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Academic Writing for Postgraduate Study
Caroline MalthusTe Puna Ako Learning Centre
© Unitec New Zealand 1
Introductions• your name?
• What programme are you studying?
• Your comments on the text or image?
Slides will be available on Te Puna Ako Learning Centre Moodle
This session…
• The expectations of Unitec lecturers• Some key features of academic writing• The differences between descriptive
writing and critical analysis• The processes of paraphrasing, citation
and referencing
© Unitec New Zealand 4
What’s an assignment?
88--: Theories of L & T
Critique of Literature• Written critical analysis with
references• Evaluation of arguments
Online discussion• explain and evaluate a
concept• apply to teaching
88--: Business
Seminar presentation• on theory, issues and
innovations• spoken critical analysis with
references
Reflective report• Part 1: thematic literature
review• Part 2: practical application
and evaluation
© Unitec New Zealand 5
ISCG8021 Impact of Information Technology on Society
Assignment 1:
Presentation - 15%• Describe specific technology • Review literature, including
relevant research • Spoken critical analysis with
references
Report – 35%• A report on social issues
that could arise from the technology
Assignment 2:
Essay – 50%• …on theory, issues and
innovations• Critically analyse + evaluate• Identify issues in a
workplace setting• Formulate solutions• Evaluate solutions
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Discuss: What criteria do your lecturers have for assessing your assignments?
© Unitec New Zealand 8
Analyse the criteria:• Knowledge –• Critical analysis –• Argument – • Sources – • Structure – • Referencing –
Analyse the criteria:• Knowledge – topic, context, issues• Critical analysis – analysis, compare &
contrast; evaluation• Argument – writer’s ‘voice’ & thinking• Structure – follows question; logical order• Sources – range & use of evidence• Referencing – accurate APA (6th ed.)• Presentation and proofreading
Lecturers usually expect:
• responses to the questions they asked - RTQ• balance of theory and practice• a structure which follows the question• organised & logical paragraphs• some discussion of context – NZ or your own• evidence from expert texts, in your own words• accurate referencing - APA
© Unitec New Zealand 11
What are the features of academic writing?
Task: look at the text
Identify features that make the text academic
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Social psychologists, communication scholars, and those working in the business, information and organisational science areas were among the first to undertake research on email and other forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC). More recently linguists have begun to take an interest in this medium which may well be the dominant interpersonal communications medium in this millennium “approaching if not overshadowing voice” (Negroponte, 1995, p. 191). This paper outlines the growth of email over the last ten years, reviews research on the social and psychological effects of email and other forms of CMC, on the benefits of email in relation to other means of communication, and on the role of email in workplace politics. Research on different styles of email communication, including gender differences in email use is also summarised.
© Unitec New Zealand 13
Features of academic writing emphasised by lecturers
• A structure– Introduction– Body – Conclusion
• In-text references and a reference list• Ideas which are explained and linked in paragraphs• Reader knows where the writer is taking them
(tour guide - signposts)• Good presentation and proof reading
© Unitec New Zealand 14
What work does an academic writer do?
1. Conveys information / ideas about the topic / content
2. Conveys his/ her thinking and argument
Task: look at the 2 textsWhat is the writer’s purpose in each text?
© Unitec New Zealand 15
In the workplace, managers have generally been quick to see the possibilities
offered by this new communication medium. The closing years of the
twentieth century saw the introduction and widespread adoption of email as a
means of workplace communication. A sample of 900 people aged 13 and
above, conducted recently by NFO CM Research (NZ) (personal
communication, April 12, 2001) revealed that approximately 40% of people
employed full time have their own internet connection at work. These rates
are increasing at 2-3 percent per year. In some workplaces in the corporate
world email has become the pervasive communication medium to the extent
that at Microsoft for example, where probably 99% of communication takes
place via email, it is said that the phone never rings (Kinsley, 1996). © Unitec New Zealand 16
The role of email in promoting democracy in organisations and in
organisational politics has also been examined. It has been claimed
that email gives a voice to the voiceless and reduces status imbalance
(Sproull & Kiesler, 1992; Bishop & Levine, 1999). However,
experimental studies show that status differences persisted in both
face-to-face and electronic groups (Weisband, Schneider &
Connolly, 1995). ……Giving a voice to the voiceless does not
always produce positive effects from the point of view of an
organisation. Email can be and has been used to support disruptive
organisational politics. Romm and Pliskin (1997, p. 95) used the
term "virtual politicking" to describe this use. Their virtual
politicking model brings together data from a series of real-life
incidents in which email was used for political manipulation within
and between organisations. It makes two assumptions….© Unitec New Zealand 17
Both are important, but where should the balance lie?
Description
What…?Why is important?
Who says?How…?
Critical analysis
Why?How has it been
studied? How does x compare with y?
From what viewpoints?How useful?
© Unitec New Zealand 18
Descriptive and critical writing– both are important -where should the balance lie?
• What are the key concepts? • How have the key concepts
been defined?• What are the main points
given by writers on this topic?• If they did research, how did
they do it?• What conclusions did they
reach?
• What are the key issues?• In workplaces, how are these
concepts being applied?
• Who says? • How do one expert’s views
compare with another’s?• What are the links and
relationships between different ideas?
• What ideas / themes / theories / assumptions underlie the work?
• How similar or different are these?
• How do the ideas fit your context?
• How useful is the thinking of experts in relation to your practice?
© Unitec New Zealand 19
Some key words in critical writing:
analyse
evaluatesynthesise
© Unitec New Zealand 20
Critical writing in an assignment:• Analysis
– What is the topic, why important and what are the issues?
• Synthesis / Relationships– What views are expressed by different
experts / authors?
• Evaluation / Implications– Identify strengths and weaknesses– how do these ideas connect with practice?
© Unitec New Zealand 21
Making evaluative comments, e.g.
Some research on organisational culture does not fully apply to the New Zealand setting because …
These studies have emphasised ……, as opposed to….
It appears that further investigations are needed in order to…
This survey of the literature suggests that this approach might be less effective when….
Pointing out what’s not discussed:
To date the research has not addressed whether or not people who object to having scans are also likely to…
Begum and Mackintosh (2008) do not seem to have considered the more important question of whether…
The studies mentioned above appear to have some limitations mainly concerning …….
see Academic Phrasebank
Introduction
Aspect 1: include
evidence
Aspect 2: include
evidence
Aspect 3:(etc.)
Final summary and conclusion
Background, definitions of key terms and concepts – include evidence
Write in paragraphs• Paragraphs are the building blocks of academic writing
• A paragraph deals with one main idea
• This is usually stated at or near the beginning of the
paragraph
• The ideas is developed and discussed in the body of the
paragraph
• The idea is concluded in a way that leads to the next
paragraph
© Unitec New Zealand 25
It is often said that people need to drink 6-8 glasses of water per day to stay healthy and well-hydrated. However it is hard to find solid scientific evidence to support this claim (Valtin, 2002). Valtin points out that food contains some fluid, and also says it is not clear whether a range of different beverages can be consumed in place of water. A study by Le Bellego et al. (2010) compared a number of surveys aimed at investigating people’s actual fluid intake. They found it hard to compare conclusions because of differences in the ways the surveys were conducted. A later study (European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 2010) has concluded that guidelines on adequate intake of fluid need to consider factors such as type of fluid, environmental factors, energy output, age and health status. Clearly the topic is more complicated than the everyday advice suggests.
Building an argument
3 part structure to a critical argument:
1. Statement of the assertion or claim you are
making
2. Evidence to support that assertion – from
literature
3. The significance of the evidence is explained
Use topic sentences to organise and guide the reader
The inclusion of goals within discussion about leadership in the literature is almost standard. However the treatment of vision is more varied. While Weber (1987)refers to vision and philosophy, “a leader provides the guidance and central themes for … the general understanding of the school’s philosophy” (p. 6), he does not give guidance on how to convey this vision to staff or students or place it within his six function model. Starratt (2003), on the other hand, describes…
Tentative languagePhysical fitness is the most important factor in athletic performance (Lardner, 2003; Newcastle & Lind, 2005).
There is some evidence to suggest that physical fitness may be one of the most important factors in athletic performance (Newcastle & Lind, 2005).
Exercise: Tentative writing
1. Everyone needs to drink 6-8 glasses of water per day.
2. Business growth occurs as a direct result of targeted investment.
© Unitec New Zealand 30
Reflective writingPersonal writing, usually about learning and/or practice for you and/or organisation
Past Present Future
What happened in the past?
What’s happening now?
What would you do differently in future?
What learning was earlier practice based on?
What are you learning now? How is your thinking changing?
How can present learning influence your future actions?
Academic writing is…
• Supported / Backed up
• Based on careful reading of evidence
• Read and use appropriate sources / references
• Cite / Reference every source
© Unitec New Zealand 32
What is referencing?
…a standard method of acknowledging
the sources of information and ideas
that you have used in your
assignment.
APA referencing system
In-text references• in sentences in the body of the assignment• shows where you’ve used ideas and words of an
expert• includes name of author and year
Reference List• on a separate page at the end of the assignment• list of materials you have consulted
© Unitec New Zealand 34
In- text referencing:
Paraphrasing:- ideas of experts in your own words
- show your own understanding of the writer’s ideas
- NEED REFERENCES
- (Cottrell, 2003).
- Use most
Quotation-exact copied chunks of text from experts
-NEED REFERENCES
(Cottrell, 2003, p. 134).
-Use least <20%
© Unitec New Zealand 36
Quoting:• copying exactly the words of the author(s). When quoting,
use quotation marks around the author's words, “academic success may be more a question of good strategy and of building upon experience rather than underlying intelligence"
• author's family name, year of publication, page number. For example (Cottrell, 2003, p. 134).
• Macfie (2002) points out that “sound policies, procedures and training are not necessarily enough to protect employers from prosecution” (p. 21).
Consider paraphrasing and quotation
Explaining other people’s ideas, in your own words
A process of rewriting ideas of expert writers
• Why is paraphrasing desirable?• When can quotes be useful?
© Unitec New Zealand 38
Original text
“The education system has performed, on an even wider scale, a major task of social control, training the growing workforce in the discipline and work style necessary in a capitalist economy, and systematically conveying ‘acceptable’ — i.e. safe — social attitudes to the rising generations”.
From: Jagtenberg, T. & D’Alton, P. (1988). Four Dimensional Social Space. Sydney: Harper & Row.
© Unitec New Zealand 39
Example of a paraphrase
As a form of socialisation, the education system has worked in two ways: teaching people appropriate ways of working in a capitalist society, and maintaining socially accepted attitudes and values (Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1988).Words in common in the 2 versions:Education system / economy / acceptable
© Unitec New Zealand 40
Use of in-text referencesOther researchers have also addressed the social effects of email. "Managers focussing only on the productivity benefits of email may fail to anticipate the larger social consequences" (Weisband & Reinig, 1995, p. 43). The headlines at the beginning of this paper illustrate at least two of these, namely, unwanted or inappropriate forms of communication, as well as worker stress from too much information, and being expected to reply quickly. This latter effect was identified in research into one Wellington workplace (Waldvogel, 1999).…..
…Related to social consequences is the whole issue of privacy, with its attendant human rights complications. In Britain, regulations have been drafted which give management the right to "snoop on" employee's emails and telephone calls without their consent to find out whether they are business-related or just gossip (Taranaki Daily News, 2000). A TVNZ Paul Holmes programme (October 12, 2000) suggests that this is becoming a major issue in New Zealand workplaces too.
© Unitec New Zealand 41
Where should an academic writer put citations?
This is a minor illustration of an issue that can no longer be dismissed as trivial. In August 2007 the World Health Organisation released the preliminary results of its research into the links between noise and stress. Its work so far suggests that long-term exposure to noise from traffic alone could be responsible, around the world, for hundreds and thousands of deaths through ischaemic heart disease every year, as well as contributing to strokes, high blood pressure, tinnitus, broken sleep and other stress-related illnesses. Noise, researchers found, raises your levels of stress hormones even while you sleep. As a study of children living close to airports in Germany suggests, it also damages long-term memory, reading and speech perception. All over the world, complaints about noise are rising: yet to an alien observer it would appear that the primary purpose of economic growth is to find ever more intrusive means of burning fossil fuels. Monbiot, G. (2007, October 12). Comment and debate: We should welcome a recession now. The Guardian Weekly, p. 18.
“Academic language is no-one’s mother tongue”
(Bourdieu & Passeron, 1994, p. 8).
We develop this language gradually… notice how other academic writers express ideas
Reading: process
• Determine your purpose– I’m reading this because I need to know…… ? – What are the questions or problems at the centre of your
assignment topic?• Decide what to read and how to read it• Engage critically with the readings
– Ask questions as you read• Organise your ideas
– List the important topics or themes to be covered• Write throughout the process – if you spend 30 min reading, take
5-10 mins to write about what was most useful or interesting or relevant
© Unitec New Zealand 45
Planning your writing• What are the main themes or topics to be
covered?• Start by pulling in everything that seems
important– Brainstorm all the important topics and headings to
cover, in a mindmap– Look for ways of clustering them into meaningful
groups• Then organise the material from the mind map into a
plan for writing– Look at examples: mindmap format; outline format
© Unitec New Zealand 46
An assignment/dissertation is a project with steps / phases:
Question analysisIdentifying themesLiterature searchReading and notemakingAnalysis and interpretationWriting up – as you goReferences – as you goA handy planning tool
© Unitec New Zealand 47
Start writing early
“Since you are never ready to write, you start writing before you are ready.”
George Watson
Get into the writing habit
• Don’t wait until you’ve worked out all your ideas; use writing to work out your ideas
• Accept that your first drafts will be imperfect
• Reading and research to exploratory drafts to polished writing
© Unitec New Zealand 49
Proofread 2-3x to check for:clear introduction and conclusionthe key or strongest points in response to the
question: are they at the beginnings of paragraphs?
is referencing accurate – in-text and in list?
Grammar, spelling, punctuation
© Unitec New Zealand 51
• Write with a planHave a set of headings or theme areas
• Write regularly and seek feedbackFrom your lecturerFrom a learning advisor (Learning Centre)
• Keep the reader(s) in mindAn educated, non-specialist readerIs your argument clearly stated? Have you answered the “so what” question?
References
© Unitec New Zealand 52
Cottrell, S. (2008). The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Godfrey, J. (2009). How to use your reading in your essays. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Swales, J., & Feak, C. (2004). Academic Writing for Graduate Students: A course for nonnative speakers of English (2nd Ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
Waldevogel, J. (2001). Email and workplace communication: A literature review. Language in the Workplace Occasional Papers, 3, 1-12. Retrieved March 1, 2008 from http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/lwp/resources/occasional-papers.aspx
Wallace, M., & Wray, A. (2006). Critical reading and writing for postgraduates. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Useful links for academic writing:Unitec Moodle: Te Puna Ako Learning CentreSections
Postgraduate ResourcesAcademic WritingReferencing
Study ToolboxUniversity of Manchester. (2014). Academic
Phrasebank. Retrieved from http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk