ADAMU ASSEFA

8/14/2019 ADAMU ASSEFA

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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARDS MOTHER

TONGUE INSTRUCTION AS A CORRELATE OF

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT: THE CASE OF SIDAMA

ADAMU ASSEFA

JUNE, 2002


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STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARDS MOTHER TONGUEINSTRUCTION AS A CORRELATE OF ACADEMIC

ACHIEVEMENT: THE CASE OF SIDAMA

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO

THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES


IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THEREQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

OF MASTER OF ARTS INEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

BYADAMU ASSEFA

JUNE, 2002


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SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARDS MOTHER TONGUE

INSTRUCTION AS A CORRELATE OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT:

THE CASE OF SIDAMA

BY

ADAMU ASSEFA

Approved by board of examiners:

______________________________ _______________Chairman, Department

Graduate Committee Signature

______________________________ _______________

Advisor Signature

______________________________ _______________

External Examiner Signature

______________________________ _______________

Internal Examiner Signature


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i

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First of all I would like to give thanks and glory to my Lord God for His

inseparable assistance in all my ways to complete my study successfully.

I am so thankful to my advisor Dr. Habtamu Wondimu for his intelligible guidance and

painstaking evaluation of this work. It is his skillful, sympathetic and considerate support that

makes the work to be accomplished.

I am grateful to my friends Ato Yohannes Latamo and Ato Shemelis Gizaw for their

translation of the questionnaire from English to Sidama and Amharic languages.

I want also to express my gratitude from my heart to my wife W/o Selamawit

Teferi and my daughter Bethel Adamu for their priceless spiritual support, tolerance of

financial deficit and longing for me during my departure in the study leave.

I would like to appreciate Ato Asamenew Assefa, W/o Zewdie Tilahun, Ato Urago

Ugamo, Mengsteabe Teferi for their help during data tallying, and teachers and school

directors who assisted me in data collection.

Many thanks go to SNNPR Education Bureau that sponsored me for the

postgraduate studies. My thankfulness also goes to colleagues of Awassa College of

Teacher education, especially for Distance Education Unit for their continuous provision of

computer and stationery materials.

And finally, I would like to say God bless my church leaders, Christian brothers,

and friends who have been wishing my successful accomplishment in my study and who

prayed for me for two years.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

Acknowledgment i

List of Appendices vii

List of Tables viii

List of Figures x

Abstract xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Background of the Study 1

1.2. Statement of the Problem 3

1.3. Significance of the Study 4

1.4. Delimitation of the Study 5

1.5. Definition of Terms 5

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 8

2.1. Attitude towards Language 8

2.2. The Effect of Language Attitude on Education 9

2.3. Pros and Cons of the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction 10

2.3.1. Arguments in Favor of the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction 11

2.3.2. Arguments against the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction 12

2.4. The Development of Sidama Language as Medium of Instruction 16

2.5. Change in the Medium of Instruction and Education Policyin Ethiopia 17

2.6. Attitudinal Development towards a Language 21


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Page

2.7. Factors Affecting Language Attitude 22

2.8. The Relationship between Attitude and Motivation 23

2.8.1. The Effect of Attitude on Achievement 23

2.8.2. The Effect of Attitude and Motivation on Achievement 24

2.9. Gender and Motivation on Second Language Learning 25

2.10. Gender Difference in Achievement 25

CHAPTER THREE: METHOD 27

3.1. Subjects 27

3.2. Instruments 29

3.3. Data Analysis 30

3.4. Variables 33

3.5. The Hypothesized Causal Model 34

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 35

4.1. Result of the Pilot Study 35

4.1.1. Reliability and Validity of the Instruments 35

4.1.2. The Discrimination Power of the Items 37

4.1.3. The Relationship between Attitude and Motivation of

Students towards Mother Tongue Instruction 38

4.1.4. Attitudinal and Motivational Differences by Sex, Place

of Residence, and Mother Tongue 38

4.2. Results of the Main Study 39


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Page

4.2.1. The Frequency Histogram and the Scatter Plot that

Shows the Test for Adequacy of the Regression Model

Used in the Analysis 40

4.2.2. Descriptive Statistics 42

4.2.3. Sex Differences on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 43

4.2.4. Attitudinal Orientation of Students towards Sidama

Language as Medium of Instruction 44

4.2.5. Place of Residence and Differences on Attitude, Motivation

and Achievement 45

4.2.6. Achievement Differences of Students with Low/High

Attitude and with Low/High Motivation 46

4.2.7. Mother Tongue and other Language Differences on

Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 47

4.2.8. Correlation Analysis of Variables in the Study for the

Pooled Subjects 48

4.2.9. Correlation Analysis of the Variables in the Study for

Sex Subgroups 50

4.2.10. Causal Relationship of the Variables Treated in the

Study for the Pooled Subjects 52

4.2.11. Combined and Independent Contributions of Predictor

Variables 55


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vi

Page

CHAPTER SEX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 76

6.1. Summary of the Study 76

6.2. Conclusion 77

6.3. Recommendation 79

REFERENCES 81


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LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix 1: Result of the Pilot Study 86

Appendix 2: Some Annexed Results of the Main Study 90

Appendix 3: The Questionnaire in English 91

Appendix 4:The Questionnaire in Sidama Language 98

Appendix 5: The Questionnaire in Amharic 106


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viii

LIST OF TABLESPage

Table 3.1: Sex by Grade Cross Tabulation 28

Table 3.2: Sex by Place of Residence Cross Tabulation 28

Table 4.1: The Descriptive Statistics of the Variables Considered

in the Study (N = 391) 42

Table 4.2: Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Boys

and Girls on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 43

Table 4.3: Chi-square Test between Students Grouped under Positive

(above the Neutral Score) and Negative (below the Neutral

Score) with Regard to Attitude towards Sidama Language

as Media of Instruction 44

Table 4.4: Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Boys and Girls

on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 45

Table 4.5: Means, Standard Deviations and t-values of Achievement

for Students with Low/High Attitude and Motivation

towards Mother Tongue Instruction with Respect

to Upper and Lower 25% 46

Table 4.6: Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Sidama

and other Language Speakers as Mother Tongue on

Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 47

Table 4.7: Means, Standard Deviations and the Zero-Order

Correlation Matrix of the Variables in the Study

for the Pooled Subjects 48


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LIST OF FIGURESPage

Figure 3.1: Hypothetical Causal Relationship among Sex, Place of

Residence, Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 34

Figure 4.1: Frequency Histogram Showing Residual Distribution 40

Figure 4.2: The Scatter Plot of the Predicted Scores against the

Residuals 41

Figure 4.3: A Path Model Portraying Causal Relationships

among Sex, Place of Residence, Attitude, Motivation

and Achievement for Pooled Samples (N = 391) 52

Figure 4.4: A Path Model Displaying Causal Relationships among,

Place of Residence, Attitude, Motivation and Achievement

for Sex Subgroups (N = 391) 60


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ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to investigate students' attitude towards Sidama

language as a medium of instruction and its determination on the language

achievement.

To carry out this aim, 391 students' were chosen from 7 Sidama Zone upper

primary schools. In addition to background information students were given with

attitude and motivation questionnaires to measure their inclination towards the native

language instruction. In the mean time students' one year cumulative GPA of Sidama

language were obtained from the record offices.

Stepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted to find out the combined

and independent effect of the independent variables. Path analysis was employed to

examine the relationships among the predictor variables and between the predictor

variables and the criterion variable. Comparison of means and chi-square techniques

were used to find out the significance of difference between sex subgroups and

between rural and urban dwellers.

As the result indicated students of grades 7 and 8 had positive attitude towards

their vernacular language instruction with out sex differences, and attitude was

identified as a vital predictor of Sidama language achievement.

On the basis of these results it was suggested that teachers and educational

practitioners should give due attention to attitude and motivation during instruction

besides the cognitive factors.


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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

The Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) issued a new education policy called

"Education and Training Policy" in 1994. This policy declares the use of nationality

languages as medium of instruction for primary level under section 3, subsection 3.5,

and Article 3.5.1. It says "Cognizant of the pedagogical advantage of the child in

mother tongue and the right of nationalities to promote the use of their languages,

primary education will be given in nationality languages" (TGE, 1994:23). On the

basis of this declaration, many nationalities became the beneficiaries. Sidama is one

of these nationalities that utilized the advantage and started providing instruction by

its own language in 1993. The Sidama Zone mainly inhabited by the Sidama

nationality (ethnic group) is one of the zones of Southern Nations, Nationalities and

Peoples Regional Government, which is located at 270 km South of Addis Ababa.

The Ministry of Education did not conduct research in introducing the vernacular

language as medium of instruction. As Seyoum pointed out:

The new educational policy took the unprecedented step to make themother tongue a medium of instruction of primary level of schooling. Thefact that Ethiopia is multilingual is not a debatable issue. Furtherempirical evidence substantiates that it is advantageous for a child tolearn in its own mother tongue . . . to rush things for the sake of politicalexpediency would be courting and disaster whose consequences wouldbe difficult to fathom to generation to come (Seyoum, 1996: 27-28).


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On the other hand, authorities that support the use of mother tongue as medium of

instruction suggest their belief too. For instance the stand of Unesco, as Fasold put it:

It is axiomatic that the best medium of teaching a child is his mothertongue. Psychologically, it is system of meaningful for expressing andunderstanding. Sociologically, it is a means of identification among themember of the community to which he belongs. Educationally, he learnsmore quickly through it than through an unfamiliar linguistic medium(Fasold, 1984:293).

The purpose of the study is not to give "empirical evidence," as Seyoum said. To this

debatable issue implying advantages and disadvantages of using mother tongue, as

medium of instruction is out of the scope of this paper. But this is presented to make

the reader clear that the controversy among scholars on the issue gives clear picture

about the attitude of the users too. That is, as scholars debate with each other, the

users (students) could also have similar notions.

The attitude of students, in turn, whether it is favorable or unfavorable, will affect their

academic performance positively or negatively. As Yoseph pointed out, "the

achievement of educational objectives partly requires pupils' positive attitude towards

learning that pupils' attitude is an important factor in their potential to receive

education" (Yoseph, 1997:21). More specifically, Yoseph emphasized the point as

follows:

As positive attitude towards learning facilitates pupils' progress inschool, a negative attitude is a hindrance to pupils' successful progress

in schoolwork. The value one attaches to school learning influencespupils' effort, which, other things being equal, may determine theirsuccess or failure. A positive attitude towards schoolwork . . . helpspupils attain higher achievement scores and, thus, meet schoolrequirements for grade promotion. More precisely achievementdifferences among pupils may, partly, be explained by 'affective states asattitudes, motivation, self perceptions, intentions and expectations'(1997:21).


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6. What are the major causes for unfavorable attitude towards mother tongue as a

medium of instruction?

7. What kinds of relationship exist between the independent variables and the

dependent variable, and among the independent variables themselves? (To

determine causal model and the direct and indirect effects among the

variables)

1.3. Significance of the Study

In the bilingual or multilingual community, language choice for every day ordinary

communication or for instructional purpose is inevitable. For every day

communication, language choice is personal, but for instructional purpose the

language choice can be made collectively by the community and/or by the

government. The government can decide on the language of education based on the

community or on its own political interests. If the government decided on instructional

language on the basis of political purpose, it cannot satisfy the interest of the majority.

The attitude of people on that language therefore could be negative. Even if

educational language decision was made on the basis of attitudinal survey,

unfavorable attitude cannot be completely avoided because the interest of all people

could not be the same. So the need to carry out research on the effect of student's

attitude on instructional language is very vital and timely in our country.

Secondly, as mentioned earlier, research findings on the area of students' attitude

towards vernacular language as an instructional medium and its effect on academic


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performances was scarcely existent in Ethiopian context. This study endeavored to

contribute some theoretical and practical basis for such relationship.

It is also expected that the result would point out some of the reasons for the

unfavorable attitude of students toward mother tongue as medium of instruction.

Fourthly, the findings anticipated in helping the people, who speak the language, to

be aware of the factors that affect the attitude towards their language and hence work

towards the development of better understanding.

Furthermore, the result of the study would serve as a baseline for further study.

1.4. Delimitation of the Study

This study is delimited to some selected upper primary school grades of the Sidama

Zone (i.e. grades 7 and 8). The use of nationality language as medium of instruction

is in the primary level (up to grade 6). But some zones and regions (including Sidama

Zone in SNNPR) started instruction with the nationality language as a subject while

the medium of instruction for other subjects is English. Their interest is to substitute

the medium of instruction from English to the native language for grades 7 and 8.

Therefore, no need to study attitude of students over these grades.

1.5. Definition of Terms

According to their usage in this study the following terms are defined in the manner

stated below.


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Achievement: It refers to pupils' academic performance on Sidama language as

shown by their average scores of two semesters of grades 6 and 7. The

phrase "academic performance" is also used interchangeably with this word.

Attitude: According to Gilbert, Fiske and Lindzey (1998) "Attitudes expresspassions

and hates, attractions and repulsions, likes and dislikes. People have

attitudes when they love or hate things or people and when they approve or

disapprove of them... In formal terms, an attitude is a psychological tendency

that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor

or disfavor." Attitude in this context could be considered as pupils' feelings

about mother tongue as medium of instruction, or their liking or disliking of

getting instruction in their own mother tongue.

Upper primarygrades: refers to the second cycle according to the new education

and training policy (i.e. from grade 5 to 8). But for the study only grades 7

and 8 are included.

Mother tongue: According to Unesco as cited in Fasold (1984), mother tongue is the

language which a person acquires in early years and which normally

becomes his natural instrument of thought and communication.

Motivation: Generally, as to Corsini and Auerbach (1996) "it refers to internal states

of the organism that lead to the instigation, persistence, energy, and


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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1. Attitude towards Language

Unfavorable attitude towards their mother tongue or preference to some language

over the mother tongue could develop due to unawareness and prejudices (Assebe,

1981: 42). In other instances dislike toward language arises due to political bias,

social stratification, economic incongruity, and other socio-psychological factors. As

Assebe (1981) pointed out by referring to Leach, preference of one language over the

other is not because of instinct but for other reason. As Leach argued:

If . . . we find political system which embraces several language groups,and these language groups are ranked in a class hierarchy, superior andinferior, there is a prima facie probability that the language situation isunstable, and that the higher ranking groups are tending to assimilatethe lower ranking groups . . . it follows from very simple economiccauses. It is advantageous for the individual to identify himself with

those who posses political and economic influence (as quoted byAssebe, 1981:43).

Holmes shares the same idea with Leach with respect to attitude towards language.

According to Holmes, "attitudes to language are strongly influenced by social and

political factors." Then what do we understand from people's attitude towards

language? For this question Holmes further indicates that some people "develop

attitudes towards languages which reflect their views about those who speak the

languages, and the contexts and functions with which they are associated" (Holmes,

1992:346).


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2.2. The Effect of Language Attitude on Education

Many social psychologists argue that an attitude is an internal state that affects the

overt behavior. There are different views regarding the effect of attitude on behavior

and vise versa. The mentalist Williams, as cited by Fasold, forwarded that an attitude

is an internal state aroused by stimulation of some type and may mediate the

organism's subsequent response (Fasold, 1984: 147).

More specifically, "language attitude can have a great influence in areas such as

education" (Holmes, 1992: 146). Furthermore, Fasold pointed out that "there is some

evidence that language attitudes may influence how teachers deal with pupils; . . .

and other evidence suggests that attitudes about language affect second language

learning" (Fasold, 1984: 348).

As to Fasold, attitude studies conducted so far are two types, language attitude of

teachers, and language attitudes of second language learners. The first type of study

reveals the effect of teachers' attitudes towards language of instructional medium on

students' academic performance. While the second type of study is usually conducted

to find out whether the learners' attitudes toward the language they are learning affect

their progress (Fasold, 1984: 170).

In our country such kinds of studies on language attitude and its effect on education

are few, if any. So this study tries to put its outstanding effort in filling the gap of

knowledge. More specifically, it studied the students' attitudes toward their mother

tongue as medium of instruction and its effect on their academic achievements.


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2.3. Pros and Cons of the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction

There is a controversy about the importance of mother tongue instruction and second

and/or foreign language instruction on the child's achievement, intellectual

development and the socio-cultural involvement for a long period of time.

In bilingual or multilingual countries, language-planning decision is a crucial issue

especially in the determination and choice of instructional language. Some

governments and responsible institutions try to solve the issue by forwarding certain

criteria to be fulfilled in order to choose certain language as instructional medium.

However, conflicts stay unresolved, because on one hand the proposed criteria may

satisfy one group and may not the other. On the other hand, within the proposed

criteria, some points may not be accepted by any. For example, as Fasold pointed

out, in Ireland and Tanzania three main considerations were postulated to choose

language of instruction. They are stated as follows:

(1) do the prospective students know the language well enough to learneffectively through it;

(2) would the proposed choice be consistent with overall nationalistaims; and

(3) are the language itself, the material written in it, and the number ofpeople able to teach in it adequate for use at the proposed level?(Fasold, 1984: 292)

As Fasold (1984) concluded, even if the considerations are set, conflicts could not be

prohibited because no language had been identified which satisfy the above three

conditions in both countries. In Tanzania, the third condition is not fulfilled. Whereas,

in Ireland, the first condition is not satisfied; so Irish cannot be universally used

language of education.


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2.3.1. Arguments in Favor of the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction

First the important authority to mention in favor of mother tongue instruction is

Unesco (The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization).

Unesco assembled a Committee to study about the language in instructional medium

at global level. And the Committee came up with the position that "the language that

children can effectively use, should be given priority in selecting the medium of

instruction. If this is done, then it becomes clear that the choice in virtually every case

will be the child's mother tongue" (Fasold, 1984: 293).

California State Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Bicultural Education

(CSDE) (1991) experts forwarded reasons why they need and make real effort to

maintain first language as follows:

1. Speakers of a language other than English can make priceless contribution

for their countries so it is very important to maintain this natural resource.

2. Sustaining the first language and culture of 'non-English proficient' (NEP)

children may help to put up their self-importance and reciprocate

unfavorable attitude of linguistic minority. According to Gardner and

Lambert cited in CSDE (1991) those individuals who accept their own

language and culture do well in second language learning than those who

have unfavorable attitude towards their own group.

3. According to Cummins as referred in CSDE (1991) so as to sustain in

subject matter and maintain normal mental development, students need

to build up high stage of first language capability.


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Thirdly, Chumbow (1990) like Unesco listed out the importance of mother tongue

instruction in education by providing more scientific arguments. First, mother tongue

has psychological value to the child. That is, it serves very important role in shaping

the child's early perception because language and thought are highly interrelated. No

one can think with out using language in its any form (articulated, symbolic, etc.).

Second, mother tongue has socio-cultural significance since it would help the

member of the target group to express its common cultural familiarity and tendency.

Thirdly, the early school use of mother tongue in the child's life will give permanence

for the child's course of learning and which in turn enhance its cognitive development.

Early switch of language from mother tongue to second or foreign languages will

create feeling of insufficiency, low self-esteem and develop dislike toward his

teachers and school. And finally, ' mobilization of rural communities' for agriculture,

adult education, vocational training etc could best be attained by the use of native

languages. This kind of community mobilization can provide a lot of contribution for

national development and to build modern society.

2.3.2. Arguments Against the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction

Fasold reviewed the objections forwarded about the recommendations of Unesco's

Committee on the use of mother tongue instruction. The objections are:

(1) Some languages, it may seem, have no grammar or alphabet;(2) ...it is useless to teach a mother tongue, since a child already knows

it;(3) to teach in mother tongue will make it more difficult for a youngster to

learn a second language later; and(4) ...using vernacular languages would impede national unity (Fasold,

1984:293-294).


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He also compiled the responses to the Committee Report and for the above

objections as follows:

1. Even though some languages may not have written grammar, any language

must have grammar otherwise it should not have been spoken.

2. For the second objection the Committee provided two replies; first, "children know

their mother tongue well enough to serve a child's purposes, but their facility in it

needs to be increased; and second, the point is not so much that the school would

be teaching the mother tongue as teaching other subjects in the mother tongue"

(Fasold, 1984:294).

3. The response to the third objection is that current knowledge in several places

proposes that a healthier way to launch a second language may be to teach it first

as a subject, using the native language as an instructional media.

4. However the Unesco Committee admits that it is easier to govern a country with

the same language, persistence on the national language might motivate some

minority groups to be offended by their national government and repudiate to

accept the national identity.

On the first three objections, Unesco Committee responded satisfactorily and the

responses were accepted by most linguists as to Fasold. But on the last objection, the

answer is more political than logical for linguists. In addition, there is another set of

serious objections on which Unesco Committee responded with less success. This

set of objections is more concerned with readiness of the language to be used in

education:


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(1) The lack of textbooks and other educational materials;(2) The lack of general reading material;(3) A shortage of trained teachers; and(4) Inadequacy of vocabulary (Fasold, 1984: 294).

For the above four objections Unesco Committee recommended two suggestions:

...first, either supply what is lacking, or use the vernacular as far into theeducational process as possible and then make a carefully plannedtransition to a second language. The second recommendation is madewith extreme reluctance, since it contradicts the Report's fundamentalpoint. Therefore, the Committee urges governments to remedyshortcomings in readiness by encouraging the printing of books,magazines, newspapers, and official notices in bilingual versions, and bytraining mother-tongue speakers of vernaculars to teach in their nativelanguages, including practice teaching opportunities using thevernacular (Fasold, 1984:294-295).

Furthermore, Bull (1964) reviewed Unesco's Report of 1953. In his review he raised

some objections and some of which were similar to that of Fasold's (1984), discussed

above. The objection and responses of the Committee are as follows:

1. Like Fasold, Bull too raised the deficiency of vocabulary in many languages or

even in the majority of the world languages. For this objection Unesco Committee

forwarded two responses: first, "the mother tongue may be used as a bridge to

learning an adequate language and, thereafter, education may be carried on in this

second vehicle; second, planned experiences of the vocabulary can be

undertaken, as in Arabic, Hungarian, Finish and Estonian" (Bull, 1964:528).

2. The Committee's response for the question that 'if the child's mother tongue is not

the official language of his country,' a child has to learn a second language. But

Bull's reservation for this answer is that this will result in a 'mild kind of linguistic

schizophrenia,' which is revealed by confusion to express one's interest of

personal, political and academic issues. In turn, for such kind of doubt the

Committee recommended, "the mother tongue be used as the medium of


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instruction as far up the education ladder as possible (through college if the

language is adequate) (Bull, 1964:528).

3. In general, the preference of mother tongue instruction of the Committee is based

on what is best for the child psychologically and pedagogically. But Bull put his

opposition for this belief of the Committee as follows:

This proposition appears; however, to be somewhat unrealistic.What is best for the child psychologically and pedagogically maynot be what is best for the adult society, economically orpolitically and, what is even more significant, what is best for boththe child and the adult may not be best or even possible for thesociety..." (Bull, 1964:528).

4. "...the writing system of a number of languages does not lend itself readily tothe exigencies of the modern world and, especially, to the use oftypewriters and typesetting machines which are essential to therapid and economical reproduction of educational materials" (Bull,1964:529).

According to Chumbow (1990) some of the arguments forwarded by individuals who

favor the use of foreign languages against the use of mother tongue (particularly of

African languages) as an instructional medium are as follows:

a. The need for an international language by African nations soas to relate to the world community easily. Languages likeEnglish or French serve such a purpose readily.

b. Given the multilingualism in African nations; national unitywould be best achieved by using a foreign language likeEnglish because it is neutral.

c. African languages are not adequately developed to expressmodern scientific and technical knowledge.

d. It is better to go straight for English than starting off with anindigenous language only to return to English later. Such aswitch, it is feared, may result in cognitive deficits and low

productivity.e. It is expensive to provide educational materials and train

teachers to undertake education in African languages.

Regarding the use of script to write in Ethiopian nationality languages, there are

different opinions forwarded by various writers. Among the oppositions toward the


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finally, in 1993 the Sidama language was introduced as medium of instruction and

language of work in the Zone.

2.5. Change in the Medium of Instruction and Education Policy in Ethiopia

The origin of education in Ethiopia as most scholars agree, was based on traditional

religious centers of monasteries and mosques. As Ministry of Education (MOE)

pointed out "the development of Ethiopian educational system was deeply rooted in

religious education of which the two main streams were Christian and Islam" (MOE,

1996:89). These religious institutions also were the sources of distribution of

education. As to Seyoum, "in traditional Ethiopia, the Orthodox Church and the

mosque were the major institutions that were responsible for the dissemination of

religious education (Seyoum, 1996:2).

In 1908 modern education was introduced into Ethiopian educational system by

Emperor Menelik, and by a tremendous intervention of foreign religious missionaries

(MOE, 1996: 66;Seyoum, 1996:3). As to Seyoum (1997) this was with the aspiration

of endorsing the French language. Tesfaye (1971), too, agreed that English has been

introduced in education from that time on. But it was taught as a subject, while French

was used as instructional medium. Whereas, the intercession of religious

missionaries in the system of Ethiopian education was by introducing mother tongue

as a medium of instruction as a means of spreading Christianity. But this was aborted

by the proclamation, which prohibited the use of mother tongue officially as instruction

medium unless to use it for oral preaching and local use (Fisseha, 1994:169).


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The impact of foreigners, then after, went on the educational system in many

directions, politically, socially, economically etc. Because the curriculum content, the

methodology and even the medium of instruction and teachers were foreigners. In

general, as Ministry of Education report indicates, it is better to look at the

chronological stages to note how far foreigners dominated Ethiopian education:

1909_1941 _Fascist Instruction [SIC] 1941_1952 _British Influence 1952_1974 _Canadian and American Influence 1974_1991 _Ex-Soviet Influence (MOE, 1996:92)

Even though the influences of foreigners were bound to happen, there were attempts

to make the educational system Ethiopian and to change medium of instruction to

native languages other than English and French.

After 1917 until the late forties, Amharic and Giiz (customarily used in Coptic

Orthodox Church sermon) were encouraged. Between 1947 and 1958, English was

the medium of instruction in all schools and Amharic was taught as a subject. But the

medium of instruction changed to Amharic for primary schools and to English for

secondary schools in 1958 (Seyoum, 1997:157). But as to Seyoum (1996), the

medium of instruction was changed from English to Amharic at the primary level in

1963. Yet according to Fisseha (1994) the use of Amharic in the primary level and

English and French for secondary level began in 1955. That is, there is slight

disagreement among scholars about the date of change of instructional medium from

foreign languages to Amharic at the primary level.


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2.6. Attitudinal Development towards a Language

In the life span of a language, attitude is fundamental. For death or survival of any

language, attitude could be the corner stone. Specially, the issue of attitude towards

language arises when there is preference between two or more languages to use as

instructional medium or for other purposes (Baker, 1988:112).

As to Baker (1988), favoring mother tongue or any other language is due to social,

economic and political reasons. As research indicates maintaining or shifting

language to or from mother tongue is related with sentimental and instrumental

orientation toward that language. But maintaining mother tongue is mainly associated

with sentimentalism. Whereas, shifting from mother tongue to other language is due

to instrumentalism (Hofman & Cais, 1984:151). By sentimentalism to Hofman and

Cais mean that the preference of mother tongue is simply based on emotionalized

attitude, without satisfactory reasons. Preference of a language with respect to

economic importance refers to instrumentalism.

Hofman and Cais (1984) indicated that Zimbabwean Africans favor their native

tongue due to sentiment and use English mainly as an instrument.

Similarly, according to Zughoul and Taminian (1984)

...the average Arab university student strongly favors the use of his own

language - Arabic- as the medium of instruction at the university level,although he views English as more instrumental than his nativelanguage...Arab students do have strong feelings about their language.They view Arabic as more expressive, more beautiful, more logical, andparticularly more sacred than English (Zughoul and Taminian, 1984:174).


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Zughoul and Taminian's findings highly agree with Hofman and Cais's finding. That is,

Arab university students maintain their language for sentimentalism, and prefer

English as instrument.

The preference towards second language learning could be one's heritage language

that the learners do not know before. Otherwise the language could be that of another

group. In any case the motive is either instrumental or integrative according to R.C.

Gardner as cited by Berry (1992). That is, if the interest is purely for occupational or

economic advantage, the motive is called instrumental. Whereas, if the learners are

interested to learn the language for the sake of joining the group of target language or

to enter into the cultural life, the motive is called integrative.

2.7. Factors Affecting Language Attitude

Baker (1988) reviewed different research reports on factors affecting language

attitude. The variables (factors) are gender, length of residence, attainment in school,

ability and density of neighbor hood speaking Welsh language. Baker put the

situations as follows:

... attitude to Welsh was connected with gender (girls more favorable inattitude than boys), length of residence in Wales (a less favorableattitude tends to be held by immigrants), attainment in school (a morefavorable attitude to Welsh is linked with higher attainment with someage...); ability (younger children of high ability tend to be more

favorable), and the Welsh-speaking density of neighborhood (the higherthe density of Welsh speakers, the more favorable the attitude) (Baker,1988: 119-120).


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2.8. The Relationship between Attitude and Motivation

As cited in Spolsky (1989) Gardner and Lambert consider that motivation comes from

attitude. That is, from language learning point of view, attitudes do not have direct

influence on learning, but they lead to motivation, which has straight effect on learning

performances. In Gardener and Lambert's words:

Motivation in the present context refers to the combination of effort plusdesire to achieve the goal of learning plus favorable attitudes towardslearning the language. Attitude itself is to be measured by asking asubject to evaluate an object: ...from an operational point of view, anindividual's attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referents orattitude object, inferred on the basis of the individual's beliefs ofopinions about the referent (as cited in Spolsky, 1989:149).

Nunan and Lamb (1996) also agreed with the point of view of Gardner and Lambert in

that attitude is strongly linked with motivation. Actually it could be claimed that

students' motivation will be mostly determined by their attitude toward the culture of

interest group, language, and learning surroundings.

Beliefs or opinions about the attitude object can be rated by the use of instrument

called attitude scale. But there is some doubt about the validity and reliability of the

instrument.

In practical terms, then, an attitude is a construct derived from asubject's answers to a number of questions about an object. Itsestablishment is subject to all the normal worries of validity of theinstrument used and of the honesty of the subject's answer to thequestions (Spolsky, 1989:149).

2.8.1. The Effect of Attitude on Achievement

Attitude towards a certain language can serve as a means to an end and as an end

by it self as well. That is, attitude can serve as a promoter of a certain behavior. For

example, if a person has a positive attitude towards that language, he would have


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interest to learn that language. On the other hand, if a person is exposed to a T.V

program of that language and/or given school lesson, as a result the individual

develops positive attitude and also enculturation takes place (Baker, 1988: 112-113).

Nunan and Lamb (1996) put the effect of attitude on learning as follows:

The attitude of learners toward the target language, the learningsituation, and the roles that they are expected to play within that learningsituation will have an important effect on the learning process. It willtherefore have implications for the management of learning. If the learnerhas a negative attitude towards the language, the culture, the classroomor the teacher, learning can be impaired or even rendered ineffective(Nunan and Lamb, 1996:216).

However, in the case of mother tongue, attitude necessarily comes at first because

mother tongue as the name implies, develops from the very beginning of early child

hood. And as "...an important component of culture, it is also a salient feature of the

individual's social, cultural or ethnic identity" (Hamers and Blanc, 2000:202). Similarly,

from statistical point of view, in order to consider certain variable as a cause for the

other, it should fulfill different requirements suggested by Cook and Campbell as cited

in Cohen (1983). The first criterion to classify the first variable as a cause of the

second variable, the first should proceed the second in time even if both may be

measured at the same time.

2.8.2. The Effect of Attitude and Motivation on Achievement

As to Nunan and Lamb (1996), the majority of researches explain a high correlation

between motivation and achievement, and this relationship is considered, as

confirmation that highly motivated students will perform well in school. Yet, they did

not veil the reciprocal effect of achievement on motivation, but the former relationship

is strongly supported by many researchers as indicated above.


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The relationship or role of attitude and motivation towards mother tongue instruction

and their effect on achievement was scarcely studied. Where, the effect of attitude

and motivation on second language learning was highly researched. That is, as

research demonstrated many times, attitude and motivation measures could be used

to predict achievement in second language (Gardner, 1985: 207).

2.9. Gender and Motivation on Second Language Learning

As reviewed by Bacon (1992), Gardner and Lambert found that female language

learners were more motivated than male language learners. Females were also found

to have more positive attitudes toward speakers of the target language than males.

Bacon also reviewed the research report of Muchnick and Wolfe, which shows gender

difference in language attitude and motivation. Similarly, as to Bacon, Ludwig found

out significant difference between male and female university students; however,

males tended to be more instrumentally oriented.

2.10. Gender Difference in Achievement

Many authors consistently mention two areas that males and females vary. However,

the variation is very low. These gender differences are on verbal and quantitative

tasks. That is, " Girls typically perform better than boys on verbal tasks, whereas boys

perform better than girls on quantitative tasks; these difference however, are quite

small " (Eccles, 1984: 26).


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CHAPTER THREE

METHOD

3.1 . Subjects

The study considered pupils of grades 7 and 8 in selected upper primary schools in

the Sidama Zone. According to the formula or Table of determining sample size used

by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), out of the total population of students in grades 7 and

8, nearly 410 students participated in the study. After rejecting 19 questionnaires for

some kinds of incompleteness, 391 respondents were neatly included in the study.

Out of 69 junior schools in the Zone, 14 of them were in the urban areas (i.e. the

regional town Awassa and woreda towns of Yirgalem and Aleta-wondo). The

remaining 55 schools were in the rural part of the Zone. From these schools, the

study included 7 schools. 3 schools were included from towns that were purposely

selected (Awassa, Yirgalem and Aleta-wondo). These towns were relatively big

compared to the remaining woreda towns and perhaps fulfill the characteristics of an

urban setting.

Since the number of students was not equal in each grade level and in each sex

category, the stratified random sampling was employed to select the participants. But

the stratification was based on grade level only. Regarding the sex almost equal

number was considered. Since 1994 E.C. statistical data of students' enrollment was

not ready (available) at that time, grades 6 and 7 data of 1993 E.C. (i.e. 39,350


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students) were used to estimate grades 7 and 8 enrollment of 1994 E.C. Therefore,

proportionally 190 and 201 students are allocated for grades 7 and 8 respectively.

From grade 7, 100 male and 90 female students were selected. From grade 8, 105

male and 96 female students were selected. That is, 186 females and 205 males

were involved in the study. The tables for cross tabulation of sex by grade and place

of residence are very important for further clarification. So the tables are presented as

follows:

Table 3.1. Sex by Grade Cross Tabulation

Grade

7 8

Total Percent

Female 90 96 186 47.57%Sex

Male 100 105 205 52.43%

Total 190 201 391

Percent 48.59% 51.41%

Table 3.2. Sex by Place of Residence Cross Tabulation

Place of Residence

Urban Rural

Total Percent

Female 124 62 186 47.57%Sex

Male 97 108 205 52.43%

Total 221 170 391Percent 56.52% 43.48%


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3.2. Instruments

A Likert type 5-point attitude scale rating of "strongly agree", "agree", "undecided",

"disagree", and "strongly disagree" was used to test students' attitude towards

Sidama language as medium of instruction. The scale was adapted from Taylor's

Language Attitude Scale, Gardner Attitude/Motivation Scale and other scales. The

scale consisted of 36 items. Secondly a close-ended questionnaire of multiple-choice

form was used to measure students' motivation to perform Sidama language in the

classroom. It was adapted from Gardner Attitude/Motivation Scale and consisted of

20 items. The items were constructed in simple language and translated into the

Sidama language and Amharic so as to be understandable for the level. The students'

achievement scores of one year (of 1993 E.C.) were collected from the record offices

and transformed into standardized scores (z-scores) in order to make comparison

possible. The internal consistency of the items of both questionnaires was determined

during the pilot study by using split-half (Gronlund, 1981) and Kuder-Richardson

methods. In the case of split-half method, the items in each instrument were divided

into two halves by using odd and even numbers; then the two halves were correlated

to give the reliability coefficient of the half tests. These coefficients later were

upgraded into full-length test by Spearman Brown formula (Best and Kahn, 1989). In

the mean time, regarding Kuder-Richardson, the other version of formula 20 (cited in

Ebel, 1979) that is usually used for estimating reliability of essay test scores or of

multiple ratings of the same performance was used. The formula called 'the other

version of Kuder-Richardson formula 20' by Ebel (1979) more reasonably preferred to

be called Cronbach alpha or alpha coefficient because it considers variances of each


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item unlike Kuder-Richardson formula 20 which considers variances of subsections in

the total test (Ebel 1991). In addition, item discrimination power for each item was

determined in order to select good items for the main study and/or to modify bad

items accordingly. Moreover, during the pilot study, some of the results like zero-order

correlation, attitudinal and motivational differences by sex, place of residence and

mother tongue had been computed (by using t-test).

On the cover page of the attitude scale and motivation questionnaire, about 11 items

were prepared and presented to gather some information about the students'

personal background. Out of this personal information, two of the variables other than

attitude and motivation, sex and place of residence were collected from this part of

the data. That is, the sex and place of residence of the respondents are coded 0 and

1 since they were dummy variables.

Before implementing the major study, a pilot study was conducted in other schools,

which were not part of the main study. The pilot study helped to examine the

instrument of the study and thereby to improve the items according to the feedback.

For the pilot study 43 students from grade 7 and 30 students from grade 8, or in terms

of sex, 34 female and 39 male students were involved (i.e. 73 students for the whole

pilot study).

3.3. Data Analysis

As major statistical technique, linear multiple regression analysis was conducted. To

carry out this technique, the linearity and normality of the distribution was analyzed by


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using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) computer program. That is, by

using SPSS program the scatter plot of predicted values against residuals was drawn

to see the trend of linearity and absence of curvilinearity, the existence of outliers,

heteroscedasticity and the like. Students' two semesters average scores of Sidama

language of grades 6 and 7 was considered as a dependent variable. And students'

attitude scores, motivation scores, sex, and place of residence were employed as

independent variables. This method was used to investigate the joint effect of the

predictor variables on criterion variable, that is, to determine the strength of estimate

of all independent variables on dependent variable. In addition, stepwise (forward)

multiple regression analysis was employed to examine the independent contribution

of each variable. In other words, it was used to determine how much of each

independent variable adds to the estimation of dependent variable. In the mean time,

F-test was carried out to find out the significance of the contribution of each

independent variable. It also helped to learn the significance of the combination effect

of all independent variables.

Mean differences by sex, across the variables (attitude, motivation, and achievement)

were examined by using t-test to investigate attitudinal, motivational and achievement

differences between boys and girls.

Similarly, mean differences by place of residence across the variables (attitude,

motivation and achievement) were examined by using t-test so as to identify

differences between students who dwell in urban and rural areas.


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The t-test was computed to test achievement difference with respect to high and low

attitude towards mother tongue instruction. In this case, the upper and the lower 25%

attitude scores were taken into account. That is, the mean and variance of the

achievement scores corresponding to the upper and lower group of the attitude

scores were separately computed. To carry out the analysis, the SPSS program was

employed.

Furthermore, causal relationship model was hypothesized and path analysis was

carried out in order to determine direct and indirect effects. Meanwhile, the

consistency of the model with the sample data was confirmed on the basis of path

analysis technique. On the basis of path analysis technique (by using path

coefficients), the causal model was reconstructed. The paths with significantly low

coefficient identified by broken lines while the paths with strong coefficients were

identified by hard lines. And magnitude of direct and indirect relationships was

indicated on the new causal model. The coefficients of determination were calculated

to show the extent of effects of extraneous or unmeasured variables on the

endogenous dependent and independent variables. In view of path analysis, spurious

relationship of each variable with the criterion variable was computed. This helped to

depict the deceiving nature of zero-order relationship due to redundancy of

intercorrelations among independent variables so that it would clear the cloud of the

effects of independent variables.

And finally, the major factors affecting attitude towards mother tongue instruction was

analyzed with percentage and point-biserial correlation to assist the weakness of


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percentage. According to Ebel (1991) the point-biserial coefficients are used as

discrimination indices between two variables like score on test item and score on the

total test. That is why point-biserial correlation is also called item-test correlation. The

factors that were considered as major causes for the development of negative attitude

towards the use of vernaculars as medium of instruction were incorporated in the

attitude questionnaire as independent items. So to differentiate the significance of

contribution of each item to the total test score, item-test correlation is suitable index.

3.4. Variables

3.4.1. Dependent variable: The dependent variable used in the study was

Sidama language achievement score. The Sidama language exam

results or the cumulative averages of one year (of 1993 E.C.) were

collected from the record offices of the schools.

3.4.2. Independent variables: The independent variables instituted in this

study were two types: namely, sex and place of residences, which were

those variables that were collected from biographical data of the

respondent; and attitude and motivation scores, which were gathered

through students' self-response to the attitude scale and motivation

questionnaire.


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The linear regression equation that was employed in the study is presented as

follows:

Y' = + 1X1 + 2X2 + 3X3 + 4X4

Where: Y' = criterion variable (Sidama language achievement score)

X1 = attitude towards Sidama language as medium of instruction

X2 = place of residence (dichotomized as rural/urban and coded as

rural = 0, and urban = 1)

X3 = sex (coded as male = 1, and female = 0)

X4 = motivation to learn Sidama language and/or use it as a medium of

instruction

3.5. The Hypothesized Causal Model

Fig.3.1. Hypothetical Causal Relationship among Sex, Place of Residence, Attitude,

Motivation and Achievement

Sidamalanguage

achievement

Attitudetowardsmothertongue

Sex

Place ofresidence

Motivation


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Where: Sex

Place of residence

Attitude

Motivation

Achievement

Exogenous variables

Endogenous independent variables

Endogenous dependent variable


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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

In this chapter the pilot and main study findings will be presented.

4.1. Results of the Pilot Study

The pilot study was conducted on 73 students (34 females and 39 males) of grades 7

and 8 at Awassa Hayk Elementary and Junior Secondary School. The school is one

of the junior schools at Awassa town. The main purpose of the study was to identify

and test the psychometric qualities of the research instruments. That is, to determine

the reliability coefficients of the instruments and to find out item discrimination power.

Secondly, the pilot study was aimed at identifying any construction problems and

thereby sharpening the instruments for the study.

4.1.1. Reliability and Validity of the Instruments

The reliability of the instrument was determined by the split half and Kuder-

Richardson methods. As the split-half method indicates the reliability coefficients of

the attitude questionnaire was 0.88 and that of the motivation questionnaire was 0.87.

Similarly, as to Kuder-Richardson method depicted, the reliability coefficient of both

attitude and motivation questionnaire was 0.87, which means almost the same result

with that of split-half method. That is, the reliability coefficients of both instruments

were very high (see Appendix 1, Tables 1 and 2). Regarding validity of the

instruments, one can comment only about content validity. This kind of validity is not


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statistical but experts could judge it. Therefore to keep the content validity of the

instruments, the items of each instrument were adopted from relevant standardized

tests and from some other questionnaires developed by investigators. The motivation

questionnaire was adopted from R. C. Gardner's "The Attitude/Motivation Test

Battery: Technical Report (1985)," which was requested by the researcher and used

by the permission of the author. In addition, the attitude questionnaire was adopted

from Taylor's (1973) Language Attitude Scale, Hofman and Cais's (1984) Language

maintenance and shift questionnaire, Fasold's (1984) and Bull's (1964) comment on

Unesco's committee report, and Zughoul and Taminian's (1984) language attitude

questionnaire.

4.1.2. The Discrimination Power of the Items

Regarding attitude questionnaire, out of 36-attitude items, item numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 10,

12, 23, 24, and 32 were with low discrimination power (see Appendix 1, Table 3).

Especially item number 12 discriminated negatively. Therefore, item numbers 1 and

12 were discarded and item numbers 2, 3, 5, 10, 23, 24, and 32 were discarded or

modified. But for high reliability coefficient of the instrument as we have seen above

(0.88), all the items with low discrimination indices were modified and the final

questionnaire of the main study also contains 36 items.

Regarding motivation questionnaire, item numbers 11, 12, 18 and 19 were with low

discrimination power (see Appendix 1, Table 4). Item number 12 would be discarded

due to zero discrimination indexes. Whereas item numbers 11, 18 and 19 were


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modified; however, all the items were retained with the necessary modifications

because of high reliability coefficient of the instrument.

4.1.3. The Relationship between Attitude and Motivation of Students towards

Mother Tongue Instruction

The zero order correlation coefficient of attitude and motivation scores was 0.69. That

is, the relationship between attitude and motivation of students towards mother

tongue instruction was moderate. This shows that those students who had positive

attitude towards Sidama language as medium of instruction were motivated to learn in

Sidama language.

4.1.4. Attitudinal and Motivational Differences by Sex, Place of Residence, and

Mother Tongue

There was no significant difference between rural and urban dwellers regarding

attitude and motivation towards mother tongue instruction (t(0.05/2, 71) = 1.83, p>0.05)

and (t(0.05/2, 71) = 1.19, p>0.05) respectively (see Appendix 1, Tables 5 and 6).

There was no significant difference between male and female students' attitudes and

motivation towards mother tongue instruction (t(0.05/2, 71) = -0.69, p>0.05) and (t(0.05/2, 71)

= 0.51, p>0.05) respectively (see Appendix 1, Tables 7 and 8).

There was significant difference between students whose mother tongue is Sidama

and non-Sidama with respect to attitude towards mother tongue instruction (t(0.05/2, 71)

= -2.54, p


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4.2.1. The Frequency Histogram and the Scatter Plot that Shows the Test

for Adequacy of the Regression Model Used in the Analysis

Fig.4.1. Frequency Histogram Showing Residual Distribution

Regression Standardized Residual

2.75

2.25

1.75

1.25

.75.25

-.25

-.75

-1

.25

-1

.75

-2

.25

-2

.75

Frequency

50

40

30

20

10

0

Std. Dev = .99

Mean = 0.00

N = 391.00


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4.2.2. Descriptive Statistics

Table 4.1. The Descriptive Statistics of the Variables Considered in the Study (N =

391)

Statistics

Range of scores

Variables Mean SD Minimum Maximum

Sex - - - -

POR - - - -

Att. 116.08 19.28 65.00 168.00

Mot. 40.53 4.84 21.00 48.00

Ach. 0.293 0.998 -2.46 3.03

Note: POR = The respondents' place of residence

Att. = Students' attitude towards mother tongue instruction

Mot. = Students' motivation towards mother tongue instruction

Ach. = Students' achievement scores on Sidama language in terms of z-score


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4.2.3. Sex Differences on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement

Table 4.2. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Boys and Girls on Attitude,

Motivation and Achievement

Male (n = 205) Female (n = 186)

Variables M SD M SD t p

Att. 117.68 20.45 114.21 17.78 -1.784 0.075

Mot. 40.60 4.87 40.46 4.82 -0.281 0.779

Ach. .483 10.04 .082 .951 -4.046 0.000

Note: Att. = Attitude Mot. = Motivation Ach. = Achievement

As we can see from Table 4.2 the mean scores of male and female students of

grades 7 and 8 on attitude and motivation were not significantly different at t(/2, 389) = -

1.784, p>.075 and t ((/2, 389) = -0.281, p>.779 respectively. Where as the mean scores

of male and female students of grades 7 and 8 on achievement were significantly

different at (t((/2, 389) = -4.046, p


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4.2.4. Attitudinal Orientation of Students towards Sidama Language as Medium

of Instruction

Table 4.3. Chi-square Test between Students Grouped under Positive (above the

Neutral Score) and Negative (below the Neutral Score) with Regard to

Attitude towards Sidama Language as Media of Instruction

Positive (above theneutral score)

Negative (below theneutral score)

2 Sig.

Observed 265 126Expected 195.5 195.5

49.414 .000

Note: The neutral scores (108) added to the negative side since the score was low

The result indicates that the number of students in the upper group (those students

who had been considered to had positive attitude) significantly different from the

number of students in the lower group (those students who had been considered to

had negative attitude) at 2 = 49.414, p < .000. This indicates that those students who

had positive attitude were more than those who had negative attitude towards Sidama

language as medium of instruction. Furthermore, more significant result would be

achieved if we use the method of liquidating neutral scores (Babbie, 1995: 381-384)

into both positive and negative sides instead of adding them to negative side only

(see Appendix 2, Table 2).


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4.2.5. Place of Residence and Differences on Attitude, Motivation and

Achievement

Table 4.4. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Boys and Girls on Attitude,

Motivation and Achievement.

Urban (n = 221) Rural (n = 170)Variables M SD M SD t p

Att. 112.40 19.36 120.76 18.17 4.344 .000Mot. 39.74 5.27 41.56 4.00 3.754 .000

Ach. 0.056 0.975 0.598 0.946 5.518 .000

Note: Att. = Attitude Mot. = Motivation Ach. = Achievement

As Table 4.4 indicates the mean scores of urban and rural students of grades 7 and 8

on attitude, motivation and achievement were significantly different at t ( /2, 389) =

4.344, 3.754, 5.518, p < .000 respectively. This shows that those students who dwell

in the rural part scored higher in attitude, motivation and achievement than those who

dwell in urban areas.


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4.2.6. Achievement Differences of Students with Low/High Attitude and with

Low/High Motivation

Table 4.5. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values of Achievement for Students with

Low/High Attitude and Motivation towards Mother Tongue Instruction with

Respect to Upper and Lower 25%

AchievementVariables Group No. M SD t p

Lower 98* 0.003 0.901Att.Upper 98* 0.788 0.931 -5.997 .000

Lower 98* -0.078 0.861Mot.

Upper 98* 0.501 1.045 -4.236 .000

* The lower and upper 25% of the 391 respondents who scored low and high on

attitude and motivation with respect to achievement are equal (98 persons)

From Table 4.5, the mean score of achievement of students who scored high and low

on attitude scale differ to a statistically significant extent at t( /2, 194) = -5.997, p


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To strengthen this result, comparison of means were undertaken to test achievement

differences of students with low and high attitude and motivation with consideration of

the median score (i.e. with respect to the upper and lower 50%). The result was

exactly similar with Table 4.5 above (see Appendix 2, Table 1).

4.2.7. Mother Tongue and other Language Differences on Attitude, Motivation

and Achievement

Table 4.6. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Sidama and other Language

Speakers as Mother Tongue on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement

Sidama mothertongue (n = 251)

Others (n = 140)

Variables M SD M SDt p

Att. 122.04 17.83 105.26 17.01 -9.065 .000Mot. 41.82 3.86 38.24 5.53 -7.497 .000Ach. .6156 .9269 -.2889 .8491 -9.529 .000

As Table 4.6 indicates the mean scores of Sidama mother tongue speakers and other

language speakers of grades 7 and 8 students were significantly different with regard

to attitude, motivation and achievement in favor of Sidama language speakers (t (/2,

389) = -9.065, -7.497, -9.529, p < .000 respectively). This shows that Sidama language

speakers had favorable attitude towards Sidama language as medium of instruction

than other language speakers. This in turn perhaps helped them to be more

motivated to use and learn Sidama in classroom situation.


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4.2.8. Correlation Analysis of Variables in the Study for the Pooled Subjects

Table 4.7. Means, Standard Deviations and the Zero-Order Correlation Matrix of the

Variables in the Study for the Pooled Subjects

Variables M SD 1 2 3 41. Sex - -2. POR - - -.195**3. Att. 116.08 19.28 .090 -.215**

4. Mot. 40.53 4.84 .014 -.187** .363**

5. Ach. 52.92 9.98 .201** -.269** .290** .241**

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Correlation is not significant

As Table 4.7 shows attitude was positively and significantly related with Sidama

language achievement (r = .290, p


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positive and not statistically significant (r = 0.090, p>0.01 and r = .014, p>0.01

respectively).

In contrast, place of residence was negatively and significantly related with attitude,

motivation and achievement (r = -0.215, p


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4.2.9. Correlation Analysis of the Variables in the Study for Sex Subgroups

Table 4.8. Correlation Matrix of the Variables Treated for Sex Subgroup

Variables 1 2 3 41. POR -.297** -.318** -.255**2. Att. -.076 .484** .354**3. Mot. -.034 .210** .194**4. Ach. -.221** .178* .301**

Note: The correlation coefficients above the main diagonal are for males and below

the diagonal are for females.

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Correlation is not significant

As Table 4.8 indicates achievement was positively and significantly related with

attitude for both boys and girls (r = 0.354, p


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Secondly, the relationship between attitude and motivation for both males and

females was positive and significant (r = .484, p


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4.2.10. Causal Relationship of the Variables Treated in the Study for the Pooled

Subjects

Fig.4.3. A Path Model Portraying Causal Relationships among Sex, Place of

Residence, Attitude, Motivation and Achievement for Pooled Samples (N =

391)

Note: Path coefficients are standardized betas ('s);

Dotted lines indicate path coefficients not statistically significant.

POR(X2)

Sex

(X1)

Att. (X3)R2 = 0.049

Mot. (X4)R2 = 0.146

Ach. (X5)

R2

= 0.165

0.148

-0.174

0.05

-0.122

0.138

0.189

0.340-0.040

-0.205


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Table 4.9. Decomposition of Effects from the Path Analysis

Effect Standardized coefficients

(Betas)

R2 t p

On Achievement - 0.165 .000Sex 0.148 3.114 .002POR -0.174 -3.568 .000Att. 0.189 3.729 .000Mot. 0.138 2.740 .006

On Attitude - 0.049 .000Sex 0.050 - 0.992 .322POR -0.205 - -4.067 .000

On Motivation - 0.146 .000

Sex -0.040 - -0.837 .403POR -0.122 - -2.486 .013Attitude 0.340 - 7.062 .000

Note:

Table 4.9 shows what is presented on Fig. 4.3 except t-value and its

significance correspondingly

N = 391

As we can observe from Fig. 4.3 and Table 4.9, the effect of sex on achievement ( =

0.148, t = 3.114, p


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negative statistically significant coefficients predict that the predictor variable has

negative relationship with the criterion variable. That is, in the case of coded

variables, if those variables that were given code "1" correlate with high scores, the

coefficients will be positive and if those variables coded "0" associated with high

scores the coeficients will be negative. This means that place of residence also is

indicator of Sidama language achievement. Meanwhile the effect of place of

residence on attitude ( = -0.205, t = -4.067, p0.322) was positive and not statistically significant. The effect of place of residence

on motivation ( = -0.122, t = -2.486, p


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4.2.11. Combined and Independent Contributions of Predictor Variables

Table 4.10. ANOVA Summary Table for Multiple Regression Analysis

Model SS df MS F Sig.1 Regression 3262.805 1 3262.805 35.663 .000

Residual 35589.503 389 91.490Total 38852.308 390

2 Regression 5010.144 2 2505.072 28.721 .000

Residual 33842.164 388 87.222Total 38852.308 3903 Regression 5767.193 3 1922.398 22.486 .000

Residual 33085.115 387 85.491Total 38852.308

4 Regression 6398.288 4 1599.572 19.025 .000Residual 32454.020 386 84.078

Total 38852.308 390

Notes:

Model 1. Attitude scores

2. Attitude scores, Place of residence

3. Attitude scores, Place of residence, Sex

4. Attitude scores, Place of residence, Sex, Motivation scores

Dependent Variable: Achievement


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Table 4.11. Model Summary Table for Multiple Regression Analysis

Combined effect Independentcontribution

Change Statistics

R R2 df1 df2 FChange

Sig. FChange

Model R R2 R2 FChange

df1 df2 Sig. FChange

.406 .165 4 386 19.025 .000 1 .290 .084 .084 35.663 1 389 .0002 .359 .129 .045 20.033 1 388 .0003 .385 .148 .019 8.855 1 387 .0034 .406 .165 .016 7.506 1 386 .006

Notes:

Model 1. Attitude scores

2. Attitude scores, Place of residence

3. Attitude scores, Place of residence, Sex

4. Attitude scores, Place of residence, Sex, Motivation scores

Dependent Variable: Achievement

The combined effect of sex, place of residence, attitude and motivation explained

16.5% of the total variability in Sidama language achievement (F (4, 386) = 19.025,

p


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4.2.12. Summary of Direct, Indirect, and Spurious Effects on Achievement

Table 4.12. Direct, Indirect, and Spurious Effects on Achievement

Zero-

order ()

Spurious Direct Indirect Total

SexVia Mot. (-0.040 X 0.138) -0.006Via Att. [(0.05 X

.189)+(0.05 X 0.34X 0.138)]

0.011

0.201 0.048 0.148 0.005 0.153

PORVia Mot. (-0.122 X 0.138) -0.017Via Att. [(-0.205 X

0.189)+(-0.205 X0.34 X 0.138)

-0.049

-0.269 0.029 -0.174 -0.066 -0.240

AttVia Mot. (0.34 X 0.138) 0.047

0.290 0.054 0.189 0.047 0.236

Mot. 0.241 0.103 0.138 - 0.138

As Table 4.12 indicates the direct effect of attitude was stronger on achievement than

that of other variables. The next strong direct effect that we see on achievement was

by place of residence. The direct effect of sex and motivation on achievement follows

the subsequent order respectively. On the other hand in the case of total effect place

of residence takes the leading position and then attitude, sex and motivation follow


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succeeding order respectively. Even though the direct effect of sex, place of

residence, attitude and motivation on achievement are statistically significant, as we

have seen on Fig. 4.3 above, each independent variable was spuriously related with

the criterion variable due to common causes. That is, firstly in the case of sex, out of

the total effect (0.153), 0.148 or about 96.73% was direct and the rest 3.27% was

indirect. In respect to zero-order relationship with achievement, about 23.88% was

spurious due to significant correlation with place of residence (r = -0.195, p


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Table 4.13. Decomposition of Effects from the Path Analysis for Sex Subgroups

Effect Standardized

coefficients(s)

R2 t p

On Achievement 0.146[0.150]POR -0.204[-0.166] -2.966[-2.267] .003[.018]Att. 0.105[0.309] 1.502[4.092] .135[.000]Mot. 0.272[-0.008] 3.888[-0.111] .000[.912]On Attitude 0.006[0.088]POR -0.076[-0.297] -1.033[-4.424] .303[.000]On Motivation 0.044[0.268]POR -0.018[-0.192] -0.251[-3.042] .802[.003]Attitude 0.208[0.427] 2.876[6.775] .005[.000]

Notes: The numbers in the parentheses are for boys and out side the parentheses are

for girls

Table 4.13 shows what is presented on Fig. 4.4 except t-value and its

significance correspondingly

As indicated on Fig. 4.4 above, the direct effect of place of residence on achievement

for both boys and girls were = -0.204, t = -2.966, p


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4.2.14. Impediments Affecting the Attitude towards Mother Tongue Instruction

Table 4.14. Point-Biserial Coefficient Indices and Agreement and Disagreement

Response Distribution on Some Selected Items That Show the Major

Causes for Negative Attitude towards Mother Tongue Instruction

Item

No.

Negative factors affecting individuals'

attitude in using vernacular language as

medium of instruction

Item-test

correlation

coefficients

Agree Disagree

28 Lack of textbooks and other educationalmaterials

0.33 55% 45%

29 Lack of general reading materials 0.31 58.15% 41.85%

30 A shortage of trained teachers 0.26 59% 41%

31 Inadequacy of vocabulary 0.44 52% 48%

34 The writing system of many languagesdoes not agree with the pressing needof the modern world

0.55 52% 48%

As we can see from Table 4.14, "A shortages of trained teachers" (r = 0.26 or 59%)

and "Lack of general reading materials" (r = 0.31 or 58.15%) were the most important

factors that lead students towards negative attitude. "Lack of textbooks and other

educational materials" (r = 0.33 or 55%) was a bit lesser cause for negative attitude.

The third and fourth crucial factors that affect the students' attitude towards Sidama

language as medium of instruction negatively were "Inadequacy of vocabulary" (r =

0.44 or 52%) and "The problem of disagreement of writing system with the modern


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than those who had negative attitude (t(194) = -5.997, p < .000). Likewise the

comparison of means on the basis of above and below the median score showed

similar result that students with positive attitude towards Sidama language as medium

of instruction scored high on Sidama language (t(388) = -5.929, p < .000). The zero-

order correlation also indicated that attitude related positively and significantly with

achievement (r = 0.290, p < .01).

The finding is congruent with some available foreign studies. According to Fasold

(1984) even though there are no abundant studies on the area - attitude towards

mother tongue - there is some evidence that language attitude may influence

learning. However, studies were conducted mainly on attitude towards second

language, the learners' attitudes toward the language that they are learning affect

their academic progress. As to Fasold, not only students' attitude but also teachers'

attitudes toward language of instruction affect students' academic performance. On

the other hand, as for Nunan and Lamb (1996), in the condition of a learner's negative

attitude towards language, learning can be handicapped or even tend to be impotent.

From this result we can deduce some possible explanation about the relationship

between attitude and achievement. In the first place, as many social psychologists

agree, attitude is an internal state that affects any overt behavior; it can negotiate the

students' response toward learning by their own vernacular language. Secondly,

favoring native language is due to sentimentalism (Hofman & Cais, 1984; Zughoul &

Taminian, 1984; Baker, 1988; R. C. Gardner as cited by Berry, 1992). Such


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From this we can draw some possible explanation. In the first place, in our case the

study was conducted on mother tongue since it would have equal feelings for both

girls and boys. It is expected that attitude towards mother tongue develops from early

childhood and it gets deep rooted in course of development. It develops as strong

feeling with out sex variations as 'an important component of culture, and as

remarkable feature of the individual's social, cultural or ethnic identity' (Hamers &

Blanc, 2000).

Unlike sex similarities in attitude and motivation, there was achievement difference

between male and female students of grades 7 and 8 of the Zone in favor of males (M

= 0.483, t = -4.046, p < .000). This result is incompatible with that of many authorities

who consistently agreed on achievement differences of boys and girls with regard to

verbal and quantitative tasks. That is, as to Eccles (1984) though such kinds of

differences were very small, girls usually accomplish better than boys on verbal

duties, whereas boys accomplish better than girls on quantitative duties. But as to

Matlin (1996) boys can perform better than girls in verbal tasks if contents like science

and business that favor males are included. The research result which agreed with

Matlin's view, where male students of grades 7 and 8 of the Zone surpassed female

students might be due to the nature of contents included in tests rather than the true

inherent ability differences of boys and girls.


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5.3. Place of Residence Differences on Attitude towards Sidama Language as

Medium of Instruction

Unlike the pilot study result, comparison of means for the main study indicates that

rural dweller students of grades 7 and 8 of the Sidama Zone had more positive

attitude towards Sidama language as medium of instruction than that of urban

dwellers (M = 120.76, t = 4.344, p < .000). This result agreed with the study

conducted on Welsh language as reviewed by Baker (1988), which revealed that the

length of residence could affect language attitude (a less favorable attitude tends to

be held by immigrants). This was because of those immigrants who came from other

communities that speak different languages other than Welsh. Likewise in the case of

this study the reason that urban dwellers had less favorable attitude towards Sidama

language as instructional media might be due to the number of different languages

spoken in towns. Secondly the effect of globalization, TV, contact with diversified

ethnic groups, loss identification with their ethnic identity, mixed cultural exposure and

the like could have negative impact on urban students' attitude. On the other hand,

those students of rural parts had no other chance of speaking other languages widely

in community than Sidama language, except Amharic and English in the classroom

as medium of instruction. So students of the rural parts of the Zone prefer Sidama to

express themselves and use it as medium of instruction than urban students.

That might be the main reasons why those students of rural dwellers had more

favorable motivation to learn Sidama language in the classroom (M = 41.56, t =

3.754, p < .000) and achieve more in Sidama language (M = 0.598, t = 5.518, p


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.000) than those who dwell in urban areas. That is, as the study result indicates and

mentioned above, generally those students who had favorable attitude towards

Sidama language as medium of instruction scored higher grade in Sidama language

than those who had less favorable attitude.

5.4. The Combined and Independent Contribution of the Variables in the Study

for the Variance of Sidama Language Achievement

As multiple regression analysis reveals sex, place of residence, attitude and

motivation to use Sidama language as medium of instruction contributed statistically

significant portion of the variance of the Sidama language achievement (R2 = 0.165, p

< .000). In other words, as multiple regression ANOVA confirms, in general 16.5%

(F(4,386) = 19.025, p


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indirect effect (65.17% and 16.21% respectively) of attitude on achievement. And

finally, about 42.74% of the zero order relationship of motivation with achievement

was spurious. And the left over (57.26%) was genuine direct effect of motivation on

achievement.

In harmony with the results indicated above many scholars agree that especially

attitude and motivation are significant contributors of achievement. As to Ba

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