, and relevance of education service delivery.
ADB Support to Education Development, 1970–2013*
Country
Afghanistan
BangladeshBhutanCambodiaChina, People’s Republic ofCook IslandsFiji IndiaIndonesiaKazakhstanKiribatiKorea, Republic of
Kyrgyz Republic
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
MalaysiaMaldivesMarshall IslandsMicronesia, Federated States ofMongolia
Myanmar
NepalPakistanPapua New Guinea
Philippines
SamoaSingapore
Solomon IslandsSri LankaTajikistanThailandTimor-LesteTuvaluUzbekistanVanuatuViet NamRegional
* Includes loans, grants, and technical assistance (TA).
ADB Support to Education, 1970–2013($9.5 billion)*
Shadow Education
Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia
In all parts of Asia, households devote considerable expenditures to
private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring may contribute to students’
achievement, but it also maintains and exacerbates social inequalities,
diverts resources from other uses, and can contribute to inefficiencies in
education systems.
Such tutoring is widely called shadow education, because it mimics
school systems. As the curriculum in the school system changes, so does
the shadow.
This study documents the scale and nature of shadow education in
different parts of the region. For many decades, shadow education has
been a major phenomenon in East Asia. Now it has spread throughout the
region, and it has far-reaching economic and social implications.
About the Asian Development Bank
ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is
to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve
the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it
remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live
on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day.
ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth,
environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the
region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries
are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and
technical assistance.
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Shad
ow
Edu
cation
Bray and
Lykins
Shadow Education
Private Supplementary Tutoring
and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia
Mark Bray and Chad Lykins
CERC Monograph Series in
Comparative and International
Education and Development
CERC
No. 9
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8
Publication Stock No. RPS114214
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
HIGHER EDUCATION ACROSS ASIA
An Overview of Issues and Strategies
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Administration and Governance of
Higher Education in Asia
Patterns and Implications
ISBN 9
78-92-
9092-7
62-4
The National Qualifications Framework for Skills Training Reform in Sri Lanka
The National Vocational Qualifications Framework of Sri Lanka was developed in
conformity with the socioeconomic milieu and the needs of the labor market with the
participation of industry stakeholders. It has enhanced the role of the government in policy
and regulation, and the role of the private sector in providing skills training. A unified
system with seven levels covering 96 occupations at the craft level, 14 fields at the middle
technician level, and 4 courses of study at the degree level, it has reduced the complexity
and ambiguity of training and selecting competent workers. This publication describes
the progress and challenges in developing, implementing, and monitoring this ambitious
scheme, with lessons for developing skills qualification frameworks in other countries.
About the Asian Development BankADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its
developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life
of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the
world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling
on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive
economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main
instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity
investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-221-6Publication Stock No. TIM112959
Printed in the Philippines
The National QualificationsFramework for Skills TrainingReform in Sri Lanka
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-518-7
Publication Stock No. RPS124228 Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL QUALITY
Focus on Faculty Development
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
ACCESS WITHOUT EQUITY?
Finding a Better Balance
in Higher Education in Asia
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8
Regional Cooperation and Cross-Border
Collaboration in Higher Education in Asia
Ensuring that Everyone Wins
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-734-1
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8
Publication Stock No. RPS114214
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
COUNTING THE COST
Financing Asian Higher Education
for Inclusive Growth
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Private Higher Education Across Asia Expanding Access, Searching for Quality
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Improving Transitions
From School to University to Workplace
ISBN 9
78-92-
9092-8
24-9
The education sector is a core operation area in ADB’s long-term strategic framework, Strategy 2020. Given a great variation and dynamism among DMCs, ADB support to education is carefully tailored to meet specific needs of individual DMCs.
ADB aims to substantially increase financial and technical support to the development of education and skills in DMCs. While ADB will continue to provide assistance to basic and secondary education, support to postsecondary education will have an increasing share in ADB’s education sector portfolio. This is in response to the growing demand for higher education and skills development to aid DMCs’ progress in the economic ladder.
ADB will support inclusive education to help provide opportunities to all.ADB will also pursue innovative models of service delivery and financing in education through, for example, public–private partnerships, and will assist DMCs in expanding the use of information and communication technology (ICT) as a way to improve quality and cost efficiency of education service delivery.
ADB will facilitate labor mobility by supporting cooperation initiatives for the harmonization of education and skills qualifications. Providing support to regional cooperation and cross-border collaboration in education is a unique institutional strength of ADB as a regional development bank.
Increasing Focus on Higher Education and Workforce Skills Development
Expansion of basic and secondary education has led to the increased demand for higher education and skills development. Higher education enrollments in Asia and the Pacific have risen drastically, with a twelvefold increase in student numbers from about 4 million in 1970 to almost 45 million students in 2011 in East and Southeast Asia alone. A large number of students in Asia enroll in private higher education institutions (about 33% of total higher education enrollment).
To succeed in comprehensive education sector development, DMCs recognize the need to look beyond basic and secondary education and invest increasingly in higher education and workforce skills development, as well as to encourage private sector involvement.
Examples of ADB Support Expanding Equitable Access and Improving Quality of Education
The Secondary Education Modernization Project financed by ADB in Sri Lanka resulted in a substantial impact on the quality of public secondary education through the development of ICT-supported learning centers, interactive learning, and school-based assessment. With the expansion of access to ICT infrastructure and services, the project successfully enhanced access of students in remote areas, as well as other disadvantaged students, to secondary education.
ADB has assisted the Lao PDR through the Post-Secondary Education Rationalization Project in establishing a multicampus national university and designing an effective national framework for higher education institutions. Thus, the project helped improve the quality and cost efficiency of the higher education system as a whole.
Strengthening Skills Development and Advancing Innovation
Through the Technological and Professional Skills Development Project, ADB assisted the Government of Indonesia in strengthening capacity and governance of its public and private higher education systems and in enhancing community and industrial relations. Institutions participating in the project improved their academic performance and campus facilities. The project helped increase female students’ participation and graduates’ employment prospects.
The Basic Skills Project in Cambodia made a significant contribution to developing the capacity of skills development institutions for improving the quality of skills programs and expanding rural populations’ and disadvantaged groups’ access to skills development.
Moving Forward“ADB assistance to education will contribute to meeting the broad
challenges of innovation, inclusiveness, and integration in the region.”
ADB. 2010. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan. Manila.DMCs have made good progress overall in increasing enrollments in basic education. Further development is warranted, especially in improving quality and completion rates. Concurrently, DMCs increasingly seek to expand education opportunities beyond basic education and to improve quality and relevance of secondary and higher education, as well as skills development.
ADB’s track record in education reflects a strong performance that addresses the needs of DMCs. ADB has supported development of decentralized basic education in Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan; and modernization of secondary education in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. In higher education, ADB projects support comprehensive policy and structural reforms in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam; development of distance education in South Pacific countries and Sri Lanka; and establishment of open university systems in Bangladesh. In skills development, the focus of ADB projects ranges from technical education and vocational training in Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, and Timor-Leste; to support for science and technology in Sri Lanka and polytechnic systems in Indonesia.
BasicEducation
TVET andSkills Development
HigherEducation
SecondaryEducation
Broad EducationSector Development
NonformalEducation
1970–1979(Total $197)
1980–1989(Total$1,102)
1990–1999(Total $3,476)
2000–2009(Total $3,033)
2010–2013 (Total $1,716)
Total 1970–2013 (Total $9,524)
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
Strong Track Record in Education Development
ADB Loans and Grants in the Education Sector ($ million)
The education sector is a core operation area in ADB’s long-term strategic framework, Strategy 2020. Given a great variation and dynamism among DMCs, ADB support to education is carefully tailored to meet specific needs of individual DMCs.
ADB aims to substantially increase financial and technical support to the development of education and skills in DMCs. While ADB will continue to provide assistance to basic and secondary education, support to postsecondary education will have an increasing share in ADB’s education sector portfolio. This is in response to the growing demand for higher education and skills development to aid DMCs’ progress in the economic ladder.
ADB will support inclusive education to help provide opportunities to all.ADB will also pursue innovative models of service delivery and financing in education through, for example, public–private partnerships, and will assist DMCs in expanding the use of information and communication technology (ICT) as a way to improve quality and cost efficiency of education service delivery.
ADB will facilitate labor mobility by supporting cooperation initiatives for the harmonization of education and skills qualifications. Providing support to regional cooperation and cross-border collaboration in education is a unique institutional strength of ADB as a regional development bank.
Increasing Focus on Higher Education and Workforce Skills Development
Expansion of basic and secondary education has led to the increased demand for higher education and skills development. Higher education enrollments in Asia and the Pacific have risen drastically, with a twelvefold increase in student numbers from about 4 million in 1970 to almost 45 million students in 2011 in East and Southeast Asia alone. A large number of students in Asia enroll in private higher education institutions (about 33% of total higher education enrollment).
To succeed in comprehensive education sector development, DMCs recognize the need to look beyond basic and secondary education and invest increasingly in higher education and workforce skills development, as well as to encourage private sector involvement.
Examples of ADB Support Expanding Equitable Access and Improving Quality of Education
The Secondary Education Modernization Project financed by ADB in Sri Lanka resulted in a substantial impact on the quality of public secondary education through the development of ICT-supported learning centers, interactive learning, and school-based assessment. With the expansion of access to ICT infrastructure and services, the project successfully enhanced access of students in remote areas, as well as other disadvantaged students, to secondary education.
ADB has assisted the Lao PDR through the Post-Secondary Education Rationalization Project in establishing a multicampus national university and designing an effective national framework for higher education institutions. Thus, the project helped improve the quality and cost efficiency of the higher education system as a whole.
Strengthening Skills Development and Advancing Innovation
Through the Technological and Professional Skills Development Project, ADB assisted the Government of Indonesia in strengthening capacity and governance of its public and private higher education systems and in enhancing community and industrial relations. Institutions participating in the project improved their academic performance and campus facilities. The project helped increase female students’ participation and graduates’ employment prospects.
The Basic Skills Project in Cambodia made a significant contribution to developing the capacity of skills development institutions for improving the quality of skills programs and expanding rural populations’ and disadvantaged groups’ access to skills development.
Moving Forward“ADB assistance to education will contribute to meeting the broad
challenges of innovation, inclusiveness, and integration in the region.”
ADB. 2010. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan. Manila.DMCs have made good progress overall in increasing enrollments in basic education. Further development is warranted, especially in improving quality and completion rates. Concurrently, DMCs increasingly seek to expand education opportunities beyond basic education and to improve quality and relevance of secondary and higher education, as well as skills development.
ADB’s track record in education reflects a strong performance that addresses the needs of DMCs. ADB has supported development of decentralized basic education in Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan; and modernization of secondary education in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. In higher education, ADB projects support comprehensive policy and structural reforms in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam; development of distance education in South Pacific countries and Sri Lanka; and establishment of open university systems in Bangladesh. In skills development, the focus of ADB projects ranges from technical education and vocational training in Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, and Timor-Leste; to support for science and technology in Sri Lanka and polytechnic systems in Indonesia.
BasicEducation
TVET andSkills Development
HigherEducation
SecondaryEducation
Broad EducationSector Development
NonformalEducation
1970–1979(Total $197)
1980–1989(Total$1,102)
1990–1999(Total $3,476)
2000–2009(Total $3,033)
2010–2013 (Total $1,716)
Total 1970–2013 (Total $9,524)
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
Strong Track Record in Education Development
ADB Loans and Grants in the Education Sector ($ million)
The education sector is a core operation area in ADB’s long-term strategic framework, Strategy 2020. Given a great variation and dynamism among DMCs, ADB support to education is carefully tailored to meet specific needs of individual DMCs.
ADB aims to substantially increase financial and technical support to the development of education and skills in DMCs. While ADB will continue to provide assistance to basic and secondary education, support to postsecondary education will have an increasing share in ADB’s education sector portfolio. This is in response to the growing demand for higher education and skills development to aid DMCs’ progress in the economic ladder.
ADB will support inclusive education to help provide opportunities to all.ADB will also pursue innovative models of service delivery and financing in education through, for example, public–private partnerships, and will assist DMCs in expanding the use of information and communication technology (ICT) as a way to improve quality and cost efficiency of education service delivery.
ADB will facilitate labor mobility by supporting cooperation initiatives for the harmonization of education and skills qualifications. Providing support to regional cooperation and cross-border collaboration in education is a unique institutional strength of ADB as a regional development bank.
Increasing Focus on Higher Education and Workforce Skills Development
Expansion of basic and secondary education has led to the increased demand for higher education and skills development. Higher education enrollments in Asia and the Pacific have risen drastically, with a twelvefold increase in student numbers from about 4 million in 1970 to almost 45 million students in 2011 in East and Southeast Asia alone. A large number of students in Asia enroll in private higher education institutions (about 33% of total higher education enrollment).
To succeed in comprehensive education sector development, DMCs recognize the need to look beyond basic and secondary education and invest increasingly in higher education and workforce skills development, as well as to encourage private sector involvement.
Examples of ADB Support Expanding Equitable Access and Improving Quality of Education
The Secondary Education Modernization Project financed by ADB in Sri Lanka resulted in a substantial impact on the quality of public secondary education through the development of ICT-supported learning centers, interactive learning, and school-based assessment. With the expansion of access to ICT infrastructure and services, the project successfully enhanced access of students in remote areas, as well as other disadvantaged students, to secondary education.
ADB has assisted the Lao PDR through the Post-Secondary Education Rationalization Project in establishing a multicampus national university and designing an effective national framework for higher education institutions. Thus, the project helped improve the quality and cost efficiency of the higher education system as a whole.
Strengthening Skills Development and Advancing Innovation
Through the Technological and Professional Skills Development Project, ADB assisted the Government of Indonesia in strengthening capacity and governance of its public and private higher education systems and in enhancing community and industrial relations. Institutions participating in the project improved their academic performance and campus facilities. The project helped increase female students’ participation and graduates’ employment prospects.
The Basic Skills Project in Cambodia made a significant contribution to developing the capacity of skills development institutions for improving the quality of skills programs and expanding rural populations’ and disadvantaged groups’ access to skills development.
Moving Forward“ADB assistance to education will contribute to meeting the broad
challenges of innovation, inclusiveness, and integration in the region.”
ADB. 2010. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan. Manila.DMCs have made good progress overall in increasing enrollments in basic education. Further development is warranted, especially in improving quality and completion rates. Concurrently, DMCs increasingly seek to expand education opportunities beyond basic education and to improve quality and relevance of secondary and higher education, as well as skills development.
ADB’s track record in education reflects a strong performance that addresses the needs of DMCs. ADB has supported development of decentralized basic education in Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan; and modernization of secondary education in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. In higher education, ADB projects support comprehensive policy and structural reforms in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam; development of distance education in South Pacific countries and Sri Lanka; and establishment of open university systems in Bangladesh. In skills development, the focus of ADB projects ranges from technical education and vocational training in Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, and Timor-Leste; to support for science and technology in Sri Lanka and polytechnic systems in Indonesia.
BasicEducation
TVET andSkills Development
HigherEducation
SecondaryEducation
Broad EducationSector Development
NonformalEducation
1970–1979(Total $197)
1980–1989(Total$1,102)
1990–1999(Total $3,476)
2000–2009(Total $3,033)
2010–2013 (Total $1,716)
Total 1970–2013 (Total $9,524)
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
Strong Track Record in Education Development
ADB Loans and Grants in the Education Sector ($ million)
The education sector is a core operation area in ADB’s long-term strategic framework, Strategy 2020. Given a great variation and dynamism among DMCs, ADB support to education is carefully tailored to meet specific needs of individual DMCs.
ADB aims to substantially increase financial and technical support to the development of education and skills in DMCs. While ADB will continue to provide assistance to basic and secondary education, support to postsecondary education will have an increasing share in ADB’s education sector portfolio. This is in response to the growing demand for higher education and skills development to aid DMCs’ progress in the economic ladder.
ADB will support inclusive education to help provide opportunities to all.ADB will also pursue innovative models of service delivery and financing in education through, for example, public–private partnerships, and will assist DMCs in expanding the use of information and communication technology (ICT) as a way to improve quality and cost efficiency of education service delivery.
ADB will facilitate labor mobility by supporting cooperation initiatives for the harmonization of education and skills qualifications. Providing support to regional cooperation and cross-border collaboration in education is a unique institutional strength of ADB as a regional development bank.
Increasing Focus on Higher Education and Workforce Skills Development
Expansion of basic and secondary education has led to the increased demand for higher education and skills development. Higher education enrollments in Asia and the Pacific have risen drastically, with a twelvefold increase in student numbers from about 4 million in 1970 to almost 45 million students in 2011 in East and Southeast Asia alone. A large number of students in Asia enroll in private higher education institutions (about 33% of total higher education enrollment).
To succeed in comprehensive education sector development, DMCs recognize the need to look beyond basic and secondary education and invest increasingly in higher education and workforce skills development, as well as to encourage private sector involvement.
Examples of ADB Support Expanding Equitable Access and Improving Quality of Education
The Secondary Education Modernization Project financed by ADB in Sri Lanka resulted in a substantial impact on the quality of public secondary education through the development of ICT-supported learning centers, interactive learning, and school-based assessment. With the expansion of access to ICT infrastructure and services, the project successfully enhanced access of students in remote areas, as well as other disadvantaged students, to secondary education.
ADB has assisted the Lao PDR through the Post-Secondary Education Rationalization Project in establishing a multicampus national university and designing an effective national framework for higher education institutions. Thus, the project helped improve the quality and cost efficiency of the higher education system as a whole.
Strengthening Skills Development and Advancing Innovation
Through the Technological and Professional Skills Development Project, ADB assisted the Government of Indonesia in strengthening capacity and governance of its public and private higher education systems and in enhancing community and industrial relations. Institutions participating in the project improved their academic performance and campus facilities. The project helped increase female students’ participation and graduates’ employment prospects.
The Basic Skills Project in Cambodia made a significant contribution to developing the capacity of skills development institutions for improving the quality of skills programs and expanding rural populations’ and disadvantaged groups’ access to skills development.
Moving Forward“ADB assistance to education will contribute to meeting the broad
challenges of innovation, inclusiveness, and integration in the region.”
ADB. 2010. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan. Manila.DMCs have made good progress overall in increasing enrollments in basic education. Further development is warranted, especially in improving quality and completion rates. Concurrently, DMCs increasingly seek to expand education opportunities beyond basic education and to improve quality and relevance of secondary and higher education, as well as skills development.
ADB’s track record in education reflects a strong performance that addresses the needs of DMCs. ADB has supported development of decentralized basic education in Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan; and modernization of secondary education in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. In higher education, ADB projects support comprehensive policy and structural reforms in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam; development of distance education in South Pacific countries and Sri Lanka; and establishment of open university systems in Bangladesh. In skills development, the focus of ADB projects ranges from technical education and vocational training in Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, and Timor-Leste; to support for science and technology in Sri Lanka and polytechnic systems in Indonesia.
BasicEducation
TVET andSkills Development
HigherEducation
SecondaryEducation
Broad EducationSector Development
NonformalEducation
1970–1979(Total $197)
1980–1989(Total$1,102)
1990–1999(Total $3,476)
2000–2009(Total $3,033)
2010–2013 (Total $1,716)
Total 1970–2013 (Total $9,524)
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
Strong Track Record in Education Development
ADB Loans and Grants in the Education Sector ($ million)
ADB—Education at a Glance
Broad Education Sector Development
13%
TechnicalEducation and
Vocational SkillsTraining
21%
Preprimary and Basic Education
37%
NonformalEducation
4% Tertiary and
Higher Education
12%
Upper Secondary Education
13%
How We WorkADB provides project financing and technical assistance to help develop comprehensive education sector plans and support sustainable development of education at all levels.
ADB’s Community of Practice in Education supports education sector operations through knowledge generation and sharing lessons and best practices from the field.
ADB regularly undertakes studies on education development in the region and prepares timely publications and other knowledge products to share knowledge on important topics in education.
ADB proactively pursues partnerships with stakeholders of education, including the private sector, to help leverage financing for education and improve inclusiveness, quality, and relevance of education service delivery.
ADB Support to Education Development, 1970–2013*
Country
Subsectors
Preprimary and Basic Education
Upper Secondary Education
Tertiary and Higher Education
Nonformal Education
Technical Education and
Vocational Skills
Broad Education Sector
DevelopmentAfghanistan X X X XBangladesh X X X X X XBhutan X X XCambodia X X X X X XChina, People’s Republic of X X X X
Cook Islands X X XFiji XIndia XIndonesia X X X X X XKazakhstan X XKiribati XKorea, Republic of X XKyrgyz Republic X X XLao People’s Democratic Republic
X X X X
Malaysia XMaldives X X XMarshall Islands X X XMicronesia, Federated States of X
Mongolia X X X X XMyanmar X XNepal X X X X X XPakistan X X X X X XPapua New Guinea X X X X XPhilippines X X X X X XSamoa X X XSingapore X XSolomon Islands X XSri Lanka X X X X X XTajikistan X XThailand X X X X XTimor-Leste X XTuvalu X XUzbekistan X X X XVanuatu X XViet Nam X X X X XRegional X X X X X X
* Includes loans, grants, and technical assistance (TA).
Shadow Education
Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia
In all parts of Asia, households devote considerable expenditures to
private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring may contribute to students’
achievement, but it also maintains and exacerbates social inequalities,
diverts resources from other uses, and can contribute to inefficiencies in
education systems.
Such tutoring is widely called shadow education, because it mimics
school systems. As the curriculum in the school system changes, so does
the shadow.
This study documents the scale and nature of shadow education in
different parts of the region. For many decades, shadow education has
been a major phenomenon in East Asia. Now it has spread throughout the
region, and it has far-reaching economic and social implications.
About the Asian Development Bank
ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is
to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve
the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it
remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live
on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day.
ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth,
environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the
region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries
are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and
technical assistance.
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Shad
ow
Edu
cation
Bray and
Lykins
Shadow Education
Private Supplementary Tutoring
and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia
Mark Bray and Chad Lykins
CERC Monograph Series in
Comparative and International
Education and Development
CERC
No. 9
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8
Publication Stock No. RPS114214
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
HIGHER EDUCATION ACROSS ASIA
An Overview of Issues and Strategies
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Administration and Governance of
Higher Education in Asia
Patterns and Implications
ISBN 9
78-92-
9092-7
62-4
The National Qualifications Framework for Skills Training Reform in Sri Lanka
The National Vocational Qualifications Framework of Sri Lanka was developed in
conformity with the socioeconomic milieu and the needs of the labor market with the
participation of industry stakeholders. It has enhanced the role of the government in policy
and regulation, and the role of the private sector in providing skills training. A unified
system with seven levels covering 96 occupations at the craft level, 14 fields at the middle
technician level, and 4 courses of study at the degree level, it has reduced the complexity
and ambiguity of training and selecting competent workers. This publication describes
the progress and challenges in developing, implementing, and monitoring this ambitious
scheme, with lessons for developing skills qualification frameworks in other countries.
About the Asian Development BankADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its
developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life
of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the
world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling
on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive
economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main
instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity
investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-221-6Publication Stock No. TIM112959
Printed in the Philippines
The National QualificationsFramework for Skills TrainingReform in Sri Lanka
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-518-7
Publication Stock No. RPS124228 Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL QUALITY
Focus on Faculty Development
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
ACCESS WITHOUT EQUITY?
Finding a Better Balance
in Higher Education in Asia
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8
Regional Cooperation and Cross-Border
Collaboration in Higher Education in Asia
Ensuring that Everyone Wins
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-734-1
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8
Publication Stock No. RPS114214
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
COUNTING THE COST
Financing Asian Higher Education
for Inclusive Growth
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Private Higher Education Across Asia Expanding Access, Searching for Quality
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Improving Transitions
From School to University to Workplace
ISBN 9
78-92-
9092-8
24-9
ADB—Education at a Glance
Broad Education Sector Development
13%
TechnicalEducation and
Vocational SkillsTraining
21%
Preprimary and Basic Education
37%
NonformalEducation
4% Tertiary and
Higher Education
12%
Upper Secondary Education
13%
How We WorkADB provides project financing and technical assistance to help develop comprehensive education sector plans and support sustainable development of education at all levels.
ADB’s Community of Practice in Education supports education sector operations through knowledge generation and sharing lessons and best practices from the field.
ADB regularly undertakes studies on education development in the region and prepares timely publications and other knowledge products to share knowledge on important topics in education.
ADB proactively pursues partnerships with stakeholders of education, including the private sector, to help leverage financing for education and improve inclusiveness, quality, and relevance of education service delivery.
ADB Support to Education Development, 1970–2013*
Country
Afghanistan
BangladeshBhutanCambodiaChina, People’s Republic ofCook IslandsFiji IndiaIndonesiaKazakhstanKiribatiKorea, Republic of
Kyrgyz Republic
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
MalaysiaMaldivesMarshall IslandsMicronesia, Federated States ofMongolia
Myanmar
NepalPakistanPapua New Guinea
Philippines
SamoaSingapore
Solomon IslandsSri LankaTajikistanThailandTimor-LesteTuvaluUzbekistanVanuatuViet NamRegional
* Includes loans, grants, and technical assistance (TA).
Printed on recycled paper
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org/educationPublication Stock No. ARM136142
December 2013
Printed in the Philippines
Shadow Education
Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia
In all parts of Asia, households devote considerable expenditures to
private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring may contribute to students’
achievement, but it also maintains and exacerbates social inequalities,
diverts resources from other uses, and can contribute to inefficiencies in
education systems.
Such tutoring is widely called shadow education, because it mimics
school systems. As the curriculum in the school system changes, so does
the shadow.
This study documents the scale and nature of shadow education in
different parts of the region. For many decades, shadow education has
been a major phenomenon in East Asia. Now it has spread throughout the
region, and it has far-reaching economic and social implications.
About the Asian Development Bank
ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is
to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve
the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it
remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live
on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day.
ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth,
environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the
region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries
are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and
technical assistance.
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Shad
ow
Edu
cation
Bray and
Lykins
Shadow Education
Private Supplementary Tutoring
and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia
Mark Bray and Chad Lykins
CERC Monograph Series in
Comparative and International
Education and Development
No. 9
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8
Publication Stock No. RPS114214
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
HIGHER EDUCATION ACROSS ASIA
An Overview of Issues and Strategies
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
HIGHER EDUCATION ACROSS ASIA
An Overview of Issues and
An Overview of Issues and
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Administration and Governance of
Higher Education in Asia
Patterns and Implications
ISBN 9
78-92-
9092-7
62-4
The National Qualifications Framework for Skills Training Reform in Sri Lanka
The National Vocational Qualifications Framework of Sri Lanka was developed in
conformity with the socioeconomic milieu and the needs of the labor market with the
participation of industry stakeholders. It has enhanced the role of the government in policy
and regulation, and the role of the private sector in providing skills training. A unified
system with seven levels covering 96 occupations at the craft level, 14 fields at the middle
technician level, and 4 courses of study at the degree level, it has reduced the complexity
and ambiguity of training and selecting competent workers. This publication describes
the progress and challenges in developing, implementing, and monitoring this ambitious
scheme, with lessons for developing skills qualification frameworks in other countries.
About the Asian Development BankADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its
developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life
of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the
world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling
on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive
economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.
Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main
instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity
investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-221-6Publication Stock No. TIM112959
Printed in the Philippines
The National QualificationsFramework for Skills TrainingReform in Sri Lanka
Shadow Education
and Its Implications for Policy Makers in AsiaThe National QualificationsFramework for Skills Training
Framework for Skills TrainingReform in Sri Lanka
Framework for Skills Training
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-518-7
Publication Stock No. RPS124228 Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL QUALITY
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL QUALITY
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
ACCESS WITHOUT EQUITY?
Finding a Better Balance
in Higher Education in Asia
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8
in Higher Education in Asia
Regional Cooperation and Cross-Border
Collaboration in Higher Education in Asia
Ensuring that Everyone Wins
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-734-1
Asian Development Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines
www.adb.org
ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8
Publication Stock No. RPS114214
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
COUNTING THE COST
Financing Asian Higher Education
for Inclusive Growth
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Financing Asian Higher Education
Financing Asian Higher Education
Financing Asian Higher Education
Financing Asian Higher Education
Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org
Printed on recycled paper.
Printed in the Philippines
Private Higher Education Across Asia Expanding Access, Searching for Quality
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8
Strategies
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Administration and Governance of
Private Higher Education Across Asia
Private Higher Education Across Asia Expanding Access, Searching for Quality
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Improving Transitions
From School to University to Workplace
ISBN 9
78-92-
9092-8
24-9
Private Higher Education Across Asia Expanding Access, Searching for Quality
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA
Improving Transitions
From School to University to Workplace