Achievement Deficits - High Tech Center Training · PDF fileneed to learn reading comprehension strategies before using the ... (e.g. multiple choice responses for comprehension

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Achievement Deficits

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35Achievement Deficits–Basic Reading Skills

Basic Reading SkillsThe following tests provide information about basic reading skills:

❏ Letter-Word Identification [WJ-R test 22]

This test measures the student’s ability to identify letters andwords. A low score on this test suggests a lack of readingvocabulary.

❏ Word Attack [WJ-R test 31]

This test measures the student’s ability to demonstrate theknowledge of phonetic analysis by decoding nonsense words. Alow score on this test suggests a lack of phonics and syllabicationskills.

❏ WRAT-R Reading

This test measures the student’s ability to read a list of words ofincreasing difficulty. A low score on this test suggests a lack ofreading vocabulary.

Basic Reading Skills

A student whose test behavior suggests specific deficits in basicreading skills may have difficulties even in classes where readingability is not a target skill. Written instructions on tests orworksheets, assignments written on the board, the class syllabus,and word problems in classes such as math, drafting or electronicsmay present unexpected difficulties for this student. In addition,instructional signs on equipment in classrooms which relate to useor warn of danger may not be comprehended by this student.

In daily life, this student can expect problems with menus,billboards, street signs, warning signs, identifying product namesin stores, reading maps, and finding names in phone books, aswell as the more obvious reading situations involving mail,instructions with products, driving tests, and contracts.

FunctionalManifestations

AssessmentMeasures

36 Achievement Deficits–Basic Reading Skills

Instructional Goal

Students will expand sight reading recognition vocabulary aswell as practice word recognition strategies which includephonetic word attack, using context clues, and recognition ofword parts (e.g. roots, prefixes, suffixes).

Instructional Considerations

Functional visual scanning skills are essential to the readingprocess and should be addressed early in instruction. Masteryof a given activity must be achieved without sound outputbefore student progresses to the next level.

To improve academic performance, students can usetechnology to compensate for weaknesses in sight recognitionand word attack skills. Such technology includes computervoice output for auditory text editing, books on tape, and“talking” hand-held spellers/dictionaries.

Any program format which engages students to read at theirinstructional level will stimulate use of word recognitionstrategies. The same software may be useful for building wordidentification skills as well as vocabulary.

Software Characteristics

Software should provide multiple formats for practice.

Having different formats for practice relieves tedium andfacilitates generalization.

Authoring component is easy to use.

Having the opportunity to practice personally relevantwords enhances/expands the value of the software.Creating personalized reading materials is not practicalunless the authoring tool is easy to use.

Software should provide multiple reading levels.

Easily identified reading levels allow an appropriate matchbetween practice material and student’s reading level.

SoftwareConsiderations

37Achievement Deficits–Basic Reading Skills

Sound output is desirable.

With sound output students can hear if they have successfullyvisually decoded a target word. The option to have a wordhighlighted as it is read is a useful software attribute.

Word Attack Plus (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This program is useful because of the wide range of data disksavailable which cover various grade levels and specific contentareas (roots and prefixes, SAT vocabulary).

Skills Bank II (Skills Bank Corporation) - DOS/MAC

A strength of this program is that its vocabulary building lessonsare organized into word parts (including Greek and Latin roots aswell as categories of prefixes and suffixes). In the DOS version,students can make print screens of word categories to use for laterstudy and review.

WordMunchers (MECC) - DOS/MAC

This program encourages rapid decoding of vowel sounds at thesingle syllable word level.

SuggestedSoftware

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Reading ComprehensionThe following tests provide information about readingcomprehension:

❏ Passage Comprehension [WJ-R test 23]

This test measures the student’s ability to use context clues todetermine the appropriate word in a cloze reading passage. Alow score on this test suggests that a student will probablyexperience difficulty in reading college textbooks.

❏ Reading Vocabulary [WJ-R test 32]

This test measures the student’s knowledge of word meaningsby supplying synonyms and antonyms.

Since college reading materials assume a level of sophisticationin word knowledge, a student with a low score on this test willlikely experience problems in understanding lecture contentand in comprehending course materials.

❏ Degrees of Reading Power (DRP)

This test measures the student’s ability to choose the correctwords, in a cloze procedure, to complete the meaning ofreading passages with increasing complexity as in the PassageComprehension test, a low score on this measure suggests thata student will experience difficulty in deriving meaning fromwritten materials.

Weakness in any of the reading comprehension skills mayadversely affect a student’s school performance.

Reading Comprehension

A student whose test behavior suggests specific deficits inreading comprehension may have difficulty in identifyingmain ideas, retaining sequences of events, and/orcomprehending subtleties (inferences) in written material. Thestudent may attempt classes which involve reading, but mayinterpret information literally, without drawing conclusions orforming opinions.

AssessmentMeasures

Achievement Deficits–Reading Comprehension


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In daily life this student is not likely to enjoy recreational reading,and, if interested in current events, is unlikely to obtain thisinformation from newspapers or magazines. In addition, thisstudent may have difficulties in reading situations involvingdriving tests, mail, instructions with products, and contracts.

Instructional Goal

Students will improve passage comprehension by practicingstrategies to enhance visualization, identification of the main idea,inferential reasoning, memory for details, and drawingconclusions. Students will use reading skills to obtain informationneeded to solve problems.

Students will improve vocabulary skills by studying new wordsand by using contextual clues to deduce meaning of unknownwords.


It should be noted that most reading comprehension softwaretests comprehension rather than teaching strategies. Studentsneed to learn reading comprehension strategies before using thesoftware to practice them.

Games and problem-solving software environments motivatestudents to work to understand information that they are reading.In this way, application and generalization of readingcomprehension skills occurs “painlessly.”

Long-term and short-term memory deficits may interfere withreading comprehension and should be addressed specifically. Theinstructor should also be aware that success in readingcomprehension is dependent upon a student’s understanding thevocabulary in the material being read.

Even when using an appropriate reading level, the use of voiceoutput devices (e.g. hand-held electronic dictionary/speller, orcomputer voice output, if compatible with software package) willhelp students compensate for word attack weaknesses.



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There are a number of full-featured programs which teachreading from the pre-literacy level through the high schoollevel. Because such programs are costly, they are mosteffectively purchased by an institution for campus-wide use.Programs of this type are not included in this document.

Note:

Software characteristics and suggested software programs forreading comprehension activities are divided into three basictypes:

1. reading comprehension skills only (i.e., main idea,inference, drawing conclusions);

2. vocabulary development; and

3. reading comprehension to achieve software goal (games orsimulations).

Control of reading level and passage length is desirable.

It is necessary to control passage length in order to ensurestudent success in decoding material. Text should bepresented at or below students’ reading levels for this tooccur. Material of varied lengths need to be available inorder to accommodate time constraints of students (e.g., a50 minute class period), students’ ability to focus andmaintain attention on the reading task, and students’ levelof performance. Short passages must also be available forstudents unable to comprehend longer ones.

The ability to receive on-line hints or to review the readingpassage while answering comprehension questions isdesirable.

Many students’ ability to mentally organize and retain thematerial they have read is facilitated by hints or being ableto review the passage while they consider the answers tocomprehension questions.



(cont.)

SoftwareCharacteristics

ReadingComprehension

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Software should employ a variety of response modes.

To make tasks more interesting as well as challenging, avariety of response modes is desirable (e.g. multiple choiceresponses for comprehension questions, underlining forselecting the main idea in text). Because students get boredwith repetitive tasks, being forced to respond in differentmodes promotes different ways of processing information andformulating concepts.

Software should allow students to demonstratecomprehension without regard for spelling accuracy or anexact sequence of words.

Programs which require exact spelling and phrasing maymeasure areas of weakness rather than focusing on the task ofreading comprehension. The option to review vocabularyprior to reading passages is desirable.

On-line dictionaries assist with acquisition of vocabularyknowledge needed to understand a reading passage. Usingthem provides students with practice in using referencematerials as well as assisting with comprehension.

Software should include a variety of comprehension tasks (e.g.finding the main idea, reading for facts, making inferences,and drawing conclusions).

Practice in different types of reading tasks is necessary in orderto help students build skills in specific areas and to helpstudents understand the spectrum of activities whichencompass reading comprehension.

Text on the screen should be easy to perceive.

An uncluttered screen format and good text resolution isnecessary to facilitate reading speed, reduce eye strain, andreduce negative effects from visual perceptual interference.


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Read ‘N Roll (Davidson) - DOS

This program focuses on single paragraph comprehensionfollowed by a single question involving the main idea, facts,making inferences, or sequencing. Features includevocabulary review (multiple choice in cloze procedure),paragraph review during question, text display option (text isavailable as black type on white background or white type onblack background). A variety of grade level materials isavailable.

Reading Workshop (Mindscape) - DOS

Students work in an interactive format. Comprehensionactivites are set in the context of short stories and popularliterature. A variety of comprehension activities are available,including sequencing (students put lines of the story in correctorder), and identifying key words. Students also practicepunctuation and identify parts of speech.

What’s the Story? (Sunburst/Wings for Learning) - DOS/MAC

This program provides a series of passages on motivatingsubjects which are age appropriate for adults. This software isespecially useful because of its unique format where studentsbegin with reading the questions and seek the answers fromthe text. Cloze procedure is effectively used. Students are notpenalized for spelling errors.

Ace Reading Series (Mindplay) - DOS/MAC

The Ace Reporter (main idea and details), Ace Explorer(sequencing), Ace Detective (drawing conclusions), and AceInquirer (facts or opinions) are useful in their organization;each program focuses on one concept. Each also requiresstudents to separate pertinent from non-essential informationand has a motivating format. Reading level can be controlled,and an authoring component is available for editing existingtext or writing new material.


This program is effectively organized by concept with literal,interpretive, and critical comprehension sections, as well asfigurative language. Lessons are followed by quizzes andtests.

SuggestedSoftware

ReadingComprehension


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A unique feature is explanation of both accurate and inaccurateanswers. The story is available to re-read during questions, andhints are available. Students can control text and backgroundcolors from a wide array of combinations.

Screen should be uncluttered.

An uncluttered screen allows relevant information to standout. Students with visual processing difficulties and poorscanning skills may have difficulty separating the targetvocabulary word from other on-screen information if thescreen is cluttered.

Authoring component should be easy to use.

An editing or authoring option in vocabulary instruction isvery practical for the study of vocabulary because it allowsindividualization of word lists. Students may input glossaryitems from their text books in order to prepare for reading ortaking exams. Students who input their own word lists willhave the additional benefit of manipulating their word list in away which will enhance their understanding of the words.

Content should be effectively organized.

Objectives for the development of vocabulary should befunctional and clearly stated. Whether by grade-level, part ofspeech, “survival” vocabulary or other system, its organizationshould be in agreement with the instructional needs of thesestudents.

Sound output for each vocabulary word is desirable.

With sound output for vocabulary words, students receive anadditional stimulus for learning. Additionally, having anauditory model for a word may facilitate correct pronunciationof the word. (If sound is not an option provided by a program,the use of electronic dictionaries with sound output wouldprove to be helpful).



VocabularyDevelopment

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Word Attack Plus (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This program, which now includes spoken production of itsvocabulary, is particularly useful in its array of formats, itsorganization by grade level and part of speech, and itsauthoring capability.


The Vocabulary Building and Word Knowledge modules ofthis program are effectively organized into specific lessonswhich are followed by quizzes and tests. A unique feature isexplanation of both accurate and inaccurate answers. Studentscan select text and background colors from a wide array ofcolor combinations, and they can print-screen lessons toreview later.

Software should provide a motivating environment.

It is easier for students to apply and generalize theirreading comprehension strategies when they are motivatedto read on. Students need to understand information frompassages in order to solve problems and reach the goal ofthe program.

Program should provide the option to stop and save agame in progress.

Due to students’ time constraints, attention spans andgeneral fatigue factors, it is often necessary to stop a gamebefore the goal has been attained. Students often feel moreproductive when they can save the activity and resume at alater time.

Lost Tribe (Lawrence Production/Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This software is especially useful because it provides a highinterest format for making decisions, solving problems,estimating needs and testing hypotheses. Students need to usereading comprehension skills as well as knowledge of

SuggestedSoftware

Vocabulary


Suggested Software

Games orsimulations which

require readingcomprehension


Games orsimulations which

require readingcomprehension

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mathematics, time, and human nature in order to be successful inthis game/adventure format.

Carmen San Diego Series (Broderbund) -DOS/MAC

These programs are especially useful because they require theuser to read and keep track of information and use referencematerials. The content focuses mainly on geography, history andculture.

Nigel’s World - DOS/MAC

This program is especially useful for students with lowerelementary reading level and minimal knowledge of worldgeography and cultures. Students build reading comprehensionskills through reading assignments. They must read descriptionsand hints in order to find locations and complete assignmentswithin a time limit. Knowledge from earlier levels is necessary tocomplete higher levels.

Headline Harry and the Great Paper Race (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This program is useful because it requires the user to read andkeep track of information and discriminate between irrelevant andrelevant information needed to win. The game addresses subjectsof U.S. history, geography, and culture which may also enhancestudent’s fund of general knowledge. This game requires someability to hypothesize and to learn from incorrect answers.

Time Treks (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This program requires students to use reference materials to findanswers to questions. Subject matter covers a wide range of topics(science, history, civilizations, arts and more). A game board isused for selecting a variety of questions. The time factor addspressure for reading rapidly to find answers. Students need touse this program several times before all the options availablebecome familiar to them.


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Basic Mathematics SkillsThe following tests provide information about basicmathematics skills:

❏ Calculation [WJ-R test 24]

This test measures the student’s ability to performmathematical calculations from basic operations throughcalculus. If the test protocol is available, an analysis of thestudent’s errors can provide insight into whether the studentunderstands the concepts or is making only calculation errors.Prescriptive software must take into account the types ofproblems with which the student is experiencing difficulty.

❏ Quantitative Concepts [WJ-R test 33]

This test measures the student’s knowledge of basicmathematical concepts and vocabulary. A low score on thistest may impact the student’s performance in classes whichhave a mathematical base, e.g., chemistry, anatomy andphysiology, accounting, etc.

❏ WRAT-R Arithmetic

This test measures the student’s ability to performmathematical calculations under timed conditions. A lowscore on this test needs to be evaluated to determine whetherthe score is due to time constraints rather than lack of mathknowledge.

Basic Mathematics

A student whose test results suggest specific deficits in basicmathematical skills may also have difficulties in classes wheremath is not a target skill. Computing changes inmeasurements within hard or soft science lab assignments,understanding statistics within research articles, and handlingthe computing requirements within almost any mechanical,drafting or electronic courses may present unexpecteddifficulties for this student. In daily life this student mayexpect problems with making change, determining tips,managing financial accounts, estimating budgets, calculatingtaxes, and any measurement calculations involved inconstructing, cooking or sewing.

Achievement Deficits–Basic Mathematics Skills

AssessmentMeasures


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Instructional Goal

Students will demonstrate knowledge of mathematical concepts,vocabulary, and calculations. Secondarily, students will maximizeprocessing speed of calculations without sacrificing accuracy.


Work on basic mathematical skills can be tedious, so a variety ofapproaches is helpful. Speed of solving basic processes such asaddition, subtraction, multiplication and division should bepressured to a speed considered “automatic.” If that is notfeasible, then compensatory techniques such as rapid use of acalculator should be considered. Be aware of differences ininstructional approaches between the classroom and the software.


Software should allow control of basic mathematical processes.

Students should be able to control numeric range (e.g. singledigit, double digit, etc.) in order to provide practice inappropriate areas.

Software should provide instruction to introduce conceptsprior to practicing skills.

This gives students relevant information needed to completeexercises. Avoid math software without a tutorial component.

Software should provide opportunity for drill or game formatwith frequent feedback.

Immediate feedback is necessary in order correct any errorsbefore a student advances in a program. Drill allowsdevelopment of automatic responses with basic mathematicalfunctions. Games provide a motivating format for this.

Students should be able to return to missed items.

This will clarify errors and allow students to demonstrate thatthey now understand the correct procedure.



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A customizing component is desirable.

Students or instructors can select a specific number ofproblems and levels of practice in order to createindividualized lessons.

Software should have an optional component formonitoring speed of processing.

“Beating-the-clock” is especially motivating in a gameformat. If students are able to focus and maintainattention, speed, and accuracy, their automatic responses tobasic math calculations may improve.

New Mathblaster Plus (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This program is useful for practice in building skills in the fourbasic operations, fractions, decimals and percents. An arcadetype game assists in building speed of “automatic” mathoperations. An editor allows input of student or instructorproblems.

NumberMunchers (MECC) - DOS/MAC

This program encourages rapid solution of basic mathematics(addition/subtraction/multiplication/division) with easilycontrolled selection of math process and level of difficulty.


The mathematics section builds skills using basic math facts.More complex problems are solved with on-screen instructionfrom basic operations to pre-algebra. Students can printinstructions for completing math problem solutions directlyfrom the screen.

Algebra I: Homework Tutor (Missing Link Software) - MAC

This program generates an infinite number of algebraproblems and allows students to insert their own homeworkproblems. The program provides feedback at each step of theproblem-solving process and will reveal either part or all ofthe process on request.



(cont.)

SuggestedSoftware

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Mathematics ReasoningThe following test provides information about mathematicsreasoning:

❏ Applied Problems [WJ-R test 25]

This test measures the student’s ability to solve word problems inmathematics. A low score on this test may indicate a lack ofmathematical vocabulary or a lack of understanding of mathconcepts. The student will struggle with problem solvingactivities in some vocational programs such as nursing or draftingand in classes such as algebra or chemistry.

Mathematical Reasoning

A student whose test results suggest specific deficits inmathematical reasoning may be able to handle the calculationsinvolved in course work, but may not be able to determine thecalculation process needed or to set up the calculation. Thestruggle in algebra and statistics classes may be obvious, but othercourses such as biology, chemistry, physics, anatomy andphysiology, and courses of study such as business, nursing,computer sciences, drafting and electronics may also presentdifficulties.

In daily life, this student may generally avoid situations requiringmathematical reasoning. The student may need assistance inbudgeting, managing financial accounts, calculating taxes,determining efficient travel routes, verifying hours adjustmentsand taxes in their employment, and in modifying tasks involvingconstruction, cooking, or sewing.

Instructional Goal

Students will demonstrate the reasoning and sequencing involvedin word problems and in more complex mathematical processes.


It is extremely important that students be taught necessarymathematics vocabulary (e.g. difference, sequential, yields).

Achievement Deficits–Mathematics Reasoning

AssessmentMeasures



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Many algebra texts now include the possibility of acquiringtutorial software correlated with the text. Software not relatedto a text should be evaluated in terms of its terminology,content and solution processes as related to the students’courses. There are non-computational skills underlying manymathematical processes (e.g. short-term and long termmemory, sequencing). These must be addressed specifically.


Word problems should present reasoning processes in asequential fashion and include a variety of problems.

Students benefit from following clear models. Extendedpractice develops automatic responses to structuring andsolving problems.

Feedback should be frequent and educational.

If response is repeatedly incorrect, the process forachieving an accurate solution should be demonstrated.

Software should provide extended practice with a widevariety of problems and/or the option of repeatingproblems with different numbers.

Students benefit from repetition in learning to structureand solve problems. This enables them to develop a formatfor approaching mathematical problems.

It is desirable that software cover a wide variety ofmathematical processes.

A comprehensive program allows students to progress tohigher levels without having to learn how to use a newprogram.


The Math Word Problems section of this program is helpful indeveloping the basic reasoning processes for solving simpleword problems. Students can print instructions for completingword problem solutions directly from the screen.


SuggestedSoftware


(cont.)

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Math Blaster Mystery (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This program is especially helpful in the areas of focusing onrelevant information, planning strategies, considering alternatesolutions, hypothesizing and testing hypotheses, and usinginductive and deductive reasoning. A variety of motivatingformats are presented, selection of any level and activity may bemade at any time during the use of the program. On-screen help,calculators and hints are easy to access.

Math Shop (Scholastic) - DOS

This program sets up situations in “shops” that require studentsto structure and solve math processes from basic math throughfractions, decimals, and proportions. Students can control optionsof how long to work at one process (with an infinite number ofproblems), which process they work on, and whether to workwith time pressure.

Algebra (Broderbund) - DOS/MAC

This program uses an interactive tutorial process very effectively,allowing students to learn algebraic concepts, manipulate many ofthese concepts on the screen, and practice a variety of problemswith different numerical data.

Algeblaster Plus (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This program is especially useful for learning elementary algebraskills. Students are guided step by step through several activitiesdesigned to teach and reinforce problem solving strategies.Translation of word problems into algebraic equations and anauthoring component are available.

Geometry (Broderbund) - MAC

This program uses an interactive tutorial process which allowsstudents to learn geometry concepts, manipulate many of theseconcepts on the screen, and practice a variety of problems withdifferent numerical data.


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What’s My Angle? (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This program is helpful in presenting geometry concepts,word problems, and proofs with real life applications.

Calculus (Broderbund) - DOS/MAC

This program uses an interactive tutorial process veryeffectively, allowing students to learn calculus concepts,manipulate many of these concepts on the screen, and practicea variety of problems with different numerical data.


SuggestedSoftware

(cont.)

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Basic Writing SkillsThe following tests provide information about basic writing skills:

❏ Dictation [WJ-R test 26]

This test measures the student’s ability to demonstrate knowledgeof spelling, punctuation and capitalization, and usage. Problemsin this area will be reflected in the student’s written work.

❏ Proofing [WJ-R test 34]

This test measures the student’s ability to recognize and correcterrors in spelling, punctuation and capitalization, and usage. Alow score on this test suggests that a student will have problemsin proofreading written work to find and correct errors.

❏ WRAT-R Spelling

This test measures the student’s ability to spell words fromdictation. A low score on this test suggests that a student wouldbenefit from using a word processing program with spell checkcapability.

Note:

For basic writing skills, the Functional Manifestations section andthe Software Characteristics sections have been assigned to twoprimary aspects of writing in order to cover each area withappropriate depth. These two areas are

1. Spelling, and

2. Writing Mechanics and Proofing.

A student whose test results suggest specific deficits in spellingmay have difficulties even in classes where writing is not a targetskill. Taking notes during lectures, writing down assignmentsaccurately, and writing answers to in-class tests and quizzeswithin a specified time may present unexpected problems.Students with severe deficits may even have difficulty findingcorrect spellings in dictionaries or understanding their ownwriting after some time has passed.

Achievement Deficits–Basic Writing Skills

AssessmentMeasures


Spelling

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In daily life this student may not write formal or informalcorrespondence (letters, memos or messages), and may havedifficulty taking phone messages, filling out forms, writingchecks, or locating any information which is alphabetized (e.g.names in the phone book, books at libraries, information inencyclopedias).

Instructional Goal

Students will learn and review new spelling words, spellingpatterns, and phonics skills.


Before students work on spelling software, it is important thatthey understand what spelling strategies work best for theirlearning styles. They also must know what spelling skills theyare expected to use or develop when using spelling software.

If students will be using handwriting to take spelling tests, it isimportant that they use handwriting to practice spelling aswell as practicing at the computer keyboard.

Correct spelling is primarily the result of applying phonicsknowledge (auditory analysis, auditory memory, and sound-symbol association) as well as visual memory; and visual-motor memory. Ideally, the software should provide spellinglists for each critical element in the development of phonicsskills. However, no such comprehensive program has beenidentified and recommended.

If students use compensatory technology, they can concentrateon critical aspects of writing (content, organization, cohesion,word choice) instead of being concerned with spellingaccuracy. Compensatory technology includes on-line spellingcheckers, dictionaries, thesauruses, hand-held spellingcheckers, abbreviation expansion software, macros, and voiceinput.



Spelling(cont.)


Spelling

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Software should provide lists of words exemplifying a givenrule and provide a logical hierarchy of rules.

Activities which focus on words exemplifying a single ruleencourage generalization of the rule (e.g., adding suffixes towords ending in silent "e") and are more useful than drilldesigned for memorization of isolated spellings. Rulecomplexity level should reflect the reading/spelling level ofwords in word list (for example, -tion vs. -sion) would not bean appropriate rule for a second grade level list of spellingwords.


The opportunity to practice personally relevant spelling listsenhances/expands the value of the software for students.Creating personalized lessons is not practical unless theauthoring tool is easy to use.

Students should have multiple formats for practicing skills.

Having different formats (e.g. flash card, unscramble,crossword, word search, spelling bee, spell in context) forpractice relieves tedium and facilitates generalization.

Software should include a range of levels and topics coveredand/or provide data disks for different levels and topics.

This allows students with differing spelling levels to use thesoftware. Students can progress through levels of greaterspelling mastery without having to learn a new program.

Sound output is desirable.

Sound output confirms target words for students who are notsure they have read the word correctly. The psychologicalprocess of learning new spellings usually begins by hearing aword (either aloud or sub vocally).


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The software program should permit students to adjust theamount of time allowed for studying new words.

Students require different amounts of processing time indifferent contexts. Processing time decreases withfamiliarity. It is difficult for students to learn newinformation when under pressure.

Spell It Plus (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This software is especially useful because it provides a widevariety of spelling lists, the capacity to make flash cards andincludes an activity requiring proofreading and editing incontext.

Missing Links (Sunburst/Wings for Learning) - DOS

This software is useful because it requires using readingcontext clues and because the user can control the level ofspelling difficulty by specifying the type of missing data.

A student whose test results suggest specific deficits in writingmechanics may avoid classes where writing is a target skill,but may still encounter difficulties in writing essay answers ontests, taking effective notes in lectures, writing directions tocomplex assignments or messages to instructors. In daily life,this student may not produce formal or informalcorrespondence (e.g. letters, memos or messages), orinstructions as given by doctors or other professionals.

Instructional Goal

Students will demonstrate knowledge of the rules ofcapitalization, punctuation and grammar and practicestrategies for monitoring and correcting errors in writtenwork.



Spelling(cont.)

SuggestedSoftware

Spelling


Writing Mechanicsand Proofing



57


Students must see the relationship between their written workand rules they are learning.

Students can improve the writing mechanics in their writtenassignments with the help of on-line editing aids such as grammarmanuals and grammar checkers working in coordination withtheir word processing program.

Students should be encouraged to use more than one program toimprove their writing mechanics. No one program providesenough practice material in enough different contexts to ensuremastery of a concept.


Proofing programs need to provide control over aspects ofwriting mechanics covered in a given activity.

Students should be dealing only with material for which theyhave prepared themselves.

Instruction should be clearly presented with ample examplesand no jargon.

Clear presentation facilitates comprehension. Examplesfacilitate comprehension and generalization.

Feedback should be frequent and educational.

Students should have access to a printed record of progressincluding number attempted, number missed, percent correct,and list of errors. (They can use this information to assessperformance and set new goals). The students should also beprovided with immediate feedback as well as hints andopportunities to retake missed items as this practice creates amodel for self-cueing. When students successfully re-takemissed items, they can feel successful as they are learning aconcept.


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Creating personally relevant material with which topractice a skill is always beneficial to the student. Aninstructor can individualize instruction by using anauthoring component when one is provided. However, forboth student and instructor, creating personalized lessonsis not practical unless the editing tool is easy to use.

Providing numerous practice items is desirable.

Students need a great deal of practice with grammaticalconcepts before achieving fluidity with the concepts.

Grammar Gremlins (Davidson) - DOS/MAC

This program is useful because it covers nine differentgrammar topics at grade levels 3-6.


This program is especially useful because of the wide scope oftopics covered.

Grammar Examiner (Compton’s New Media) - DOS

This program provides practice in proofreading in context.Using the editor to create new games and practice material iscritical to ensure maximum time is spent in activities relevantto proofreading and to ensure that students are proofreadingfor writing concepts with which they are familiar.




(cont.)

SuggestedSoftware


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Written ExpressionThe following tests provide information about written expression:

❏ Writing Samples [WJ-R test 27]

This test measures the student’s ability to express ideas byproducing single words, simple sentences and complex sentences.A low score on this test will be reflected in the quality of writtencourse requirements such as tests, in-class assignments, and out-of-class papers.

❏ Writing Fluency [WJ-R test 35]

This test measures the student’s ability to write clear sentencesunder timed conditions. A low score on this test suggests that astudent may not have sufficient time to complete assignments.

A student whose test results suggest specific deficits in writtenexpression may be able to handle simple writing tasks, but mayencounter difficulty when there is limited time to write, or whenmore complex writing is required. Organization of ideas,integration of concepts, or expressing interpretation of symbolismmay present difficulties for this student, especially in timedsituations such as essay tests.

In daily life this student may not enjoy writing, and thereforeavoid complex writing tasks such as formal correspondence tobusinesses, politicians, or the media. This student may avoidemployment in a setting where complex writing skills are arequirement (e.g., correspondence, memos, briefs, reports,summaries).

Instructional Goal

To enhance the student’s ability to facilitate and monitorexpression of ideas in sentences and paragraphs. To develop theability to monitor written language production.

Achievement Deficits–Written Expression

Software Considerations


AssessmentMeasures

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In order to practice writing skills, the student first needs tolearn or know the basic components of writing (i.e.pre-writing, writing, and editing). Instruction in these areasmust be clearly presented in order for the student to practicethem.

Although students are often reluctant to spend time ongenerating and prioritizing their ideas, programs which helpthem brainstorm and visually organize their writing arehelpful in reducing the time they spend in formulating theirfirst drafts.

On-line editing programs (e.g. spell-checkers, grammarcheckers) can be very effective in assisting students withwritten expression. However, as they are not consideredcomputer-assisted instruction, their use will not be addressedhere.


Software should have components to facilitatebrainstorming and organization of ideas.

Students often need instruction in organizing and planningwritten language. Using pre-writing software activitieshelps to establish a solid framework for writtencomposition.

Software should have components to check forgrammatical and spelling errors.

When using a word processor or a program designed toteach writing skills, interactive spelling and grammarcheckers can be effective in helping students learn to finderrors in their written work. Optional tutorial informationabout why the identified aspect could be in error andsuggestions for possible revisions allow students to learnfrom their mistakes. Such features enable students toidentify errors they might not otherwise have noticed;students are then actively involved in the proofreadingprocess.


Software Considerations

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The program should provide feedback to the student about thecontent of their written work.

Students can become aware of common errors and problems inwriting (e.g. homophones, clichés etc.) when analyzingfeedback.

Software should provide a word processing component withediting features.

While students are learning to produce and edit writtenlanguage, it is better for them to produce a final documentwithout having to transfer the file into a word processingprogram before proceeding.

Program should provide organizational skills with feedback.

Students who cannot generate ideas or independently organizethem without concrete examples may benefit from puttinginformation into outlines which can become frameworks foressays.

Software should provide supplementary exercises.

Supplementary exercises (i.e. paper pencil activities) designedto give practice in all aspects of producing written work givesstudents writing practice in a controlled environment.Generalization of skills is more likely when multi-modalpractice occurs.

Success With Writing (Scholastic) - DOS/MAC

This program has four modules: Prewrite, Arrange (outline),Compose (word processor), and Evaluate/Edit. These facilitatethe generation, organization and evaluation of written expression(evaluation is word analysis, word count, and readability). Thisproduct also provides supplementary exercises in an activitybook.

Writer’s Helper II (Conduit) - DOS/MAC

This program has a variety of pre-writing activities forbrainstorming, exploring and organizing subjects. It then can be


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used as a word processing program for composition. Thisprogram will also provide word analysis, word count, andevaluation of readability. It also is possible to evaluate adocument file produced by a standard word processor if thefile has been saved in an appropriate text file format.


SuggestedSoftware

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Documents

Achievement Deficits - High Tech Center Training · PDF fileneed to learn reading comprehension strategies before using the ... (e.g. multiple choice responses for comprehension