THE NATURE OF RELIGION & Aboriginal Spirituality(Dot point 1)

The supernatural Dimension

Religion is seen as fundamentally a symbol system. It is an attempt to make sense of the world; to create a coherent worldview; and to give direction and meaning to life through the creation of symbols that embody ultimate meaning.

A person who has a religious worldview acknowledges that there is a dimension beyond human understanding or experience. This is known as the transcendent dimension.

The transcendent dimension refers to the aspects or elements that relate to the human experience or understanding that is beyond (God, miracles etc.) or outside the ordinary. Beyond our day to day lives. Beyond what we are accustomed to.

This is best exemplified by the differences between so called Traditional religions and New Age Religions (since the 1970s).

Thos who have a religious worldview usually refer to this dimension as the supernatural dimension. The supernatural dimension therefore refers t aspects or elements beyond the customary range of

our experience that cannot be explained according to natural laws. The Semitic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam believe the supernatural dimension is a single

divine being or power. This doctrine or belief is known as monotheism. (mono- means one, theism- means God).

The two Eastern or Indus religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, derive from an understanding of a number or divine beings or powers, a belief known as polytheism.

This despite Buddhism not believing in a God as such and Hinduism believing that their many gods are manifestation of the god Brahma.

Despite these differences, the belief in the existence of beings or powers beyond the realm of the natural world is an important defining element of a religious worldview.

The central commonality to all world religions is the belief in the supernatural dimension. Thus it can be said that the most significant element of a religious worldview is the belief in a divine being or power, which is greater than humankind and the natural world.

This being or power is believed to be responsible for the creation of the world, for providing a moral framework for human life and being the ultimate destiny of a human person at the end of their mortal life.

The Transcendent Worldview:

A transcendent worldview is one which has a belief in a divine power or powers beyond the human. The three Semitic religions emphasis that the idea of God being revealed to humankind from

beyond the human spirit. For example, Muslims believe that the will of Allah has been revealed to the Prophet Mohammed

and is contained in the writings of the Qur’an. This is a transcendent worldview because the divine being is seen to be separate and outside of the human and revealed to humankind intermediary.

In Christianity, the teachings of Jesus reveal the way to Salvation for Christians.

The Immanent Worldview

The religious worldview which contrasts with the transcendent view is the immanent worldview. An immanent worldview holds the belief that supernatural powers or divine beings dwell within the

human. For the two Eastern religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, the emphasis is on the finding of truth from

within the human spirit. For example, Buddhists follow the Eightfold Path prescribed by Buddha in order to reach

Enlightenment. This is an immanent religious worldview because the divine power is believed to be found within the human and awaits discovery through the prescribed path.

Although religions may be classified as transcendent or immanent, they may contain some characteristics of the other. For example, meditation.

Summary definitions-

Transcendent- a reality of level of being deeper than ordinary human experience. Beyond reality.

Immanent- discovery of spiritual truth from within the human spirit- real self- within the reality in which one lives.

THE SEMITIC RELIGIONS

Judaism

Began with Gods covenant with Abraham, 1900 BCE.God: A single, divine being who transcends the limits of space, time and gender. Eternal, ever-present and al-good Moral, expecting humans to live moral lives The natural world is a physical creation, separate from yet dependent on God for its continual

existence. (God is not a part of creation, he is transcendent.) Reveals his Will and Law to humanity Requires obedience to avoid punishment and find true spiritual life Will judge humans, resulting in eternal reward or punishment (Heaven and hell)- life after death Created humanity superior to nature, humans have a personal responsibility for their action.

Morally accountable to God. (we have to take care of nature.)

Christianity

Founded on the teachings of Jesus the Messiah- 1st Century CE The Christian Church established in Palestine (today’s Israel) and the spread throughout the

Mediterranean area by his apostles and disciples Began as a sect within Judaism Council of Jerusalem made Christianity able to be practised publicly Eschatology- study of death and after life.

Islam

Founded on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (7th Century). Islam means “submission’ to the will of Allah. Descendents of Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar Developed in the Arabian Peninsula Later spread to the Asian are with conquering invading tribes

The Eastern Religions

Beliefs:

Began in northern India Emphasises the discovery of spiritual truth from within the human spirit Spiritual salvation is gained through wisdom and knowledge Central beliefs- Reincarnation and Karma Life is a cycle (Samsara) progressing through birth, life and death to rebirth Wisdom is deliverance from death and suffering Reincarnation allows the spirit to gain additional wisdom to reach a higher spiritual plane The attainment of Nirvana is the ultimate objective- (the end of suffering and the endless cycle of

wandering) Karma- the moral law of cause and effect (balance of good and evil)

Hinduism:

Originated in the Indus Valley (modern Pakistan) 4,000 years ago. Made up of many disparate (separate) religions Superficially a polytheistic (many Gods) religion Braham is a supreme spirit with many divine manifestations e.g. Braham, Vishnu and Shiva.

Buddhism:

Began inside the border if modern day Nepal Derived from the teachings of the Buddha (Prince Siddartha Gautama)- 5 th Century BCE Arose from Hinduism rejecting the authority of the Vedic (sacrificial rituals) scripture and the Hindu

social system The Buddha sought enlightenment renouncing the comforts of family, the worldliness of society and

the guidance of professional priests.

Characteristics of religion:

Beliefs:

In an unseen world of God(s), spirits or natural forces. About human nature and life About the natural world About the ‘afterlife’ Religion is a belief system and a way of life. Religion is often reinterpreted over time, reflection and through new cultural situations. Religious traditions each develop a moral code which is then translated into lived experience Religions is kept alive by it beliefs and believers. This can include the living believers of the faith as well as the deceased gurus, saints and mystics or

other holy people. Together history and present contribute to the whole belief structure.

Sacred Texts and Writings:

They include- Myths: relate to stories about ‘beginnings’, how the world was created. Legends: collection of stories based on sacred or important people from history. Parables: fictitious stories told to point out a moral, about ordinary people.

All religious traditions have a sacred text and some oral tradition or story as part of its structures. The texts give essential direction about how a believer is to live their life. With most religious traditions, the original story is passed on orally through the generations and is

then written into a sacred text.

Ethics:

Ethics is the examination of collective and individual decision-making about that are desirable human actions, and the exploration of why people make such judgements.

The rules or standards governing the conduct of the members of a profession Ethics are central to any religion and focus on the belief structure and the morality of the tradition Ethics assist a person in clarifying right from wrong.

Rituals and Ceremonies:

Rites of passage and, in particular, initiation rites. Rites of worship or devotion. Rites are made up of rituals. Each rite has a structure and symbols. Religion uses rituals:

Individuals express religion in terms of prayer, worship, preaching and rites of the religion. Rituals and ceremonies connect the living believers with the tradition of the religion E.g. Brit Milah or Jewish circumcision connects modern day Jews to both Abraham and God

through the Covenant.

Religion as a Living, Dynamic System

Beleivers have a sense of the sacred- of something

beyond the ordinary.

They respond by action- participating in rituas and

ceremonies.

They formulate this response into Sacred texts,

stories and writings.

This response is expressed through a belief system and

a code of conduct (ethics)

This is supported by social and communal structures.

Contribution of Religion to:

1. The individual- Helps answer the fundamental questions of life Gives a sense of purpose to our life Sense of community Helps us understand God- be in touch Adds another dimension to our lives Helps us find ultimate happiness Code of behaviour (ethics) Gives us time to reflect Provides hope of a better life in the next world (afterlife) Gives us strength in time of fear, sadness and pain Influences our thoughts and actions

2. Society- Guidelines for behaviour Basis of our laws Part of common customs and rituals (public holidays e.g. Easter, Christmas) Centre point for meeting people (catholic school etc) Good works – charities – counselling etc (St Vinnies) Brings people together Sense of belonging- community Makes society more tolerant and accepting of all

3. Culture- Maintains and directs our way of life Art- religious paintings statues etc. Architecture- buildings – Churches, mosques etc. Literature- translation – writing of famous books done by monks Clothing – Muslims Jews etc Pilgrimages- going on a trip for a religious purpose Food- dietary rules fasting etc. E.g. Catholics not meat on Ash Wednesday or Good

Friday Behaviour e.g. Mass- Sunday, Shabbat- Friday to Saturday, Ramadan- 9th month Maintains old languages/culture- Latin and Hebrew Populations- Catholics and Muslims increase the population (no birth control for

Catholics) Christian liturgical seasons etc manifested in public holidays such as Christmas and

Good Friday and Easter Sunday/Monday etc Traditions- Jewish groom breaks a glass underfoot- commemoration of the

destruction of the Great Temple of Jerusalem 70 CE and Christians – Easter washing of the feet etc.

Australian Aboriginal Beliefs and Spiritualities- The Dreaming

Nature of the Dreaming:

The Dreaming

The beginning: where the world was formed.

How ancestral beings formed the land and created life.

The land is the whole

environment. It is totally

connected to humans.

The unseen spirits. They give life and reality to the visible world.

It is personal and communal.

It affects life. The ceremonies of the ancestors are the power

of the Dreaming.

The origins of the Universe-

In ATSI spirituality there is generally o notion of creation or a creator. (no concept of a creator and believe in ancestral spirit)

The life giving power of the ancestors simply exists and ancestral beings have transformed themselves into the land.

Stories, songs and ceremonies recall the journeys of the ancestral beings. These play a part in the daily life and the handing down of sacred law from one generation to the next. (The Dream time stories).

There are many layers to the rituals and stories. Some are only accessible to the elders and initiated Aboriginals. Some stories are strictly for certain people, e.g. only for men.

The Dreaming is the centre of the ATSI religion and life. It is the past, present and future.

The Dreaming

The Dreaming is the most important concept to Aboriginal culture.

The Dreaming is not placed in time but is: The past because it tells of the beginning of creation- how everything was created The present because it gives meaning to the way relationships between humans and other species

and the land (environment- people, animals, dirt, trees etc.) are sustained now. How they interact with each other. Kinship- structure of family, giving them their identity.

The future because it shows how the earth’s life-giving powers are to be kept going in the future Totemic process/system- looking after nature.

The Dreaming means different things to different people depending on the location of the nation they belong to. It is not universal. (Linked to their geographical locations).

First thing to write in essay:

Definition: A complex concept of fundamental importance to Aboriginal culture, embracing the era of creative activity when the world was formed, as well as the present and the future.

Dreaming- Three parts:

- Past- Present- Future

Dreamtime- only the ‘past’.

The essence of the Dreaming is that every part of the life force is inextricably and eternally connected to every other part. (Animals, landscape, people are all connected). Means aboriginal spirituality and the land connection cannot be broken.

Through the observance of ritual and ceremony, humans are able to enter into a direct relationship with the Dreaming. (Only way they connect with their dreaming).

The Dreaming permeates (moves through) song, dance, storytelling, painting, artefact making, hunting, food gathering and the social (kinship) system.

Kinship is the system of relationships traditionally accepted by a particular culture and the rights and obligations they involve (very important- obligation- caring for the environment is the most important obligation). Gives them their identity (very important).

Totems: All have a responsibility to care for and nurture the land/environment – organised through the Totemic system whereby:a. Each tribe is responsible for an area of land (the Ritual Estate) and a tribe totem e.g. the frog.b. Each individual, at different stages of life is allowed totems that they are personally

responsible for such as the wallaby or stream or wattle. Individual totems are linked to initiation rites (birth/adult/marriage etc).

The ‘Dreamtime’ or ‘Dreaming’

The expression ‘Dreamtime’ is most often used to refer to the ‘time before time’, or ‘the time of the creation of all things’, while ‘Dreaming’ is often used to refer to an individual’s or group’s set of beliefs or spirituality.

For instance, an Indigenous Australian might say that they have Kangaroo Dreaming, or Shark Dreaming, or Honey Ant Dreaming, or any combination of Dreaming pertinent to their ‘country’.

However, many Indigenous Australians also refer to the creation time as ‘The Dreaming’.

What is certain is that ‘Ancestor Spirits’ cam to Earth in human and other forms and the land, the plants, and animals were given their form as we know them today.

These spirits also established relationships between groups and individuals, (whether people or animals) and where they travelled across the land, or came to a halt, they created rivers, hills etc., and there are often stories attaché to these places.

Once their work was done, the Ancestor Spirits changed again; into animals or stars or hills or other objects.

For Indigenous Australians, the past is still alive and vital today and will remain so into the future.

The Ancestor Spirits and their power have not gone, they are present in the forms into which they changed at the end of the ‘Dreamtime’ or ‘Dreaming’, as the stories tell.

The stories have been handed down through the ages and are an integral part of an Indigenous person’s ‘Dreaming’.

Aboriginal Spirituality and its inextricable connection to the land

A spiritual view of life based on the Dreaming cannot be separated from the land (land refers to the whole environment). The land is alive with power and the Ancestors who live in it.

The natural world provides a link between the people and the Dreaming. Time or absence does not break this link.

Aboriginal people see themselves as part of the land and it is a part of them. All have a responsibility to care for and nurture the land – organised through the Totemic system

whereby each tribe is responsible for an area of land (the Ritual Estate) and each individual, at different stages of life, is allocated totems that they are personally responsible for.

Totems are linked to initiation rites.

Australian Aboriginal Spirituality

Absence of any sharp boundary between the spiritual and the natural world.Comprises:

Closeness to nature – love of the land. The Spirits are in the subterranean levels of the earth.

Awareness of a greater power who makes living possible. A spirit world- where spirits are active in this world by also there s another world beyond

death. (No fear of death). When they die they will return to the earth e.g. by decomposing by hanging by the tree.

Ritual- another way of communicating between the two worlds. Seen as an art form, a way of celebrating humanity’s participation in the affairs of the universe and the gods. Takes the place of religious doctrines. How they connect with the spirits.

Myth- a complex set of stories handed down from generation to generation which, in some way, represent the meaning of the world.

Depend on myths rather than scriptures and creeds to learn about the spirit powers. The spirits showed, through myth, the skills to sustain life.

Both ritual and myth form a complex act of worship. Strong oral tradition. No written text. Totem System

Kinship

The Nature of the DreamingDot 2: Discuss the diversity (different) of the Dreaming for the Aboriginal people.

Area of commonality:

Aboriginal spirituality is based on a variety of belief. Common to all Aboriginal nations is the belief of an ancestral creative spirit who came out of a darkened world and by the process of his travels created the landscape, significant landforms, the people, animals and plants, watercourses and celestial bodies.

Areas of diversity:

Each nation has its own particular plant/animal which is a totem for that group of Aboriginal people; the spirit of the ancestor is heavily associated with the totem.

Because of this, the people have a kinship with that spirit and are the spiritual ‘owners’ of that are of land. The people are responsible for that area of land and, along with their kinship with the ancestral spirits, their identity is formed.

Each nation, however, has its own particular Dreaming. The Dreaming is brought into the present through totemic descendants, their songs, sacred sites and traditional painting. The Dreaming is manifested (revealed) in many ways but most thoroughly through special ritual actions and ceremonies which differ from nation to nation.

The Dreaming is re=created in the present time and space for as long as the ceremony lasts. Hence there is diversity.

Why diversity?

Different geographical locations. There are approx 5—Aboriginal nation within Australia and, so, Dreaming stories differ greatly. Dreaming stories are largely determined by the geographical features of the location of a particular nation hence desert nations have diverse stories to that of the nations locates in NE Queensland.

Each nation has its own dialect by which they communicated. This means that the language was different amongst the different Aboriginal nations.

As a result there differences in the Dreaming accounts. Some groups, however, that are close to each other geographically share many common elements of their Dreaming.

Dot 3: Recognise the importance of the Dreaming for the life of the Aboriginal people.

The Dreaming is of paramount importance for the life of the Aboriginal people because the Dreaming:

Is the essence of their being and permeates every aspect of Aboriginal life. Provides a spirituality to be lived in their day to day lives, a spirituality whereby their

supernatural deities (ancestor spirits) are active in their activities. Outlines the responsibilities pertaining to Aboriginal Law-

1. Aboriginal Law is based on the belief that everything that exists is connected and part of a living system.

2. For all of life to be preserved, relationships between all living things must be preserved

3. None are superior or inferior4. Aboriginal people live WITH the land based on this understanding. They do not exploit

the land. Determines through the totemic system, the obligations of the Aboriginal people to care

for the Land. Through ceremonies they are placed in direct contact with their Totem Ancestor.

Initiated life and therefore life is sacred and very connected with eternity. Explains death as a necessary part of life and that all participate in this life cycle. Rituals for

the dead ensure the departed spirit returns to the spirit world.

Dot 4: The Inextricable connection of the Dreaming, the land and identity.

Land and Dreaming (past present and future)

For Aboriginals the land is very important It is the physical link to the invisible, eternal, spiritual world (because the spirits dwell in the

subterranean levels of the earth) The Dreaming sets the moral and social bonds and also the unbreakable link between humans,

ancestral beings and the spiritual world The land is a sacred place; The Dreaming occurs on the land The land has a story to tell. Land features are the result of the Dreaming (different groups= different

stories) Aboriginal people follow “songlines”, or the paths of their Ancestors. Because of this, they know the

land well and it is sacred to them. (spiritual activity)

Identity

Aboriginal speaks of the land as part of the identity: ‘I am the land’ They are a part of the living environment, not superior to it. A formal kinship exists between Aboriginal people and their area of land, including non-human

inhabitants. This is because they all came from the same ancestral spirit

The human body is made up of the physical body and some spiritual elements Aboriginal law states that people must show each other respect because they are all bonded in

body, soul and spirit All physical action must take into consideration the spiritual effects The people must conform to the spiritual patterns of their clan For Aboriginals, all aspects of life are celebrated, the bad with the good.

People

People must cooperate with the natural cycle of life so that the land will continue its own life cycle Aboriginal people must care for the land in order to live in it, and only take what they need, not

more.

The dreaming is the central and deepest reality of the Aboriginal world; it is the spiritual dimension of reality which has existed from the beginning and continues to be present in all aspects of life.

Sacred Sites: The Dreaming creation stories are the origin of important landscape features and some of these

places where important events occurs during a Dreaming, are of special significance to Aboriginals. These may be land, rock formations, parts of rivers or seas

Some sacred sites are significant because of their different uses, e.g. burial grounds, ceremonial meeting places (celebration festivals), places of danger, or birthing caves.

Knowledge of sacred sites is limited. Knowledge is rarely available to the wider community unless the sites are threatened with destruction.

Even at such a time, the custodians of that knowledge reveal as little as possible to protect the secret-sacred nature of the site.

As with knowledge, some sites are women’s sacred sites, some are men’s and some are for the whole group.

Sacred sites are used in ceremony and are connected by Dreaming tracks. These are followed in Walkabout. Dreaming Tracks

Australia is covered in Dreaming tracks which establish relationships between one place and another.

These are the trails of the lives and movements of the ancestral spirits. These tracks connect sacred sites and are sometimes known as ‘Songlines’. They are depicted in

sand paintings, paintings, engravings and body painting and re-created in ceremony through traditional song, dance and story.

These tracks contain the spirit children of the ancestral spirits who are yet to be born either as a natural species of animal or plant or as a human. Whichever form they take they are regarded as the incarnations of the totemic ancestor.

Traditional practice requires the following of Dreaming tracks and access to sites in essential to Aboriginal spirituality.

This need for access can put it in conflict with the European system of land tenure although there are some government regulations in place that can assist with access to sacred sites. This is complicated by the fact that such sites are supposed to be known only to the relevant community.Walkabout

Going walkabout used to be seen by whites as no more than idle wandering around the countryside, for the purpose of avoiding work on the stations.

These days it is more widely appreciated as a deliberate pilgrimage along ritual paths which link the Aboriginal Sacred sites. (note: do not use the word pilgrimage)

Going on walkabout is thus a spiritual journey which renews and develops the soul by cultivating higher states f consciousness and higher experience of reality.

Stories of the Dreaming

Stories passed down about the origin of nature and the spirit of the Dreaming will live on and be present in the lives of Aboriginal people.

Ways of expressing the Dreaming include through song, dance, ceremonies, sacred sites and sacred stories.

Symbolism and art

Art is an essential part of Aboriginal life. Different areas produced different forms of art. These were linked by their strong designs and

religious significance. Many from the desert were more abstract while other regions may be more representational. There are many symbol used in Aboriginal art which has a wide variety of forms including; body art,

and painting, carved trees, rock art, bark painting and funerary poles. The artwork was temporary and used in the teaching of others and in the renewal of the Dreaming

depicted. As such the artist is one with the creative spirit. All elements of the Dreaming are found incorporated in traditional Aboriginal art. When a fully initiated elder ‘paints his Dreaming’, what he draws is a stylised map of the geography

of his country, which simultaneously marks out the travels and exploits of his totem ancestor in the time of creation, and also represents a mental model of the traditional way that life is most appropriately lived in the continuous present.

Art provides knowledge of sites, food types, water, behaviour and being and which are to be avoided and those that are safe.

It may provide a form of map by which the landform and its resources can be understood. It often provides essential bush survival skills and knowledge of the lifecycles of plants and animals. It can be used for rituals or to identify the ownership of Dreamings and to strengthen kinship ties. In ritual ceremonies Sacred designs are reproduced as ground sculptures or sand paintings and, in

concert with song and dance, become temporarily filled with the creative power of the Dreaming. The dancers’ bodies are decorated with ritual designs and they effectively become the creative or

ancestral spirit. Some art depicts secret Sacred sites and is available only to the select group allowed this knowledge.

In others these sites are depicted but hidden With the advent of Europeans, Aboriginal people have expanded their Dreaming and the methods by

which they depict them. They incorporate the new into the traditional.

JUDAISMOriginsAbraham and the Covenant

Abrahams name used to be Abram. He is the first patriarch and the founding father of his people. Abram ceased to believe in the many nature spirits of his tribe; instead he came to place all his faith

in El-Shaddai, ‘Oh Mighty God’. Abrahams God told him to leave his country and to take his family to another region where God

would bless Abraham’s tribe and make them a great nation. In obedience to the will of his God, Abraham gathered his people and travelled westward towards

the Mediterranean until he came to the promised land of Canaan (today’s Israel). This event occurred in 1900 BCE.

Abraham duly established his family in the new land, where the locals referred to him and his followers as Ibri and Ibris, which means ‘from across’, because the people had come from across the Euphrates River.

Thos Canaanite terms for the people of Abraham came to be pronounced ‘Hebrew’ and ‘Hebrews’. On that day the Lord made a covenant with Abraham and said “To your descendants I will give this

land, from the river of Egypt to the great river, the Euphrates. (Exodus 15:18).

Later God made the Covenant of Circumcision with Abraham: Thus us my Covenant...the Covenant you are to keep: Every male among you shall be circumcised. You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the sign of this Covenant between you and me. (Genesis 17:1-14).

Abraham left Israel and went to Egypt because of a famine. Abraham’s faith was monotheistic and personal. It involved animal sacrifice and prayer. Abraham was the first of the 3 great Patriarchs of the Hebrew Scriptures. He was the father of Isaac and the grandfather of Jacob. He was thought to have lived about the 18th Century BCE. Abrahams life story is told in genesis 11:27 to 25:18. Abraham began life in Ur in Mesopotamia on the Euphrates River and then moved with his wife

Sarah, his father Terah and his nephew Lot to Harrar. Abraham was a wanderer in Canaan He moved to Egypt during a famine, yet God told him to move back to Canaan where his

descendants would build a great land. Abraham obeyed, but disbelieved God because Sarah had not borne him any children and was past

child bearing age. (Yet, Abraham had a child with his servant girl). Yet, Sarah eventually gives birth to Isaac and when he is a young child, God orders Abraham to

sacrifice him on a mountain. God eventually prevents this from happening by providing a sacrificial ram, just as Abraham appears

to be about to carry it out. It is the ultimate test of Abraham’s fidelity to God. This faith is sealed in Abraham’s flesh in the Covenant of Brit Milah or circumcision. This agreement is undertaken by all Abraham’s clan, his children and grandchildren and ties all

Jewish males to their ancestor and hence to the Jewish nation of Israel.

The twelve tribes of Israel

The 12 Sons of Israel (Jacobs name was changed to Israel) were: Rueben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher and Joseph.

These were the ancestors of the original twelve tribes. However, Rueben lost his rights as firstborn by defiling Jacob’s bed. In Reuben and Joseph’s place, Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, became the tribes of

Israel. Levi is sometimes not mentioned, presumably because the Levites were assigned to serve at the

temple and therefore were not apportioned land of their own in Israel.

Moses, the Exodus and the giving of the TorahThe exodus

The Patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob) saw their descendants (such as Joseph) eventually migrate to Egypt due to the changing politics and famines.

It was in Egypt that the Israelites were enslaved by Pharaoh. Moses was born into slavery yet was adopted as a baby by the Pharaoh’s daughter. When Moses was older he killed an Egyptian who was abusing a slave. Moses fled into the desert

where he married Zipporah.

It was in the desert that Moses has a revelation from God. This encounter was in the form of a burning bush

God commands Moses to return to Pharaoh and persuade him to release the Jewish slave from bondage.

God sends ten plagues to Egypt, the tenth plague involving the killing of the first born males, including the Pharaohs own son. The Israelites would spread this plague by smearing lambs blood over their doorframes so the Angel of Death would Passover the Jewish homes.

After this final plague, Pharaoh released the Israelites but changed his mind soon after. As they fled, he pursued them to a great expanse of water Moses parted the waters to allow the

Israelites through and then, once they were safe, it became a sea again and drowned Pharaoh’s armies.

This was the Exodus (mean: to be led out of slavery- in this context) from Egypt. The free Israelites were now in the wilderness of the Sinai and Moses miraculously provided them

with food and water. The traditions of Abraham and the faith of the people would be transformed in the wilderness by

Moses into a religion based on shared memory and expressed in binding laws. When they were encamped at the base of Mount Sinai, Moses was called to the top of the mountain

by God. God said that if the Israelites kept his law and covenant, they would become the special people.

These laws were given to Moses in the form of the Torah. This was a radical religious shift at the time, as the people moved from their polytheistic beliefs and

nature worship to a monotheistic faith introduced by Moses.

The Torah

According to tradition, Moses received 613 Commandments (Mitzvot) on Mt Sinai and these are recorded in the five books of Moses, or the Torah.

The 613 Commandments are to be observed as part of God’s covenant. The commandments are classified into 2 areas:

a) Laws with obligations between humans and Godb) Laws that would have been decreed even if God had not declared them. (E.g. murder & theft).

There are 365 negative commandment and 248 positive commandments. It is impossible to modern society to keep some of the commandments such as those relating to

witchcraft and temple sacrifice. Jewish tradition sees that Moses received oral and written Torah from God. Oral Torah was first compiled in the Mishnah composed by Judah Ha-Nasi in the second century CE The Mishnah is to supply teachers with a guide to Jewish legal tradition. In subsequent centuries there were further discussions of Jewish law and these discussions were

then written in the:a) Palestinian Talmud- because it was written by a number of rabbis in Palestineb) Babylonian Talmud- written in Babylon.

Both Talmuds include the Mishnah and later rabbinic discussions known as the Gemara.

1. Israel deserts God and starts

worshipping the Canaanite Gods.

lost faith in God & went back to their

own way.

2. they started to suffer defeats- in

war.

3. they find themselves in a

state of collapse.

God sends a leader to solve the

immediate crisis and reminds them of the loyalty they

owe to God.

Their eader dies.

The God that Moses came to know and brought His people

The God the Israelites came to know was a God who:

Revealed His name as Yahweh, which means ‘the Lord’. Also revealed his name as ‘I am’ or ‘I will be who I will be’.

This showed two things:

1) God was unchanging- he was completely reliable.2) He was always alive, active and creative.

Acts and speaks (revealing himself). Defended the oppressed people and was the enemy of he unjust. Is full of compassion and pity, who is not easily angered and who shows great love and faithfulness

for his people.

Covenant

For the Hebrew people covenant covered all human relationships. It was a bond which united people in mutual obligations, whether through a marriage contract, a commercial enterprise or a verbal undertaking.

It was natural, therefore, that a relationship to God was expressed in covenant terms. A covenant was something people were used to- that’s why God decided to ‘reveal’ himself to

people and make an agreement with them by a covenant.

Covenant was based on the initiative of God.

He acted in mercy and with sovereignty (acted with authority, power, like a king). He made an unconditional promise to never judge humanity with another flood. He chose Abraham and his descendant to be channels of his mercy of a fallen/ imperfect world.

(Meaning it wasn’t as perfect as it was when it was first created). He cemented this election by committing himself to the Israelite nation with the words “I will take

you for my people...” (Exodus 6:7). This is why they are called the chosen people, because God chose them.

Time of Judges

The Israelites wandered for forty years in the desert before reaching the Promised Land of Canaan where, for the next 200 years, they were governed by people called ‘judges’. –military leaders and kept the people under control.

Judges in the Tenakh’s account were national heroes who were in most cases, military leaders rather than judges in the legal sense.

A pattern begins to emerge during this lawless time.

Prophets Were men of God who acted as God’s messengers Were voiced of Jewish morality- prophets gave advice on how to live their lives. Were unique in the way they judges and reproached the ruling classes Challenged Jews to be faithful to God Gave warning of the approaching disaster of the exile- sent into exile from Jerusalem to Babylonia. Mercilessly attacked the religion of the day, hammering home the fact that true religion is not just a

matter of ritual and belief but also behaviour.- saying they HAVE to follow God’s commandments.

Modern Judaism

Orthodox Judaism Orthodox Judaism is at the far right of the religious spectrum. They are the most strict and

conservative. Orthodoxy has attempted to preserve the faith of the traditional beliefs and practices of Judaism.

Stick to or adhere to the 613 Mitzvot. When Jews were being assimilated (because they were being exiled) into Europe, Orthodoxy

preserved their faith.

From the late 18th century, Orthodoxy opposed changes to Judaism brought about by the enlightenment and the reformed Jews. Humanity became more civilised and developed.

Orthodoxy is synonymous with Rabbinic Judaism. A Rabbi is a teacher of the Torah (they go to a yeshiva-type of school).

Orthodox Jews accept the Torah as divinely revealed and the rabbinic expansion as biblical law guided God. (Believe the Torah is guidance by God).

The Torah is seen as eternal and unchanging. In the USA, orthodoxy grew when scholar and Hasidic leaders arrived from Europe in the first half of

the 20th Century. Yeshivot (or yeshiva) for advanced Talmudic studies have developed in the USA and there are now 2

groups of orthodoxy; traditionalists and modernists. Hasidism plays a key part in orthodoxy and it was founded by Israel ben Elizier (Baal Shem Tov) in the

late 18th Century. Hasidic Jews would be called ultra-orthodox. Like orthodox Jews, Hasidism adheres to traditional Jewish practices. E.g. Shabbat, sadder, Bat

Mitzvah. Orthodox services are in Hebrew and men and women sit separately in the synagogue- so that there

is not distraction from the other sex. Orthodox families are likely to be kosher and follow the dietary laws. Orthodox Jews have high moral concerns for the world’s well being. Orthodox believers are strict in the way they keep the commandments as they were dedicated to

Moses by God on Mt Sinai.

Conservative Judaism

Conservative Judaism is at the centre of the Jewish religious spectrum Founded by Zacharias Frankel it is a less radical movement which broke from progressive Judaism at

the Petersburg Conference in 1885. (Conservative came out of Progressive). Conservative Judaism is sympathetic to modern western ways while still maintaining traditional

Jewish Law. Some distinguishing features include:

a) Prayers in English, yet most of the service is in Hebrew.b) Use of an organ in the synagoguec) Keeps the authority of the oral law (Mishnah) but reserves the right to reinterpret it.d) Importance of the universal people of Israel, focus on the Promised Land and the continuation

of Jewish traditions.e) Women have been allowed into conservative rabbinical schools (female rabbis).

The majority of Australian Jews, whilst claiming to be orthodox are said to be conservative Jews.

Progressive Judaism

Progressive Judaism is also known as reform or liberal Judaism. It was inspired by the freedom of the enlightenment.

It began in 1810 with the building of the first temple in Germany. The distinguishing features are:

a) Synagogues are known as Temples (break from tradition)b) It rejected beliefs in:

i) A personal Messiahii) Resurrection of the deadiii)Return to the Holy Land. (return to their home land until the messiah comes)iv)Rebuilding the Jerusalem Templev) Reintroducing the Temple sacrifice (animal sacrifice)

c) Religious services are in the local language (not Hebrew)d) Men and women sit together at the religious service (not segregated)e) Less importance of the traditional Jewish lawsf) Belief in the reinterpretation of the Torah in the light of modernity. (believe the Torah needs to

be updated)g) Equality of women in reading the Torah at services (women take part) h) Use of the organ in servicesi) Adapting the Jewish prayer book to reflect modern life.

Progressive Jews believe in continuing revelation (Orthodox don’t believe this) There is the belief that God allows for different applications of the truth of Torah.

Principal beliefs

One God Maimonides drew up 13 articles of faith which are the basic components of Jewish faith. They are:

a) God is creatorb) God is onec) God is incorporeal (God is pure spirit)d) God is eternale) God alone is to be worshippedf) God has spoken through the prophets (Books of the Prophets are in the Tenakh)g) Moses was the greatest prophet (because he led them out)h) T he whole Torah was revealed to Mosesi) The Torah is the unalterable word of God (cannot be changed)j) God knows of and has concern for the deeds of humansk) God rewards those who keeps ad punishes those who do not keep the Mitzvot.l) The Messiah will comem) The dead will be resurrected (on judgement day).

The first five of these articles of faith relate to the nature of God. (What God is like and their belief about God).

God is transcendent (beyond human existence), immanent (dwells within the earth) and the creator. Even though God is spoken of in anthropomorphic terms, God is incorporeal. (God has no gender,

body etc. He is pure in Spirit) God has no form; hence there are no images of God in Judaism. God is morally perfect God is separate yet involved in the world God’s oneness is emphasised in the Jewish prayer, The Shema and the Morning Prayer the Shacharit. Evil exists because of disobedience of God’s commandments The arrival of the Messiah will see the end of all evil and suffering and we will see the creator and all

of creation. (Messiah will not come until the world returns to its perfect state at the time of creation).

According to the Hebrew Scriptures, the universe and all people owe their existence to the one God. The Bible indicates a struggle with polytheism and pagan religions and therefore much of the Torah

sees monotheism becoming the central tenet (rule) of Judaism.

Moral Law

The Torah contains divinely inspired moral law binding Jews to God. There are 613 Mitzvot: 365 negative and 248 positive which cover all aspects of life and worship. Many laws in western society are drawn from these commandments The 613 commandments are a guide about what is right and wrong behaviour Jews make a connection between God, individuals and the community. Laws therefore relate to the

interactions between these. The type (variant) of Judaism a person follows determines the extent to which the Mitzvot are

obeyed. The ultra-orthodox Hasidism are likely to follow a large percentage of the commandments. For many modern Jew, the bulk of the Mitzvot are outdated. Yet in previous centuries they were seen as given by God to Moses and binding for all time. The commandments served as a framework for an authentically Jewish life. In history, Torah was never questioned. In modern life, some Jews feel at liberty to choose which Mitzvot have personal spiritual

significance. Hence, the moral law is no longer providing cohesion for modern Jews. There is a wide gap between the requirements of legal observance and the actual lifestyle of Jews.

The Covenant

The covenant is the agreement between God and the Jewish people.

It was begun with Abraham and cemented with Moses. The agreement was that the Israelites would follow God’s law as expressed in Torah. They would

worship one God and in return would be granted the Promised Land. Hence, all Jews are responsible for each other living a holy life. It is expected that male Jews study and know the Mosaic (the Law of Moses/ Torah) so they can

instruct others in it. The requirements of the Covenant are known as halachah and in return God gives the gift of love to

his people. Jewish law is not solely the domain of ‘priests’ but is knowledge belonging to all.

Sacred Texts and Writings

The Hebrew Scriptures

Jewish beliefs are derived from many writings and teachers. The Tenakh is an acronym to describe the Hebrew Scriptures. It includes: the Torah, Neviim

(prophets writings) and Ketuvim (other writings). The Tenakh traces the history of the Jews through freedom and oppression under many empires and

rulers. It was a way for Jews to give meaning to their heritage and their contemporary world. The Torah consists of 5 books:

a) Genesis- the origin of humanityb) Exodus- escape of the slaves from Egyptc) Leviticus- the laws for living lifed) Numbers- descriptions of Jewish tribese) Deuteronomy- Restates Mosaic Law

The Book of Prophets includes writings from former and latter prophets and includes Joshua and Isaiah.

The sacred writings or Hagiographa includes 11 books with writings such as Psalms and the Book of Job.

The compilation of the Hebrew Scriptures was completed around 100 CE, yet each of the book within are hundreds or thousands of years old.

The themes of all parts of the Scriptures are exile and return, or alienation and reconciliation or loss and recovery.

Every generation has added a layer to the Torah via the Mishnah and the Talmuds. The writings do not have one author. This can be seen in the Torah which contains a collection of

traditions originating at different times in ancient Israel. The Scriptures reflect change and parallels to other religious beliefs in different periods in history.

These beliefs have been modified over time in incorporated into the religious ideas of the writers and their communities. E.g. there are strong parallels to stories and myths from the ancient Near East Jewish biblical stories.

However, to orthodox Jews, investigation of the text is irrelevant. They remain committed to the view that the Torah was imparted by God to Moses on Mt Sinai. Their religion is faith based.

The Jewish Bible is fundamental to the faith in both its historical and contemporary contexts.

The Talmud

Commentary on the Torah is known as the Mishnah and discussions on the Mishnah became the Talmud about the 4th Century CE.

There are two main Talmuds:a) The Palestinian Talmud (4th Century CE)b) The Babylonian Talmud (6th Century CE)

The Talmuds are commentary on the Mishnah or summaries of rabbinic discussions. They include interpretation, discussion, theological exploration, ethics and philosophy.

The Talmuds consist of 2 parts:a) The Mishnah- written in Hebrewb) The Gemara- Written in Aramaic

The subject matter of the Talmuds is also in 2 parts;a) The Halachah: discussions on how to do things.b) The Aggadah: Theology (study of God), ethical teachings, scientific knowledge, legends and

folklore. The Talmuds compare different judgements of Rabbis and further develop the contradictions in the

Mishnah, explaining the reasons for the contradiction’s existence. Literally the Talmud includes layer upon layer of Jewish existence to the original source- the Torah. Talmudic Scholars (someone who studies the Talmud such as the Rabbi) spends a lifetime of study in

Yeshivot (Jewish Academies) studying the texts.

The Talmuds are not canon (means they are not directly from God because Canon means divinely originated) but authentic sources of Jewish law.

The Importance of Jewish Sacred Texts and Writings

Source of beliefs and rituals (laws) - about the One God, common law and principal beliefs. Talks about circumcision and other covenants.

A guide for living (outlines moral life practices) – Ethical guidelines to know what is right and wrong. (Leviticus 26:3-12)

The account of their history, tradition and heritage- history such as famine, draught, slavery, exile, Promised Land. Tradition- Passover, Shabbat. Heritage- wailing Wall= holiest place on earth (remains of the Temple).

God’s revelation to humanity- God revealing himself (the Torah given to Moses). By God revealing himself to the prophets who wrote the Neviim.

Provides interpretation of the Tenakh for the times in which they live (Talmud)- Torah: was to interpret and explain what the Torah is saying.

The Tenakh

The Hebrew Bible is known as the Tenakh. It has 3 main sections1) Torah- teachings2) Neviim- Prophets3) Ketuvim- Writings

The Torah’s 5 books are:

1) Genesis- tells of the creation of the world and the unfolding of the covenant between God and Abraham and his descendants.

2) Exodus- tells of the miraculous way in which Moses led the Israelites out of slavery and received the 10 commandments from God at Mount Sinai. These commandments formed the basis of Jewish religion.

3) Leviticus- prescribes the rules of conduct for an ethical and religious life.4) Numbers- relates the difficult journey of the Israelites in the desert and the people’s

complaints.5) Deuteronomy- repeats the 10 commandments, tells the story of the death of Moses and

describes the final preparation for entering the Promised Land.

It is through constant reference to the Torah that Jews are led to a life of holiness.

Recurring themes in the Tenakh

Revelation (God constantly revealing himself to humanity) Covenant (promise between God and his people) Election (who will be a leader- Moses, judges, kings etc) A wandering people (wandering in the wilderness) Slavery, Exodus, Freedom (out of Egypt) Desert, wilderness v Promised land Kingship of God v Human Kingship (Only God is king) God’s fidelity, peoples infidelity (God was faithful to his people, but the people weren’t faithful to

Him).

Sacred Writings

Oral Torah-

The “oral Torah” is a tradition explaining the written Torah and how to interpret and apply it. Orthodox Jews believe God taught the Oral Torah to Moses, and he taught it to others, down to the

present day. This tradition was maintained in oral for only until about the 2nd century CE when the oral law was

compiled and written down in a document called the Mishnah (which is from God). Commentaries over the next few centuries were written elaborating on the Mishnah and were

known as the Gemara (which is from the Rabbis). The Gemara and the Mishnah together are known as the Talmud. This was completed in the 5th

century CE. The Mishnah is divided into six sections called Sedarim (orders). Each seder contains one or more

divisions called masekhtot (tractates)

Gemara (Talmud)

After the Mishnah was compiled, it was studied by many rabbis throughout the centuries. Eventually, some of these rabbis wrote down their discussions and commentaries on the Mishna’s

law in a series of books known as the Gemara. The Talmuds are made up of the Mishnah and Gemara.

From this, two Talmuds emerged:1) The rabbis of Palestine edited their discussions of the Mishnah about the year 400. Their work

became known as the Palestinian Talmud. In Hebrew it is Talmud Yerushlami (which literally means “Jerusalem Talmud).

2) More than a century later, some of the leading Babylonian rabbis compiled another editing of the discussions on the Mishnah. By then, these deliberations had been going on for some three hundred years. The Babylonian edition was far more extensive than its Palestinian counterpart, so that the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli) became the most authoritative compilation of the Oral Law.

Core Ethical Teachings

The Book of Proverbs

Wisdom literature in the Bible includes the books of Job, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. The Book of Proverbs is ascribed to Solomon and gives advice for good living (wise sayings). Wisdom is considered to be deeper knowledge of the world and humanity, not just intelligence. Proverbs is a collection of short statements giving advice for wise decision making. There are 2 types of people presented in Proverbs: the wise and the foolish. The wise are rewarded with happiness and contentment, while the fools will reap bitter rewards. The wise phrases direct a person to a life of righteous purity and generosity of spirit. For example- Proverbs 11:2, Proverbs 12:15. In the Book of Proverbs there is little mention of God, the focus is on how to live a good life.

Some general ethical principles derived from the practice of the past

Need for justice is to be tempered by a merciful and forgiving attitude. Requires Jews to act with piety that is beyond the minimum standard demand of other people. Jews should act in such a way as to establish shalom, ‘peace and well being’ among all people. All Jewish actions must be pervaded with rahmanut or compassion – a merciful attitude that rules

our cruelty.

The Commandments of the Torah

The 613 Mitzvot of the Torah essentially are able to be categorised as follows:a) Zeaim: Regulations about agriculture.b) Moed: Regulations about festivals and special days.c) Nashim: Laws about marriage and divorce.d) Nezigin: Damages and reparations.e) Kodashim: Sacrificial laws and services in the temple.f) Tohorot: Laws dealing with cleanness and ritual impurity.

The ultimate authority for Jewish ethics is the brew Scriptures and rabbinic literature. (How the Rabbis have interpreted the ethics in the Torah).

Jewish ethical codes serve 2 purposes:a) To reach out to God.b) To reach out to other humans.

Jews believe it is a duty to strive to become perfect and achieve holiness by following the values and ethical and moral teachings found in the sacred texts and writings.

Tikkun Olam

Tikkun Olam is the Jewish principle of commitment to social justice and order. It includes repairing damage done to the world.

Originally part of the Kabbalah (secret teachings) now part of the mystical teachings of Judaism. It involves bringing the world back into order through working with God. Tikkun Olam today takes the form of volunteering for the community. Gemilut Chasidim or doing deeds of loving kindness is seen as a feature of Judaism. It involves an

investment of time and energy. It may include:a) Giving hospitalityb) Visiting the sickc) Feeding the poord) Comforting the grieving

Tzedakah or alms giving is meant to encourage a person to be more self reliant, rather than merely donating a few coins.

Tikkun Olam generally includes:a) Controlling the desire for acquiring material goodsb) Praying c) Responding to contemporary issues and crises. For example poverty.

Describe the importance of ethical teachings

Ethical teachings as presented to people through full body of the Torah are vital importance to the Jewish people. They provide the framework of ethical life which covers all aspects of life – family, social and business – and in the following of these teachings the adherent can expect the reward of God in this life and resurrection when the Messiah comes (if they follow the ethical teachings).

Core ethical teaching- continued

Two basic precepts inform the Jewish ethical system. The first is proper conduct between an individual and God, and the second art is proper conducts

between two or more people. The first precept caters for the religious aspect of one’s life; the second allows for an ethical and just

society. Both of these basic rules derived from the halachah (Jewish Law), which literally means ‘the way’ or

‘the way of life’. For the Jewish person, Judaism provides an ethical and moral framework for life. In Judaism, action always takes precedent over intent.

The commandments of the Torah

The Jewish ethical system is based on the Ten Commandments, also known as the Devarim. These 10 statements form the fundamental code for behaviour given by God to Moses on Mount

Sinai. They are the basis of the Covenant between the believer and God. The code is divisible in two parts.

a) The first dive deal with the proper conduct between the believer and God. They are concerned with the method of worship.

b) The remaining deal with relationships within the Jewish community. These commandments are formulated in a negative way.

The 10 commandments have never lost their value as spiritual and moral guidelines for the Jewish people.

Abortion and other biomedical issues need contemporary answers. These answers are supplied by rabbis and other learned persons in the community.

Since the Rabbis cannot transgress biblical and Talmudic regulations, they must reformulate the old precepts in a way that is meaningful today.

There are 613 mitzvot that provide the framework for living according to the Torah. These mitzvot were established from the Torah in the Talmudic age. The mitzvot accompanied by extensive rabbinical commentaries, cover all aspects of life, from

dietary (such as Kosher) laws to proper prayers for religious festivals. They seek to explain the reasons for the unique features of the Jewish tradition. The halacha applies equally to all Jewish people. These are the building blocks of Jewish life and custom. This ethical behaviour is divinely ordained.

The Prophetic Vision (Writing of the Prophets) and Tikkun Olan The vision of the prophets of the Hebrew Bible has inspired Jews from all ages to fulfil the ethics

inspired by the Covenant, a world governed by righteousness and justice, a Messianic vision to inspire each generation to work towards such a reality.

In today’s society Judaism regards prophets as people who can distinguish between justice and injustice and who have the courage to speak out, even if it mean challenging those in power.

They are people who remember the Covenant with God and who serve as the conscience of a generation.

Such people offer a vision for a better future. They speak on behalf of the weak, the powerless and the oppressed. They shape prophetic Judaism.

They serve as messengers from God. The basis of Jewish ethics represents the inherent fellowship of all Jewish people and embodies the

principle of a community based on care rather than power. The rabbis emphasise the concept of Tzedakah, or ‘hidden charity’. Those who practice Tzedakah

hide their identity so the recipients need not feel ashamed when they meet their benefactors at social or communal functions.

There is one aspect of charity in Judaism that is more important than Tzedakah. This is Gemilut Chasidim, ‘acts of loving kindness’ performed for no return.

In recent times, the phrase Tikkun Olam, meaning ‘repair’ or betterment’ of the world, has come into common usage among side the concept of social justice. It has been used as a platform for the fulfilment of mitzvot and Tzedakah.

Historically ht phrase Tikkun Olam is first found in the Mishnah in discussions of social policy. Later it is found in the 16th- century Jewish mysticism, specifically in Kabbalah, as an abstract concept

when the Rabbi Isaac Luria taught that the world was made up of good and evil. He was referring to his belief that it was humans who caused the separation between that which was holy and that which was material.

In the 1950s Shlomo Bardin taught that Jews were obligated to work towards achieving a perfect world.

Tikkun Olam is the underlying motivation behind social action and volunteer projects that work towards the repair of the world through human action. It is a means of aiding people to take responsibility for their world.

Jewish teaching is quite clear that these acts must not be limited to the Jewish community but spread throughout the wider society according to need.

Observance

Shabbat

There are many Jewish religious festivals and holy days which are filled with spirituality, including Passover.

The Sabbath or Shabbat is the commandment given by God that the 7th day is for rest and worship. One wears their best clothes on Shabbat. One eats of their best dishes and table wear on Shabbat. Orthodox Jews apply the Sabbath commandments very strictly by not:

a) Cooking b) Writing c) Driving d) Turning lights on and offe) Handling money

f) Doing businessg) Other weekday activities.

Orthodox observation of these practices increases the significance of Shabbat for them.

The Shabbat Ritual

Shabbat begins at sunset on Friday and ends at sunset on Saturday evening. The table is set with two candles which represent two commandments (Zachar and Shamor). Bread (challah) is baked in advance for the meal.\ At 18 minutes before sunset the lighting of the 2 candles occurs by the women of the household. She waves here hands over the candles, places her hands over her eyes and prays. The Kabbalat Shabbat (welcoming of the Sabbath) and evening service for the family at the

synagogue begins. The husband then blesses his wife and children by reciting Kiddush (prayer) for them over a cup of

wine. The Challot (special bread) is uncovered, blessed and distributed. The Shabbat meal is then eaten. It is usually Cholet, a form of stew. At the conclusion of the meal, a special prayer is said- the birkatha-ha-mazon. On Saturdays, there is more worship at the synagogue, more meals and visiting of friends and family.

There is also an afternoon synagogue service and the final Shabbat meal. The havdalah or Shabbat prayer is then recited which ends Shabbat. Havadalah is a separation or division, it involves:

a) A blessing over wineb) A blessing over spices (reminding us of the sweetness of Shabbat)c) A blessing over two twisted candles

The Shabbat has ended. It is distinguished from the rest of the week. There is some sadness at it ending and at the loss of the additional soul that entered the body of each person at Shabbat. (Neshamah Yeterah).

Jews then pray to Elijah who will announce the coming of the Messiah. Shabbat is a time when Jews appreciate the gifts they have been given from God.

The Sabbath

For those who observe the Sabbath, it is a precious gift from God. Sabbath is primarily a day of rest and spiritual enrichment. Sabbath involved two interrelated commandments:

1. To remember (Zachar) Sabbath2. To observe (Shamor) Sabbath

Zachar means to remember the significance of Sabbath as a commemoration of creation and also a commemoration of the Jews’ freedom from slavery in Egypt.

Shamor- work is forbidden on the Sabbath. The word ‘Melachah’ refers to work that is creative, or exercises control or dominion over their environment.

Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws

Foods that are Kosher and therefore fit to be eaten, according to Jewish Law. - Animals must have cloven hooves and chew the cud. (Such as a cow, lamb and goat).

- Poultry must not be a bird of prey (can eat chicken and duck).- Fish must have fins (such as fish) and cannot have a shell.

Foods that are Treifa and therefore forbidden to be eaten, according to Jewish Law.- Can’t have camel, pig or horse.- Can’t eat eagle or a hawk.- Can’t eat lobster, crab or prawn.

Koshering of meat means:- It is to be soaked in water for half an hour- Then sprinkled with coarse salt all over- After one hour it is thoroughly rinsed.

The dietary Laws of the Jewish people have been preserved throughout the ages. The daily diet affects the whole being- health as well as character. Every time a Jew eats or drinks he thinks of his loyalty and his allegiance to his faith. When a Jew concludes eating he recites grace which includes prayers of thanksgiving for the food, for Israel, as well as selections of general praise and petition.

Food Preparation: one set of china and utensils set aside for meat (‘fleishig’) and one set of china and utensils set aside for dairy (‘milchig’). Adherent Jews may have 2 kitchens.

Religious Significance

According to Jewish tradition, the three Sabbath meals (Friday night, Saturday lunch and Saturday late afternoon) and two holiday meals (one at night and lunch the following day) each begun with two complete loaves of bread.

This “double loaf” (lechem mishneh) commemorates the manna that fell from the heavens when the Israelites wandered in the desert for forty years after the Exodus from Egypt according to Jewish religious belief.

The manna did not fall on Sabbath or holidays; instead a double portion would fall the day before the holiday or Sabbath.

Each single loaf is woven with six strands. Together, both loaves have 12 which represent the 12 tribes of Israel.

ISLAMOrigins:

Introduction to Islam

Today nearly 1 billion people are Muslims and most live outside the Arab world. The largest Islamic country is Indonesia. Islam emerged in the 7th Century CE and is a monotheistic faith which was preached by its prophet

Muhammad who received its revelation from God. It shares its root with Judaism and Christianity. Islam is a spiritual path and contains law, ethics and theology. It speaks of surrender to God and the peace, health and well-being that submission brings. The foundation of Islamic belief and practice is the Qur’an. It is believed to be the revealed literal

word of God. (Given to Muhammad in a cave). Second to the Qur’an in importance are the sayings and deeds of the prophet Muhammad (Hadith) Islam has a tradition of renewal and reform. Contemporary Muslims must deal with the relevance of

their faith in the modern world. Islam has 2 main aspects of belief:

a) There is no god but Allah.b) Muhammad is the messenger of God.

These aspects of belief should be first heard by a newborn and last heard before death. In Islam, God has no gender. The essential character of God includes that:

a) He is one

b) He is unknowable (never know who he is, God has not completely revealed himself to humanity)

c) He can somewhat be known through revelation The first 5 of the 20 attributes necessary to God are:

a) Existence (believe he exists)b) God was not createdc) God exists in perpetuity (always been and will be forever)d) The otherness of God to all things createde) God is elf subsistent (doesn’t depend on anyone else)

God can be addressed by 99 most beautiful names which are found in the Qur’an. They are often counted on a rosary of 3 sets of 33 beads. Hence, those names are frequently meditated upon by believers.

Pre-Islamic Arabia as the cultural and historical context for the development of Islam.

Social Conditions

The Arab peninsula in the 7th century CE was largely desert with oasis (in the desert with underground water) towns.

The social organisation was tribal and most Arabs were nomadic (wandered around). A tribe consisted of many families and was led by a shaykh (chief) who was elected by agreement of

the heads of leading clans. Mecca was a prominent trade centre and Bedouins (name given to nomadic tribes) locked there. The society placed great emphasis on the protection and preservation of the family and tribe. There was a focus on the here and now, not the afterlife. Also, on the Arabian peninsula there were 3 other established religions:

a) Judaism in Palestine (was the main religion in that area)b) Christianity in the Roman Empirec) Zoroastrianism in the Persian Empire (believe in peace, good actions and deeds)

All these faiths were monotheistic ad politically aligned so that they eventually became state religions.

At the time of the birth of Muhammad, Mecca had become a large commercial centre with socio-economic divisions (dividing the wealth and poor).

There were increases in drunkenness and gambling as well as considerable wealth from trade. This brought stresses to Arab tribal values.

Religious conditions

Society was polytheistic and the Gods and Goddesses protected the tribes. Although Allah was the highest God.

The spirits of the gods were associated with sacred objects, often found in nature Mecca had the central shrine to the gods and the Ka’ba housed 360 idols of the Quraysh tribe’s

patron Gods and was a site of an annual pilgrimage.

The Prophet Muhammad

Muhammad was born into the Quraysh tribe circa 570 CE. The Quraysh tribe was responsible for the upkeep of the ancient shrine in Mecca. He was orphaned at an early age. His father Abdullah dies 6 months before he was born. After his birth he was sent to wet nurses (give milk to other children (in the hills outside the city). His mother Amira dies before he was 6. His guardian grandfather died when he was 8. He was then cared for by his uncle Abu Talib, the leader of the Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. Muhammad became familiar with the caravan trade and the business of being a merchant. As a merchant, he met and married Khadijah, a widowed entrepreneur. She was 40 and he was 25. Together they had 2 or 3 sons and 4 daughters. All the sons died in childhood and only Fatima

survived Muhammad. There is dispute as to whether these children where Khadija’s from a previous marriage.

Fatima gave Muhammad 2 grandsons: Hasam and Husayn. Muhammad had more wives after the death of Khadijah and there is much dispute as to the

circumstances of these marriages. The dispute concern the age of his wives and whether the marriage were political or charitable (did he marry for the right reasons?)

Muhammad is said to have become disturbed by the changes to Makkan society. (Thought it was becoming too immoral because people were focusing on money, gambling etc.)

Muhammad decided to meditate upon these changes on Mt. Hira (important place for Muslims because it is the beginning of the revelation). It was there that Muhammad’s first revelation occurred when he was 40 years old. He was visited by the angel Gabriel.

The first to believe his revelations were Khadijah, his cousin Ali and older man Abu Bakr. The angel Gabriel put “words on his lips for proclamation” and hence the Qur’an or recitation is first

preached. Muhammad continued to receive divine revelation over the next 22 years and these messages

became the Qur’an. There are 4 themes to Muhammad’s teachings:

a) The coming of judgement dayb) The unity of Godc) Denouncing dishonest practices of merchantsd) Denouncing the abandonment of widows and orphans.

Muhammad’s messages were controversial due to:a) His attacks on polytheismb) His attacks on the mercenary attitudes that existed in the Makkan society.c) His support of the poor which meant that the rich had to pay more tax.

Muhammad was a threat to the rulers of Makka who relied on the pilgrimage to the Ka’ba. Muhammad’s challenge to the traditional Makkan religion disturbed the status quo.

In 619 CE Muhammad’s wife and uncle died. It was known as aamul hazn (the year of sorrow).

In 620 CE Muhammad was invited to Yathrib (Madina) to serve as a mediator in a tribal dispute. This migration was known as the Hijra.

It was on the journey to Madina, known as the “Night Journey” that the angel Gabriel took Muhammad through the air to Jerusalem to the site now known as the “Dome of the Rock”. From there Muhammad was taken to heaven past all the prophets who preceded him to the presence of God.

It was a widely recorded tradition that at this time Muhammad was taught the ritual of the 5 daily prayers.

These events are commemorated every year at the festival of Isra (the night journey) and Mi’raj (the ascension).

The al Aqsa mosque on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem was built in 691 CE. Muhammad moved to Madina n 622 CE and this was the beginning of true Islam. Muhammad developed from preacher to political leader. Hence, Madina became a theocracy

(placed ruled by God) with Allah as its ruler and Muhammad as the interpreter of God’s will. Muhammad outlawed:

a) Idol worshipb) Sexual immorality c) Drunkennessd) Gamblinge) Disadvantageous marriage and inheritance laws.

In 624 CE at the Battle of Badr, Muhammad engaged in a blockade of caravans (camels and people who travel together) from Makka. Here a small band of Muslims defeated a large army.

There were 3 more successful battles fought by Muhammad. Eventually Muhammad turned both Makka and Madina into cities of God. (Made them holy cities

and this is why Mecca was chosen the centre for Muslims). Muhammad’s followers saw this as evidence that angels were fighting on the side of Muslims. Eventually Muhammad turned both cities Madina and Mecca into cities of God. Muhammad died after a short illness in 632 CE. Muslims believe Mohammad is a model for Muslim life. The practices of Muhammad became the guiding source of Islamic law (Sunna) Mohammad was a:

a) Prophet of Godb) Religious leaderc) Political leaderd) Rulere) Military commanderf) Chief judgeg) Law giver.

Hadiths (traditions) were passed on in oral and written form. The Hadiths give guidance on:a) Personal worship (pray 5 times a day, festivals, fast to reflect on their spiritual side not their

physical- it is a reminder)b) Dress (wear white garments at the Hajj)c) Eating (Halal meat)d) Marriagee) Treatment of wives

The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs

Abu Bakr Muhammad's

successor. Unified the

tribes. Initiated the written

Qur'an.

Umar ibn al-Knattab

Extended Muslim rule to

Syria, Egypt, Persia and Armenia.

Uthman ibn AffanThe Qur'an is put

in final form. Considered weak. Murdered rebels.

Ali ibn Abi TalibMuhammad's

cousins. Moved the capital to Kufa

in Iraq. Assasinated. Considered a

martyr.

f) Diplomacyg) Warfare

Hadiths were implemented by Muhammad from God and are guidelines for Muslims.

The Four Rightly guided Caliphs

Caliphs- took over leadership after Muhammad died. Abu Bakr was the initial successor. Muhammad’s death meant a successor had to be found to keep the Islamic faith alive. Successors to Muhammad were called caliphs and were religious and political leaders of the Muslim

world. The question as to who had the right to caliphate caused division and loss of life. Abu Bakr was elected as Muhammad’s successor, followed by Umar, thirdly Uthman from the noble

family Umayya and lastly was Muhammad’s cousin Ali. Yet, the Umayya family claimed succession instead of Ali and their armies met in battle. Ali was

assassinated. After Ali’s death the caliphate passed to Mu’awiya who founded the Ummayad Sunni dynasty of

caliphs. Shi’a Muslims consider Ali to be the first Imam (religious leader) of Islam.

Sunni and Shi’a

Islam is essentially divided into 2 key group- Sunni and Shi’a.

The reason for the division dates back to the question of rightful succession to the caliphate. (Who would have been rightfully successor).

Sunni’s see that no one could succeed Muhammad as prophet and the Qur’an is final and perfect form of God’s revelation. Therefore, the Caliph was a guardian of the faith.

Sunni’s saw the first 4 rightly Guided Caliphs were chosen via consensus because they had led an outstanding Muslim life.

Hence, Sunni’s see that the head of the Muslim community should be the best qualified Muslim. Sunni’s developed Shari’a Law which is based on the application of the Qur’an. The Shi’a’s are followers of Ali and they believe it is the caliph’s role to continue Muhammad’s

revelation. Therefore, Shi’a’s see that all caliphs should be blood relatives of Muhammad. Shi’a’s held that Ali was the first Imam and all that come after him form a chain of succession of

Imams. Ali (who was murdered) and his son Husayn (the second imam) are considered to be the greatest

martyrs in Islamic history. Husayn was assassinated when he attempted to reclaim the caliphate. Husayn is considered by Shiites to be a symbol of redemptive suffering and the epitome of

martyrdom. The most senior imams today are found in Iran and they are known as ayatollahs (most senior of the

leaders). Even though there is a difference between Sunni’s and Shi’a’s, Islam is essentially a faith with a

united belief system. (Same 6 articles of faith and 5 pillars etc.) It is in the expression of the beliefs where the difference lies. (It is not the beliefs; it’s the way

they’re expressed).

Area Sunni ShiiteFamily of the Prophet Reverence for Muhammad’s

family. No special status given to

Muhammad’s family. Political authority not given

by the line of succession.

Special reverence given to Muhammad’s family.

Political and spiritual authority given to Muhammad’s family.

The Qur’an The Qur’an is the final and complete revelation of God

The hidden Imam keeps continuality revealing the Qur’an.

Ali and Husayn Recognition of the greatness of Ali.

No special status is given to either person.

No role of redemptive suffering.

Focuses on Ali as the call to redemptive suffering in the martyrdom of his son, Husayn.

Government Belief in a variety of forms of government as long as Muslims rule Muslims.

State religions (theocracies) must exist. – Shari’a law. Law of Islam= law of land.

Principal Beliefs:

The articles of faith explained in the Aqida.

Tawhid

The first article of faith of Islam is that Allah is the one God (Tawhid). This belief is uttered daily in the Shahada “there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet”.

(They say it before entering a mosque) Allah is the only God to be worshipped The first duty of a Muslim is to declare faith in Allah (main thing a Muslim can do is believe in Allah). The worshipping of idols is forbidden as this would be attributing god-like characteristics to

something unworthy. This is the most severe sin. E.g. if they worship money, fame etc. Muslims believe the only sin not to be forgiven by God is deliberate polytheism. Allah:

a) Is unchangingb) Will pass sentence at judgement dayc) Is eternald) Has 99 beautiful namese) Is omnipotent (all powerful)f) Declared that worshipping idols is bannedg) Has a oneness that is a unifying forceh) Is compassionatei) Is mercifulj) Is given a historical location at Mecca (Mecca is the holiest place on earth).k) Was not createdl) Is supremem) Is the sustainer of the universe.

Angles

A belief in angels (Malai’ka) is central to the Islamic faith. In Islam there is a belief that the Qur’an was dictated to Muhammad by the Angel Gabriel. The angels are said to be created from light and are obedient spirits to God. There are said to be 4 great angels:

a) Jibrael (Gabriel): A messenger or bringer of revelationb) Mika’il (Michael): A bringer of revelation.c) Israfil: A summoner of resurrection.d) Izra’il (Azreal): The angel of death; responsible for the separation of body and soul.

Muslims also believe that each person has 2 guardian angels who record their good and bad deeds. Angels are acknowledged during daily prayer. (Salat).

The Books of Allah The Qur’an is a focal point of the Islamic faith. Muslims see that it is the word of God revealed to Muhammad through the Angle Gabriel over a 22

year period. The Qur’an contains:

a) Teachings

b) Stories of prophets (the Qur’an names 25 prophets yet tradition holds there to be 124,000).c) Consequences of good and bad behaviour.d) Details of the afterlife.e) 114 chapters or suras.

The Qur’an is recited and chanted during prayers. It is considered to be the finest work of classic Arabic writing. Muslims also see that there are 2 incomplete revelations of God’s will:

a) The Torahb) The Psalmsc) The Gospels

Furthermore, Muslims see that the revelations of these book have been distorted over time.

Rusul

Muslims believe that Islam is the oldest religion because it has existed since the beginning of time. The Qur’an states that God revealed himself to 25 prophets who became God’s messengers. 6 of these prophets are considered the greatest of all as they received special revelations. The 6 great prophets are:

a) Adam b) Noahc) Abrahamd) Mosese) Jesusf) Muhammad

If the prophets deliver a holy book they are known as Rusul. For Muslims, Muhammad is the last great prophet who brought Allah’s revelation to the people. This was ultimately preserved in the Qur’an. Yet, Muslims see that the Hebrew and Christian scriptures are also holy books.

Akhira

Muslims believe in the afterlife and the Qur’an warns people about it. Our life on earth is preparation for the afterlife. On the day of reckoning (Youm al-Qiyama):

a) Izrail will sound the trumpetb) All people will be raised from the dead.c) The books of the recording angels will be opened.d) Allah will weigh up a person’s good and evil deedse) The good will go to heaven and the evil will go to hell.

In Islam, God is described as compassionate and merciful, not vengeful. Muslims see that only those who believe in the revelation of the prophet will go to heaven. Death begins a person’s eternal life; hence Islamic funerals are very significant.

Predestination/ Fate

Muslims believe that nothing happens unless it is the will of God. Hence, they see that everything is fated. (Al- Qadr).

Heaven-

Allah is here

The Present World- This world will eventually end.

Hell- A place of suffering. The final resting place for thoe who are evil

Islamic scholars identify the mystery of faith as:a) Humans are predestined to enter heaven or hell (divine control) yetb) Humans are also responsible because of free will for the choices they make.

With free will comes accountability to Allah. Humans must choose the “good” option. However, if they choose the “evil” option, Allah will be just

by imposing an appropriate punishment.

Islam’s view of the Universe:

Sacred Texts and Writings:

The Qur’an is central to Islam. It is the final revelation of God to Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel.

The Qur’an should be the first and the last words a person hears. It is considered unalterable and literal (no interpretation needed, everything is taken literally). It has 114 chapters or suras, divided into 6000 verses or ayat. The Qur’an is treated with the greatest respect:

a) Hands are washed before reading it (Surat al Waqi’a)b) It is wrapped in a special clothc) No other books are shelved higher than itd) It is chanted in personal prayere) Most Muslims known a chapter by heart, some memorise the whole book.

The Qur’an is also the source of:a) Islamic doctrines and ethics b) Islamic lawc) The intellectual aspects of Islam

Muhammad did not write the Qur’an but received it and employed scribes to write it. It is likely that Muhammad was illiterate. Professional memorises were used in Arabian society for the scribing of the Qur’an. The collection of sura were pieced together by the first and third caliphs. The final Qur’an is arranged

in order of decreasing length. The longest sura is Al- Baquarah which has 286 verses and the shortest is Alkawther which has 3

verses. There are on variations of the Qur’an text as there are with the Bible. It is written in Arabic and Muslims believe that the recitations should only occur in Arabic. The Qur’an is important for an adherent Muslim because the Qur’an contains:

a) Rules for livingb) Stories of the Prophetsc) Passages on the meaning of lifed) Details on fastinge) The ritual of the Hajjf) Criminal lawg) Social and economic policy

The Importance of Hadiths

A Hadith is a narration on the life of the prophet. This is distinguished from the sunna which is the details of the actual life of Muhammad.

Hadith include the sayings of the prophet The Hadith are secondary to the Qur’an in terms of their religious importance (because its writings

that back up on the Qur’an) There are two kinds of Hadith:

a) Sacred Hadith: Words of God uttered by Muhammad yet not part of the Qur’anb) Noble Hadith: Details of the actions and words of the prophet.

There are 6 key collections of Hadith known collectively as the “accurate six”. The most authoritative are:

a) Shahih Muslimb) Shahih al- Bukhari: Both written in the 9th century.

The sayings of the Hadith make an authoritative guide to the sunna of Muhammad and the life that Muslims should seek to imitate.

Core Ethical teachings

Islamic Jurisprudence

Surrendering to the will of Allah is the key Islamic value. Islam translated means submissiveness (devoted to what Allah wants) to Allah. There are 4 ethical sources for Islamic values:

a) The Qur’an- a recitationb) Sunna- the life of Muhammadc) Ijma- the consensus view of Muslim scholarsd) Qiya- analogies drawn from the Qur’an (adaptations and applications- how to apply what is

found in the Qur’an to an everyday Muslim life). Together these 4 values form the guiding principles of Islam. For example: the Qur’an instructs on ethical behaviour, yet the sunna specifies how to behave, the

Ijma will seek the opinion on others regarding the behaviour and Qiyas make legal rulings on behaviour using reasoning and analogy.

A Muslim must “try one’s hardest” (Jihad) to establish good. Jihad is the use of personal energy to sustain a Muslim way of life. It is a struggle. Shari’a law or “path to the waterhole” regulates Muslim life on issued including:

a) Moralityb) Hygienec) Etiquetted) Inheritancee) Commerce (business, have to be honest in business)

All Muslims actions are either halal (allowed) or haram (forbidden). There are 3 sever offences that can be committed by a Muslim:

a) Kufr: disbelief or ingratitude to Allahb) Shirk: Associating anything else with Allah such as icons or ideasc) Tughyan: Not trusting in Allah and acting in a contrary way to nature.

Expression of Faith

The five Pillars of Islam

Pillar ExplanationShahada A declaration of faith- “there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the

messenger of God”. A Muslim must say this creed with conviction, aloud, at least once in their lifetime.

Salat The performance of 5 daily ritual prayers facing Mecca.

The five prayer time include: dawn prayer, midday prayer, mid afternoon prayer, sunset prayer and night prayer.

Prayer time is not determined by checking the clock but by the position of the sun. Ritual purity (wudu- means washing) must occur before praying. This includes

washing: hands and arms to the elbows, mouth and nose and the feet to the ankles.

There are also requirements regarding the positions of prayer, intentions to pray, dress and the direction faced.

Prayer times around the world indicate the community of believers or umma (in-solidarity).

Zakat Almsgiving (charity) In Islam, all wealth belongs to God, humans are merely the custodians of it. Zakat is a compulsory contribution of 1-40 of one’s surplus or unused wealth to

the needy. It is an act of obedience Allah Zakat shows that all are equal before Allah Voluntary contributions are also encouraged.

Sawn Fasting occurs in the 9th month of the Muslim year (Ramadan) It is an Islamic devotional exercise. Sawm involves abstaining from food, drink, smoking and sex during daylight hours. There should be an increased focus on prayer and meditation. The prime motivation behind the fast is obedience to the divine command in the

Qur’an. (The idea of fasting is to remind them of Allah, the Qur’an and their beliefs).

B y fasting, Muslims seek to share in the suffering of the poor and seek reconciliation and forgiveness.

Ramadan is a time of forgiveness, patience, kindness and concern for others.Hajj The Hajj is a pilgrimage to Mecca which all Muslims are expected to make at least

once in their lives. (If they are financially capable). It is performed in the 12th month of the Islamic calendar. All pilgrims bathe, have a haircut and dress in white. They are all equal in one united umma. At Mecca they perform a number of rites recalling the life of the prophet. The climax of the pilgrimage is Id al –adha or Great Festival, the Festival of

Sacrifice. T this festival many animals are slaughtered and the meat is given to the poor (on the pilgrimage).

Christianity

Glossary:

Word DefineAnnunciation The announcement made by the angel Gabriel to

Mary that God had chosen her to be the mother of Jesus.

Passion The suffering of Jesus during the last two days of his life.

Crucifixion A form of punishment whereby the person was stripped then nailed or roped to a T shaped cross left to die of exposure, hunger, thirst and suffocation.

Resurrection To come back to life. Jesus died and rose from the dead and so won victory over evil and death.

Ascension The day when Jesus left his disciples and went to his father in heaven.

The historical and cultural context of the origins of Christianity.

Christianity grew out of Judaism in the first century CE. Initially there were “Jewish Christians” who were a sect of Judaism and over time this movement became Christianity as we know it today.

Jesus lived in Palestine between 6 BCE and 30 CE (approx) During this time, Palestine displayed the following characteristics:

a) It was occupied by foreigners; the Romans. Caesar Augustus was the Emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth and Tiberius was the Emperor at the time of his death.

b) Rome allowed the practicing of Judaism and Palestine had a Jewish context. The Jews claimed that they were in “The Promised Land” due to their covenant with God.

c) Jews suffered deprivation and hardship under Roman rule.d) One of the burdens on the Jews was the harsh Roman taxes.e) Palestine has previously suffered oppression by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Russians and

Greek.f) There was no central Jewish authority, yet there were many different Jewish sects (e.g.

Pharisees and Sadducees).g) The Temple was the central place of worship for the Jews.h) Palestine was very multicultural. Jews lived side by side with Greeks, Aramaeans, Canaanites,

Phoenicians and Samaritans (a particularly despised group).i) The predominant occupation was farming.j) Many occupations were craft based such as tent makers, potters and goldsmiths. The skills

were usually passed on from parent to child.k) Women worked at home grinding corn and making clothes.l) Children were considered a blessing from God.

Group of People

Description

High Priest The high priest was the most important Jewish clergymen. He was the only person to enter the Holy of Holies in the Temple. Traditionally, the office of High Priest was handed down from generation to generation, but under Roman rule, the Roman governor could replace the High Priest at any time. The High Priest has to keep the Roman governor happy and keep the peace.

Sadducees The Sadducees were mainly from wealthy, priestly families. The high priest came from this group and they were the dominant group in Sanhedrin. They believed that it was a good idea

to co-operate with the Romans and taught this to the people. They wanted to maintain peace. Sadducees only followed the Torah (first five books of the Hebrew Scriptures.

Pharisees The Pharisees were a group of men who separated themselves from foreigners and politics. They followed the Law of Moses very strictly and added to these laws from the oral traditions around them. Their way of life was very difficult and made other Jewish people feel guilty.

Scribes Scribes studied the Law of Moses for forty years before taking up their position. They were well respected and had disciples whom they trained in the Law of Moses. Some of them were also Pharisees.

Essenes The essences withdrew from daily life in Jerusalem and lived by themselves in the mountains surrounding Jerusalem. They observed the Law of Moses, but did not acknowledge the Temple, as they believed the leaders were corrupt. The Essenes wrote commentary on the scriptures and are most famous for the writing of the Dead Sea Scrolls. They lived at Qumran, near the Dead Sea.

Zealots The Zealots hated the Romans and believed it was their job to overthrow them. They though if they started a revolution, God would help them. They were armed men who were willing to give their own lives to remove Roman rule.

Gentiles Palestine was an important trading city. Anyone who was not Jewish was referred to as Gentiles.

Samaritans When the kingdom of Israel split in two, the Northern Kingdom of Israel was taken over by the Assyrian army. As time passed the Jewish people of the area married the Assyrians and became known as the Samaritans. The Samaritans had their own form of Judaism that they followed. The Jewish people did not like the Samaritans and avoided them whenever possible.

Tax Collectors These people collected Roman taxes, which made them very unpopular. Most of them were dishonest and corrupt.

Lepers Any skin disease made a person unclean. They then had to stay away from the community and shut that they were unclean t make sure people stayed away. The priest would then declare them clean again when they had been cured and performed a purification ceremony.

Women Stayed at home almost all the time. They were rarely taught to read and write and were seen as second class citizens. They had no part in Jewish worship but were allowed to sit behind a screen or on a balcony in a separate part of the synagogue. They did not have to keep all of the Jewish laws as they were believed to be too weak to do so. They had to cover their head in public and were not to talk to males or walk with them. (They even had to walk behind their husbands.)

The time of Jesus

Political point of view.

Struggling empires waged war until one military dictatorship – the Roman Empire – gained control over the lands that border the Mediterranean Sea.

Economic point of view.

Vast system of business and finance dominated by international trade, enforced system of taxation and large bodies of slave labour (by the Romans taking from the Palestine’s).

Sociological point of view

A pluralistic assortment of ethnic peoples, high government officials, merchants, small business people, slaves and minorities. This world has its literature, sculpture, philosophy, art and architecture from the civilisations of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Rome, Greece and Canaan (the area settled by the ancient Hebrews).

This world gave rise to a diverse and exotic religious life.

Jesus: Principal Life Events:

Jesus’ life is reported in the Gospels yet the writers of these had a Christian bias, they were not historians. Hence, they are not to be taken literally as historical narrative.

Other historians, Josephus, Pliny and Eusebius have also made references to Jesus in their works. Jesus’ birth occurred circa 6 BCE, as determined by the Gospels of Matthew and Luke which contain

the birth narratives. His birth is reported to have been in Bethlehem. However, many scholars believe He was born in

Nazareth. Herod the Great was the Roman ruler at the time and Caesar Augustus was the Emperor. Jesus’ mother was Mary and his legal father was Joseph. Jesus was circumcised 8 days after his birth. The family then returned to Nazareth. He grew up in a largely agricultural community and poke Aramaic. Every year the family returned to Jerusalem for Passover. (Go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem for

Passover.) At age 12 Jesus has a Bar Mitzvah. Jesus was an artisan (craftsperson- carpenter). Jesus is baptised by John the Baptist at around the age of 30. Jesus has a ministry involving him wandering around the countryside. His ministry lasted for 3 years. He eventually ends up in Jerusalem. He is arrested and brought before Pontius Pilate, the Emperor’s Prosecutor in Jerusalem and he

imposes a death sentence. Jesus is executed via crucifixion at age 33.

Jesus the model for Christian Life

Jesus’ ways were authentically Jewish. He addressed Jews and his ideas, language and imagery were Jewish.

Jesus used parables as a form of storytelling. He challenged those who followed religious authority in a blind, literal and uncompassionate way.

Jesus focused on the notion that all are welcome in the Kingdom of God. His “words” and deeds were reported in the Gospels and the letters of Paul. These writings act as a

framework for how Christians should behave and believe.

The events in Jesus’ life, his birth, life and death have formed the basis of the Christian calendar. The Gospels were written in Greek between 70 CE and 100 CE, long after Jesus had died. Jesus is the “Christos”, the anointed one, the chosen one to be the Messiah and hence the saviour of

the world. Jesus demonstrates the forgiveness of God and the possible relationship with God after death. The Gospels each show Jesus through a different perspective:

a) Mark- Jesus is a suffering Messiah.b) Matthew- Jesus fulfils the Hebrew Scriptures.c) Luke- Jesus is a prophet and the saviour of the oppressed.d) John- High Christology: Jesus is God incarnate.

Development of the Early Christian Communities

After Jesus’ death the Apostles and other converts recounted his life to others and hence the beliefs and practices of Jesus spread.

The 12 Apostles (probably chosen in reflection of the 12 tribes of Israel) were led by Simon. Peter eventually travelled to Antioch, Ephesus and Rome. James was the Christian leader in Jerusalem until his execution in 62 CE. Saul of Tarsus (St. Paul) was a Roman citizen and prosecutor of Christians converted to Christianity

after a vision of Jesus. Saul changed his name to Paul and became a missionary and converted Jews and gentiles through

his journeys into Turkey and Greece. Paul’s founding of the Christian communities ad letter writing were the cornerstones for the

establishment of Christianity. It is the letters of Pau and Acts of the Apostles (written by Luke) which allows us to follow the

development of Christianity after Jesus’ death. Many people found the message of Jesus to be appealing and by 150 CE many Christian communities

existed in the Roman Empire (mainly due to St. Paul). Unity within the communities was needed and the following were formed:

a) Presbyteori (Elders): Appointed as an authority.b) Diakonos (Servants): Caring for the sick.c) Episkopos (Overseer): Community leader, Baptiser and distribution of the Eucharist.

A Canon of text was needed in addition to the Hebrew Scriptures. All Gospels were written between 60-100 CE, yet there were many other writings too which were either included or excluded from the Canon. It was formalised by Augustine’s Council in 419 CE.

Christian Variants

Anglicanism

Developed as a variation to Catholicism during the reign of Henry VIII in the 16 th Century. Theology and politics were behind the separation from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope. It was influenced by the theology of Martin Luther. Anglicanism does not have the Pope as central authority. The focus is on Biblical authority with a special place for the Archbishop of Canterbury. Anglicans are often divided into:

a) Low Anglican: that includes a variety of Protestant faiths.b) High Anglicans this group is most closely affiliated with the Catholic Church and is hence known

as “Anglo-Catholic”. Anglicans allow a greater role for women in the priesthood, although this is not universally accepted

through all denominations.

Catholicism

In Catholicism worship is sacramental. Teachings are drawn from scriptures and religious tradition. It is hierarchical and structures and under the authority of the Pope. Catholicism is divided into 8 catholic Rites:

a) Armenianb) Chaldean c) Byzantined) Coptice) Maronitef) Romang) West Syrianh) Ethiopian

The Eucharist is the focus of worship and Catholics believe that transubstantiation occurs to make Jesus Physically present in the bread and wine (body and blood).

Catholics believe that faith and goods deeds are necessary for salvation. There is an increased focus on Mary. There is an increased focus on Saints. Catholic belief includes 7 sacramental areas:

a) Baptismb) Eucharistc) Reconciliationd) Confirmatione) Marriagef) Holy Ordersg) Anointing of the Sick.

There is a strong belief in Heaven and Hell. Catholicism has a Latin tradition of the liturgy. There is a strong tradition of monasticism in the priesthood and covenants. There has been a special rule of Catholics in the history of society through education and social

reforms. Women are not able to be ordained as priests. Priests must be male and:

a) Unmarried (if Roman Rite)b) May be married (if a non-Roman Rite).

Orthodoxy

The heart of Orthodoxy is Divine Liturgy, the celebration of the Eucharist.

In Orthodoxy there is a heavy use of icons and other symbolism. The liturgical celebration is often very long. There is a predominant use of incense. The liturgy is often wholly sung. Parts of the celebration are hidden from the view of the congregation. Greek is the language of Orthodoxy. There is a profound view of sacramentation. Orthodoxy places emphasis on monasticism. Orthodoxy did not develop monastic or religious orders for a specific purpose. E.g. education. Only men may become priests, yet they can be married. Orthodox Churches developed after the East-West Schism in the Roman Empire in the 4 th Century. The Schism was the result of the disagreement about the theology of the Holy Trinity, the doctrine

of which was stipulated by the Pope. The East believed matters of doctrine should be determined by religious councils not one individual.

The East tended the use Greek as the primary language whereas the West use Latin.

Pentecostalism

Pentecostalism originates in the USA in the Methodist movement of the 19 th Century. They are Christian Charismatic Churches and they seek to restore the Holy Spirit to the Church. Emphasis is on the corporate element of worship i.e. a group response. There is great spontaneity in the celebration which is demonstrated by the followers. “Baptism of the Holy Spirit” occurs when a baptised person received the gift of tongues.

(Glossolalia). Pentecostalists value healing, prophesy and prophetic interpretation.

Protestantism

Protestantism evolved out of the reformation period. The 2 main contributors to the Reformation were:

a) Martin Lutherb) John Calvin

Martin Luther especially denounced the corruptions which existed in the Catholic Church (especially selling the indulgences) and the supremacy of the Pope.

The Bible became the source of authority for each denomination of Protestantism. E.g. Lutherans, Calvinists, Methodists, Presbyterians and Baptists.

These denominations developed unique Christian traditions out of the theology of their founders.

Protestants believe in the transcendence of God. It is less liturgical and sacramental than Catholicism. Protestantism places more emphasis on preaching the word of Jesus. Protestantism allows an increased role for women leaders than Catholicism.

Principal Beliefs

The Divinity and Humanity of Jesus.

The nature of Jesus:

a) Son of Godb) The Christos: The anointed onec) Part of the Trinityd) Truly Humane) The oneness of God (God is pure spirit)f) Born of a virging) The Logosh) Raised from the dead by Godi) Truly Divinej) The Trinity is a mystery to humanity.

Beliefs about the divinity and humanity of Jesus:

Jesus was both fully human and fully divine. Jesus was the son of God (and God) and a human being. All humans are created in the image of God. The incarnation (God made flesh) of Jesus as a human is an act of love from God for

humanity- the word made flesh. Jesus was born to a human woman and died as a human man. Jesus is part of the trinity or tri-unity. The 3 “persons” in the trinity are eternal. Jesus is God and therefore has the power to defeat evil and because he is human, he is the

archetype for human behaviour. Jesus’ humanity shows the interrelatedness between God and humans. His incarnation

involved cooperation and salvation occurs through that cooperation. Sin obstructs cooperation and therefore prevents salvation.

Jesus is true revelation. He is the revealed Lord.

The Death and Resurrection of Jesus Christ

Historians such as Josephus wrote that Jesus was executed via crucifixion. This death penalty was typically used by the Romans for the crimes of insurrection and sedition. After interrogation by Pontius Pilate (the Roman Prosecutor) Jesus was sent to Golgotha (the Hill of

Skulls) and executed alongside two other criminals. Both Jews and Romans had reasons for wanting him dead.

For Christians the suffering experienced in Jesus’ life is overcome by resurrection and reunion with God.

Christians see that each believer will one day also be reunited with God in the same way. The implication is: the human persons will be transformed beyond death.

The resurrection is not a historical event but a faith based event. There remains much theological discussion about it.

The essence of the resurrection is that Jesus conquered death and rose bodily from the grave and returned to God. Yet, his body is spiritual and not necessarily the same as it was on earth.

The Christian variants of faith see the resurrection as either bodily or spiritual. The resurrection is a belief in life beyond death.

The Trinity.

Christianity is a monotheistic religion which reflects its Jewish roots. The trinity is a belief that Jesus was both human and God. He was God incarnate. The trinity is not a biblical concept but was probably first used by Tertullian in the 2nd Century. There is a “threeness” to God- father, son and spirit. Yet, all aspects are unique, equal and eternal. The 3 aspects are distinct, but they are NOT three gods. There are 3 persons but only one divine being they dwell in each other (circumincession: means

together). The three aspects make up the one God. Over the centuries there have been many attempts to understand the trinity. The Trinity is a model for personal existence. Three ‘persons’ act as a single authority. Therefore

there is one ultimate authority, one god. The relationship between Father, Son and Holy Spirit is part of what God is.

Father is the source of love, Son is the recipient (Lord and saviour, Redeemer) and the Holy Spirit (Sanctifier. It is the bond that unites us with God).

Revelation.

Revelation is the transmission of knowledge from the divine to humanity. Hence it is knowledge given to humans about things previously hidden or partially known. (Believe

God has been revealing himself since Noah and is ongoing). It is seen to be an invitation into communion with God. Be more united with God and the

community. Revelation can be seen as a cal to action. It is a call to belief and faith. In Christianity, God’s revelation is focused on Jesus Christ. The eastern variants of Christianity see revelation as focusing on the Holy Spirit. (Orthodox and

Pentecostalism especially).

Revelation speaks of all of human history and includes the present and continues in the future.

Salvation.

Christians believe that God has the intention to save. Human sin interrupts salvation. Salvation is a belief that humans require deliverance by God from sin. God’s intervention in salvation history includes the incarnation of Jesus and his resurrection. (The

key to salvation is Jesus’ death and resurrection). Jesus Christ’s death was salvific as it atoned for the sinfulness of humanity. It allowed us a chance to

enter Heaven. Salvation is seen as being delayed until the afterlife. Only in the presence of God is salvation fulfilled. It is through the grace (grace us a gift- God’s only Son) to God humans achieve salvation. Some Churches see that anyone who strives to do God’s will, regardless of their religious tradition

will be saved. Other faiths would oppose this notion. For most Christians, salvation is really about the overwhelming power of God’s love (if you choose

God).

Sacred Texts and Writings

The Bible:

The Bible is divided into:a) The Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament)b) The Christian Scriptures (New Testament)

Use of the name “Old Testament” is considered to be offensive to Jews as it presumes their faith has been replaced by a newer religion.

The Christian Scriptures re a collection of stories about the life and deeds of Jesus. The writings are seen to be divinely inspired yet of human origin. (The evangelists) The Bible is a basic source of belief for Jews and Christians alike.

It teaches about the nature of God and the teachings of Jesus. The major aspects of Christian belief are derived from the Christian Scriptures:

a) Jesus is Godb) Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spiritc) There will be a judgement dayd) Love thy neighboure) Discipleship ( be a follower of Christ)

Liturgical ceremonies also have their origin in the Bible such as- Baptism, Eucharist, Prayer and the Anointing of the Sick.

The Bible is integral in the daily life of believers It assists with the ethical decision making of believers and can be used in all daily rituals The Bible has been through many translations. The Christian Scripture were originally written in

Greek, it has since been translated into almost every language. Hence, there are many discrepancies in the translations of the words from the original intentions

and contexts of the authors. As Christianity has its roots in Judaism, there are many links between the Hebrew Scriptures and the

Christian Scriptures for example:a) Many Christian passages uphold the prophecies of the Jewish Scriptures. (Such as the birth of

Jesus in Bethlehem as told by the prophet Micah).b) Christian ceremonies parallel Jewish ceremonies e.g. The Jewish Festival of Weeks parallels

Pentecost and Easter parallels with the Passover. c) There are significant number parallels such as the 12 Apostles parallels the 12 Tribes of Israel.d) The Beatitudes in the Christian Scriptures parallels some praise related statements.

There are 27 books in the New Testament. The 4 Gospels- tell the story of the life, teachings, deed, death and resurrection of Jesus. 1 Acts- traces the spread of the Gospel and growth of the Church for 30 years (talks of early Church). 1 Letters of Pail (Epistles)- were letters written to meet the specific needs of the early Christians in

Rome, Corinth, Galatia, Ephesia etc. 8 General Letters- were letters mostly written in general terms to believers everywhere; some were

written to individuals e.g. 2 and 3 John. 1 Revelation (believed that St John wrote this book)- is the last book and includes visions, images

and symbols to convey the Lordship of Christ and the victory of Christ in establishing the Kingdom of God.

The Bible and its uses:

Is used in practically all services of public worship Forms the basis for preaching and instruction Is used in private devotion and study. The language of the Bible has: informed and shaped the prayers, liturgy and the singing of psalms

and hymns.

Importance of the Bible:

The importance and influence of the Bible can be explained broadly in both external and internal terms.

External explanation:

Is the power of tradition Custom; And creed (profession of faith, Nicene Creed). Religious groups confess that they are guided by the Bible. In one sense the religious community is

the author of Scripture; having developed it, cherished it, used it and eventually canonised it (that is, developed lists of officially recognised biblical books).

Internal explanation:

Is that many Christians continue to experience the power of the contents of the biblical books themselves. The biblical books are cherished and used because of what they say and how they say it.

The Bible is the most widely distributes book in human history. It has been enormously influential and not only among the religious communities that hold it sacred. The literature, art and music of Western culture, in particular are deeply indebted to biblical themes, motifs and images.

Core Ethical Teachings

Source of Principal Teachings: The Ten Commandments.

The 10 Cs or Decalogue was given by God to Moses in Exodus 20:2-17 as a revelation for life. (How to live a Christian and good life).

They are understood to be the direct word of God given to the people of Israel. They are believed to be written in God’s own hand onto tablets of stone. (Jews believe God dictated

them to Moses and he wrote them). Are a summation of the relationship between humanity and God. Christians see them as rules to be practiced out of love for God, not out of fear of damnation. (Post

Vatican II thinking). Christians see that beyond and outside the 1 0 Cs is a life of sin, alienation and unhappiness.

Source of Principal Teachings: The Beatitudes

The Beatitudes is the name given to the 9 sayings of Jesus Christ which are expressed in Matthew (chapter 5) “Sermon on the Mount” and Luke’s “Sermon on the Plain”.

The word Beatitude is Latin for blessed” hence all Jesus’ sayings begin “Blessed are.......” The Beatitude have their origin in the Jewish Scriptures such as in:

a) Psalms 1:1 “Happy are those who do not follow the advice of the wicked”b) Psalms 41:1 “happy are those who consider the poor”c) Psalms 106:3 “Happy are those who observe justice, who do righteousness at all times”.

The intention of the Beatitudes is encouraging humans to aspire to certain virtues or to celebrate the potential of future rewards (guidance on how to live ethically).

Sources of Principal Ethical Teaching: Jesus’ Commandment of Love

Christian ethics generally include repentance and love. Christians see that their God is a god of love and that this is expressed through Jesus Christ. Jesus’ discussion of love has a Jewish context. This love has qualities of personal (Jesus coming to

earth and dying for us- Jesus personalised it for us) attachment. This is a love between God and humanity as expressed through the covenant between God and Israel.

Jesus’ commandment of love is really about a longing for God and the constant seeking of good in one’s neighbour.

Love involves suffering yet, in following Jesus’ path, there is victory over that suffering and hence victory over sin and death.

Early Christian Ethical System

Torah Ten

Commandments

Jesus:

Ministry of forgiveness Healing Bringing light and peace to the needy His unremitting judgement of evil (reject people)

Early Christians lived what they considered was a good life based on Jesus’ life as time went by, they gradually started considering moral problems which affected the community and, hence, an ethical system was developed.

Christian Code of Ethics:

Living the Christian life:

Key belief centred on the faith of Jesus Christ Christianity is a way of living Christian faith must result in a life of loving service or it is an empty faith (James 2:14-17).

Christian Morality involves:

Responsibility Response to God’s freely given love (Mt 22:37-39) Ability to respond to, and be able to say yes to God.

Christian Morality does not:

Rest primarily in our own talents, strengths, insights or deeds but is founded in the Holy Spirit who has been given to us at Baptism.

Christian Morality implies:

We can think and love and live in relationship to others in community.

Christian morality is based on:

Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:2-17) Beatitudes (Matthew Chapters 5-7) Jesus’ commandment of love

Basis of Christian Ethics

Foundation in the Bible: Ten Commandments Sermon on the mount Paul’s writings Most Christians share common ethical ideals. Different denominations, however, have some

variations in their manner of justifying ethical understanding. Orthodox Christian Churches in general stress the reliance on the Ten Commandments and the

Sermon on the Mount. Protestant Churches have the Biblical concept of ‘love’ as the ethical foundation for morality.

Christian love: caring, compassion and self- giving. They also stress the importance of social justice. Roman Catholic Ethics are derived from a variety of ethical source- the Bible, Councils of the Church,

decrees of Popes, Code of Canon law, works of the fathers of the Church, works of moral theologians and use and practice of the Church.

Personal Devotion

Prayer:

Prayer is an awareness of God and a response to the presence of the sacred in our life. Prayer is a journey within. It involves: listening, responding, encountering and developing a

relationship with God which bring meaning to our lives. A rite to person devotion is designed to establish or improve day to day communication between the

God and humans. Prayer is an important way in which the Christian acknowledges the existence of a relationship

between God and humanity and more importantly that God relates to each human being and all creation with ongoing compassion and goodness.

Prayer is encouraged in the Bible and there are many phrases from the Scriptures used to describe prayer, including ‘to call upon’, ‘intercede with’, cry out to’ etc. Each expression is linked to various situations that prompt people to pray personally to God.

How do Christians view prayer?

Prayer is a response to the sacred, and we experience it within us, around us. Prayer is not just saying prayers.

Prayer by its very nature is a dialogue and a union with God. In the New Testament, the point is made that prayer is necessary but that God known the needs of

His people like a father knows the needs of his children. (Luke 11:11-13). God calls every person to prayer. Christians should pray every day. Roman Catholic and Protestants

usually pray morning, night and before meals and at other times as the need arises. Orthodox Christians follow the Old Testament practice of having formal prayers according to the

hours of the day. They are urges to pray regularly in the morning, evening and at times, as well as to have a brief prayer which can be repeated throughout the day under any and all circumstances.

Communal Prayer v Private Prayer

Private prayer is personal devotion, communal prayer is public worship. Orthodox Christians stress that private prayer should be said at home not in the Church. This is

based on the scripture (Mt 6:5-6) Most Christian prayers contain praise, blessing and adoration, petitions for themselves and others

and thanksgiving. When Christians pray privately, they may use words or they may be quite silent. There are 3 common forms of prayer: vocal prayer, meditation and contemplative prayer. There are 4 main kinds of vocal prayer:

1. The Lord’s Prayer2. Liturgical prayers (e.g. ‘Glory be to the Father, and the Son and to the Holy Spirit, as it was in

the beginning, is now and ever shall be a world without end. Amen’)3. Written prayers of other Christians4. Spontaneous prayers

Meditation

This is a mixture of vocal and silent prayer. After quiet time in meditation, a person arrived at or strengthens a resolution to live a better

Christian life. A common method of meditation is when a Christian reads a passage from the Bible, tries to picture

the scene and ten speaks to God in prayer. The Rosary is said by Roman Catholics is a special method of meditation upon the most important

events in the life of Jesus or of Mary. Refers to a process of reflection that involves the mind, the imagination and the will. During mental prayer, the Christian asks for God’s help to still the wondering mind and move to the

heart and convert it to the ways of God. Meditation is the most well known form of mental prayer. It is generally understood as the

exercising of one’s spiritual memory based on repetition of words and phrases, usually renounced aloud and accompanied by vocal and bodily rhythm.

Often icons are used to aid in mental prayer.

Contemplative Prayer

This is a silent form of prayer that relies on the promise that the Holy Spirit prays in the Christian without words being necessary.

This kind of prayer is a loving conversation without words between God and the Christian.

Symbolism in Christian prayer

Roman Catholic variant- Rosary beads, crucifix, statues, Stations of the Cross plaques, candles, the sign of the cross, a pair of hands clasped in prayer, the Bible, and incense.

Orthodox variant- Chotki (a prayer rope of 25, 33, 50, 100 or 103 beads, used to focus on one’s thoughts on the ‘Jesus Prayer’ – used by most Orthodox Christians and Eastern Catholics), crucifix, candle or lamp, the sign of the cross, incense, stations of the cross, the Bible, and Icons (the figures on the icons are usually of Jesus, Mary or one of the saints).

Protestant- the Bible, candles, the sign of the cross a pair of hands clasped together. Anglican- as above for Protestants as well as Prayer beads also called an Anglican Rosary (a cross a

total of 33 beads which adds up to the age of Christ up to the age of his crucifixion). Different focus on format to Roman Catholic Rosary.

The Personal prayer life of Jesus

Jesus is described as praying privately,, silently or in solitude at various times in his ministry.a) After his Baptismb) During the temptations and fasting in the desertc) When seeking relief from his busy ministryd) As a matter of course early in the morning before dawn.

He often spent the whole night in prayer, particularly before important decisions, after key sermons and in times of distress including during the crucifixion.

Influence of prayer on Christians

Each of these different prayer practices and styles influences the everyday lived of believers by bringing them into contact with the mysteries of their faith and by providing them with tangible ways in which these mysteries can be brought to life to provide individual and communal meaning.

Prayer is a way of reaching out to others- praying for one’s family, the community or the world in general; seeking help for oneself- praying for guidance in coping with changes in one’s life; marking daily rituals- praying before a meal or setting out on a journey.