Abstract

Followership as Perceived by Leaders in the Hospitality Industry

by

James H. Schindler

MS, Troy State University, 1989

BS, University of South Alabama, 1977

Doctoral Proposal Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

Walden University

April 2012

Abstract

Traditionally, the staff of professional development programs devote little time and

attention to developing effective follower skills because most organizational leaders

assume employees know how to follow. Followership skills are the foundation of

leadership. The problem addressed in this study is the lack of knowledge midlevel

hospitality managers displayed concerning the importance of the followership traits that

translate to good leadership skills. The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological

study was to explore the phenomenon of followership traits that translate to good

leadership skills. The central research questions were designed to explore the lived

experiences and informed perceptions of midlevel managers in the hospitality industry

regarding the followership traits that translate to leadership skills. The lived experiences

of midlevel hospitality managers relating to leadership and followership traits were the

conceptual framework of the study. The interview question data were analyzed using

Moustakas’ modified van Kaam methodology. The findings indicated (a) an affiliation

exists between organizational success and followers learning their positions, displaying

initiative by learning, and providing support for the leaders; (b) core competencies and

skills of followers are interpersonal skills; and (c) the relationship between followers and

leaders was based on trust, teamwork and the role of followers and leaders are

intertwined. The study contributes to positive social change by providing deeper

understanding of the phenomenon of followership, which might provide insights into the

improvement of methods to gain understanding of the relationship between leader and

follower, which will improve organizational success.

Followership as Perceived by Leaders in the Hospitality Industry

by

James H. Schindler

MS, Troy State University, 1989

BS, University of South Alabama, 1977

Doctoral Proposal Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

Walden University

April 2012

Dedication

I could not have completed this research effort without encouragement and the

assistance of numerous supporters. I dedicate this doctoral study to those individuals.

First, Dr. Richard Gray, Ph.D. who inspired me to continue my education and to believe

in my capabilities; his determination and scholarly acumen is a standard to match.

Additionally, I dedicate this doctoral study to the memory of my parents, Dr. Louis E.

Schindler, DVM and Angeline Hays Schindler, also to, William (Bill) Duke, LtCol,

USAF, (retired) a friend and mentor, whose efforts on my behalf and guidance have

helped me succeed personally and professionally.

Acknowledgments

I acknowledge the love and support of my wife, Ruthann Schindler and thank her

for the patience and tolerance that have sustained me as I worked to complete this

journey. I certainly appreciate Dr. Charlene Dunfee, my doctoral study chair, and

acknowledge and thank her for guidance and encouragement throughout this process and

for her critique and input that improved the final product. I am also very appreciative of

friends and colleagues who provided encouragement. I am also especially grateful for

and acknowledge the enlightening contribution of the research participants who allowed

me to share their experiences, without whom this study would not have been possible.

Table of Contents

List of Tables......................................................................................................................iv

Section 1: Foundation of the Study......................................................................................1

Background of the Problem...........................................................................................1

Problem Statement.........................................................................................................3

Purpose Statement..........................................................................................................4

Nature of the Study........................................................................................................5

Research Question.........................................................................................................6

Conceptual Framework..................................................................................................7

Definition of Terms........................................................................................................8

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations................................................................8

Assumptions............................................................................................................8

Limitations...............................................................................................................9

Delimitations............................................................................................................9

Significance of the Study.............................................................................................10

Reduction of Gaps.................................................................................................10

Implications for Social Change.............................................................................10

A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature..............................................11

Leadership..............................................................................................................12

Followership..........................................................................................................28

Hospitality Management........................................................................................38

Transition and Summary..............................................................................................41

i

Section 2: The Project........................................................................................................42

Purpose Statement........................................................................................................42

Role of the Researcher.................................................................................................43

Participants...................................................................................................................44

Research Method and Design......................................................................................44

Method...................................................................................................................45

Research Design....................................................................................................46

Population and Sampling.............................................................................................46

Data Collection............................................................................................................47

Instruments............................................................................................................47

Data Collection Technique....................................................................................48

Data Organization Techniques..............................................................................48

Data Analysis Technique.............................................................................................48

Reliability and Validity................................................................................................49

Reliability..............................................................................................................49

Validity..................................................................................................................49

Transition and Summary..............................................................................................49

Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change..................51

Overview of Study.......................................................................................................51

Presentation of the Findings.........................................................................................54

Outcomes That Address Research Question 1: Participants’ Experience.............54

Conclusions That Address Research Question 1...................................................64

ii

Outcomes That Address Research Question 2: Participants’ Perception..............65

Conclusions That Address Research Question 2...................................................74

Emerging Themes..................................................................................................75

Applications to Professional Practice..........................................................................77

Implications for Social Change....................................................................................78

Recommendations for Action......................................................................................79

Recommendations for Further Study...........................................................................80

Reflections...................................................................................................................81

Summary and Study Conclusions................................................................................82

References..........................................................................................................................84

Appendix A: Letter of Invitation.......................................................................................99

Appendix B: Informed Consent.......................................................................................100

Appendix C: Interview Questions....................................................................................102

Curriculum Vitae.............................................................................................................103

iii

List of Tables

Table 1. Experience as it Relates to the Role of Followership in Own Organization.......55

Table 2. Experience as It Relates to Core Competencies and Skills of Followers in

General.........................................................................................................................57

Table 3. Experience as It Relates to the Development of Followers in General...............58

Table 4. Experience as It Relates to the Relationship Between Followers and Leaders in

General.........................................................................................................................59

Table 5. Any Additional Relevant Factors That Affect Followership in General Based on

Experience...................................................................................................................61

Table 6. Experience as It Relates to the Influence of Followership in General................63

Table 7. Perception of the Role of Followership in Your Organization............................66

Table 8. Perception of Core Competencies and Skills of Successful Followers in Your

Organization................................................................................................................67

Table 9. Perception of the Development of Followers in Your Organization...................69

Table 10. Perception of the Relationship Between Followers and Leaders in Your

Organization................................................................................................................70

Table 11. Perception of Additional Relevant Factors Affecting Followership in Your

Organization................................................................................................................72

Table 12. Perception of the Influence of Followership on the Organization’s Success....73

iv

Section 1: Foundation of the Study

Both good leaders and good followers exhibit some of the same characteristics

(Kelley, 2008). Both think for themselves, both are active in the leadership process, and

both exhibit positive energy. Individuals who display these characteristics are often

referred to as “leaders in disguise” (Kelley, 2008, p. 9). The current study involved

developing a thematic awareness of specific followership traits that translate into good

leadership skills. The lack of clear followership trait analysis has negatively constrained

professional development programs that include a reliance only on leadership skills

(Agho, 2009).

Background of the Problem

Traditionally, the staff of professional development programs devote little time

and attention to developing effective follower skills because most organizational leaders

erroneously assume that employees know how to follow (Agho, 2009). An

understanding of followership characteristics will enable leaders to “develop other great

leaders one follower at a time” (Adair, 2008, p. 137). Followership skills are part of

leadership skills (Adair, 2008), and followership skills are the foundation of leadership.

To identify followers with good followership skills, who are potentially good leaders it is

necessary to capitalize on the characteristics and skills within the leadership process

(Adair, 2008).

Bjugstad, Thach, Thompson, and Morris (2006) noted the negative connotation of

the term followership is an explanation for the lack of research on the topic of

followership. Followership is often associated with negative terms such as “passive,

1

weak, and conforming” (Bjugstad et al., 2006, p. 304). However, the characteristics good

followers exhibit, such as being able to think for themselves, being independent, having

positive energy, and being innovative, are the same characteristics expected from good

leaders (Kelley, 2008). In this study, I attempted to gain understanding of the

phenomenon of followership as it relates to the participants. Midlevel managers in the

hospitality industry in the southeastern United States along the coast of the Gulf of

Mexico comprised the participant sample in the study for two reasons. First, the

managers were more likely to have experienced the phenomenon of followership during

the situations caused by hurricanes Katrina and Ivan and the subsequent rebuilding of

economies and properties (Moss, Ryan, & Moss, 2008; Smith, 2010). The second reason

for selecting midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the coast of the Gulf of

Mexico was hospitality is a relatively new academic discipline (Ottenbacher, Harrington,

& Parsa, 2009) and has had limited exposure to research.

Kellerman (2007) noted good leadership is the subject of courses, workshops,

books, and articles, but the limited research and writing on subordinates contains

explanations of followers’ behaviors in terms of leaders’ development rather than

followers’ development. Followership is the “ability to effectively follow the directives

and support the efforts of a leader to maximize a structured organization” (Bjugstad et al.,

2006, p. 306). Most scholarly books in print on the subject are about good leadership;

“the ratio of leadership to followership books was 120:1” (Bjugstad et al., 2006, p. 306).

The lack of scholarly work has frequently caused leaders to overlook followership as a

2

necessary part of a successful organization (Bearden, 2008). The current study involved

demonstrating the followership characteristics that may translate to good leadership.

An increased focus on the characteristics of followership may lead to a greater

understanding of the leadership process and the characteristics of leaders that will result

in better organizational performance (Bearden, 2008). Increasing awareness of

followership processes in organizational leaders may lead to improved leadership and

improved organizational performance (Dixon, 2009). Improved leadership is the direct

result of improved followership. Individuals within an organization transition between

the role of follower and the role of leader continually, and the success of organizations

depends upon performance in both roles (Bearden, 2008; Dixon, 2009). Kelley (2008)

noted followership and leadership are “complementary, not competitive paths to

organizational contribution. . . . We must have great leaders and great followers” (p. 41).

The current study involved identifying specific followership traits that translate directly

to leadership skills.

Problem Statement

If organizational members are more aware of followership processes, they will be

prepared to participate in and support the leadership of their organization (Dixon &

Westbrook, 2003). The general problem is the failure to identify followership traits that

translate to leadership skills has resulted in a lack of advancement into leadership

positions for followers (Adair, 2008; Agho, 2009; Blanchard, Wellbourne, Gilmore, &

Bullock, 2009). Succession plans exist for senior positions and do not include the

leadership potential of middle management (Brant, Dooley, & Iman, 2008). A

3

commitment to professional development of managers with high potential results in

commitment, trust, and improved retention (Brant et al., 2008). The specific focus of the

study was to explore the followership traits that translate to good leader traits. An

investigation of leaders employing a phenomenological methodology was necessary. The

study involved examining the lived experiences and informed perceptions of 20 midlevel

hospitality managers located in the southeastern United States along the coast of the Gulf

of Mexico to provide thematic awareness of the phenomenon of followership

characteristics that translate to good leadership skills.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the

phenomenon of followership characteristics that translate to good leadership skills. In a

phenomenological study, the researcher “describes the meaning of the lived experiences

for several individuals about a concept of the phenomenon” (Creswell, 2007, p. 51). The

phenomenological research design was appropriate to the qualitative methodology

because the method enabled the researcher to gain access to the respondents’ lived

experiences by conducting in-depth interviews. The focus of the study was exploring the

lived experiences and the informed perceptions of a purposeful sample of 20 midlevel

managers from the hospitality industry. For the purpose of the study, midlevel managers

were the managers below the top manager and above the first level supervisory positions

(Wooldridge, Schmid, & Floyd, 2008). The specific participant population of the study

was 20 midlevel managers from the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast. The

participants were in the southeastern United States along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.

4

The population was limited to midlevel hospitality managers in organizations with more

than 100 and less than 400 employees. The data from the study might contribute to social

change by expanding the knowledge of leadership from a followership perspective by

exploring insights into how midlevel managers in the hospitality industry perceive

followership. The results of the study contribute to business profitability by increasing

internal recruiting and succession planning.

Nature of the Study

The current qualitative phenomenological study involved employing

semistructured interviews to explore the participants’ lived and perceived experiences

with the phenomenon of followership traits that translate to good leadership. The

qualitative phenomenological research method and design were appropriate for the study

because the study may document existing knowledge by adding rich detail about

leadership and may help to understand leadership from the perspective of the actors

(Ospina, 2004). The contextual factors of a phenomenon allow a researcher to observe

and describe the subjective factors that affect a given situation (Conger, 1998; Ospina,

2004). Other research methods were not appropriate to obtain the requisite data because

leadership scholars had sought answers to questions about leadership culture and had

found quantitative methods did not adequately explain the phenomenon (Olivares,

Peterson, & Hess, 2007; Ospina, 2004). The qualitative phenomenological study

involved identifying themes and general statements developed by what the participants

experienced in relation to followership, whereas a quantitative study would have included

a focus on numbers.

5

A quantitative method is appropriate when using an objective scientific approach

with defined collected numerical data and statistical analysis (Creswell, 2009), but was

not appropriate for the current study. The process of collecting numeric data on

followership was inappropriate because followership consists of nonquantifiable

attributes (Kelley, 2008). Numbers could not adequately describe the phenomenon of

followership because the study required describing the phenomenon from the

perspectives of observers.

Other qualitative methods were not appropriate for the study. Grounded theory is

a strategy in which researchers seek to develop a theory about a specific process and was

not appropriate for the study (Creswell, 2009). Ethnography was not appropriate because

ethnographers study a cultural group over a long period of time (Creswell, 2009). Other

research methods would not have been appropriate to obtain the requisite data because

researchers applying these methods would not be able to take into account the human

experience associated with the phenomenological research method (Creswell, 2009). The

qualitative phenomenological research method was appropriate to the study because the

study involved examining the data of the perceived and lived experiences of the

participants (Olivares et al., 2007) as they pertained to the phenomenon of followership.

Research Question

The focus of the qualitative phenomenological study was to conduct interviews of

20 midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast and explore their

lived experiences and informed perceptions of followership traits as they related to

leadership skills. The research questions for the study follow:

6

1. What are the lived experiences of midlevel managers from the hospitality

industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits that translate to

leadership skills?

2. What are the informed perceptions of midlevel managers in the hospitality

industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits that translate to

leadership skills?

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of the research study was to explore the lived

experiences of the participants as midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the

Gulf Coast. The conceptual framework of the study emerged from the lived experiences

relating to the leadership and followership traits of the participants. The study involved

exploring the conceptual framework from a systems perspective. The study was

grounded in systems theory (Checkland, 1999). Systems thinking originated as a

generalization of ideas about biology in the first half of the 20th century (Checkland,

1999). In the late 1940s, researchers extrapolated these generalizations of biological

ideas to include whole systems of any type (von Bertalanffy, 1968). Systems theory

models can provide a means to collect data, provide for the analysis of the data, and

predict behaviors (Checkland, 1999).

Critchlow (2005) used systems theory to determine the wholeness or

completeness of participants’ careers and education, as well as interactions with other

individuals. This combination allowed Critchlow to explore the factors the participants

considered vital in their career development as community college presidents. Systems

7

theory was applicable to the study because the study involved researching each

participant’s career and interpersonal interactions with followers and forming

conclusions.

Definition of Terms

Followership is the ability of individuals to follow the instructions of their

superior to achieve organizational goals (Agho, 2009).

Hospitality industry is a generic title for different areas of the hotel and restaurant

industries (Ottenbacher et al., 2009).

Leadership is “an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend

real changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purposes” (Daft, 2011, p. 5).

Midlevel manager is a broad term generally understood to be defined as a

manager below the top manager and above the first level supervisory positions

(Wooldridge et al., 2008) with at least one direct report and has been in the current

position for at least 1 year.

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

Assumptions

Respondents of the study understood leadership and the characteristics associated

with successful leadership. Asking questions in the interview to determine leadership

knowledge and skill served to overcome the lack of specific knowledge (Creswell, 2009).

Another assumption was a significant difference would not exist in the responses of men

and women nor would the age and experience of the respondents have any effect on the

study. Another assumption was the lived experiences of the managers would provide

8

information about their direct accounts of the perceived factors that affect followership in

their organizations (Ospina, 2004).

Limitations

Limitations indicate the potential weaknesses of a study that could affect the

results (Creswell, 2003). Limiting the scope of the research to 20 participants was to

manage the data collected for analysis. Possible weaknesses of the current study were the

age, gender, and experience level of the respondents. All these combined could have had

an effect on their understandings of the concepts of leadership and followership. Another

potential weakness of the study could have been the educational background and field of

study of the respondents. An additional possible limitation was the honesty of the

respondents when they provided information.

Delimitations

Researchers need to identify delimitations to narrow the scope of a research study

(Creswell, 2003). The scope of the current research was to provide a clear and concise

description of the characteristics of exemplary followership. The population was limited

to midlevel hospitality managers in hotels with more than 100 and less than 400

employees. The reader will make a determination whether the results of the potential

research findings could be transferable to other types of organizations. All interviews

were voluntary. The members of each organization who may have consented to an

interview were included.

9

Significance of the Study

Reduction of Gaps

Leadership research indicates the follower is a passive element and not relevant

when considering leadership (Avolio, 2007). The study involved developing patterns of

information demonstrating whether followership is vital to leadership. The study also

involved searching for information that would aid in thematic awareness of the idea that

to lead, one must know how to follow. Adair (2008) contended, “Followership is not a

part of leadership—leadership is a part of followership” (p. 138). Leaders in business

may use the knowledge and information gained to aid them in developing leadership

programs within their respective organizations. Individuals taught to understand the

nature of followership will be better prepared to become the leaders of the future within

their organizations. Organizational leaders spend 80% of their training time on 20% of

the organization: leadership (Adair, 2008). Conversely, organizational leaders spend

20% their time on the followers (Adair, 2008). Dixon (2008) contended American

leaders are preoccupied with leadership and leadership development. The current

research helps to eliminate the gap between leadership and followership and provide

information that can be developed and added to all levels of the leadership curriculum.

Implications for Social Change

The study serves to expand the knowledge of leadership from a followership

perspective by exploring insights into how midlevel managers in the hospitality industry

perceive followership. Adair (2008) noted researchers should study leadership and

followership in concert because a crossover exists between them. The information and

10

knowledge gained from the envisioned study should be applicable beyond leadership and

followership. Agho (2009) purported followership is an important trait of one’s

character. Agho also noted followership “has remained an undervalued and

underappreciated concept among management development practitioners and

researchers” (p. 159). The information gained from the study improved the

understanding of followership and the characteristics of a good follower. The research

expanded the understanding of the process of leadership and the characteristics and

behaviors leaders at all levels of business should exhibit. Identifying the characteristics

of followership has the potential to allow for a better method of identifying those who are

best suited for leadership training. The training may improve leadership at all levels of

an organization. The information gained may also allow for the development of training

programs emphasizing specific followership traits that translate directly to leadership

skills.

A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature

A literature review should include a framework to identify the importance of a

study and establish a benchmark for comparing results with the results of other studies

(Creswell, 2009). The literature reviewed provides background and definition for

leadership as well as followership. By analyzing scholarly journal articles and texts, I

provide a basis and framework to study the depth and scope of the phenomenon of

followership. The literature reviewed will include leadership theory, followership theory,

and hospitality management. The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was

to explore the followership characteristics that translate to good leadership. The research

11

questions for the study are as follows: What are the lived experiences of midlevel

managers from the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership

traits that translate to leadership skills? What are the informed perceptions of midlevel

managers in the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits

that translate to leadership skills?

Leadership

To achieve performance benefits, proactive employees seek to build strong

networks with those who have the influence and resources to succeed (Thompson, 2005).

Proactive employees seek to build a social environment that will lead to their own

success. In administrative situations, a proactive personality may benefit the

effectiveness of proactive employees as they will seek solutions to organizational

problems. Employees with proactive personalities would be more likely to be self-

starters and take the initiative to begin projects without cues from supervisors to benefit

the organization (Thompson, 2005).

The current leadership models are effective for top down organizational

paradigms (Uhl-Bien, Marion, & McKelvey, 2007) but are inadequate for application in a

knowledge oriented organization. A need exists to distinguish between leaders and

leadership (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007); leadership is the product of adaptive outcomes and the

leader is the individual in charge who influences the outcomes. Leadership in a

knowledge based organization entails leadership viewed not from an individual state but

from a more complex adaptive systems approach (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007). Uhl-Bien et al.

(2007) developed a framework for leadership that encompasses three functions: adaptive,

12

administrative, and enabling. The proximal source of change in an organization is

adaptive leadership, and the role of enabling leadership is to foster the circumstances that

will allow for adaptive leadership (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007).

Combinations of traits and attributes, rather than being additive, are independent

single traits and more likely to predict leadership ability (Zaccaro, 2007). Leader

attributes are cross situational in establishing the stability of leadership performance. The

cross situational situation is critical in the explanation of leadership behavior. Zaccaro

(2004, as cited in Zaccaro, 2007) defined leader traits as “coherent and integrated patterns

of personal characteristics, reflecting a range of individual differences, which foster

consistent leadership effectiveness across a variety of group and organizational

situations” (pp. 7-8).

A leader’s analysis of the followers in an organization relates to the how the

followers identify with the organization (Van Dick, Hirst, Grojean, & Wieseke, 2007).

How satisfied followers are with their circumstances as followers and their willingness to

perform in an exemplary manner determines follower identity with the organization. The

leader who stimulates a follower to analyze and look at an organization in terms of the

group encourages followers toward feeling, thinking, and acting on behalf of the group’s

norms. Social identity aspects of leadership have focused on the influence leaders exert

toward followers to increase self-efficacy, commitment, and performance (Van Dick et

al., 2007). Leaders are members of the group, and such identification serves as a

motivator to act on behalf of the group’s interest. A leader who strongly identifies with

13

his or her organization may use socialization procedures to develop the organization

specific role of the follower (Van Dick et al., 2007).

Researchers should address questions such as whether leaders are born not made,

what constitutes leadership effectiveness, and in what context different forms of

leadership will emerge (Avolio, 2007). The argument about what constitutes leadership

should indicate the importance of followers (Avolio, 2007), and in this context, most

leadership research indicates a follower is passive or nonexistent. The leader–member

exchange theory identifies the relationship between leaders and followers, and the

exchange has a bearing on the outcomes achieved (Avolio, 2007). The exchange

between leader and follower is the result of the organizational climate in which they find

themselves.

Carson, Tesluk, and Marrone (2007) conceptualized leadership in relation to the

strength of influence or the source of influence. Shared leadership or authority reaches

team members rather than being collected into a single leader. The pattern of emerging

influence in teams is the increase of the teams’ internal leadership networks (Carson et

al., 2007). A leadership network includes those individuals who rely on others for

leadership within the team. Team empowerment leads to shared leadership because team

members exercise influence (Carson et al., 2007), and shared leadership leads to greater

empowerment depending upon the stage of team development.

Leadership has a long evolutionary history, having come about as the result of

group challenges such as group movement and competition (Van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser,

2008). In a group situation, the first mover is more likely to become the leader. Task

14

leadership emerges when the interests of the leaders and the interests of the followers

coincide; however, when the interests of the two groups diverge, people oriented

leadership emerges (Van Vugt et al., 2008).

Strong negative relationships exist with leadership criteria in the laissez-faire

leadership style (Hinkin & Schriesheim, 2008). Follower performance does not

precipitate laissez-faire leadership, as in active or passive management by exception and

contingent reward style. “Laissez-faire leadership does not appear to be motivated and

intentional; it is simply the lack of any response to subordinates’ needs and performance”

(Hinkin & Schriesheim, 2008, p. 1235). Factors beyond the control of the leader may be

inconsistent or unacceptable when a leader attaches no action to the performance of

followers. Lack of any action can produce negative consequences when a subordinate

portrays poor performance and could be worse when the performance is good (Hinkin &

Schriesheim, 2008).

The corporate culture is not something formally appointed leaders can design

deliberately (Painter-Morland, 2008). Current literature about ethical leadership indicates

interactions between leaders and followers are important. A shift has occurred in the way

individuals interpret their relationships with their employers (Painter-Morland, 2008).

Consequently, the control and influence over these individuals is no longer the sole

responsibility of the appointed leader.

Leadership and followership relationships should be considered from a temporal

perspective (Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2008). With respect to leadership, time should be

considered by viewing the life cycles of leaders, their development, and their

15

performance (Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2008); this inside-the-career view of time considers a

leader’s development across time. Entrainment within the leader–follower relationship is

a viable link between the development of the organization and the employees, where

entrainment is the adjustment of pace or the cycle of one activity to synchronize with

another phenomenon (Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2007). The extension of entrainment theory as

a phenomenon can occur between different levels of individuals and collectives.

The changing internal and external conditions of business result in pressure to modify the

roles and processes of leaders and followers (Küpers & Weibler, 2008). Leadership

research reflects the trend for change and has reflected the social sciences (Küpers &

Weibler, 2008). The fact that an individual’s traits and characteristics are not well-suited

to study leadership is evidence of the change in research (Küpers & Weibler, 2008).

Leadership is a dynamic process focused on emotional as well as social systems (Küpers

& Weibler, 2008).

A social structure develops when a social activity convenes, and one of the

defining characteristics of the structure is the emergence of a leader (Judge, Piccolo, &

Kosalka, 2009). Emergence of a leader does not contradict the importance of individual

characteristics (Judge et al., 2009); rather, the emergence of leadership is proof of

individual differences. The individual characteristics manifest themselves as bright and

dark traits. The bright traits are conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness,

emotional stability, openness to experience, core self-evaluation, intelligence, and

charisma, and the dark traits are narcissism, hubris, social dominance, and

16

Machiavellianism (Judge et al., 2009). The leader trait perspective experienced decades

of prominence followed by much skepticism and lack of interest.

The definition of leadership reflects the idea that leadership is a process and

involves the exertion of intentional influence to facilitate activities and relationships

within a group or organization (Yukl, 2010). The general tendency to give credit to only

the leader clouds the followers’ contributions. Effective followers are responsible for the

successful completion of work carried out by the unit. To be effective, a follower must

integrate two different roles: the role of implementer of leader made decisions and the

role of challenger if the decisions made by the leader are ill-advised (Yukl, 2010).

Effective followers are more likely to be committed to the organization and its vision.

Followers who view themselves as active and independent rather than passive and

dependent upon their leader are more likely to be effective (Yukl, 2010).

Transformational leadership. Transformational leadership has become the most

popular approach to understanding leader effectiveness (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006) within

since the early 1990s. The explanation for the effects of transformational leaders is not

rooted in the leader but in the job (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Transformational leaders

play a role in the management of meaning and social information for their followers

(Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Followers who go beyond the normal requirements of their

jobs do so to satisfy some higher order of individual values (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006).

Transformational leaders have the ability to improve follower performance

(Boerner, Eisenbeiss, & Griesser, 2007) by encouraging better organizational citizenship.

Boerner et al. (2007) noted, “Transformational leaders inspire followers to achieve

17

extraordinary outcomes by providing both meaning and understanding” (p. 16). The

relationship between transformational leadership and performance outcomes is the result

of followers’ trust, agreement on values, cohesion, satisfaction, and motivation of

followers. As the conscientiousness of followers increase, leaders tend to empower and

increase motivation (Boerner et al., 2007).

Low level managers and high level managers face different contexts as the

environment of an organization defines the boundaries (Bruch & Walter, 2007). When

there is a difference in the perceived context of the environment, low and middle

managers find it difficult to be charismatic role models because they are constrained by

the organizational regulations and their authority is limited (Bruch & Walter, 2007). Low

and middle managers have their work tasks clearly predefined, which makes it difficult to

approach tasks in an innovative manner (Bruch & Walter, 2007). Therefore,

organizational visions that involve innovation may have limited relevance to the

supervisors of daily work (Bruch & Walter, 2007).

Meaningful work mediates the relationship between positive well-being and

transformational leadership (Arnold, Turner, Barling, Kelloway, & McKee, 2007). When

a leader does the right thing, the decision engenders the trust and respect of the followers

and idealized influence occurs (Arnold et al., 2007). Leaders who practice inspirationally

motivating followers encourage followers to sustain high performance (Arnold et al.,

2007). Followers challenged to answer their own questions are intellectually stimulated

(Arnold et al., 2007). When a leader practices coaching employees, shows appreciation

for work completed, and treats each employee as a person (Arnold et al., 2007), the

18

leader is individually considerate. Positive supervisory behavior contributes significantly

to the well-being of employees (Arnold et al., 2007). Finding higher purpose in work is

associated with transformational leadership and with increased job satisfaction,

cohesiveness, and effort (Arnold et al., 2007).

Transformational leadership is best suited to organizations in the early 21st

century (Northouse, 2007), when employees want to be inspired and empowered.

Transformational leaders encourage and help followers reach their potential by

encouraging attentiveness to the followers’ needs and motives and by celebrating their

accomplishments. “Transformational leadership places a strong emphasis on followers’

needs, values, and morals” (Northouse, 2007, p. 191). Such an emphasis allows and

encourages the building of trust between leader and follower.

Transformational leaders inspire followers (Nielsen, Randall, Yarker, & Brenner,

2008) to become more interested in their work and to become innovative and creative by

applying a visionary and creative style of leadership. Leadership behavior influences

affective well-being and the leadership–well-being relationship (Nielsen et al., 2008).

According to Bass (as cited in Nielsen et al., 2008), transformational leaders have an

impact on the perceptions followers have of their leaders’ work characteristics because

the leaders provide personal attention, enable innovative ways of working, and provide

coaching and encouragement through intellectual stimulation. Three work characteristics

act as a bridge between transformational leadership behavior and well-being in followers:

“increased role clarity, increased meaningfulness, and increased opportunities for

development” (Nielsen et al., 2008, p. 18).

19

Transformation and passive avoidance leadership styles have received a great deal

of focus in current research (Hetland, Sandal, & Johnsen, 2008). In transformational

leadership, leaders provide vision and inspirational motivation, which allows followers to

identify with the leaders and to consider followers’ needs (Hetland et al. 2008). Passive

avoidance leadership is a leadership style characterized by not making any decisions and

by reacting only after a problem becomes serious (Hetland et al. 2008). The leadership

literature linked leadership behavior and attitude to followership (Hetland et al., 2008) by

demonstrating how leaders’ behavior affects the behavior of their subordinates. High

levels of extraversion and conscientiousness are important follower characteristics

(Hetland et al., 2008).

Positive emotions are associated with transformational leadership, and negative

emotions are associated with transactional leadership (Rowold & Rohmann, 2009).

Transformational leadership improves the effect of transactional leadership on

satisfaction and the effectiveness of followers. Leaders of voluntary organizations cannot

rely upon reward and punishment as the primary means of motivation in the same manner

as leaders in for profit organizations (Rowold & Rohmann, 2009).

The economic and geopolitical developments of the recent past have placed

demands on leaders to make them more aware of their own values and to behave in a

more transparent manner (Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, & Avey, 2009). Organizational

leaders’ search for methods to help in the selection and development of future leaders

will reflect the values of the stakeholders and create a long-term vision. When followers

20

believe the top management exhibits authentic leadership, they will have greater trust in

those leaders (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009).

Leaders should develop a sense of security in followers to encourage employees

to be receptive to the vision of the organization (Moss, 2009). Before they begin

transformational behavior leaders need to encourage the development of the promotion

focus of employees. A sense of security in followers fosters a focus of followers on

potential opportunities and aspirations. Recognizing followers’ contributions and

demonstrating emotional support to maintain a sense of security are important (Moss,

2009).

Transformational leaders inspire employees to be independent thinkers by using a

creative and visionary style of leadership (Nielsen & Munir, 2009). Transformational

leaders feel good about themselves as they have a more clear vision of their work if they

foster appreciation for the work of the followers (Nielsen & Munir, 2009). This

intellectual stimulation encourages followers to make their own decisions (Nielsen &

Munir, 2009; Tims, Bakker, & Xanthopoulou, 2011) and become creative and innovative

in the accomplishment of their tasks; through this approach, the follower feels more

challenged and consequently more engaged in the process. This stimulation may lead to

self-efficacy as the followers believe they can solve difficult problems and handle

difficult tasks without the leader (Nielsen & Munir, 2009).

Leadership theories indicate individuals have preconceived ideas of followership

(Sy, 2010). The preconceived ideas may influence the leader–follower context because

the outcomes may serve as benchmarks that allow individuals to respond to followers in a

21

certain fashion (Sy, 2010). It is necessary to understand how leaders influence followers’

behaviors, cognitions, and outcomes to understand further the perceptions leaders have of

followers (Sy, 2010).

The transformation of the relationship between the leader and the follower is

important to the study of human development and institutions (Kuepers, 2011). Without

transformation of attitude, management/leadership style organizations may remain

stagnant. A phenomenological perspective is best to view transformational agents and

processes and to view the transformation through a lived situation (Kuepers, 2011).

Transformational practices are the result of the involvement of members of the

organization as they seek ways to become involved in the changes taking place (Kuepers,

2011). The leadership of the organization guides the activity of the members by instilling

the concept of the vision for the organization (Kuepers, 2011). The concept requires the

investment of time, energy, money, and other resources with a long-term focus (Kuepers,

2011).

Charismatic leadership. Followers’ motivation, attitudes, and behaviors in a

leader centric perspective such as charismatic leadership (J. M. Howell & Shamir, 2005)

rely too heavily upon the influence of leader characteristics and behaviors. The role of

followers in the leadership process is more complex than the role assigned to followers in

leadership theories (J. M. Howell & Shamir, 2005). Understanding followers is equally

as important as understanding leaders (J. M. Howell & Shamir, 2005).

Positive modeling is a viable method by which leaders can develop authentic

followers (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005). An inclusive, ethical,

22

caring, and strength based organizational climate can pair with modeling. A leader

attains authenticity through self-awareness, self-acceptance, and authentic actions and

relationships (Gardner et al., 2005). “These relationships are characterized by: (a)

transparency, openness, and trust, (b) guidance toward worthy objectives, and (c) an

emphasis on follower development” (Gardner et al., 2005, p. 345). To model and

promote the development of confidence, optimism, hope, and resilience, Gardner et al.

(2005) noted authentic leaders must draw from optimal self-esteem and psychological

well-being. An integral component of the consequences of the development of authentic

leadership is the development of authentic followers (Gardner et al., 2005). The

modeling of authentic leaders in terms of self-awareness and selfregulation that leads to

follower development (Gardner et al., 2005) produces the development of authentic

followership. The observation of a leader displaying self-awareness and transparent

decision making that reflect a commitment to core values will lead to the development of

trust in the leader, which could foster follower performance (Gardner et al., 2005).

Organizational leaders strive to develop and implement processes, initiatives, and

programs designed to improve the attitudes and performance of followers (Moss, Ritossa,

& Ngu, 2006). The success of these programs depends upon the motives of the followers

and is referred to as regulatory focus. Regulatory focus influences leadership style, or in

other words, the followers determine how the leader is going to lead by influencing the

processes, initiatives, and programs (Moss et al., 2006).

Followers perceive their leaders as more effective when the leaders exhibit

personalities similar to their followers (Schyns & Felfe, 2006). Groups of followers who

23

have personality characteristics similar to their leader perceive the leader as more

effective (Schyns & Felfe, 2006). Therefore, individual followers who perceive the

leader similar to themselves will perceive more charismatic and transformational

leadership.

Recognition of a leader’s integrity and authenticity by the followers (Fields, 2007)

makes a difference in the degree of the leader’s influence over the group of followers.

Fields (2007) also emphasized the identification of attributes, attitudes, or approaches

that influence the followers. Leaders must behave in ways consistent with their moral

codes and personal values. To influence and earn the respect of followers, leaders must

exhibit integrity as well as authenticity. To determine authenticity and integrity,

followers need specific information from the leader, from the context, and from other

followers (Fields, 2007). Integrity and authenticity are attributes a follower may attribute

to the leader in the context with the attributes of competence, reliability, concern for

followers, standards of performance, and reputation (Fields, 2007).

The focus of recent leadership research has been leaders and their behavior and

traits (Schyns, Meindl, & Croon, 2007; Shalit, Popper, & Zakay, 2010). However,

researchers are becoming increasingly interested in the followers’ perspective of

leadership. Schyns et al. (2007) regarded leadership from a social constructivist point of

view, which means people are involved in building leadership rather than leadership

being just what the leader does. A criticism of this approach is the approach does not

include the situation in which the followers act.

24

Leadership is situational and involves the process of influence (Vroom & Jago,

2007). If no one is following, then no one is leading; all leaders have one thing in

common: followers. Threats, promises of rewards, and inspirational appeals (Vroom &

Jago, 2007) are effective in motivating followers to some extent and under certain

circumstances. Vroom and Jago (2007) established five implications of leadership:

is a process, not a property of a person;

involves a particular form of influence called motivating;

the nature of leadership incentives, extrinsic or intrinsic, is not part of the

definition;

is collaboration in pursuit of a common goal;

in the minds of both leader and followers is not necessarily viewed as

desirable by all other parties; and

is not purely dispositional or purely situational, as to think so would eliminate

a major portion of the phenomenon.

The level of confidence in the knowledge, skills, and abilities associated with

other social roles differentiates leadership efficacy from other forms (Hannah, Avolio,

Luthans, & Harms, 2008). A consideration for developing leadership should be the

leaders’ and followers’ efficacies associated with the challenges of development and

performance (Hannah et al., 2008). Leaders’ (followers’) efficacy is “a belief in their

perceived capabilities to organize the positive psychological capabilities, motivation,

means, collective resources, and course of action required to attain effective, sustainable

performance across various leadership roles, demands and context” (Hannah et al., 2008,

25

p. 670). Leader self-efficacy can demonstrate a capability to predict work outcomes and

has been associated with higher levels of performance for both individuals and groups

(Hannah et al., 2008).

Employees value respectful leadership (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009).

Respectful leadership consists of noticing others and recognizing them as persons of

value and importance (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009). A respectful person perceives

a reason for the respect that justifies the respect itself (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009).

A respectful person acts in a manner that creates a feeling of appreciation for the other

person’s importance and worth (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009). Respectful

leadership will overcome the lack of respect employees feel from their supervisors and

increase performance and production (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009).

The promotion of team innovation by the support of team commitment and

identity encourages team members to cooperate (Paulsen, Maldanado, Callan, & Ayoko,

2009). Teams with a strong team identity and led by individuals with a charismatic style

are more cooperative and innovative (Paulsen et al., 2009). A transformational leader

who influences followers’ senses of identity will influence those followers to follow a

more cooperative strategy to resolve organizational issues (Paulsen et al., 2009).

Leadership style directly affects innovation and shapes innovative outcomes through

team identification and cooperation (Paulsen et al., 2009).

Different variables have been subjected to analysis to provide a list of leadership

characteristics (Anjanee, Neera, & Shoma, 2010). Politics and the leaders being heads of

state gave rise to the classic concept of leadership (Anjanee et al., 2010). Trait theory of

26

leadership gave rise to the belief that leaders are endowed with special traits that allow

them to be able to lead (Anjanee et al., 2010). Globalization, liberalization, and

technology will influence leadership in the 21st century (Anjanee et al., 2010). The

successful leaders of the future will influence the followers who do the work by using

emotional intelligence (Anjanee et al., 2010).

Charismatic leadership is frequently associated with extraordinary forms of

influence (Galvin, Balkundi, & Waldman, 2010). Without direct contact between the

leader and the followers, a void may develop as there are no behaviors to compare against

their preconceived prototypes (Galvin et al., 2010). Therefore, a need exists for

surrogates to help form the influence exhibited by charismatic leaders. Surrogates are

responsible for leaders being able to gain considerable influence even at great distances

(Galvin et al., 2010). Leaders who have followers with whom they spend little time can

benefit from the surrogate’s behavior providing a model of followership (Galvin et al.,

2010). Modeling can be in formal or informal settings where the leader is or is not

present. Modeling can also take place in response to a leader’s tasking without coercion.

Modeling can be as simple as a leader’s greeting or small talk in the presence of others

who do not know the leader well (Galvin et al., 2010). Such encounters portray the

leader as friendly and help distant followers feel comfortable around the leader.

Sinha (2010) explored the use of symbolic and relational aspects of leadership

through the subgenres of dramatism. The three subgenres are dramatism (life is drama),

dramaturgy (life is like drama), and social drama (life and drama are interdependent).

Dramatism focuses attention on the social construction of leader identity by explaining

27

the action of the leader and the reciprocal action of the follower, which indicates the

nature of leadership cannot be reduced to an objective set of rules (Sinha, 2010).

Followership

Litzinger and Schaefer (1982) asked graduates of a military academy how

leadership should be taught and developed. The graduates’ responses to the question

were to teach individuals how to be followers first. Litzinger and Schaefer posited

mature leaders take upon themselves all the attributes of those led.

Interdependence exists between leadership and followership (Hollander, 1992).

Leaders are generally in the spotlight (Hollander, 1992), command attention, and wield

influence; however, followers can wield influence and affect a leader’s activity. The role

of the follower can have the potential for assuming leadership functions (Hollander,

1992).

Followership dominates organizations, with followers outnumbering leaders

(Dixon & Westbrook, 2003). The fixation with leadership constrains the nature and

importance of the follower and the relationship with the leader. The concept of

followership is not synonymous with subordinate (Dixon & Westbrook, 2003). “Being a

subordinate is mechanical or physical, it is being under the control of the superiors as if

in some hypnotic trance” (Dixon & Westbrook, 2003, p. 20), whereas being a follower is

a condition and not a position.

Followership is a role equally as relevant to achieving group and organization

goals as is the leadership role (J. P. Howell & Costley, 2006). Followership complements

(J. P. Howell & Costley, 2006) the leadership role by maintaining a high degree of

28

enthusiasm, cooperation, active participation, task competence, and critical thinking. The

followership role seeks to satisfy the personal needs of the individual follower (J. P.

Howell & Costley, 2006). The needs are (a) comradeship, (b) confirm a favorable self-

concept, and (c) satisfy the need for self-esteem and self-actualization (J. P. Howell &

Costley, 2006). When a follower is able to exhibit expert power by displaying

intelligence, competence, and critical thinking skills and exhibit referent power by

displaying sociability, flexibility, and the ability to handle stress, the follower will be

more effective and influential with the leader (J. P. Howell & Costley, 2006).

One reason leadership scholars have had difficulty defining leadership is the

questions being asked do not have general answers and adds to the complexity and not

clarity of the definition (Hackman & Wagerman, 2007). Leadership scholars have

concentrated efforts to identify the dimensions that summarize leader behavior and style

(Hackman & Wagerman, 2007), which reinforces the need for qualitative studies of

leadership. “The prospect of losing resources is qualitatively different from the prospect

of a gain” (Hackman & Wagerman, 2007, p. 45). Leadership and followership are linked

with one another and the differences between leader and follower are blurred: “leaders

also are followers and followers also exhibit leadership” (Hackman & Wagerman, 2007,

p. 45). When comparing excellent leadership performers to poor leadership performers,

the same logic must apply, in that poor leadership performers exhibit entirely different

behaviors than do excellent leadership performers (Hackman & Wagerman, 2007).

Four major threats to the stability of the world are a nuclear/biological situation, a

worldwide pandemic, tribalism, and the leadership of human institutions (Bennis, 2007).

29

To solve the first three problems, there must be exemplary leadership (Bennis, 2007).

Leadership is never purely academic in nature, and it is easy to disallow bad leadership

when describing leadership in the language of academics. According to Bennis (2007),

“Creativity is an essential characteristic of leaders” (p. 2). Leaders must make creative

choices about the nature of the analysis of the study of leadership (Bennis, 2007).

Leadership is a relationship between the leader, followers, and the common goal they

share. When comparing great and heroic leaders of the past, the one thing they all had in

common was a group of willing followers, meaning leadership only exists in the

consensus of the followers (Bennis, 2007).

Shamir (2007) described five followership roles: followers as recipients of the

leader’s influence, followers as moderators of the leader’s influence, followers as

substitutes for leadership, followers as constructors of leadership, and followers as

leaders. The focus of most leadership theories (Shamir, 2007) is the personal

background, traits, characteristics, and actions of leaders. Followers are the recipients or

moderators of the actions taken by the leader to achieve the leader’s goals or vision. This

leader centric perspective has potentially negative implications, such as the

overdependence of followers on leaders (Shamir, 2007). Developing leaders may only

have a limited effect on leadership development because followers and their contributions

to the process are not included (Shamir, 2007).

The people who are doing the following define leadership (van Knippenberg, van

Knippenberg, & Giessner, 2007). The influence a leader has over followers may be a

result of the perceptions the followers have of leadership rather than from the leader (van

30

Knippenberg et al., 2007), which indicates when performance outcomes are attributed to

leadership a tendency may exist to overattribute the performance to the leaders. The

presumed effectiveness of leaders may stem from the followers’ conceptions of

leadership and the attributions to leadership (van Knippenberg et al., 2007). This process

may occur at the level of an individual follower or at the level of a group of followers that

shares a definition of effective leadership (van Knippenberg et al., 2007). Leaders are

also members of the group they lead, and as a group member responses may be

characterized by the leader’s characteristics as a group member rather than as a leader

(van Knippenberg et al., 2007).

Thinking and action are being, and it is difficult to separate thinking and action

into distinct entities; action takes place but always with thinking and vice versa (Smythe

& Norton, 2007). Thinking leaders know leading is following (Smythe & Norton, 2007),

and following and leading depend upon each other. Leaders should interact with the

followers to listen, watch, guide, and draw information about the direction to lead

(Smythe & Norton, 2007.

The identification of leaders and followers allows for individuals to define

themselves within the group (Lührmann & Eberl, 2007). Members of the group explore

and imitate the behaviors of other members of the group to become effective leaders

(Lührmann & Eberl, 2007). Identification within the group is a product of self-reflection,

which places the member as either a leader or a follower (Lührmann & Eberl, 2007).

Identity negotiation takes place within the group as leaders and followers remain

sensitive to social feedback. To discover where the individual fits within a group and to

31

get social approval for identity proposal, an individual uses the attitudes of others to help

make sense of the process (Lührmann & Eberl, 2007). Members of the group view and

treat other members of the group and themselves as either leaders or followers

(Lührmann & Eberl, 2007) based upon the establishment of the leader and follower

identities of the group. Leaders have a greater impact upon the construction of identity

process because leaders and followers do not interact on equal terms.

A growing amount of research about followership indicates researchers cannot

study leadership in isolation with only minor consideration given to followers (Baker,

2007). “Social change in the United States and elsewhere shaped people’s view of

followers” (Baker, 2007, p. 51). After World War II, the United States became a

dominant economic power, and because of the nature of the leader–follower relationship,

organizational leaders promised job security in exchange for loyalty, obedience, and hard

work (Baker, 2007). Nothing more was asked of followers while economic conditions

were stable because the need to explore the leader–follower relationship was not

established. However, in the 1980s, U.S. industry experienced a crisis brought on by the

advancing global economy, changes in the labor force, and government regulations that

introduced changes in the employment relationship that changed the stable nature of the

leader–follower relationship (Baker, 2007). As a result, the need for more active

followers arose. Followership theory grew out of recognition of followers and the

development of active followership (Baker, 2007).

The traditional concepts of leadership and followership require modification

(Küpers, 2007) due to the increased fragmentation and change in the external and internal

32

contexts of business. The interactions between leader and follower are relations between

independent individuals (Küpers, 2007). The leader’s action is reduced to an act

performed to know how to achieve influence over another (Küpers, 2007). In this

paradigm, followership has been restricted to show how the followers can contribute to

the qualities of the leader.

Followership is typically included as an afterthought in most traditional leadership

theories; however, leadership scholars have increasingly begun including the role of

followership within the leadership paradigm (Avolio & Reichard, 2008). An increased

sense of psychological ownership, trust, and transparency heightens followership

potential (Avolio & Reichard, 2008) within the leader–follower dynamic. Trust is a

relationship between leader and follower and is the key to followership. Transparency

enhances organizational intelligence and the processes of followership (Avolio &

Reichard, 2008).

Most leadership experts indicate followership has an active role that complements

the role of the leader in achieving results (J. P. Howell & Mendez, 2008). The active role

(J. P. Howell & Mendez, 2008) addresses the fact that both the follower and the leader

have the potential to product effective or ineffective leader–follower interactions and

successful or unsuccessful results. Mentoring programs are likely to support these

leader–follower interactions (J. P. Howell & Mendez, 2008). Professional education is

also likely to support positive leader–follower interactions and is likely to support a

shifting role in followership that reflects the need to alternate between leadership and

followership roles within an organization (J. P. Howell & Mendez, 2008).

33

Stech (2008) called for a new way to understand and define leadership. The

leadership–followership paradigm must address leadership and followership at the same

time, while not just considering the bureaucratic organization (Stech, 2008). In the

leadership–followership paradigm, an individual can occupy both leadership and

followership conditions at various times within an organization (Stech, 2008).

A leader and a follower serve a common purpose, each from his or her own role

(Chaleff, 2008). This idea creates a noble role for the follower and creates a healthier and

more level playing field. The only thing a leader must have is followers; “if no one is

following, then no one is leading” (Chaleff, 2008, p. 72). Leadership cannot exist

without followership, and it is disingenuous to honor leadership without honoring

followership.

Adair (2008) explored the apparent disparity among leadership scholars in that

most did not yet understand that leadership is a part of followership. The foundation a

follower establishes equates to the house with a solid, firm foundation that is able to

withstand the elements, and while each follower maintains this foundation, the ability to

lead will be manifested (Adair, 2008). Organizations succeed or fail based upon the input

and output of their employees; however, employees succeed or fail based upon the

leader–follower relationship (Adair, 2008).

Leadership is a process that transfers between and among individuals (Gilbert &

Matviuk, 2008) within an organization. This transfer means those who are followers

sometimes assume leadership roles and vice versa. The followership paradigm shifts

34

from being subordinate and obedient to organizational tasks to a role that enhances

growth within an organization (Gilbert & Matviuk, 2008).

The enthusiasm displayed by those researching great leaders of past and the zeal

of those trying to identify leaders to hire overlook the people the leaders will lead

(Mushonga & Torrance, 2008). Followers’ personalities relate to a specific, appropriate

followership style (Mushonga & Torrance, 2008). The term followership is often

associated with negative connotations and a lack of research on the topic (Mushonga &

Torrance, 2008).

It is up to the nonleaders or the followers to make an organization function in an

effective manner (Dixon, 2008). The followers who achieve the mission are destined to

contribute in a positive manner. Followers are an important part of leadership

effectiveness (Dixon, 2008). As followers gain experience, they become sounding boards

for those with less experience, and these followers are leaders in encouraging those with

less experience to hold their course in achieving the leader’s mission (Dixon, 2008).

Followers interpret social processes based upon their own set of cognitive schema

and these followers base their responses upon self-regulatory structures tied to their self-

identity (Lord, 2008). Based upon cognitive psychology, followers do not experience the

world directly but through mental a schema learned over time (Lord, 2008). This schema

is a critical part of a follower’s contribution to the leadership process.

Ethical leadership (Neubert, Carlson, Kacmar, Roberts, & Chonko, 2009) affects

follower job satisfaction and commitment both directly and indirectly. The indirect effect

of ethical leadership shapes perceptions of the ethical climate of an organization, which

35

increases job satisfaction and commitment to an organization. Managers use the

legitimate authority to maintain influence within the organization (Neubert et al., 2009).

Because of the considerate and trustworthy nature of the behavior of ethical leadership,

managers are able to develop relational attachments with subordinates (Neubert et al.,

2009). Development of relational attachments allows for the exertion of moral authority,

which allows for the development of an environment conducive for long-term

development of organizational members (Neubert et al., 2009).

Followers dominate all organizations, but a preoccupation with the leader hinders

the consideration of the importance of the followers and the relationship between

followers and leaders (Dixon, 2009). Managers use performance evaluations as a way to

express expectations (Dixon, 2009). The measurement of follower behaviors would

increase the value and usefulness of performance evaluations. Organizational

performance depends upon contributions of both leaders and followers. However,

managers appear to be more interested in the leadership rather than the followers who

sustain the leadership (Dixon, 2009).

Positive follower characteristics are to be creative, be innovative, be proactive,

display initiative, and be a learning orientation (Zhu, Avolio, & Walumbwa, 2009). In

recent studies on transformational leadership, researchers have explored the variables that

influence or moderate the link between leadership and followers’ motivation and

performance. The followers’ need for growth tempered the relationship between

participative leadership and follower accomplishment. Leadership researchers should

36

explore followers’ attributes to determine how to motivate followers to perform (Zhu et

al., 2009).

While some leadership research focuses on followership, most research is focused

on leadership behaviors and not followership behaviors (Carsten, Uhl-Bien, West, Patera,

& McGregor, 2010). Followership behaviors differ as they do not address the activities

of independent subordinate positions (Carsten et al., 2010) but rather address the

behaviors of individuals acting in relation to the leader. Followership behaviors are not

how individuals react to their work or coworkers but how individuals respond to those of

higher status. Effective followers influence their leaders with constructive and upward

communication to seek positive transformation in the organization.

The impression followers have of leader competence and intentions will have an

effect upon the outcome as far as leadership effectiveness is concerned (Yukl, 2010).

Followers will be more effective if they view themselves as active and independent

(Yukl, 2010). A leader will be much more effective if the followers provide accurate

information, resist giving bad advice, and provide encouragement and coaching (Yukl,

2010).

The categorization of followers (Chong & Wolf, 2010) according to their

personality traits is essential. Many of the traits associated with effective leaders are also

associated with effective followers (Chong & Wolf, 2010). The traits are “commitment,

initiative, courageous conscience, creativity and innovation, and having a sense of

direction, drive, and intensity” (Chong & Wolf, 2010, p. 403). Therefore, if the traits of

37

effective followers and the traits of effective leaders are similar, then effective followers

may become effective leaders (Chong & Wolf, 2010).

The most effective attributes of followers help in understanding both leader and

follower behavior (Antelo, Prilipko, & Sheridan-Pereira, 2010). Follower attributes are

an essential component of leadership (Antelo et al., 2010). Leaders attribute

characteristics to their followers based upon the behavior of the followers. A person does

not have to be in a leadership position to provide leadership (Antelo et al., 2010).

Leadership and followership are closely related (Daft, 2011). Followership can

shape leader behavior just as leaders can develop people into good leaders (Daft, 2011).

For any organization, there must be people who willingly follow just as there must be

people who willingly lead. Everyone is a follower (Collinson, 2006; Daft, 2011) at some

point, even those in positions of leadership and authority who find effective followership

is not easy. Both leaders and followers must be proactive and work together to achieve a

shared vision (Daft, 2011). Leaders need followers with a make it happen attitude, a

willingness to collaborate, the motivation to stay up to date, and the passion to drive

individual growth (Daft, 2011).

Hospitality Management

Exploring the history of commercial hospitality has value for the hospitality

industry (O’Gorman, 2009) and had application to the current study. The history of the

commercial hospitality industry began in Mesopotamia in approximately 2000 BC

(O’Gorman, 2009). Laws of the time controlled the commercial hostels and inns of

Mesopotamia and ancient Rome (O’Gorman, 2009). The supply of commercial

38

hospitality was subject to the demand of the market, even in ancient times (O’Gorman,

2009).

The increased use of technology and the worldwide economic crisis has created

changes in the hospitality and tourism industry and has left the industry with uncertainty

and unpredictability (Naipaul & Wang, 2009). The current business environment calls

for creativity and innovation (Naipaul & Wang, 2009) and a different set of management

skills. Hospitality managers must demonstrate the management skills to be successful in

the current business environment (Naipaul & Wang, 2009).

Managers in the hospitality industry need a broad range of skills (Harkinson,

Poulston & Kim 2009). If educators know what the hospitality industry requires, then a

modification of curricula can take place to meet the needs of the industry (Harkinson et

al., 2009). Hospitality students are confident in the value of their degree; however,

experience is important to their career as well. Short internships offered in hospitality

degrees allow students to connect theory and practice in an industry setting (Harkinson et

al., 2009).

The requirement for hospitality management in the future is great; the National

Restaurant Association has forecast the need for thousands of managerial positions for

the hospitality industry in the future for travel, hotel, and restaurant businesses (Walker,

2010). The focus of the current study was the hotel business. The hospitality industry

philosophy has changed over time from managers’ planning, organizing, implementing,

and evaluating to the philosophy of more participative management and increased

associate empowerment (Walker, 2010). The corporate philosophy has shifted away

39

from production (Walker, 2010) to an environment with a focus on guest-related services.

Successful organizations are able to combine the shift in industry philosophy and

corporate philosophy and communicate the changes in philosophy to employees.

Hospitality managers should develop institutional cultures to support their

employees while improving their own leadership competency; when taken together,

overall performance will improve (Aree, Zain, & Razalli, 2010). Leadership competency

and organizational culture can work together to improve organizational revenue (Aree et

al., 2010). Hospitality industry managers can improve revenue and responsiveness by

improving strategic positioning, critical thinking, communication, and interpersonal

skills. Many of the same skills are required of good followers.

To provide excellent customer service, hospitality employees must make

decisions independently (Gill, Fitzgerald, Bhutani, Mand, & Sharma, 2010), and for this

to happen, employee empowerment must exist. Transformational leadership provides the

means to improve empowerment strategies within the hospitality industry (Gill et al.,

2010). Transformation leadership encourages open communication, and through

communication, hospitality managers can instill the vision, mission, goals, and objectives

of an organization (Gill et al., 2010), which increases empowerment. Employee

empowerment programs help ensure excellent customer service and leadership practices

should reflect the desire for empowerment (Gill et al., 2010).

The characteristics displayed by a manager affects the way a hospitality manager

relates to and influences followers (Brownell, 2010). Recent worldwide events

demonstrates not only is leadership important but also the character of the leader matters.

40

Servant leadership philosophy can benefit the hospitality industry (Brownell, 2010).

Organizational trust is the result of employee empowerment and shared values. The

behavior of hospitality leaders has an impact on the organization; the leaders can make a

difference (Brownell, 2010).

Transition and Summary

The preceding section contained a foundation for the current study. Background

information, as well as the problem and purpose statements, were reviewed. A

description of the nature of the study was provided, along with the research questions.

The conceptual framework for the study was identified as systems theory. The section

included definitions of terms; assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of the study; the

significance of the study to include the implications for social change; and a review of the

professional scholarly literature.

The following section will begin with a review of the purpose of the study, as well

as a description of the role of the researcher in the data collection process. The following

section will also contain a description of the participant selection process and an outline

of the measures designed to ensure the ethical protection of participants. Additionally,

the following section will contain a description of the research method and design,

population from which the participants were drawn, data collection instrument, data

organization and analysis techniques, and the reliability and validity of the study.

41

Section 2: The Project

This section contains a description of the phenomenological research project; a

review of the purpose of the project; a description of the role of the researcher;

identification of the participants; description of the research method and design;

identification of the population and sampling; methods of data collection, organization,

and analysis; and description of the methods to establish reliability and validity of the

study.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the

phenomenon of followership by identifying characteristics that translate to good

leadership. The research method was appropriate for the study because the method added

rich detail to document existing knowledge about leadership and helped to understand

leadership from the perspective of the actors rather than explaining it from the outside

(Ospina, 2004). Other research methods were not appropriate to obtain the requisite data

because they would not have allowed me to take into account the human experience

associated with the phenomenological research method (Creswell, 2009). The research

involved conducting in-depth interviews and was appropriate to a qualitative

phenomenological study because I gained access to the respondents’ lived experiences.

Other research designs such as grounded theory were not appropriate because researchers

of grounded theory studies seek to answer the how and why questions and then establish

a theory based upon the findings.

42

Dixon (2008) and Adair (2008) noted the preoccupation with leadership in the

United States. Adair reported organizational leaders only spend 20% of their training

time on followers. The study helped to close this gap by helping to identify possible

characteristics of exemplary followers, which could lead to the development of

information that may improve leadership training programs, specifically improve

leadership development. The specific participant population of the study was 20

midlevel hospitality managers located in the southeastern United States along the coast of

the Gulf of Mexico. The population was limited to midlevel hospitality managers in

organizations with more than 100 and less than 400 employees.

Role of the Researcher

The role of the researcher is to try to understand the phenomenon from the

perspective of inside the population (Ospina, 2004). From inside a population, the

researcher uses an inductive mode to let the data speak (Ospina, 2004). A researcher

should aim for a holistic picture (Ospina, 2004) from each of the unique interviews that

take place. The role of the researcher was one of immersion in the experiential

engagement by maintaining direct contact with the participants. As the researcher of the

study, I conducted face-to-face interviews to understand leadership fully by identifying

the perceived characteristics of exemplary followers. Creswell (2009) noted the

researcher is responsible for gaining access to the research site and has responsibility for

any ethical issues that might arise during a study.

43

Participants

Creswell (2007) indicated researchers should select research participants carefully

to ensure the individuals selected have experienced the phenomenon under investigation.

The participants volunteered to participate in the study. The pool of potential participants

was midlevel managers of hospitality properties along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in

the United States.

The participants in the population received a letter of invitation (see Appendix A)

asking them to participate voluntarily in the study. The letter of introduction explained

the importance of the study to the hospitality industry and to management in general and

the need for their participation. The letter also indicated the approximate amount of time

necessary for participation. A copy of the informed consent letter sent to those who

volunteered to become participants is in Appendix B. The letter reiterated that

participation would be completely voluntary and that participants could withdraw at any

time without penalty. The letter also informed the participants of the confidential nature

of their responses.

Research Method and Design

The focus of the qualitative phenomenological study was exploring the

perceptions of followership of midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the

Gulf Coast in the United States. The study involved the use of a semistructured

interviewing method to determine, from the participants’ point of view (see Appendix C),

their lived and perceived experience with respect to the phenomenon of followership

44

(Creswell, 2009). A quantitative methodology was not a viable approach because the

research questions could not be tested with an experimental design.

Method

The study involved conducting a qualitative phenomenological study. The

research method was appropriate for the study because the study added rich detail that

documented existing knowledge about leadership and helped to understand leadership

from the perspective of the actors (Olivares et al., 2007; Ospina, 2004). Other research

methods were not appropriate to obtain the requisite data because leadership scholars

seek answers to questions about leadership culture and have found quantitative methods

do not adequately explain the phenomenon (Olivares et al., 2007; Ospina, 2004; Parr,

1998).

The quantitative method is appropriate when using an objective scientific

approach with defined collected numerical data and statistical analysis (Creswell, 2009)

but was not appropriate for the current study. Collecting numeric data on followership

would have been inappropriate because followership consists of nonquantifiable

attributes as defined by Kelley (2008). Other qualitative methods were also not

appropriate for the study. Grounded theory was not appropriate because it is a strategy

through which researchers seek to develop a theory about a specific process (Creswell,

2009). Ethnography was not appropriate because it involves studying a cultural group

over a long period of time (Creswell, 2009). Other research methods were not

appropriate to obtain the requisite data because researchers applying these methods fail to

take into account the human experience associated with the phenomenological research

45

method (Creswell, 2009). The qualitative phenomenological research method was

appropriate to the study because the study involved examining the perceived experiences

of the participants compared to the lived experiences of the participants as they pertained

to the characteristics of exemplary followers (Olivares et al., 2007). The study included a

“descriptive-analytic framework” (Olivares et al., 2007, p. 78) for better understanding

followership.

Research Design

The research design included an in-depth interview, which was appropriate to the

study because contextual factors allow researchers to observe and describe the subjective

factors that occur in a given situation (Conger, 1998; Ospina, 2004). Through qualitative

interviews, I gathered data and explored the lived experiences about followership of

midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast of the United States.

Richards and Morse (2007) noted the “research design is created by the researcher, is

molded (rather than dictated) by the method, and is responsive to the context and the

participants” (p. 74). Themes gathered and general statements made provided a general

description of what the research participants experienced (Creswell, 2007) to develop a

description of followership.

Population and Sampling

In qualitative research, Creswell (2007) indicated researchers should select

research participants who have experienced the researched phenomenon if possible. The

purposeful selection of participants is necessary to have a better understanding of the

phenomenon in detail (Richards & Morse, 2007). The identification and selection of

46

potential research participants in a qualitative study may not always follow established

criteria (Moustakas, 1994). The 20 participants for the study were chosen purposively

from the total population of volunteer midlevel managers of hospitality organizations

along the Gulf Coast.

The purposeful sampling frame identified participants who had experienced

followership and were willing to share their experiences (Richards & Morse, 2007). The

participants for the study had at least one direct report and had been in their current

position for at least 1 year. Leedy and Ormrod (2005) noted, “A typical sample size for a

phenomenological study is from 5 to 25 individuals who have directly experienced the

phenomenon that is being studied” (p. 139). In qualitative designs, researchers must

decide how many participants to include (Seidman, 2006).

Data Collection

Instruments

The phenomenological study involved a qualitative method of data collection by

using in-depth interview data obtained from the participants. The patterns and themes of

the interview data became apparent through the use of Moustakas’ (1994) modified van

Kaam methodology. The modified van Kaam method of analysis involves the

classification of data obtained according to frequency of occurrence (Moustakas, 1994).

The pattern and themes were compared to provide a description of what was experienced

by the research participants to describe the investigated phenomenon (Creswell, 2009).

The participants in the study were provided the opportunity to comment on the accuracy

of the findings in follow-up interviews (Creswell, 2009).

47

Data Collection Technique

I collected the data for the study through face-to-face interviews of the

participants. Through qualitative interviews, a researcher can elicit responses from

participants about a particular research topic. The interview was semiformal, using open-

ended questions. I designed the questions to collect background data on the participants

and to collect data that pertained to the participants’ experiences with the phenomenon in

question (Creswell, 2009). I audio recorded the interviews and took notes to capture

additional nuances of the experience. To produce detailed transcripts of each interview, I

had the interviews transcribed. Appendix C contains the interview questions.

Data Organization Techniques

The recorded data gathered from the face-to-face interviews were kept on my

password-protected personal computer, with the password known only to me. I will

maintain and secure all the data for a minimum of 3 years after the completion of the

study. At the end of 3 years, I will delete all computer files and shred hard copy notes

and other files relating to the study.

Data Analysis Technique

The current study included an inductive content analysis of the data. The analysis

included coding, categorizing, and abstracting. Specific categories of data were

identified and grouped, based on the group in which the data belong. Comparisons

between data and other observations were made to describe the phenomenon further,

increase understanding of the phenomenon, and generate knowledge regarding the

phenomenon. For the study, coding was used to describe each category of data

48

(Friedrich, Byrne, & Mumford, 2009; Jackson, Drummond, & Camara, 2007).

Participants’ interview responses were analyzed using Moustakas’ (1994) modified van

Kaam methodology from which core themes emerged. The modified can Kaam method

of analysis involves the classification of data obtained according to frequency of

occurrence (Moustakas, 1994).

Reliability and Validity

Reliability

In qualitative research, reliability is the adoption of research methods that are

generally accepted as legitimate (Collingridge & Gantt, 2008). Phenomenological in-

depth interviews are accepted and recognized by the research community and should

produce meaningful results (Collingridge & Gantt, 2008; Ospina, 2004). The study

consisted of in-depth interviews of the participants and produced meaningful results.

Validity

Content validity is a measure of how closely the sample represents the population

(Cooper & Schindler, 2003). In the study, content validity was checked by selecting

three individuals from the participant pool and asking them to review the interview

questions. The individuals determined the questions were valid and would measure the

phenomenon under investigation.

Transition and Summary

The preceding section contained a description of the study, including a review of

the purpose of the study. The section also contained a description of my role as the

researcher in the data collection process. The section provided a description of how

49

participants were selected and an outline of measures to ensure the ethical protection of

participants. Additionally, the section contained a description of the research method and

design, population from which the participants were drawn, data collection instrument,

data organization and analysis techniques, and the reliability and validity of the study.

The following section will contain an overview of the study, findings, the application to

professional practice, implications for social change, recommendations for further study,

a summary, and study conclusions.

50

Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change

The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the

phenomenon of followership characteristics that translate into good leadership skills.

Section 3 includes an overview of the study and a summary of the findings of the study

that includes conclusions for each research question along with a discussion of the

evidence collected and how it relates to followership literature. Section 3 also contains

applications for professional practice and implications for social change, a discussion of

recommendations for action, implications for further research, a summary of the study,

and a statement of conclusions drawn from the research.

Overview of Study

The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the

phenomenon of followership characteristics that translate into good leadership skills.

Creswell (2007) indicated a qualitative phenomenological study requires the researcher to

discover and describe the meaning of the lived experiences of individuals who have

knowledge about the phenomenon. The phenomenological research design was

appropriate to the qualitative methodology because I was able to gain access to the

respondents’ lived experiences and informed perceptions by conducting in-depth

interviews. The study participants were a purposeful sample of 20 midlevel managers

from the hospitality industry. The phenomenological approach undertaken in the study

was appropriate because the method aligned with trying to develop an understanding of

the phenomenon of followership based upon the lived experiences of the participants.

Bearden (2008) provided examples of applying the purposive sampling approach to

51

participants experienced in the research phenomenon. The research method for the study

added rich detail that enabled the documentation of existing knowledge about leadership

and helped to understand leadership from the perspective of followers (Olivares et al.,

2007; Ospina, 2004).

All 20 research participants responded to each of the 12 open-ended interview

questions to the best of their ability about their experiences and perceptions of

followership. The transcribed research data enabled the development of emerging themes

for each question. The analysis of the data involved Moustakas’s (1994) modified van

Kaam methodology from which core themes emerged. The modified van Kaam method

of analysis involves the classification of data obtained according to frequency of

occurrence (Moustakas, 1994). Words and phrases used most often reflect the important

concerns of the participants and the emerging concepts (White & Marsh, 2006).

The analysis of data included the following steps for the modified van Kaam

method (Moustakas, 1994):

1. Listing and preliminary grouping: This process known as horizontilization is

where a researcher finds statements in the participant interviews about how

the participants experiencing the topic studied. A researcher continues this

process by listing significant statements and treating each of these statements

as having equal worth.

2. Reduction and elimination: A researcher tests each identified statement for

two requirements:

52

a. Does it contain a moment of expression of the experience necessary and

sufficient for understanding it?

b. Is it possible to abstract and label it?

3. Clustering and thematizing the invariant constituents: A researcher groups the

remaining statements into thematic label or meaning units. These constituents

are the core themes of the experience.

4. Final identification of the invariant constituents and themes by application: At

this step, a researcher verifies the invariant constituents and their

accompanying theme against the records of the participants. The constituent

is discarded if not explicit or fully expressed.

5. Construct and individual textual description: Includes development of textural

description of what happened during the experience, including verbatim

examples.

6. Construct an individual structural description. Develop a composite

description of the meanings and essences of the experiences, representing the

group as a whole. (pp. 120-121)

The research questions for the study were as follows:

1. What are the lived experiences of midlevel managers from the hospitality

industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits that translate to

leadership skills?

53

2. What are the informed perceptions of midlevel managers in the hospitality

industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits that translate to

leadership skills?

The collected data were rich and provided compelling findings that the majority of the

participants understood the need for followership within their organization. The themes

that emerged were (a) organizational success tied to learning their position as a follower,

(b) interpersonal skills are important to followership, and (c) the relationship between

leader and followers has an effect on followership.

Presentation of the Findings

Common themes emerged from the 20 responses to the interview questions of the

volunteer research participants about their perceptions and lived experiences of

followership in their hospitality organizations. The analysis of the data from the

responses to the 12 interview questions (see Appendix C) provided empirical evidence

supporting the key emerging themes of the study. A discussion of themes, patterns, and

relationships, including any outliers and discrepancies found in the data, is included. The

following are outcomes that addressed the research questions.

Outcomes That Address Research Question 1: Participants’ Experience

Interview Question 1: What is your experience as it relates to the role of

followership in your organization? As shown in Table 1, the majority of the

participants (11 of 20) indicated the role of followership in their organization was

learning. Responses to Interview Question 1 are reflected generally in the following

participant responses. Participant F3 stated,

54

I try to be a good follower. With all of my leaders and mentors, I try to

work with them closely and learn as much as possible. I think just working with

them and being able to take constructive criticism from them helps me to be a

good follower in the organization.

Participant F6 noted,

I personally have had a very good experience here in the role of

followership at this property and I think that is because I have had some really

good mentors that I have worked for and I think that’s why I’ve been able to be a

good follower because I had leaders that were teachers and they were eager to see

me grow in the company and they were willing to help me. They were respectful

towards me, so I have had a very good experience as a follower within this

particular organization.

The remaining participants indicated the role of followership within their organizations

was related to initiative, to provide support for leaders, related to networking, able to

provide a balance of skills, and fulfilling.

Table 1

Experience as it Relates to the Role of Followership in Own Organization

Code n (N = 20) %Learning the position 11 55Related to initiative Provide support to leadersFulfilling Related to networking Provide a balance of skillsUndervalued

2 2 2 1 1 1

101010 5 5 5

55

Interview Question 3: In your experience what are the core competencies and

skills required of successful followers in general? As shown in Table 2, the top four

participants’ responses indicated the core competencies and skills required of successful

followers in general are good listener, interpersonal skills, communication skills, and

willing. Responses to Interview Question 3 are reflected generally in the following

participant responses. Participant F3 stated,

I think the biggest skill required is being able to be a good listener because

you have to be able to listen and comprehend what is being said, not always the

person that is out to make changes or corrections or to give advice. Just

sometimes listening to what is being said.

Participant M3 responded,

You definitely got to be a people person. You have to understand human

psyche, how to deal with difficult people, as well as, not just with the people that

you manage but your manager as well. How to get things the way you want done

by understanding their psyche. That is pretty important.

Participant M1 noted,

The core skill is communication. Communication is very important within

our industry because we deal with so many different people, so many different

departments. You have to know how to communicate people’s wants and needs

to every department, as well as your own.

Participant M7 stated, “The core skills—listening is the biggest and understanding and

willingness. I think those are the main three things you got to have.” The remaining

56

participants listed the following as core competencies and skills of followers in general:

ability to multitask, follow through, dedication, optimism, motivation, humility, training,

eagerness to learn, problem solving, critical decision making, honesty, and the ability to

accept criticism.

Interview Question 5: What is your experience as it relates to the

development of followers in general? As shown in Table 3, the majority of the

participants (11 of 20) indicated in their experience the development of followers in

general is related to leadership example and training progress. Responses to Interview

Question 5 are reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F2

stated, “By looking up to their immediate supervisor. By looking up to the person that is

over them, their boss or their immediate supervisor, and getting correct direction from

their immediate supervisor.”

Table 2

Experience as It Relates to Core Competencies and Skills of Followers in General

Code n (N = 20) %Good listener 6 30Interpersonal skills 5 25Communication skills 3 15Willing 3 15Multitasking 1 5Follow through 1 5Dedication 1 5Optimism 1 5Motivation 1 5Humility 1 5Training 1 5Eagerness to learn 1 5Problem solving 1 5Critical decision making 1 5

(table continues)

57

Code n (N = 20) %Honest 1 5Accept criticism 1 5

Participant F1 noted,

Developing followers. A lot of, the main thing I think is training. We

have a lot of people come in and they have either done their own thing for a long

time and they have never really had to follow anybody or anything like that so

training them on what to do and how to do it and the way we do it here is the main

thing we have to work on.

The remainder of the participants indicated in their experience the development of

followers in general relates to leadership development, team development, follower

acceptance, the acceptance of leadership, and the leader as a teacher.

Table 3

Experience as It Relates to the Development of Followers in General

Code n (N = 20) %Related to leadership example 7 35Related to training progress 4 25Related to leadership development 2 10Related to team development 2 10Related to follower acceptance 1 5Related to acceptance of leadership 1 5Related to leader as teacher 1 5No response 1 5Not a good follower 1 5

Interview Question 7: What is your experience as it relates to the relationship

between followers and leaders in general? As shown in Table 4, a majority of the

participants’ responses (11 of 20) indicated follower role is intertwined with the leader

58

role and the relationship is based on trust. Responses to Interview Question 7 are

reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F1 stated,

My experience between followers and leaders is for the most part good. I

think that in my case making sure that your followers do know there is a

difference between friendship and your work in that there are responsibilities that

of course go along with both that there is a fine line that we as leaders do not

cross with those followers to make sure that there still remains a point of

leadership. If I am the one giving the directions, then I expect that our friendship

is not going to sway their completion of what I ask them to do.

Participant F5 responded,

As being on both sides of that, again I think a good leader was a good

follower and that continues on. I am a follower to my director and I have

someone who is working, reporting directly to me. Therefore, again you have to

lead by example and you are going to have to be a good leader to have a good

follower.

The remainder of the participants indicated in their experience the relationship between

follower and leader is based upon teamwork, communications, relationships, and profit

motivation and is vital to leadership.

Table 4

Experience as It Relates to the Relationship Between Followers and Leaders in General

Code n (N = 20) %Follower role intertwined with leader role 6 30Based on trust 5 25Based on teamwork 3 15

59

Based on relationships 3 15 (table

continues)Code n (N = 20) %

Based on communication 3 5Based on profit motivation 1 5Vital to leadership 1 5

Interview Question 9: In your experience, what are any additional relevant

factors that affect followership in general? As shown in Table 5, the top five

responses indicated the additional relevant factors that affect followership in general are

attitude, respect, training, work environment, and education. Responses to Interview

Question 9 are reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F9

responded, “I believe that the persona that you carry in the office, just the way the air

feels. I don’t know how to explain that, but the mood of the team I think has a lot to do

with that.”

Participant F5 stated,

I definitely feel that in order to be a good follower, you have to respect the

person that you are working for. If you don’t respect that person, you are not

really going to want to do what they are asking you to do. I do feel that education

plays a role in this because the education kind of gives you the big picture of

things.

Participant F10 answered, “In this particular environment, there could be a lot more one-

on-one training from the leaders to the followers. I would like to see that happen.”

Participant M2 noted,

60

It all depends on who is leading here, if they are confident, if they are

worthy of the, if you are going to follow that person, if someone is going to be

worthy, if you are set on ways and stuff. I am trying to get the point across here.

Can you repeat that question one more time? It’s the people, the environment

around you and just people’s conversations and how they approach certain things.

Participant F6 responded,

I think a person’s education level has a great impact on, you know, how

well of a follower you are because I think the more education you have, the more,

maybe the more open-minded you are and the more, I mean an educated person is

someone who, you know, wants to grow and learn and they understand that in

order to do that, you’ve got to follow your leader and learn from that person.

The additional relevant factors affecting followership mentioned by the remaining

participants were loyalty, micromanagement, dedication, happy at work, organizational

culture, communication, fairness, openness, follow example, teamwork, cohesiveness,

trust, and compatibility.

Table 5

Any Additional Relevant Factors That Affect Followership in General Based on

Experience

Code n (N = 20) %Attitude 5 25Respect 4 20Training 4 20Work environment 3 15Education 2 10Loyalty 1 5Micromanagement 1 5

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Dedication 1 5Happy at work 1 5Organizational culture 1 5Communication 1 5Fairness 1 5

(table continues)

Code n (N = 20) %Openness 1 5Follow example 1 5Teamwork 1 5Cohesiveness 1 5Trust 1 5Compatibility 1 5

Interview Question 11: What is your experience, as it relates to the influence

of followership in general? As shown in Table 6, the top three participants’ responses

(14 of 20) indicated their experience with the influence of followership in general are it

provides good example/influence, provides career/personal development, and is vital to

mission/success. Responses to Interview Question 11 are reflected generally in the

following participant responses. Participant F2 stated, “We want to set a good example

so that we will have a good influence on the people that are watching us.”

Participant M6 responded,

Um, it started off at a less than desirable property in Colorado when I was

in school and that was a unique experience in that it really taught me the negative

ways to do things, the incorrect ways to run a property, the incorrect ways to

handle a guest, to lead your staff, so you got a good idea of that’s not what I want

to do or that’s not how you handle that. Then I got several good experiences from

school, you know educators and leading myself and my peers on to the correct

management styles that can create good followers and create a good staff and

62

therefore make your bosses happy and then I did have the opportunity to move

down here and worked with lots of different people, kind of a different culture as

you can say so lots of different things I got to experience and since this

organization had the opportunity to really develop more as a leader and therefore

strengthen my followers as well.

Participant F14 noted,

The influence that a follower has in a restaurant business is probably one

of the most important roles there is in the organization. They are responsible for

basically taking the vision of the owners/general managers of the restaurant and

portraying it to the rest of the staff. They have to be able to encourage—Basically

the perception of my experience is the exact same thing. Like I said, I basically

took everything good of any general manager that I was ever underneath,

compiled it and I disregarded all of that and the employees that worked

underneath me were able to see that and responded very well to my leadership

towards them.

The remaining participants indicated in their experience, the influence of followership in

general is related to providing inspiration, motivation, willingness, provide respect and

trust, provide self-reliance, provide decision making, and the roles are intertwined.

Table 6

Experience as It Relates to the Influence of Followership in General

Code n (N = 20) %Provide good example/influence 6 30Provide career/personal development 4 20Vital to success/mission 4 10

63

Provide inspiration, motivation, and willingness 1 5Provide respect and trust 1 5Provide self-reliance 1 5Roles intertwine 1 5Provide decision-making 1 5No response 1 5

Conclusions That Address Research Question 1

Varying opinions exist about followership traits and how these traits can

potentially translate to good leadership skills. The researcher has drawn conclusions

about the relationship between followership traits and good leadership based upon the

lived experiences of midlevel hospitality managers and their responses to the six

interview questions that address their lived experiences related to Research Question 1.

The responses of the participants regarding their lived experiences confirmed that the role

of followership in their organization is one of learning.

Kelley (2008) indicated the characteristics of leadership and of followership are

similar. Kellerman (2007) offered that good leadership is about learning. Understanding

leads to developing good leadership (Adair, 2008), and this increased awareness will

improve organizational performance (Dixon, 2009). The responses of the participants

showed that the top four core competencies and skills of followers in general are being a

good listener, having good communication, having good interpersonal skills, and being

willing to accomplish the task. These skills will translate to good leadership (Kelley,

2008). The participants’ responses about the development of followers indicated that

their development is related to leadership example and to their training, which supports

the notion that learning to lead is supported by the example set by the leader for the

followers and the increased awareness will improve performance (Dixon, 2009). The

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responses of the participants about their experience as it relates to the relationship

between followers and leaders in general indicated the role of the leader and the role of

the follower are intertwined. Kelley (2008) argued the skills learned by followers are the

same skills of leadership.

Adair (2008) pointed out organizations fail or succeed based on the output and

input of employees. The employees succeed or fail to succeed based upon the leader–

followership relationship. When asked about additional relevant factors that affect

followership in general, the respondents identified attitude, respect, training, the work

environment, and education as the top five factors. The conclusion to be drawn is as

pointed out by Bjugstad et al. (2006): followership is the ability to follow directions and

support the efforts of the leader. When asked about their experience as it relates to the

influence of followership in general, the participants indicated followership should

provide a good example, provide a path for career and personal development, and is vital

to mission and organization success, which appears to support Dixon (2008), who noted

it is up to the followers to ensure an organization functions in an effective manner.

Outcomes That Address Research Question 2: Participants’ Perception

Interview Question 2: What is your perception of the role of followership in

your organization? As shown in Table 7, more than half of the participants (12 of 20)

perceived the role of follower in their organization to relate to organizational mission or

success and as vital to individual success. Responses to Interview Question 2 are

reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F5 stated,

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Here at the hotel, we definitely need followers in order to make our

products succeed. The management team alone cannot do it, so our goal is we

have got to get it across to our employees the importance of their role in order to

make this a success.

Participant F1 noted,

Our organization would like these followers to prove themselves.

Granted, they are making $10 an hour and I am using that just as the hypothetical,

but if you can do your regular responsibilities and then be able to do above and

beyond, then at that point you have proven that you are a good follower to earn

the opportunity to be up for a promotion and/or salary or wage increase or up for a

management of some sort.

Remaining participants noted they believe the role of followership in their organization

relates to teamwork, loyalty, organization vision, leadership, and a balance of skills.

Table 7

Perception of the Role of Followership in Your Organization

Code n (N = 20) %Related to organizational mission/success 7 35Vital to individual success 5 25No answer 2 10Related to teamwork 1 5Related to loyalty 1 5Related to organization vision 1 5Related to leadership 1 5Related to a balance of skills 1 5Negative bad attitude 1 5

Interview Question 4: What do you perceive to be the core competencies and

skills of successful followers in your organization? As shown in Table 8, four of 20

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participants perceived the core competencies and skills of successful followers in their

organization to be a good listener and motivation. Responses to Interview Question 4 are

reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F6 stated,

What I have seen from the folks in this organization that are successful

followers, I see those people as self-motivated and I see them as people who are

driven or self-driven and also, to me, those people have a certain level of

confidence about themselves that makes them a good follower.

Participant F7 responded, “You need common sense, patience. You need to be a good

listener and observer and question.” The remaining participants listed reliability,

punctual, follow through, honesty, confident, dedication, hard worker, interpersonal

skills, teamwork, willing, observant, initiative, compliance, modest, loyalty, common

sense, patience, and questioning as their perception of the core competencies and skills of

successful followers in their organization.

Table 8

Perception of Core Competencies and Skills of Successful Followers in Your

Organization

Code n (N = 20) %Good listener 2 10Motivation 2 10Reliability 1 5Punctual 1 5Follow through 1 5Honesty 1 5Confident 1 5Dedication 1 5Hard worker 1 5Interpersonal skills 1 5Teamwork 1 5

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Willing 1 5 (table

continues)Code n (N = 20) %

Observant 1 5Initiative 1 5Compliance 1 5Modest 1 5Loyalty 1 5Common sense 1 5Patience 1 5Questioning 1 5

Interview Question 6: What is your perception of the development of

followers in your organization? As shown in Table 9, six of 20 participants perceived

the development of followers in their organization to be expected development/training.

Four of 20 perceived the development of followers as left up to the individual and three

of 20 perceived the development of followers as not the primary focus. Responses to

Interview Question 6 are reflected generally in the following participant responses.

Participant F6 stated, “Getting the correct knowledge from my boss to be able to do my

job better.” Participant F11 responded, “My perception in this organization is that we are

given the opportunity by all of our leaders from the top on down so it just depends on the

individual themselves as to how far they want to take that.” Participant F6 answered,

I think we have some room to grow in the area of training. Here in this

organization over the past several months, we seem to be getting better with that.

We have gotten some good leaders here on the property who understands the

importance of training and we are starting to see that now, but we definitely in the

past have had a lack of training. But again, I think that is getting better. That

would be the number one thing that I would say.

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The remainder of the participants indicated their perception of the development of

followers in their organization relates to delegation of tasks, the providing of tools to do

job, positive to allow to move up, related to the leader as role model, feedback is

necessary, and related to mentoring/coaching.

Table 9

Perception of the Development of Followers in Your Organization.

Coden (N =

20) %Expected development/training 6 30Left up to the individual 4 20Not the primary focus 3 15Delegation of tasks 2 10Need to be provided tools 1 5Positive to move up 1 5Related to leader as role model 1 5Feedback necessary 1 5Mentoring/coaching 1 5

Interview Question 8: What is your perception of the relationship between

followers and leaders in your organization? As shown in Table 10, the majority of the

participants (13 of 20) indicated they perceive the relationship between leader and

follower as based on interpersonal relationships and teamwork. Responses to Interview

Question 8 are reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F7

stated, “Within the organization it would depend on who your leader is—the relationship

that you develop between yourself and your leader.” Participant F5 responded,

Here at the hotel, I think this is an area that we are working on. Within the

last year or so, we have gone through several changes management wise and I

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think that is benefitting the hotel. We are trying to get everyone on the same page

as to how we want this establishment run and I think that is working well.

The remaining participants noted their perception of the relationship between leaders and

followers in their organization was based on trust, related to the roles overlapping, was

based on communication, and was based on profit margin.

Table 10

Perception of the Relationship Between Followers and Leaders in Your Organization

Coden (N =

20) %Interpersonal relationship based 10 50Based on teamwork 3 15Based on trust 2 10Roles overlap 1 5Communication based 1 5Not apparent 1 5Need more concern for followers 1 5Profit motivation 1 5

Interview Question 10: What do you perceive to be additional relevant

factors affecting followership in your organization? As show in Table 11, the top four

participants’ responses indicate the additional relevant factors that affect followership in

their organization are communication, training, education, and relationship with the

organization. Responses to Interview Question 10 are reflected generally in the

following participant responses. Participant F9 stated,

I think communication is a big issue. I think that, you know if we had

better ways of communicating with our front desk staff between us and higher up

management, I believe that it would be more successful than we have then.

Participant F3 replied,

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My experience is that I always try to stay in touch with everybody. I try to

make sure that I am available if they have questions. I try to make sure training is

available. If there is training that needs to be done, sometimes doing one-on-one

training or doing group training. Just taking in their ideas, putting it into motion

and sometimes it works and sometimes it don’t.

Participant M1 noted,

Other factors, um, I think the work history is a big one, but education is

another one. You can always, at least I know from the people that I have hired

and people who are no longer with the company—education has been a big one

and it is not that they went to college or graduated, it is that, you know, they

weren’t high school dropouts. They were to stick through high school and get a

degree. Somebody who is persistent with what they sign on to do and they are

not, I guess, quitters.

Participant F4 answered,

I just feel like really just have to find a good fit. Like I said, I have

worked for this company for years and I have seen a lot of movement in the

company to different hotels and I have seen a lot of movement back to original

places and so forth because it is a better fit with your leaders and followers.

The remaining participants identified the following as what they perceive to be additional

relevant factors affecting followership in their organization: distance from manager,

perception of the leader, ambition, organizational culture, upbringing, interpersonal skills,

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growth, independence, work history, commitment, intelligence, self-discipline, trust,

social status, physical characteristics, respect, and attitude.

Table 11

Perception of Additional Relevant Factors Affecting Followership in Your Organization

Coden (N =

20) %Communication 3 15Training 2 10Education 2 10Relationship with organization 2 10Distance from managers 1 5Perception of the leader 1 5Ambition 1 5Organization culture 1 5Upbringing 1 5Interpersonal 1 5Growth 1 5Independence 1 5Work history 1 5Commitment 1 5Intelligence 1 5Self-discipline 1 5Trust 1 5Social status 1 5Physical characteristics 1 5Respect 1 5Attitude 1 5

Interview Question 12: What is your perception about the influence of

followership on the organization’s success? As shown in Table 12, the majority of the

participants (12 of 20) indicated they perceive the influence of followership on their

organization’s success as vital to success and the leader–follower roles are intertwined.

Responses to Interview Question 12 are reflected generally in the following participant

responses. Participant F4 stated, “Followers are very influenced. You know, you can

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influence them very easily and it has to be a positive experience that you’re influencing

them on otherwise there won’t be success in the organization.” Participant M5 answered,

Well, I think it takes everyone. You know, I think we all work together

whether you are the head of engineering, sales office manager, front desk

manager, café manager—I believe they all work together and to make this

organization or this hotel the best hotel on the beach, we all have to work together

and that includes the front desk staff. My rule that I have always learned is the

15–5 rule. Fifteen feet of knowledge to five people you greet and if you can teach

that to the front desk staff and they see you doing it or the engineering staff of the

café staff, that everybody’s gonna greet that person and we are not that big hotel,

but we are a small hotel and if we can make—I believe if we get someone in here,

we are going to get them back again because of our hospitality.

The remaining participants indicated their perception of the influence of followership on

the organizations success is related to a highly developed sense of purpose, is vital to

development, is vital to acceptance of responsibility, is key to self-management,

consistency, and development is slow.

Table 12

Perception of the Influence of Followership on the Organization’s Success

InterviewsCode n (N = 20) %

Vital to success 9 45Leader/follower roles intertwined 3 15Help develop a sense of purpose 1 5Vital to development 1 5Vital to acceptance of responsibility 1 5Key to self management 1 5

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Necessary for brand awareness 1 5Consistency 1 5Development is slow 1 5No response 1 5

Conclusions That Address Research Question 2

Varying opinions exist about followership traits and how these traits can

potentially translate into good leadership skills. The researcher drew conclusions about

the relationship between followership traits and good leadership based upon the lived

experiences of midlevel hospitality managers and their responses to the six interview

questions that addressed their informed perception related to Research Question 2.

The responses of the participants regarding their informed perception confirmed

that the role of followership in their organization related to organizational and individual

success. Dixon (2009) contended that organizational success could be linked to

improved awareness of followership. The responses of the participants showed that in

their experience in their organization the top two core competencies and skills of

followers were being a good listener and being motivated. Boerner et al. (2007) noted

performance outcomes are the result of followers’ trust, agreement on values, cohesion,

satisfaction, and motivation of followers. These skills will translate into good leadership

(Kelley, 2008). The participants’ perception of the development of followers in their

organization indicated their development as followers is usually the responsibility of the

individual or not a primary focus, which could result in poor organizational performance

(Dixon, 2009).

The responses of the participants about their perception as it relates to the

relationship between followers and leaders is based upon interpersonal relationships,

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teamwork, and trust, which supported Boerner et al. (2007). When asked about their

perception of additional relevant factors that affect followership, the respondents

identified communication, training, education, and relationship with the organization as

the top four factors affecting followership. Gill et al. (2010) indicated through

communication, hospitality managers can instill the vision, mission, goals, and objectives

of an organization. Dixon (2009) contended increased knowledge improves awareness

and improves organizational performance. When asked about their perception of the

influence of followership on the success of their organization, the majority indicated it is

vital to the success and that the leader and follower roles are intertwined. Adair (2008)

and Kelley (2008) pointed out the skills required of followers are the same as the skills

required of leaders. Organizational success depends upon the performance of the

followers and leaders and the skills they possess (Dixon, 2009).

Emerging Themes

A phenomenological design was appropriate for the research study because the

qualitative method identifies core meaning derived from participants’ lived experiences

and informed perceptions with a specific phenomenon (Creswell, 2003, 2007, 2009;

Moustakas, 1994), such as the phenomenon of followership. The core meaning emerged

as themes that captured most of the content in three specific areas: organizational success

and learning, interpersonal skills, and the relationship between leader and followers.

Emerging Theme 1: Organizational success tied to learning. Emerging Theme

1 validated and emphasized the existence of a relationship between organizational

success and followers learning their positions, displaying initiative by learning, and

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providing support for the leaders. When the participants were asked about their

experience as it related to the role of followership in their organizations, 70% indicated

their experience as it related to the role of followership in their organization was related

to providing support, displaying initiative by learning, and learning their position. When

the participants were asked their perception as it related to the role of followership in

their organization, 60% indicated their perception as it related to the role of followership

in their organization was related to organizational and individual success. The

participants’ experience indicated the role was about learning and their perception was

that it was about organizational and individual success. Kellerman (2007) noted that

good leadership is about learning. Dixon (2009) contended that increased awareness and

knowledge increase organizational performance. Both leaders and followers exhibit the

same skills traits (Kelley, 2008).

Emerging Theme 2: Interpersonal skills. Emerging Theme 2 emphasized the

core competencies and skills of followers in general. When participants were asked to

describe their experience as it related to core competencies and skills of followers in

general, 85% indicated interpersonal skills such as listening skills and communication

skills were core competencies. Daft (2011) identified both of these skills were imperative

for good leadership. Kelley (2008) pointed out that both leaders and followers exhibit the

same skills and traits. The participants’ perception of the core competencies in their

organization did not support this emerging theme, with only two participants identifying

interpersonal skills as a core competency or skill of successful followers. The

participants identified 20 different core competencies and skills that related to their

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perception of the core competencies and skills of successful followers in their

organization.

Emerging Theme 3: Relationship between leader and followers. Emerging

Theme 3 validated and emphasized the importance of the relationship between leaders

and followers, as suggested by Adair (2008). When participants were asked about their

experience as it related to the relationship between followers and leaders, 85% indicated

the relationship between followers and leaders was based on trust and teamwork and that

the roles of followers and leaders are intertwined. When participants were asked about

their perception of the relationship between followers and leaders in their organization,

75% indicated the relationship between followers and leaders was based on trust,

teamwork, and interpersonal relationships. Organizational performance is based upon the

output and input of employees, and employees succeed or fail based upon the leader–

follower relationship (Adair, 2008).

Applications to Professional Practice

The findings of the current study have the potential to apply to professional

practice in business in several ways. First, the results of the study built upon the existing

literature and provided rich data to existing knowledge about followership and its

relationship to leadership. A key emerging theme of the study was the importance of the

relationship between leaders and followers, as noted by Adair (2008). The improvement

of the relationship between leaders and followers will lead to improved communication

and ultimately improved organizational performance. “Organizations should educate and

create performance standards concerning the concerning the responsibilities and

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opportunities for staff to build successful and productive relationships between leaders

and followers” (Bearden, 2007, p. 114).

Knowledge obtained from the study may help to provide understanding of how

leaders and followers in the hospitality industry perceive leadership and adds to the

literature that may help to improve leadership practices. The data obtained from the

study have the potential to be amalgamated with other known data to develop training

programs that make the most of and improve upon the relationship between leaders and

followers by helping to explain and understand the follower traits that will translate into

good leadership traits. The training has the potential to improve leadership at all levels of

an organization. Second, the information gained from the study may also allow for the

development of training programs emphasizing specific followership traits that translate

directly to leadership skills. Organizations of the future will need to have effective

followers considering the link between organizational success and the combined efforts

of both leaders and followers (Dixon & Westbrook, 2003).

Implications for Social Change

The current study served to expand the knowledge of leadership from a

followership perspective by exploring insights into how midlevel managers in the

hospitality industry perceive followership. Both leadership and followership provide

value when defining the relationship between leaders and followers in the hospitality

industry. Adair (2008) noted researchers should study leadership and followership in

concert because a crossover exists between them. Individuals move freely between the

role of leader and the role of follower. The success of organizations depends upon

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individuals being able to perform both roles and being able to take the lead when

necessary and follow as required (Miller, 2007). In terms of numbers, followers

generally dominate organizations; there are always more followers than leaders within an

organization (Dixon & Westbrook, 2003). Deeper understanding of the phenomenon of

followership may provide insights into the methods to improve understanding of the

relationship between leader and follower that will improve organizational success.

The information and knowledge gained from understanding the relationship

between leader and follower is applicable beyond leadership and followership. Agho

(2009) purported followership is an important trait of one’s character. Agho also noted

followership “has remained an undervalued and underappreciated concept among

management development practitioners and researchers” (p. 159). The framework of the

current study provided a method of understanding the experiences and perceptions of

midlevel hospitality managers regarding followership. The information gained from the

study may improve the understanding of followership and the characteristics of a good

follower. The research expanded the understanding of the process of leadership and the

characteristics and behaviors that leaders at all levels of business should exhibit.

Identifying the characteristics of followership has the potential to allow for a better

method of identifying those who are best suited for leadership training. The training may

improve leadership at all levels of an organization. The information gained may also

allow for the development of training programs emphasizing specific followership traits

that translate directly into leadership skills.

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Recommendations for Action

Based on the findings of the study and the emerging themes, it is recommended

that midlevel hospitality managers continue to learn about followership and its apparent

connection and relationship with leadership in general. Specifically, leaders of

hospitality organizations should provide opportunities for education and training by

developing programs specifically for the culture of an organization to facilitate position-

specific learning for followers and to provide support for the leaders. The initial effort to

understand the perceptions of followership among midlevel hospitality managers should

lead to an increased awareness of the knowledge that good followers can become good

leaders with improved interpersonal skills such as listening skills and communication

skills. Further awareness and the examination of midlevel hospitality managers’

perceptions of the relationships emphasize the importance of the relationship between

leaders and followers, as suggested by Adair (2008). Leaders of hospitality organizations

should work toward strengthening the relationship between followers and leaders and

develop or add to leadership training programs that reinforce that the relationship

between followers and leaders is based on trust and teamwork and that the roles of

followers and leaders are intertwined.

Recommendations for Further Study

One of the reasons to use a qualitative method in the study was to look at the

phenomenon of followership as it relates to leadership because it is important to

understand any social phenomenon from the point of view of those who have experienced

the phenomenon (Opsina, 2004). A recommendation for further study would be to repeat

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the study at varying levels of leadership within the hospitality industry and within

different geographic locations to study the point of view of others who have experienced

the phenomenon. Quantitative studies may involve exploring the relationships between

followers; their leaders; and demographic factors such as age, experience, and education

level of the participants. An additional study may involve the use of a followership

survey to help identify and refine follower characteristics as they relate to leadership

development. The focus of the quantitative study could be different populations of

managers and followers and the study could yield additional rich data. Future findings

may provide better understanding of the phenomenon of followership and how good

followers become good leaders.

One area that was deficient in the study was the amount of literature and studies

conducted on hospitality management. Researchers should conduct additional studies

within hospitality management concentrating upon leadership and followership. A lack

of understanding of the nature of the hospitality management as a whole was evident.

The participants were knowledgeable about the management of their particular property

and job but were not as aware of the nature of hospitality management in general.

Reflections

The results of the study solidified the notion for the researcher that a qualitative

phenomenological approach is an effective method for the investigation of the

phenomenon of followership within an organization. The study included 20 midlevel

managers who shared their lived experiences and informed perceptions of their

understanding of followership. The researcher’s preconceived idea about the nature of

81

the data collection and the data analysis process influenced the research experience. The

researcher was not prepared for the amount of time required to schedule appointments

and make arrangements to work around the participants’ busy schedules. The data

collection process required nearly constant revision as new circumstances arose. The

nature and complexity of the process of data analysis was challenging. The challenge

was the result of preconceived ideas of the nature of the data analysis process and what

was required to prepare the data for the actual analysis.

The data collection process was designed to reduce the effects of the researcher’s

personal bias about the nature of followership to allow the participants to answer the

interview questions based upon their opinions and not the opinions of the researcher. The

researcher also confirmed the importance of followers in the process of leadership.

Leadership is more than the traits, characteristics, behaviors of the leader and the style of

the leader in a given situation. Without followers actually completing the tasks, the

leader is powerless; consequently, the study of the phenomenon of followership is vital to

the study of leadership. Leaders and followers each possess the same traits,

characteristics, and behaviors (Kelley, 2008).

Summary and Study Conclusions

The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the

phenomenon of followership characteristics that translate into good leadership skills.

Three themes emerged from the study. The first theme was a relationship between

organizational success and followers learning and performing in their positions,

displaying initiative, and providing support for their leaders. Individuals within an

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organization transition between the role of follower and the role of leader continually,

and the success of organizations depends upon performance in both roles (Bearden, 2008;

Dixon, 2009). Kelley (2008) noted followership and leadership are “complementary, not

competitive paths to organizational contribution. . . . [We] must have great leaders and

great followers” (p. 41). The second theme was listening skills and communication are

core competencies of followers. Managers can improve revenue and responsiveness by

improving strategic positioning, critical thinking, communication, and interpersonal skills

(Aree et al., 2010). Many of the same skills are required of good followers (Gill et al.,

2010). The third theme was the relationship between leader and follower is based upon

trust and teamwork, and the roles of followers and leaders are intertwined. Leadership

that places a strong emphasis on followers’ needs, values, and morals allows and

encourages the building of trust between leader and follower (Northouse, 2007). An

increased sense of trust and transparency heightens the potential of followership within

the leader–follower dynamic (Avolio & Reichard, 2008).

There are more followers in any organization than there are leaders; followers

dominate all organizations (Dixon, 2009). To provide quality professional development

in the future, it will be necessary to have a better understanding of the nature of

followership and the traits and behaviors they exhibit. Adair (2008) contended

followership is part of leadership and to “develop great leaders one follower at a time” (p.

137), a better and more thorough understanding of followership is necessary. The current

study has added to the body of knowledge and has increased the understanding of

followership traits as they relate to leadership skills.

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84

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Appendix A: Letter of Invitation

Greetings,

I am writing to introduce my doctoral research project and myself, as well as to solicit your help in my research. I am James H. Schindler, a Walden University doctoral candidate studying Leadership.

My research interest is in the areas of leadership and followership. Traditionally, in management, leaders are given the most attention. However, leadership alone does not provide the complete answer to achieving and maintaining success in an organization. There is increasing recognition that followership (the ability of employees to effectively follow the directives and support the efforts of a leader to maximize organizational achievement) in addition to leadership plays a fundamental role in improving organizational success. Effective leadership is the result of a combination of the work of both leaders and followers. The impetus for this study is that there is little research about how leaders perceive followership.

Conventional research has focused on leadership practices and less emphasis has been placed on the role of followership. The purpose of this research study is to explore the perceptions of followership of midlevel managers in hospitality organizations. This study will focus on the characteristics and practices of midlevel managers to comprehend more about the phenomenon of followership. The information and research from this study will provide significant understanding of followership processes and leadership within organizations. The additional recognition and awareness to this facet of leadership has motivated my pursuit to uncover further knowledge about this topic.

I would like to ask you as a midlevel manager within your organization to volunteer to participate in this study. As a volunteer participant you will be interviewed face-to-face for approximately thirty to forty-five (30-45) minutes to answer questions that will explore your perceptions of followership. If you are a willing volunteer please contact me at XXXXXXXXX. I look forward to hearing from soon.

Sincerely,

James H. Schindler

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Appendix B: Informed Consent

You are invited to take part in a research study of the nature of followership in the hospitality industry along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. You were chosen for the study because of your membership in the target population of midlevel managers with at least one direct report in the hospitality industry.

This form is part of a process called ―informed consent to allow you to understand this study before deciding whether to take part.

This study is being conducted by James H. Schindler, who is a doctoral student at Walden University. Research gathered in this study will be used to explore the lived experiences of midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the Gulf coast.

Background Information:The purpose of this study is to explore the lived experiences of midlevel managers regarding their understanding of followership and its relationship to leadership.

Procedures:If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to:Participate in an individual interview of 30-45 minutes regarding your perceptions and lived experiences of followership. he interview will be audio taped for analysis by the researcher. After transcription of your interview, you will be given the opportunity to review the transcription of your responses to ensure accuracy.

Voluntary Nature of the Study:Your participation will involve discussing issues and concerns related to the research purpose and is completely voluntary. If you choose not to participate or to withdraw from the study for whatever reason or at any time, you can do so without penalty or loss of benefit to yourself.

Risks and Benefits of Being in the Study:In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to you. Although there may be no direct benefit to you, the possible benefit of your participation will help to provide further explanations that will develop additional understanding of leadership and follower practices.

Compensation:Although participants will not be compensated, your participation is greatly appreciated.

Confidentiality:As a participant, your privacy will be kept strictly confidential. Your name will be transformed to an alphanumeric digit to assure confidentiality and will be kept so that verification of the transcripts may be attained. Once the study is completed, all records

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containing the identification numbers will be destroyed. The results of the research study may be published but your name will not be used and your results will be maintained in confidence.

Contacts and Questions:You may ask any questions you have now. Or if you have questions later, you maycontact the researcher via telephone XXXXXXXXX or email XXXXXXXXXXXXXX..If you want to talk privately about your rights as a participant, you can call Dr. XXXXX XXXXXXX. She is the Walden University representative who can discuss this with you. Her phone number is XXXXXXXXXXX, extension XXXX. Walden University‘s approval number for this study is 11-03-11-0174613 and it expires on November 2, 2012.

The researcher will give you a copy of this form to keep.

Statement of Consent:I have read the above information and I feel I understand the study well enough to make a decision about my involvement. By signing below, I am agreeing to the terms described above.

Printed Name of Participant_______________________________________

Date of consent______________

Participant‘s Written or Electronic Signature___________________________________

Researcher‘s Written or Electronic Signature___________________________________

Electronic signatures are regulated by the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act. Legally, an "electronic signature" can be the person‘s typed name, their email address, or any other identifying marker. An electronic signature is just as valid as a written signature as long as both parties have agreed to conduct the transaction electronically.

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Appendix C: Interview Questions

1. What is your experience as it relates to the role of followership in your

organization?

2. What is your perception of the role of followership in your organization?

3. In your experience what are the core competencies and skills required of

successful followers in general?

4. What do you perceive to be the core competencies and skills of successful

followers in your organization?

5. What is your experience as it relates to the development of followers in general?

6. What is your perception of the development of followers in your organization?

7. What is your experience as it relates to the relationship between followers and

leaders in general?

8. What is your perception of the relationship between followers and leaders in your

organization?

9. In your experience, what are any additional relevant factors that affect

followership in general?

10. What do you perceive to be additional relevant factors affecting followership in

your organization?

11. What is your experience, as it relates to the influence of followership in general?

12. What is your perception about the influence of followership on the organization’s

success?

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Curriculum Vitae

JAMES H. SCHINDLER

SUMMARY OF QUALIFICATIONS

Accomplished, proven, and motivated leader, manager, educator, and former U.S. Air Force officer offers a career history reflecting over 35 years of exemplary service in the Human Resource Development, Management, Training, and Education environments as well as an honorable and distinguished military career.

STRENGTHS

Excellent communication and interpersonal skills. Polished public speaker - equally accomplished writer. Exceptional computer skills. Proven and successful personnel development manager, leader, and motivator. Highly skilled negotiator.

EDUCATION

Doctorate of Business Administration in Leadership (Candidate, estimated graduation date Jan 2012) Walden University, Minneapolis, MN

Master of Science in Personnel Management (1989) Troy State University, Montgomery, AL

Bachelor of Science in Biology and Chemistry (1977) University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL

CERTIFICATION

Professional in Human Resource Management (PHR) Society of Human Resource Management (2007)

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE

Full time offsite Faculty, Department of Undergraduate Business, Columbia Southern University, Orange Beach, AL May 2009 – present

Currently teach Principles of Leadership, Human Resource Management, and International Human Resource Management.

Chair, Department of Undergraduate Business, Columbia Southern University, Orange Beach, AL Sept 2008- May 2009

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Design and develop new undergraduate business courses and maintain existing courses in the latest course development and design techniques. Primary for recruiting, hiring, training, supervising, evaluating and terminating coordinators, faculty and course writers within the undergraduate business department. Interact with and assist other CSU departments. Respond to student questions and problems. Establish and maintain an Advisory Board. Assist with other Academic Related Activities.

Associate Dean of Curriculum and Faculty Development, Columbia Southern University, Orange Beach, AL Aug 2007- Sept 2008.

Assist in researching potential programs and propose new programs to the curriculum committee. Supervise and provide assignments for the Instructional Systems Design Team and the Faculty Support Team. Assist the CSU HR department in the recruitment of new faculty and course writers as needed. Interact with IT, the Finance Department, Student Services and other administrative units as needed. Formulate a comprehensive and ongoing faculty training program, and assign and supervise faculty development personnel.

Assistant Dean of Academic Affairs, Columbia Southern University, Orange Beach, AL July 2004- Aug 2007.

Responsible for the in-house coordination for the Department of Business Administration online courses. This includes in coordination with Academic Committee to select text and develop online course materials. In addition, serve as Professor for Employment Law, Staffing, Training and Development, and Essentials of Research courses.

Vice President of Operations - American College of Prehospital Medicine,

Navarre FL, March 2000 – September 2001Responsible for the Operations Management of the College, including

faculty development and training, Management Information Systems administration and support, student services policy development, curriculum review/evaluation, quality assurance of courses taught, office administration, student consumer services, human resource management and other activities necessary to ensure optimum organizational productivity. Developed and implemented the plan that led to upgrade of the entire curriculum to an online delivery system. Students gained capability to enroll, study, and take examinations for all courses entirely online, reducing student complaints by one-half. Developed and implemented the successful reaccreditation plan. Results: the Distance Education and Training Council approved the five-year reaccreditation of the College. Developed, wrote, and taught courses in Human Resource Management, Human Relations, Supervision, Leadership, Training, and Public Speaking.

Consultant – Barr Group, Gulf Shores, AL, April 1999 – October 1999

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Served as Assistant Project Coordinator and Instructor for a large Federal government contract course. Assisted in design, development, and delivery of course materials to educate over 3000 federal employees about the applicability of Information Management Systems both inside their organization and in the world around them. Received rave reviews from students and supervisors alike.

Director of Education – Columbia Southern University, Orange Beach, AL, September 1997 - April 1999

Responsible for the direct supervision of 5 full time academic department heads of the school and worked extensively with 35 adjunct faculty. Designed and implemented a faculty development program. Supervised the revision of all 215 courses offered by the school. Additionally, served as Department Head for Human Resource Management. As department head developed curriculum, reviewed and selected textbooks, as well as wrote and prepared study guides and syllabi for both graduate and undergraduate Human Resource Management courses.

Director of Mission Support – Officer Training School, Maxwell AFB, AL, May 1992 - March 1995

Developed and implemented personnel policies and programs; training, motivating, and evaluating executive and middle management and staff level personnel; determination of personnel eligibility for promotion; familiarity and fair application of military and other regulatory mandates including Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations, labor grievances, OSHA, among others; labor/workforce analysis; ensuring utilization of personnel and other resources wisely and responsibly. Responsible for budget administration, financial management, and fiscal accountability including variance monitoring and implementation of cost controls and preparation of documentation necessary for large budget/funding acquisition ($1.5 million annually).

MILITARY EXPERIENCE

Personnel & Training - U.S. Air Force (Active duty) 1980 - 1995 Commander - Training Support Flight / Officer Training School –Maxwell AFB,

AL Chief, Personnel Programs - Headquarters Air University, Maxwell AFB, AL Chief, Military Personnel - 3800 Air Base Wing, Maxwell AFB, AL Senior Officer Personnel Manager - Headquarters Air University, Maxwell AFB,

AL School Section Commander & Instructor – Squadron Officer School, Maxwell

AFB, AL

KEY MILITARY ACHIEVEMENTS

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Directed/administered a staff of 35, an instructional cadre of 75, 45 enlisted personnel, and a budget of $120,000 providing personnel administration, logistics, computer, and instructional support for 2500 Officer Trainees annually.

Coordinated operations of five branches charged with policy development, program review/evaluation, quality force, personal affairs, and classification/training functions for 15,000+ staff, faculty, and students of Air University.

Supervised a staff of 80+ providing military personnel support and management to 60,000+ area active duty and retired personnel.

Personally selected personnel for key staff and management positions. Established and vigorously pursued policies, which ensured equal employment

opportunity.

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