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Acronyms and Abbreviations

a.c. alternating current

AES Auger electron spectroscopy

AFC alkaline fuel cell

AFM atomic force microscopy

AGM adsorptive glass-mat

ALABC Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Consortium

AM active mass

APU auxiliary power unit

aq. aqueous

ATR autothermal reforming

BCI Battery Council International

BESS battery energy-storage system

BET Brunauer-Emmet-Teller adsorption

BEV battery electric vehicle

BMS battery management system

BoP balance-of-plant

BP British Petroleum

1BS monobasic lead sulfate, PbO.PbSO4

3BS tribasic lead sulfate, 3PbO.PbSO4.H2O

4BS tetrabasic lead sulfate, 4PbO.PbSO4

CAES compressed-air energy storage

CAFE corporate average fuel economy

CB conduction band

CBM coal-bed methane

CC constant current

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CCA cold-cranking amps

CCGT combined-cycle gas turbine

CCS carbon capture and storage

CE counter electrode

CFC chlorofluorocarbon

CHP combined heat and power

CMC carboxymethyl cellulose

CNG compressed natural gas

CNT carbon nanotube

CoS cast-on-strap

CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

CSM copper-stretch-metal

CUTE Clean Urban Transport for Europe

CV cyclic voltammetry; also: constant voltage

DAFC direct alcohol fuel cell

DBFC direct borohydride fuel cell

d.c. direct current

DCFC direct carbon fuel cell

DEMS differential electrochemical mass spectroscopy

DLC double-layer capacitor

DMC dimethyl carbonate

DMF N,N-dimethylformamide

DMFC direct methanol fuel cell

DoD depth-of-discharge

DOE Department of Energy (USA)

DSC differential scanning calorimetry

DSK double skeleton

DSSC dye-sensitized solar cell

DST dynamic stress test

EC ethylene carbonate

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ECE Economic Commission for Europe

ELDC electrochemical double-layer capacitor

EDX energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

el (subscript) electrical

emf electromotive force

EO ethylene oxide

EoL end-of-life

EPA Environmental Protection Authority

EPMA electron probe microanalysis

EU European Union

EV electric vehicle

EXAFS extended X-ray adsorption fine structure

FC fuel cell

FCV fuel cell vehicle

FTIR Fourier transform infra-red

FUDS Federal Urban Drive Schedule

GDE gas-diffusion electrode

GDL gas-diffusion layer

GDP gross domestic product

GHG greenhouse gas

GM General Motors

GTL gas-to-liquid

GTL gas-to-liquids

GWP global warming potential

HER hydrogen evolution rate

HEV hybrid electric vehicle

HHV higher heating value

HOR hydrogen oxidation reaction

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HTS high-temperature shift

IAHE International Association for Hydrogen Energy

IC intermittent charging

ICE Internal combustion engine

ICEV internal-combustion-engined vehicle

IEA International Energy Agency

IEC ion-exchange capacity; also: International Electrotechnical Commission

IGCC integrated gasification combined-cycle

IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change

IPHE International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy

IR infra-red

ISO International Standards Organization

IT information technology

l liquid

LAB leadacid battery

LED light emitting diode

LEED low-energy electron diffraction

LH2 liquid hydrogen

LHV lower heating value

LMW low average molecular weight

LNG liquefied natural gas

LPG liquified petroleum gas

LTS low-temperature shift

M metal

Mox redox mediator in oxidized state

Mred redox mediator in reduced state

MCFC molten carbonate fuel cell

MCMB mesophase carbon microbeads

MEA membraneelectrode assembly

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MH metal hydride

MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology

MOF metalorganic framework

MOSFET metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor

MPP maximum power point

MPV multi-purpose vehicle

MS mass spectroscopy

Mtoe million tonne (of) oil equivalent

MWCNT multi-wall carbon nanotube

NAM negative active-mass

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)

NASICON Na (sodium) superionic conductor

NEXAFS near-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy

NG natural gas

NGL natural gas liquids

NMR nuclear magnetic resonance

NOx nitrogen oxides

NTP normal temperature (273.15 K) and pressure (101.325 kPa)

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OCSM copper-stretch-metal (battery grid technology)

OCV open-circuit voltage

OEM original equipment manufacturer

OER oxygen evolution reaction

ORR oxygen reduction reaction

OPV organic (polymer-based) photovoltaic

OSHA Occupational Safety & Heath Administration

PAAM polyacrylamide

PAFC phosphoric acid fuel cell

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PAM positive active-mass

PAN polyacrylonitrile

PBI polybenzimidazol

PC propylene carbonate

PCL premature capacity loss

PCM phase-change material

PCS power-conditioning system

PE polyethylene

PEC photo-electrochemical

PEG poly(ethylene glycol)

PEM proton exchange membrane; also: polymer electrolyte membrane

PEMFC protonexchange membrane fuel cell; also: polymer electrolyte

membrane fuel cell

PEO poly(ethylene oxide)

PF pulverized fuel

PFC perfluorocarbons

PG&E Pacific Gas & Electric

PHR power-to-heat ratio

PMMA poly(methyl methacrylate)

POX partial oxidation

PP polypropylene

PPO poly(propylene oxide)

PSoC partial state-of-charge

PSoR partial state-of-recharge

PSU polysulfone

PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene

PV photovotaic

PVA poly(vinyl alcohol)

PVC poly(vinyl chloride)

PVD physical vapour deposition

PVdF poly(vinylidene fluoride)

PVP polyvinylpyrolidone

PWM pulse-width modulation

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RAPS remote-area power supply

RBSM recombinant-battery separator mat (same as AGM)

RC reserve capacity

RDE rotating disk electrode

RE reference electrode

rel. dens. relative density

RFI radio frequency interference

RH relative humidity

RHE reversible hydrogen electrode

RMS root mean square

rpm revolutions per minute

RRDE rotating ring-disk electrode

s solid

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

S:C steam-to-carbon ratio

SCE saturated calomel electrode; also: Southern California Edison

SCR silicon controlled rectifier

SEM scanning electron microscopy

SHE standard hydrogen electrode

SIMS secondary mass spectroscopy

SLI starting, lighting and ignition

SI Systme International

SNL Sandia National Laboratory

SoC state-of-charge

SOFC Solid oxide fuel cell

SoH state-of-health

SOx sulfur oxides

SPE solid polymer electrolyte

SPEFC solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell (same as PEMFC)

SR steam reforming

STM scanning tunnelling microscopy

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STP standard temperature (298.15 K) and pressure (101.325 kPa)

SULEV super ultra low emission gasoline vehicles

SUV sports utility vehicle

syngas synthesis gas

TEM transmission electron microscopy

TGA thermogravimetric analysis

th (subscript) thermal

ToCV top-of-charge voltage

UAV unmanned aerial vehicle

UPS uninterruptible power supply

USABC United States Advanced Battery Consortium

USCAR United States Council for Automotive Research

UTC United Technologies Corporation

VB valence band

VPC volts per cell

VRLA valve-regulated leadacid battery

WE working electrode

WGS water-gas shift

XPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

XRD X-ray diffraction

YSZ yttrium-stabilized zirconia

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ZEV zero emission vehicle