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Summer 2005vol. 5 number 2

infocusmagazine.org

INFOCUS

INFOCUSP.O. Box 665Holmes, PA 19043

PRE-SORT STANDARDU.S. POSTAGE PAID

PERMIT NO. 6426WASHINGTON, DC

Safeguarding Against Animal Diseases

Toward Cures for Spinal Cord Injury

Using Dispersants on Nearshore Oil Spills

Crucial Guidelines for Stem Cell Research

As scientists carefully search for clues in the sun and storm patterns fromour distant past, they are gradually writing a new history of Earth’s climate.

New physical evidence reveals that centuries of slowlyevolving climate variations have actually been punctuated by

far more rapid changes. Many researchers are now quietlyabandoning the traditional vision of a long, languid waltz of

slumbering ice ages and more temperate periods of interglacialwarming.While this new paradigm represents a significant shift inour picture of Earth’s past, the real question is what it means forour future.

Scientists have long recognized the threats posed by global warm-ing. But they must now consider that the natural behavior of ourclimate is potentially a greater threat than imagined.And thoughthere is no need for immediate alarm, the fact that changes inour climate can happen much more quickly than originallythought — perhaps in the course of a human lifetime — makesit clear that science has a lot of questions left to answer.

Climate Crash by award-winning journalist and author JohnD. Cox seeks to answer these questions, breaking the

story of rapid climate change to a general public that is already intenselycurious about what science has to say on the topic.

ISBN 0-309-09312-0 $27.95 224 pages

JOSEPH HENRY PRESS www.jhpress.org

Abrupt Climate Change and What It Means for Our Future

JH

The nation turns to the National Academies —National Academy of Sciences, National Academyof Engineering, Institute of Medicine, andNational Research Council — for independent,objective advice on issues that affect people’s livesworldwide. Additional information about the institution and its work can be found online at<national-academies.org>.

The National Academies In Focus features broadcoverage of the National Academies’ activities. We welcome your comments on the magazine; e-mail us at <infocusmagazine@nas.edu>.

In Focus (ISSN 1534-8334) is published three timesa year by the National Academies, 500 Fifth St.,N.W., Washington, DC 20001. Subscription (threeissues): $10; Canada and foreign, $12 (U.S. curren-cy only). Subscription address: In Focus, P.O. Box665, Holmes, PA 19043. Bulk-rate U.S. postage ispaid at Washington, D.C. Back issues and backvolumes can be ordered in microform fromProQuest Information and Learning, 300 NorthZeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106.

Postmaster: Send address changes to In Focus, P.O.

Box 665, Holmes, PA 19043.

Credits:Cover: (clockwise from upper left) Photo by Tim

McCabe, USDA Natural Resources ConservationService; ©Francisco Cruz/SuperStock; coloredscanning electron micrograph of human embry-onic stem cells, ©Simon Fraser/University ofNewcastle Upon Tyne/Science Photo Library; oilbeing removed from Dutch Harbor Beach,Alaska, after motor vessel Swallow ran aground,photo courtesy U.S. Coast Guard

Page 1: (col. 1, from top) ©Photodisc; colored scanningelectron micrograph of differentiated humanembryonic stem cells, ©Simon Fraser/Universityof Newcastle Upon Tyne/Science Photo Library;(col. 2, from top) ©Photodisc; flight deck crewand F/A-18E Hornet on USS Abraham Lincoln,photo by Seth C. Peterson, U.S. Navy

Page 2: Farewell celebration for Bruce Alberts, photo byMark Finkenstaedt

Page 3: Photo by BachrachPage 4: ©Rick Smith/Images.comPage 5: ©GoodshootPage 6: ©Stephanie Carter/Imagezoo.comPage 7: Colored scanning electron micrograph of human

embryonic stem cells, ©Simon Fraser/Universityof Newcastle Upon Tyne/Science Photo Library

Page 8: Researcher examining stem cells, ©SandyHuffaker/Getty Images

Page 9: ©PhotodiscPages 10&11: ©PhotodiscPage 12: Photo by Jeff Vanuga, USDA Natural Resources

Conservation ServicePage 13: ©CreatasPage 14: Spent nuclear fuel rod in cooling pool, ©Tim

Wright/CorbisPage 15: F/A-22 Raptor, photo courtesy U.S. Air ForcePage 16: Bruce Alberts with a young student during visit

to a lab school at Smith College inNorthampton, Mass., photo by Carol Lollis

Page 17: Farewell celebration for Bruce Alberts, photo byMark Finkenstaedt

Pages 18&19: Photos courtesy the National Academies’Christine Mirzayan Science and TechnologyPolicy Graduate Fellowship Program

Page 21: Photo courtesy Marian Koshland ScienceMuseum of the National Academy of Sciences

Public Water Supply DistributionSystems: Assessing and ReducingRisks — First ReportWater Science and TechnologyBoard, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 58 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09628-6; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Review of the HIVNET 012Perinatal HIV Prevention StudyBoard on Population Health andPublic Health Practice, Institute ofMedicine (2005, approx. 150 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09651-0; availablefrom NAP, $33.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Review of the U.S. Climate ChangeScience Program’s Synthesis andAssessment Product on TemperatureTrends in the Lower AtmosphereClimate Research Committee, Boardon Atmospheric Sciences andClimate, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 74 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09674-X; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Risks and Decisions AboutDisposition of Transuranic andHigh-Level Radioactive WasteBoard on Radioactive WasteManagement, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2005, 236 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09549-2; available from NAP,$37.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

The Science of Instream Flows: AReview of the Texas Instream FlowProgramWater Science and TechnologyBoard, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 162 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09566-2; available from NAP,$34.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Signposts in Cyberspace: TheDomain Name System and InternetNavigationComputer Science andTelecommunications Board,Division on Engineering andPhysical Sciences (2005, 416 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09640-5; available fromNAP, $51.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

The Smallpox Vaccination Program:Public Health in an Age ofTerrorismBoard on Health Promotion andDisease Prevention, Institute ofMedicine (2005, 360 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09592-1; available from NAP,$49.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Thinking Strategically: TheAppropriate Use of Metrics for theClimate Change Science ProgramClimate Research Committee, Boardon Atmospheric Sciences andClimate, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 160 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09659-6; available from NAP,$32.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Vaccine Safety Research, DataAccess, and Public TrustBoard on Health Promotion andDisease Prevention, Institute ofMedicine (2005, 152 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09591-3; available from NAP,$35.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Veterans and Agent Orange: Update2004Board on Health Promotion andDisease Prevention, Institute ofMedicine (2005, approx. 650 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09598-0; availablefrom NAP, $79.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

WIC Food Packages: Time for aChangeFood and Nutrition Board, Instituteof Medicine (2005, approx. 324pp.; ISBN 0-309-09650-2; availablefrom NAP, $47.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

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Free catalog available on request from TRB, 500 Fifth St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001

(tel. 202-334-3213), or visit TRB’s bookstore on the Internet at

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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIESVolume 5 Number 2

INFOCUSinfocusmagazine.org

F E A T U R E S

HEALTH & SAFETY

4 RegeneratingHopeSpeedingprogresstoward curesfor spinal cordinjuries

6 A Peace Corps for Global HealthMuch-needed help for nations hard hitby AIDS

EDUCATION & RESEARCH

7 Stem Cell ResearchReport offers scientists direction in controversial area

9 A State of Independence for NewInvestigatorsHelping postdocs jump-start their careersas independent researchers

ENVIRONMENT & RESOURCES

10 Oil Spill DispersantsChemicals used in deep waters should bestudied for use closer to coastline

12 Animals andHealthStrengtheningsafeguardsagainst diseaseoutbreaks

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

13 Dousing Danger at Nuclear PowerPlantsWays to reduce risks from terroristattacks

15 Polymer Matrix CompositesHigh performance and full of promise

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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS2

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

National Academy of SciencesRalph J. Cicerone, PresidentBarbara A. Schaal,Vice PresidentE.William Colglazier, Executive OfficerKenneth R. Fulton, Executive Director

National Academy of EngineeringCraig R. Barrett, ChairWm.A.Wulf, PresidentSheila E.Widnall,Vice PresidentLance Davis, Executive Officer

Institute of MedicineHarvey V. Fineberg, PresidentSusanne Stoiber, Executive Officer

National Research CouncilRalph J. Cicerone, ChairWm.A.Wulf,Vice ChairE.William Colglazier, Executive Officer

16 ProfileBruce Alberts: The Education PresidentExcerpts from a recent profile by sciencewriter Regina Nuzzo in the Proceedingsof the National Academy of Sciences

18 20/20Uncovering the Secrets of WashingtonPolicyBy Mara JeffressAcademies fellowship helps a youngscholar explore a career in science policy

20 Brief Takes• New Fund Honors Alberts’

Commitment to Science Education

• Partner Academies Chosen to Buoy African Science

• Science Museum Celebrates FirstAnniversary

22 New Projects & Publications

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In Focus is prepared by the Office of News and PublicInformation.

Executive Director:William Skane

In Focus Editor:Valerie Chase

Assistant Editor: Sara Frueh

Staff Writers: Bill Kearney, Maureen O’Leary,Patrice Pages, Christine Stencel,Vanee Vines

Design: Francesca Moghari

16

The Education President

Thomas Jefferson famously remarked that “If the condition of man isto be progressively ameliorated, as we fondly hope and believe, edu-cation is to be the chief instrument in effecting it.” By this statementhe meant both that society would benefit from the advancement ofknowledge and that an educated citizenry would be essential for safe-guarding the vitality and liberty of the young republic.

At the National Academies, we strive to realize these dual aspectsof Jefferson’s vision through the promotion of scientific knowledgethat can improve human society and through efforts to better informdecision-making by leaders and citizens at large on matters relating to science, technology,and health. This work takes many forms, ranging from reports that advise the governmentto our one-year-old Marian Koshland Science Museum.

Outgoing NAS President Bruce Alberts has led a host of projects to promote scientific liter-acy in the general public. Under his leadership, the National Academies initiated the NationalScience Education Standards project, which has outlined curricular standards for kindergartenthrough 12th grade. The Center for Education at the National Academies continues to under-take a broad spectrum of studies devoted to assessing and improving pedagogical practices.Other recent Academies reports have aimed at improving undergraduate education in the lifesciences and fostering the independence of young postdoctoral researchers, described in thisissue of In Focus. The National Academy of Engineering, for its part, has helped promotestandards for learning about technology in primary and secondary schools, and the Instituteof Medicine has highlighted the consequences and solutions for poor health literacy amongthe public in its report on Health Literacy: A Prescription to End Confusion.

IOM and NAE are also working to strengthen professional education in their respectivefields. The NAE, for example, has just released the second of a two-part report on Educatingthe Engineer of 2020: Adapting Engineering Education to the New Century. The IOM haspromoted better professional education in health through such reports as Who Will Keepthe Public Healthy? on the training of public health professionals and Health ProfessionsEducation: A Bridge to Quality on the training of clinical professionals.

As decisions affecting everything from personal health to national policy come to dependincreasingly on public awareness and understanding of scientific issues, the NationalAcademies will continue to provide objective and authoritative information to support aninformed citizenry. Through his work promoting science education at home — and throughhis efforts to build the advisory capacity of scientific academies abroad — Bruce Alberts hasstamped an important Jeffersonian legacy onto his 12 years of service to the Academies.This is a legacy worth preserving and extending, every bit as important at the start of the21st century as it was more than 200 years ago.

HARVEY V. FINEBERGPresident, Institute of Medicine

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T he arrival of antibiotics and otherimprovements in care made survivalpossible for many with spinal cord

injuries. But doctors and researchers hadwritten off the idea of curing the fundamentalinjury and the paralysis and loss of sensationit caused. Once spinal cord neurons weredestroyed, it was believed, they were gonefor good.

Fortunately, research in recent years hasundercut that assumption. Studies haveshown that nerve cells and their axons —the threadlike fibers that conduct electricalimpulses to other cells — can indeed be

regenerated, a finding that creates new possi-bilities for treating spinal cord injuries. Andthe attention drawn to these opportunitiesby the late actor Christopher Reeve follow-ing his own injury has given new vigor to theresearch effort.

“We now need to think about a newstage in recovery — actual improvement ofthe injured cord,” said Richard T. Johnson,a professor of neurology, microbiology, andneuroscience at the Johns Hopkins UniversitySchool of Medicine in Baltimore. Johnsonchaired an Institute of Medicine committeethat recently looked at the status of research

The ancient Egyptians considered

spinal cord injury a condition that

could not be treated, and even after

doctors began to try — the Greek

physician Hippocrates was one of the

first — their attempts met with little

success. Until around World War II,

the vast majority of people

who sustained these injuries died

within a year, often from infections that

followed on the heels of the trauma.

REGENERATING HOPESpeeding Progress Toward Cures for Spinal Cord Injuries

on spinal cord injuries and suggested ways toaccelerate progress toward new treatments.

When most people think of a “cure,” theythink of restoring the ability to walk again,but the committee’s report urges a broaderapproach. Research should be directed notonly at restoring major motor functions suchas walking, but also at healing the otherbody systems damaged by these injuries —sensory, bladder, and sexual functions, forexample. Better treatments are also neededfor complications such as pain, spasticity,pressure sores, and depression.

Few therapies are ready for clinical trials,the report says, but many show promise incell cultures and animal studies. If trans-planted, cells that usually protect axons inother parts of the body may be able tostimulate, guide, and protect axons in thespinal cord as well. And though research isstill in its early stages, stem cells from adultand embryonic tissues show strong poten-tial for replacing damaged spinal cord cells.One innovative approach may use engi-neered tissues to fill gaps in the injuredcord, and to serve as “scaffolds” fromwhich transplanted cells could grow.

Regenerating nerves is only one part ofrestoring function, however. Anotherresearch priority is finding ways to steer thegrowth of axons so that they connect withand stimulate the right cells and tissues. Ifthey connect in the wrong way, then painand spasticity — rather than recovery ofmovement and other functions — can result.

Research should also be devoted todeveloping acute-care therapies that couldbe used soon after an injury, the reportadds. A cascade of inflammation, celldeath, and scarring occurs in the days andweeks after the trauma, and finding ways

to block these processes could help mini-mize damage.

No single treatment will likely cure theseinjuries, the committee cautioned. Researchersshould focus on finding combinations oftherapies that could work together. Forexample, therapies that promote the growth

of axons could be developed alongsideagents that produce myelin, the substancethat protects axons and speeds nerveimpulses.

Coordinating all of the research activities— and translating promising findings intotreatments quickly — will require a central-ized network, the report says. The NationalInstitutes of Health should establish a SpinalCord Injury Network to lead and organizefuture research efforts. — Sara Frueh

-Spinal Cord Injury: Progress, Promise, and Priorities.Committee on Spinal Cord Injury, Board on Neuroscienceand Behavioral Health, Institute of Medicine (2005, 352pp.; ISBN 0-309-09585-9; available from the NationalAcademies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $49.95 plus $4.50shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at<books.nap.edu/catalog/11253.html>).

Richard T. Johnson, Distinguished Service Professorof Neurology, Microbiology, and Neuroscience, JohnsHopkins University School of Medicine and BloombergSchool of Public Health, Baltimore, chaired the committee.The study was funded by the State of New YorkDepartment of Health.

SUMMER 2005 5

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS6

Every day, 14,000 peopleacross the world contractHIV and another 8,500

die from AIDS. The globaleffort that’s necessary to com-bat the rapid spread ofHIV/AIDS has no precedent.The volume of trained healthcare workers and support personnel neededto provide lifelong care for people with anincurable disease far surpasses what wasneeded to tackle smallpox, polio, or anyother previous public health crisis.

Nothing less than a Peace Corps-scalecontingent of health care professionals andother experts should be mobilized to plan,carry out, and sustain a campaign againstthe disease, says a new report from theInstitute of Medicine. The report envisions anew Global Health Service with a pivotal“service corps” among its many elements —a cadre of full-time, salaried clinicians, edu-cators, and managers who travel overseas towork with other U.S. colleagues already inplace and local counterparts in runningtreatment and prevention programs forHIV/AIDS as well as malaria and tuberculo-sis, diseases which often overlap with andare exacerbated by HIV/AIDS. Some 150U.S. health professionals should be selectedin the first year of the program for assign-ments lasting at least two years in hard-hitAfrican, Caribbean, and Southeast Asiancountries. Corps members would help trainlocal professionals in addition to conductinghands-on treatment of patients or otheractivities.

Of course, the skilled professionals whoare promising recruits for the service corpsmay have tens of thousands of dollars indebt remaining from their education and

professional training, or mort-gages, career commitments, andother ties that can make it diffi-cult for them to travel abroadfor an extended period. Toencourage participation, incen-tives such as competitivesalaries, a fellowship program

offering awards of $35,000 annually, and ascholastic loan repayment program thatwould provide $25,000 for each completedyear of service in the corps should be usedto expand the pool of candidates.

These initiatives could mobilize thousandsof health personnel to work abroad, provid-ing desperately needed expertise in countriesbeset by critical shortages of doctors, nurses,and other health care professionals. There isonly one physician for every 30,000 peoplein Mozambique and one nurse for every5,000 Ugandans. Rwanda has just 11 phar-macists. “The dearth of qualified andtrained workers in many low-incomenations presents the single greatest obstacleto stemming the spread of AIDS, malaria,and tuberculosis,” said study chair FitzhughMullan. “Members of the Global HealthService Corps would offer both concreteassistance and hope for these nations bymultiplying essential skills and services.”— Christine Stencel & Vanee Vines

-Healers Abroad:Americans Responding to theHuman Resource Crisis in HIV/AIDS. Committee onOptions for Overseas Placement of U.S. HealthProfessionals, Board on Global Health, Institute ofMedicine (2005, 264 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09616-2; availablefrom the National Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242;$38.00 plus $4.50 shipping for single copies; also on theInternet at <books.nap.edu/catalog/11270.html>).

The committee was chaired by Fitzhugh Mullan,clinical professor of pediatrics and public health, GeorgeWashington University,Washington, D.C.The study wasfunded by the Office of the U.S. Global AIDS Coordinator,located in the U.S. Department of State.

A Peace Corpsfor Global Health

A new report from the NationalAcademies provides guidelines forresearch involving human embryonic

stem cells, and says that a standard set ofrequirements for obtaining, storing, distrib-uting, and using embryonic stem cell lines— one embraced by the entire U.S. scientificcommunity — is the most responsiblemeans to achieve advances in this area.

In previous reports, the NationalAcademies have recommended that bothadult and embryonic stem cell researchshould go forward, including research usinga lab technique called nuclear transfer toderive stem cells, but that human reproduc-tive cloning should not be attempted. Inview of current restrictions on federalinvolvement in human embryonic stem cellresearch, the scientific community needsguidelines to ensure that the work is con-ducted responsibly.

Human embryonic stem cells may beobtained from blastocysts — three- to five-day-old embryos — left over at fertility clin-ics; created specifically for research; or pro-duced by nuclear transfer. The guidelinessay that Embryonic Stem Cell ResearchOversight, or ESCRO, committees shouldbe set up to monitor scientific investigationsinvolving these cells at all institutions con-ducting such work. But the oversight com-mittees should not replace other researchcompliance bodies, such as institutionalreview boards.

ESCRO committees should review allresearch proposals that involve humanembryonic stem cells. Any proposal to

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Stem cell research is an exciting new

frontier in medical science. Under the

right conditions, these all-purpose cells

can be coaxed to develop into more

specialized cells, which could be powerful

tools for scientific inquiry and improved

therapies for treating disease. But like any

other frontier, this area of research has

yet to be fully explored. And given its

controversial nature, there should be clear

boundaries for how it is carried out.

Report Offers Scientists Directionin Controversial Area

STEM CELL RESEARCH

generate new stem cell lines using humanembryos should also be vetted by ESCROcommittees, the guidelines say.

Practices for obtaining donated eggs,sperm, or blastocysts should meet the highestethical and scientific standards, the guide-lines stress. Before conducting studies,researchers must obtain donors’ consent touse their blastocysts to generate stem cells,and donors should not be paid. Donors alsoshould be told that they have the right towithdraw their consent at any point beforecell lines are derived, and whether informa-tion on personal identity would be encodedand their privacy protected. Furthermore,donors should be made aware that embryoswould be destroyed in the process of gener-ating stem cells, resulting cell lines could bekept for years, and that the cells might begenetically modified or transplanted intoanimals for further scientific investigation.Researchers should not ask fertility doctorsto create more embryos than are needed forfertility treatment.

The guidelines recognize that scientistsmay need to combine human and animalcells for animal studies that would gauge

whether human stem cells couldtreat people with various ailments.But animal embryonic stem cellsshould not be transplanted intohuman blastocysts. Also, humanembryonic stem cells should not be placed in the blastocysts of non-human primates.

ESCRO committees mustapprove any placement of humanembryonic stem cells into animals.Animals used in such experimentsshould not be allowed to produceoffspring, however. And humanembryonic stem cells should be

introduced into nonhuman mammals onlywhen no other experiment can provide theinformation needed.

The report also recommends the creationof an independent body to periodicallyreview the guidelines, taking into accountadvances in stem cell science as well asevolving public attitudes. It is essential toassure the public that this research is beingconducted ethically and responsibly.— Vanee Vines & Bill Kearney

-Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem CellResearch. Committee on Guidelines for HumanEmbryonic Stem Cell Research; Board on Life Sciences,Division on Earth and Life Studies, and Board on HealthSciences Policy, Institute of Medicine (2005, approx. 272pp.; ISBN 0-309-09653-7; available from NationalAcademies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $44.95 plus $4.50shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at<books.nap.edu/catalog/11278.html>).

The committee was co-chaired by Richard O.Hynes, Daniel K. Ludwig Professor of Cancer Researchand a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator,Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge; andJonathan D. Moreno, Emily Davie and Joseph S.Kornfeld Professor of Biomedical Ethics and director ofthe Center for Biomedical Ethics, University of Virginia,Charlottesville.The study was funded by the NationalAcademies with additional support from the EllisonMedical Foundation and the Greenwall Foundation.

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS8

Such an ad would entice few people, butit describes some key challenges facingpostdocs and new scientists in biomed-

ical research. Their autonomy and creativityfrequently take a back seat in systems oftenmarked by conventionality. The NationalInstitutes of Health should promote theirindependence by giving them more resourcesand opportunities, says a new report fromthe National Research Council.

NIH alone cannot transform the statusquo, however. Other stakeholders — includ-ing university administrators and profession-al societies — must share the responsibility,the report says.

Postdoctoral training should be tempo-rary, the report emphasizes. NIH and otherinstitutions should limit the time individualswork as postdoctoral researchers to fiveyears total — regardless of the type ofaward or grant they work under.

Most biomedical postdocs are paidthrough “R01” research grants that are madeto principal investigators (PIs). So, traineesare often required to focus on the work ofothers, a pattern that may stifle their creativi-ty, the report says. NIH should move some ofthe postdoctoral support from R01 grants totraining grants and individual awards that aidpostdocs more directly. To complement itsRuth L. Kirschstein National ResearchService Awards, NIH also should create a

new independent-research award that allowspostdocs to control their own projects underthe mentorship of senior investigators.Additionally, the agency should improve datacollection on the progress of all postdocs, andconsider the training history of PIs.

To help postdocs move into jobs as inde-pendent researchers, NIH should replace itscollection of “K22” career-transition awardprograms with a more effective, agencywidegrant program. The recommended programwould help new investigators jump-starttheir careers and encourage them to pursuefresh ideas, the report says.

Landing grants for novel projects can bedifficult. Currently, R01 grant applicationsrequire candidates to submit preliminarydata predicting the success of their propos-als. Early-career researchers often have nothad the resources to obtain such data. NIHshould create a “New Investigator R01”award that would ask for a discussion ofprevious experience instead of preliminarydata, the report says. And the agency shouldprovide funding opportunities for researcherswho are not on the tenure track and whosejob security typically depends on externalgrants. — Vanee Vines

-Bridges to Independence: Fostering theIndependence of New Investigators in BiomedicalResearch. Committee on Bridges to Independence:Identifying Opportunities for and Challenges to Fosteringthe Independence of Young Investigators in the LifeSciences, Board on Life Sciences, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2005, approx. 138 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09626-X;available from National Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $33.00 plus $4.50 shipping for single copies; also onthe Internet at <books.nap.edu/catalog/11249.html>).

The committee was chaired by Thomas R. Cech,president, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, ChevyChase, Md., and distinguished professor of chemistry andbiochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder.The studywas sponsored by the National Institutes of Health.

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A State of Independence forNew Investigators

Help Wanted: Postdocs and early-career

biomedical investigators for U.S. scientific

enterprise. Few opportunities to do your

own work. Limited access to research

funds for original projects. Training to

last more than 10 years. Mentoring from

top scientists hit or miss.

T he National Research Council issueda report in 1989 that recommendedchemical dispersants be considered as

a first response option to oil spills. Whenthe worst oil spill in U.S. history occurredlater that year, cleanup crews tried to useoil dispersants at the scene of the ExxonValdez disaster. Although sufficient suppliesof a chemical dispersant were stored near-by, only one helicopter bucket spray systemwas available to apply the chemical to theslick, and the few applications that did takeplace were deemed ineffective.

Since then, dispersants have been usedextensively in other parts of the world, andthey have been successfully employed in

response to several oil spills in the Gulf ofMexico. Nevertheless, continued difficultyin quickly mobilizing oil dispersal promptedthe U.S. Coast Guard recently to requirethat more equipment and personnel be onhand to apply dispersants to spills in atimely manner. The use of dispersants isgenerally approved for spills at least fivekilometers from shore and in water at least10 meters deep, where dispersed oil’simpact on marine life is likely to be low.But now that dispersal equipment will bemore readily available, officials are wonder-ing whether these agents should be used innearshore, shallow waters, where most oilsspills in the United States occur but alsowhere much less is known about how evensmall droplets of oil affect the sea life andplants living there. Again, the ResearchCouncil was called upon to examine thecurrent state of science surrounding the useof dispersants as a response to oil spills,particularly nearshore ones.

Oil spill dispersants are controversialbecause unlike traditional cleanup tech-niques, where booms and skimmers areused in attempts to remove oil altogetherfrom the water’s surface, dispersants do not

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OIL SPILLDispersants

Chemicals Used inDeep Waters ShouldBe Studied for UseCloser to Coastline

OIL SPILLDispersants

reduce the total amount of oilentering the sea. They can,however, dissolve a slick beforeit reaches the shoreline, wherethe oil smears birds and marinemammals and turns beachesand coastal wetlands black. Thechemical agents used as disper-sants work by reducing the ten-sion between oil and water,thereby enhancing the naturalprocess of dispersion that takesplace when waves mix largenumbers of small oil dropletsinto the water beneath a spill.To be effective, however, theymust be used in a hurry — within 12 to 48hours after a spill according to the commit-tee that wrote the new report — before fluc-tuations in water temperature change theoil’s viscosity, possibly turning it into asemi-solid that cannot be dispersed.

As the report notes, the decision to usedispersants is a trade-off between decreasingthe risk to organisms that thrive on thewater’s surface and coastline, and possiblyincreasing the risk to fish populations, seagrasses and coral reefs, and creatures thatlive on the seafloor. Better information isneeded to decide whether to make thattrade-off.

With limited funding — less than $10million annually — for research on oil spilldispersants, the report recommends thatfederal and state agencies, along with indus-try and international partners, establish anintegrated research plan focused on experi-ments to support decisions about when andwhere to use dispersants. For example,models need to be designed that can predictthe concentration and underwater move-

ment of dispersed oil more accurately anddeliver rough estimates to emergencyresponders within hours of a spill. Monitorsalso should be rapidly deployed to the sceneof any spill where dispersants are used inorder to collect data on the fate of the dis-persed oil. And more studies are needed onthe toxicity of dispersed oil to sea life.

For now, experiments should be conduct-ed in wave tanks, although field testing inactual water environments may be deemednecessary in the future, the report says. — Bill Kearney

-Understanding Oil Spill Dispersants: Efficacy andEffects. Committee on Understanding Oil SpillDispersants: Efficacy and Effects, Ocean Studies Board,Division on Earth and Life Studies (2005, approx. 248 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09562-X; available from the NationalAcademies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $40.00 plus $4.50shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at<books.nap.edu/catalog/11283.html>).

The committee was chaired by Jacqueline Michel,president, Research Planning Inc., New Orleans.The studywas funded by the U.S. Department of the Interior’sMineral Management Service, National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration, U.S. Coast Guard, and theAmerican Petroleum Institute.

SUMMER 2005 11

T he need to make animal healthone of the nation’s top pri-orities may surprise some

people, but it shouldn’t, saysa new National ResearchCouncil report, given thethreat posed by new andemerging animal diseasesthat spread easily in today’sglobal marketplace. Many ofthese diseases are zoonotic, mean-ing they can be transmitted to humans.Mad cow, avian flu, lyme disease, and WestNile virus are just a few of the zoonotic dis-eases making headlines. Even when peopleare not infected, an animal disease can havea staggering economic impact on the $2 tril-lion U.S. food and fiber industry. There isalso the danger that terrorists will use ananimal pathogen to strike at the food supply.

These challenges led the committee thatwrote the report to conclude that a newhigh-level mechanism, or “strategic focalpoint,” is needed to coordinate the work ofdozens of federal and state agencies, univer-sity laboratories, and private companies cur-rently responsible for safeguarding animalhealth in this country. New technologiesalso need to be implemented more quickly,to better detect, diagnose, and thwart ani-mal-borne diseases. Recent technologicaladvances, such as health-monitoring chipsthat can be embedded underneath an ani-mal’s skin and improved early-warning sys-tems, have not been fully exploited by thecurrent animal health framework, accordingto the committee. And while it applaudedthe establishment of a National AnimalHealth Laboratory Network, which linkslabs conducting disease testing for the U.S.Department of Agriculture, the committee

said the network lacks the capacityto deal with massive, multiple

outbreaks, and at present isonly prepared to detect anarrow list of diseases. Amore robust linkage of allthose involved in animaldisease diagnosis is needed.

Although new limits wereplaced on the importation of

exotic animals following an out-break of monkeypox in 2003 that was

linked to an African rodent, the tracking ofsuch animals in the United States is inconsis-tent and ineffective, the committee found. Itsaid new regulations were needed to governthe possession of exotic, nondomesticated,and wild animals.

The rising challenges in animal healthcome at time unfortunately when fewer vet-erinarians are pursuing public health andbiomedical research careers; USDA predictsa shortfall of several hundred veterinarianson its staff by 2007. New strategies areneeded to recruit veterinarians into fieldssuch as pathology and laboratory animalmedicine, the committee said.

The report is the first of a three-part study,with follow-up reports expected on animaldisease surveillance and response and recov-ery plans for an epidemic. — Bill Kearney

-Animal Health at the Crossroads: Preventing,Detecting, and Diagnosing Animal Diseases. Committeeon Assessing the Nation’s Framework for AddressingAnimal Diseases, Board on Agriculture and NaturalResources, Division on Earth and Life Studies (2005,approx. 237 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09259-0; available from theNational Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $46.00plus $4.50 shipping for single copies; also on the Internetat <books.nap.edu/catalog/11365.html>).

The committee was chaired by Lonnie J. King, dean,College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University,East Lansing.The study was funded by the NationalAcademies.

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS12

ANIMALS and HEALTHStrengthening Safeguards Against Disease Outbreaks

A lmost from the day the first U.S.commercial nuclear power reactorwent online in 1957, rods contain-

ing used — yet still highly radioactive —uranium have been accumulating in coolingpools and dry casks at over 100 operatingand decommissioned plants. Since Sept. 11,2001, some independent analysts have wor-ried that these fuel rods could be stolen byterrorists to make “dirty bombs” or thatcooling pools at the plants could becomenew targets for terrorist attacks.

At the request of Congress, a committeeof experts was convened by the NationalAcademies to examine the safety and securityof spent nuclear fuel stored at commercialnuclear power plants. The committee’s con-sensus report was delivered in classified formin July of last year to Congress, the U.S.Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC),

and the U.S. Department of HomelandSecurity. A public version of the committee’sreport was released in April 2005.

The committee found that cooling poolsat some plants are potentially at risk from aterrorist attack, but given existing plantsecurity measures, the likelihood that terror-ists could steal enough spent fuel to use in anuclear dispersal device is small.

The most significant threat from a terror-ist attack is the potential for breaching thecooling pools themselves. The committeesaid an attack that partially or completelydrains a cooling pool could have severe con-sequences, including the initiation of a high-temperature fire in the fuel’s zirconiumcladding, which could result in the release oflarge quantities of radioactive material. Thereport recommends that two immediatesteps be taken to reduce the chances and

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DOUSING DANGERAT NUCLEAR POWER PLANTSDOUSING DANGERAT NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

consequences of suchfires: repositioning fuelrods in the pools to moreevenly distribute heatloads from radioactivedecay and installingwater-spray systems tocool the fuel in the eventof a coolant loss.

The committee notedthat the potential risksdepend on plant design.Some cooling pools, forexample, are locatedbelow ground level or areotherwise protected fromexternal line-of-sightattacks. For this reason, the NuclearRegulatory Commission should promptlyundertake plant-by-plant vulnerabilityanalyses to determine which plants are athighest risk. The committee also found thatdry cask storage, which is used to store fuelolder than about five years, has securityadvantages over storage in cooling pools;for example, it divides the inventory ofspent fuel among a number of individualcontainers. Consequently, less fuel is at riskin an attack. Once the recommended plant-by-plant vulnerability analyses are complet-ed, the USNRC may conclude that earlier-than-planned movements of spent fuel frompools to dry casks would be prudent atsome plants.

The report also recommends that theUSNRC improve the sharing of pertinentinformation from its analyses with nuclearpower plant operators and commercial ven-dors. During its work, the committeeobserved that current classification andsecurity practices have impeded the sharing

of valuable informationthat could improve plantsecurity, with a negativeeffect on feedback, coop-eration, and overall con-fidence in the agency.

The public version ofthe National Academies’report was prepared withthe cooperation of theNuclear RegulatoryCommission. It containsall of the findings andrecommendations of theoriginal classified study,although classified secu-rity and safeguards infor-

mation has been removed. “This publiclyavailable version of our report,” said BruceAlberts, president of the National Academyof Sciences, “fulfills our responsibility toinform the public and elected officials abouta critical national security issue while alsoensuring that we publish nothing that mightinadvertently aid a terrorist.”— William Skane

-Safety and Security of Commercial Spent NuclearFuel Storage: Public Report. Committee on Safety andSecurity of Commercial Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage,Board on Radioactive Waste Management, Division onEarth and Life Studies (2005, approx. 125 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09645-6; available from the National Academies Press, tel.1-800-624-6242; $32.00 plus $4.50 shipping for singlecopies; also on the Internet at <books.nap.edu/cata-log/11263.html>).

Louis J. Lanzerotti, distinguished research professor,New Jersey Institute of Technology, and consultant, BellLabs, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, N.J., chaired thecommittee.The study was funded by the U.S. NuclearRegulatory Commission and the U.S. Department ofHomeland Security.

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS14

L ighter and stronger materi-als are being designed thatcan be used at high tem-

peratures and resist corrosionbetter than conventional metalsor plastics in various commercial and mili-tary applications. Called polymer matrixcomposites, these materials consist of strongfibers embedded in a resilient plastic thatholds them in place.

Polymer composites are used to make verylight bicycles that are faster and easier to han-dle than standard ones, fishing boats that areresistant to corrosive seawater, and light-weight turbine blades that generate windpower efficiently. New commercial aircraftalso contain more composites than their pred-ecessors. A 555-passenger plane recently builtby Airbus, for example, consists of 25 percentcomposite material, while Boeing is designinga new jumbo aircraft that is planned to bemore than half polymer composites.

But composites can be costly to make andtheir long-term properties are not easy topredict. So, although many companies andgovernment agencies realize the potential ofthese materials, they only use them in a lim-ited number of well-proven applications.

Two new reports from the NationalResearch Council explore how to betterunderstand the properties of polymer com-posites and how industry and the U.S. mili-tary could use more composites with higherconfidence as their reliability improves.

Scientists have devised various theoreticalmodels to explain some aspects of compos-ites’ distinctive properties. Teams of scien-tists and engineers with expertise in chem-istry, polymer physics, materials processing,and other relevant fields could combineinformation from these models to makemore reliable predictions about how poly-mer composites behave, particularly underextreme conditions, says one of the reports.

Scientists and engineers alsoshould be able to use data aboutcomposites’ chemical makeup,properties, and processing con-ditions from large composite

development projects at government agen-cies, such as NASA, and at private compa-nies, such as Airbus and Boeing. The datacould be assembled in a database similar tothe popular gene and protein databases usedby life scientists, the report adds.

In the future, polymer composites couldbe even tougher and lighter than today’scomposites, owing to M5 fibers, whichpromise to be the strongest and most versa-tile fibers ever created. These compositescould improve protection against fire, blasts,and bullets for military equipment and per-sonnel. In the next five to 10 years, theDefense Department should invest in M5fiber research and development and shouldevaluate new ways of developing and pur-chasing high-performance fibers, the secondreport recommends, to improve the perform-ance and availability of composites in thefuture. — Patrice Pages

-High-Performance Structural Fibers for AdvancedPolymer Matrix Composites. Committee on High-Performance Structural Fibers for Advanced PolymerMatrix Composites, Division on Engineering and PhysicalSciences (ISBN 0-309-09614-6).The committee waschaired by John W. Gillespie Jr., director of theUniversity of Delaware’s Center for Composite Materials,Newark.-Going to Extremes: Meeting the Emerging Demandfor Durable Polymer Matrix Composites. Committee onDurability and Lifetime Prediction of Polymer MatrixComposites in Extreme Environments, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences (ISBN 0-309-09715-0).Catherine Brinson, professor of mechanical engineeringand materials science and engineering at NorthwesternUniversity, Evanston, Ill., chaired the committee.

Both studies were funded by the U.S. Department ofDefense.The reports are available from the NationalAcademies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; also on the Internetat <books.nap.edu>.

SUMMER 2005 15

High Performance and

Full of Promise

POLYMER MATRIX C O M P O S I T E SPOLYMER MATRIX C O M P O S I T E S

A s Bruce Alberts stepped down on July 1 one of the most accomplishedand distinguished presidents of the

National Academy of Sciences, he was sin-gularly focused on education — specifically,teaching students about real science. He hasbeen brewing an idea for a new sciencecourse that he would like to teach to hisgraduate students at the University ofCalifornia, San Francisco, the approach forwhich is partly inspired by the three yearshe spent in graduate school chargingstraight into an experimental dead-end.First, Alberts says, he would toss out thetraditional classroom lectures and insteadhand students a small stack of carefullyselected scientific articles. Then he wouldhave them argue among themselves whichpapers are outstanding and, most impor-tantly, which are not. “We always talkabout good papers, but we never talk aboutthe substantial amount of mediocre workthat’s done,” Alberts says.

Alberts wants to get students and scien-tists talking about what he considers thecritical issue in a scientific career: how a sci-entist learns where to spend limited time,money, and energy in the most effective way.“I think the right type of course could do alot to help future scientists develop the kind

of taste and judgment they need to really besuccessful,” he says. Good scientists usuallyacquire this research acumen by osmosis or“trial and error,” Alberts says. “In my case,it was a lot of error.”

Nearly 30 years after his graduate schoolstumbling blocks, Alberts came toWashington, D.C., to be an “educationpresident” of the Academy. His impressivelist of achievements and accolades — includ-ing eight foreign academy memberships, 14honorary degrees, and recognition rangingfrom the San Francisco Exploratorium tothe National Academy of Education —reflects his abiding interest in scienceresearch and policy as well as basic scienceeducation. During his 12-year tenure, he hasmade immense strides in bringing scienceeducation reform to the classroom.

Elected NAS president in 1993, BruceAlberts immediately began attending to theNational Science Education Standards — aproject to develop the first-ever set of sci-ence educational standards for kindergartenthrough high school — helping to shape andmove the project forward. In 1996, theResearch Council released the long-awaitedreport, a 250-page guide containing recom-mendations on the content of science classesand on science teaching techniques. The

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Bruce Alber ts

report emphasizes logic and hands-on prob-lem solving, collaborative group work, andinquiry-based science. More than 250,000copies have been distributed across thenation, and the voluntary standards havenow been adopted to some extent in almostevery state.

Under Alberts’ leadership, the NationalAcademies helped usher in other science edu-cation initiatives. In 1995, the Academiesestablished a Center for Science,Mathematics, and Engineering Education,later merged with the Board on Testing andAssessment to form the Center for Education,which provided a locus for education activi-ties. The National Academies tripled theireducation reports, producing more than 190publications on some aspect of educationfrom kindergarten through graduate school,and recently helped establish StrategicEducation Research Partnership (SERP), anonprofit agency that aims to create collabo-rative networks of teachers and educationresearchers to decipher what works best inour nation’s schools.

Now that his second and final six-yearterm as NAS president has ended, Albertswill serve the next four years as co-chair ofthe InterAcademy Council, alongsideYongxiang Lu, president of the ChineseAcademy of Sciences. The InterAcademyCouncil brings together the world’s scienceacademies to provide advice to internationalbodies, such as the United Nations and theWorld Bank. Alberts is also returning toteaching at UCSF, where he hopes to explorenew methods of instruction, such as interac-tive minicourses between academic terms.He also plans to help UCSF’s young facultyand postdoctoral fellows become more effec-tive teachers and researchers themselves.

Looking back, Alberts can see the influ-ences of his own education and teachingexperiences on his philosophies of science

education. He saw the power that a goodtextbook can hold, and he experienced theconsequences of learning too late the valueof forming good scientific questions.

Alberts realizes that people are drivenstrongly by the pleasures of solving prob-lems and feeling competent, not by externalrewards, and these motivations hold for bril-

liant future scientists as well as strugglingstudents. “I think that our education processshould stress enabling every kid to realize inmiddle school that she or he is good at some-thing, and that their job in life is to find outwhat they’re really good at,” he says. Theimportance of early science classes goesbeyond the actual science, Alberts says.“You’re trying to teach a much more basicskill — a strategy for dealing with life, basi-cally. You’re not trying to teach all students tobe research scientists. You’re trying to teachthem how to deal with any problem they’regoing to encounter in a scientific way.”

Adapted from a profile written by ReginaNuzzo and published in the Proceedings ofthe National Academy of Sciences on June28, 2005.

SUMMER 2005 17

T hree times a year a group of students arrives in Washington, D.C., to participate inthe National Academies’ 10-week Christine Mirzayan Science and Technology PolicyGraduate Fellowship Program. These fellows are typically graduate students and

postdocs in medicine, law, science, or engineering who are interested in the creation of sci-ence and technology policy and the interactions of science, technology, and government. Iwas part of the winter 2005 group and arrived in D.C. in early January, a newly mintedPh.D. from the University of Washington, green and as eagerto discover the secrets of the Washington policy world as Iwas to discover the secrets of how molecules interact insidethe microscopic world of our cells.

After a weeklong orientation, each policy fellow spends hisor her remaining nine weeks working with a member of thesenior staff on various aspects of the studies under way at aparticular Academies’ division. I worked with Steve Merrill atthe Board on Science, Technology, and Economic Policy onpolicy issues surrounding patenting genes and genomic andproteomic intellectual property. We also attended luncheons with the presidents of theNational Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Engineering, and the Institute ofMedicine, as well as congressional hearings and seminars and career development work-shops. Additionally, the fellows create and direct a science and technology policy seminarseries at the Academies.

During orientation, the fellows divide into three groups and choose topics for theupcoming seminars. By working in small groups, much as Academies committees do, weexperience the consensus process firsthand and learn to work together as a diverse andeducated group of peers to address the challenge. Each seminar, which brings together twoor three experts on a controversial policy topic, must be planned, advertised to both thepublic and the press, and executed with a professionalism befitting the Academies.

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS18

Mara Jeffress is a

recent graduate

from the University

of Washington,

Seattle, with a Ph.D.

in molecular and

cellular biology.

BY MARA JEFFRESS

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The seminars, andthe program as a

whole, help studentsdevelop essential

skills different fromthose attained in

academia.

Uncovering the Secrets ofWashington Policy

Putting on a public event was new to the majority of us and there were several chal-lenges. All three groups had to approach many experts before finding those who couldparticipate. Within my group we divided up the tasks — acquiring speakers, writing pressreleases, making brochures and flyers, advertising, facilities coordination, and introducingand timing the speakers during theseminar — making each job moremanageable. This was a crucial step,since all of us were working fulltime for an Academies unit and didnot have much time to spare. Myjob was to make the seminarbrochure and do some writing —two tasks I enjoyed. In fact, itseemed my group was fortunate inthat each of us naturally fell into thejob for which we were best-suitedand which we most enjoyed.

The program’s resulting seminarstook place during the final weeks ofthe fellowship session at theAcademies’ Keck Center. Some ofthe few educational seminars onS&T policy held at the Academies, they are open to the public and allow ample time fordebate. Approximately 80 people attended each seminar.

My group’s topic was the economics of health savings accounts. While some of thegroups had to deal with late or confrontational speakers, fortunately the speakers for mygroup were on time and extremely courteous to each other despite a lively debate. Theother seminar topics during the winter session were organic foods and the privacy issuessurrounding security scanning technologies.

The seminars, and the program as a whole, help students develop essential skills differ-ent from those attained in academia. It opened up possibilities I never dreamed of while atmy lab bench. As a result, I am now pursuing a science policy career. Some of my academ-ic friends initially questioned my career decision. However, once I passionately explainedto them the need for rigorously trained scientists to provide a voice in the policy milieu —something many scientists are simply unaware of — they understand. I only wish theycould have experienced what I did in 10 short weeks in Washington.

Find out more about the Christine Mirzayan Science and Technology Policy GraduateFellowship Program and many other career opportunities available from the NationalAcademies at <national-academies.org/grantprograms.html>.

SUMMER 2005 19

New Fund Honors Alberts’Commitment to ScienceEducation

Bruce Alberts arrived at the NationalAcademy of Sciences in 1993 intending tobecome a president devoted to educationreform. His many efforts on behalf of sci-ence education emphasize “science asinquiry,” an approach that aims to help stu-dents acquire a deep and useful understand-ing of the scientific method — not just therote knowledge currently stressed in manyU.S. schools. Making this shift, Albertsbelieves, will require the strong leadershipof the scientific community.

To continue his work and to honor hispassion for improving science education, the Academies have established the BruceAlberts Fund for Science Education. Thefund will support a variety of programs,including an effort to expand the concept ofthe Teacher Advisory Council, a group start-ed by Alberts in 2002 to give expert scienceand math teachers a voice in national educa-tion policy. The Academies are now support-ing the formation of similar advisory groupsat the state level. Also planned is an initiativeto build partnerships between the scienceand business communities to encourage theeducation system to produce a scientificallyliterate and capable work force. And thefund will support wider dissemination of theAcademies’ evidence-based studies on howstudents learn; the goal is to get these reportsinto the hands of more people who can putthe recommendations into practice — suchas federal and state policy-makers and edu-cation agencies, business leaders, principals,and classroom teachers themselves.

For more information about the fund,contact Merrill Meadow, NAS developmentdirector, at 202-334-2431, or visit <national-academies.org/albertsfund>.— Sara Frueh

Partner Academies Chosento Buoy African Science

The U.S. National Academies selected inFebruary the science academies of Nigeria,Uganda, and South Africa as initial focalpoints for a program to strengthen Africanscientists’ ability to inform government pol-icy-making and public discourse with inde-pendent, evidence-based advice. Supportedby a $20 million grant from the Bill &Melinda Gates Foundation, the initiativewill be carried out in Africa over the nextdecade, focusing on efforts to improve pub-lic health.

The project will help the three academies— which have limited experience in provid-ing policy guidance — engage broader com-munities of African scientists, medical andhealth care professionals, and engineers inpolicy issues. The U.S. National Academieswill steer efforts early on, in part by con-ducting a series of joint activities. But theaim is to create the capacity in each nationfor efforts to thrive under the leadershipand support of the African academies them-selves. Some of the early activities will cen-ter on helping the three academies developthe skills to plan and execute scientific stud-ies, organize major conferences, raise andmanage funds, create and implementadministrative procedures, and build lastingrelationships with government officials andother stakeholders in their countries.

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The U.S. National Academies alsoawarded strategic planning grants to thescience academies of Cameroon, Senegal,Ghana, and Kenya. Additionally, the initiative will support various meetings topromote collaboration and joint learningamong sub-Saharan Africa’s science acade-mies. Canada’s International DevelopmentResearch Centre will support the initiativeand provide financial assistance for theparticipation of a fourth initial partner in Africa. — Vanee Vines

Science MuseumCelebrates First Anniversary

Under a striped circus tent decorated withmetallic red, black, and silver balloons,hundreds of people gathered to learn aboutscience and participate in festivities mark-ing the first anniversary of the MarianKoshland Science Museum. The festiveatmosphere continued inside the museumwith raffle tickets, popcorn, and prizes.Nearly 600 people stopped by for the special event.

At one popular station, visitors were ableto extract DNA from their own cheek cellsand take home the sample in a necklace vialfor safekeeping. And a microscopic powertool station allowed visitors the opportunityto use a small hand-held digital microscopeto explore tiny objects including computerchips.

“Today’s celebration is a thank you to thecommunity for its support of our museum,”said Patrice Legro, director of the museum.

The museum is part of the public out-reach of the National Academies. Its exhibitsare designed to make National Academies

reports more accessible to the public —through interactive displays and cutting-edgetechnology — and to increase public under-standing of the nature and value of science.

The current exhibits at the museum focuson global warming and DNA, allowing visi-tors to glimpse the frontiers of today’s scien-tific research; witness the effects of globalwarming; and explore how DNA analysis

can catch criminals and stop epidemics. In2007, one of the exhibits will travel to part-ner museums across the country. A newexhibit on infectious disease is now underdevelopment. — Maureen O’Leary

SUMMER 2005 2121

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ProjectsThe following projects have beenrecently undertaken by units of theNational Academies. The latestinformation about all current com-mittee activities — including projectdescriptions, committee rosters, andmeeting information — is availablein “Current Projects” on theNational Academies’ Web site.

Assessment of the U.S. Drug SafetySystem. Board on Population Health andPublic Health Practice, Institute ofMedicine. Project director: KathleenStratton. Chair: Sheila P. Burke,deputy secretary and chief operat-ing officer, Smithsonian Institution,Washington, D.C. Sponsor: U.S.Food and Drug Administration.

Human-System Design Support forChanging Technology. Center for Studies of Behavior andDevelopment, Division of Behavioraland Social Sciences and Education.Project director: Anne Mavor. Chair:Richard W. Pew, principal scientist,BBN Technologies, Cambridge,Mass. Sponsor: U.S. Army ResearchLaboratory and Air Force ResearchLaboratory.

National Tire Efficiency Study. Studies and Information Services,Transportation Research Board, andBoard on Energy andEnvironmental Systems, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences.Project director: Tom Menzies.Chair: Dale F. Stein, president emer-itus, Michigan TechnologicalUniversity, Tucson, Ariz. Sponsor:National Highway Traffic SafetyAdministration.

Route Selection for Transportationof Research Reactor Spent NuclearFuel. Nuclear and Radiation StudiesBoard, Division on Earth and LifeStudies; and Studies and InformationServices, Transportation ResearchBoard. Project director: KevinCrowley. Chair: Neal Lane, EdwardA. and Hermena Hancock KellyUniversity Professor, and senior fel-low, James A. Baker III Institute forPublic Policy, Rice University,Houston. Sponsor: U.S. Departmentof Transportation.

Strategic Advice on the U.S. ClimateChange Science Program. Division on Earth and Life Studies,Division of Behavioral and SocialSciences and Education, andDivision on Engineering andPhysical Sciences. Project director:Anne Linn. Chair: To be selected.Sponsor: U.S. Climate ChangeScience Program.

Teacher Education Programs in theUnited States. Center for Education, Division ofBehavioral and Social Sciences andEducation. Project director: MichaelAllen. Chair: To be selected. Sponsor:U.S. Department of Education’sInstitute of Education Sciences.

Understanding Premature Birth andAssuring Healthy Outcomes. Board on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine. Project direc-tor: Adrienne Stith Butler. Chair:Richard E. Behrman, executive andchair of the Pediatric EducationSteering Committee, Federation ofPediatric Organizations Inc., MenloPark, Calif. Sponsors: NationalInstitutes of Health’s NationalInstitute of Child Health & HumanDevelopment and Office ofResearch on Women’s Health, U.S.Centers for Disease Control andPrevention, Health Resources andServices Administration, U.S.Environmental Protection Agency,March of Dimes, BurroughsWellcome Fund, American College

of Obstetricians and Gynecologists,American Society for ReproductiveMedicine, and the Society forMaternal-Fetal Medicine.

PublicationsFor documents shown as availablefrom the National Academies Press(NAP), write to 500 Fifth St., N.W.,Lockbox 285, Washington, D.C.20055; tel. 202-334-3313 or 1-800-624-6242; or order on the Internetat <www.nap.edu>. Documentsfrom a specific unit of the NationalAcademies are available from thesource as noted. Prices and avail-ability of all documents are subjectto change. Charges listed are forsingle copies; discounts are avail-able for bulk orders.

Advancing the Nation’s HealthNeeds: NIH Research TrainingProgramsBoard on Higher Education andWorkforce, Division on Policy andGlobal Affairs (2005, 190 pp.; ISBN0-309-09427-5; available from NAP,$45.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Are Chemical Journals TooExpensive and Inaccessible? AWorkshop Summary to theChemical Sciences Roundtable Chemical Sciences Roundtable,Board on Chemical Sciences andTechnology, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2005, 50 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09590-5; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Assessing the Quality of CancerCare: An Approach to Measurementin GeorgiaNational Cancer Policy Board,Institute of Medicine and NationalResearch Council (2005, 292 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09569-7; available fromNAP, $49.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

The Astrophysical Context of LifeCommittee on the Origins andEvolution of Life, Space StudiesBoard, Division on Engineering andPhysical Sciences, and Board on LifeSciences, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 94 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09627-8; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping; alsoavailable free from the Space StudiesBoard, tel. 202-334-3477 or e-mail<ssb@nas.edu>).

The Atacama Large Millimeter Array(ALMA): Implications of a PotentialDescopeCommittee on Astronomy andAstrophysics, Board on Physics andAstronomy and Space Studies Board,Division on Engineering andPhysical Sciences (2005, approx. 31pp.; ISBN 0-309-09694-4; availablefrom NAP, $12.00 plus $4.50 ship-ping; also available free from theSpace Studies Board, tel. 202-334-3477 or e-mail <ssb@nas.edu>).

Avoiding Surprise in an Era ofGlobal Technology AdvancesDivision on Engineering andPhysical Sciences (2005, 138 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09605-7; available fromNAP, $32.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Cord Blood: Establishing a NationalHematopoietic Stem Cell BankProgramBoard on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2005, approx.320 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09586-7; avail-able from NAP, $46.95 plus $4.50shipping).

Creating a Disaster ResilientAmerica: Grand Challenges inScience and Technology — Summaryof a Workshop of the DisastersRoundtableDisasters Roundtable, Division onEarth and Life Studies (2005, 19pp.; available only online at<www.nap.edu>).

Decreasing Energy Intensity inManufacturing: Assessing theStrategies and Future Directions ofthe Industrial Technologies ProgramBoard on Manufacturing andEngineering Design, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences(2005, 86 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09574-3;available from NAP, $18.00 plus$4.50 shipping).

Designing Nanostructures at theInterface Between Biomedical andPhysical Systems — ConferenceFocus Group SummariesNational Academies Keck FuturesInitiative (2005, 120 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09668-5; available from NAP,$28.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Earth Science and Applications FromSpace: Urgent Needs andOpportunities to Serve the NationSpace Studies Board, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences(2005, approx. 50 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09672-3; available from NAP, $12.00plus $4.50 shipping; also availablefree from the board, tel. 202-334-3477 or e-mail <ssb@nas.edu>).

Economic Models of ColorectalCancer Screening in Average-RiskAdults — Workshop SummaryNational Cancer Policy Board,Institute of Medicine and NationalResearch Council, and Board onScience, Technology, and EconomicPolicy, Division on Policy andGlobal Affairs (2005, 310 pp.; ISBN0-309-09539-5; available from NAP,$60.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Effects of Nuclear Earth-Penetratorand Other WeaponsDivision on Engineering and PhysicalSciences (2005, approx. 150 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09673-1; available fromNAP, $33.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Estimating the Contributions ofLifestyle-Related Factors toPreventable Death — A WorkshopSummaryBoard on Population Health andPublic Health Practice, Institute ofMedicine (2005, 80 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09690-1; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Federal Agency Roles in CancerDrug Development From PreclinicalResearch to New Drug Approval:The National Cancer Institute andthe Food and Drug Administration— Background Paper Prepared forthe National Cancer Policy BoardInstitute of Medicine and NationalResearch Council (2005, 68 pp.;available only online at<www.nap.edu>).

Final Comments on the Science Planfor the North Pacific Research BoardOcean Studies Board and PolarResearch Board, Division on Earthand Life Studies (2005, 44 pp.; ISBN0-309-09602-2; available from NAP,$12.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Frontiers of Engineering: Reports onLeading-Edge Engineering From the2004 NAE Symposium on Frontiersof EngineeringNational Academy of Engineering(2005, 164 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09547-6; available from NAP, $35.50 plus$4.50 shipping).

Impact of Revised Airborne ExposureLimits on Non-Stockpile ChemicalMateriel Program ActivitiesBoard on Army Science andTechnology, Division on Engineeringand Physical Sciences (2005, 108 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09545-X; available fromNAP, $25.75 plus $4.50 shipping).

Implications of Genomics for PublicHealth — Workshop SummaryBoard on Health Promotion andDisease Prevention, Institute ofMedicine (2005, 98 pp.; 0-309-09607-3; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

SUMMER 2005 23

Implications of Nanotechnology forEnvironmental Health ResearchRoundtable on EnvironmentalHealth Sciences, Research, andMedicine, Board on Health SciencesPolicy, Institute of Medicine (2005,70 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09577-8; avail-able from NAP, $18.00 plus $4.50shipping).

Improved Seismic Monitoring —Improved Decision-Making:Assessing the Value of ReducedUncertaintyCommittee on Seismology andGeodynamics, Board on EarthSciences and Resources, Division onEarth and Life Studies (2005,approx. 148 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09695-2; available from NAP,$32.50 plus $4.50 shipping).

Improving Breast Imaging QualityStandardsNational Cancer Policy Board,Institute of Medicine and NationalResearch Council (2005, approx.248 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09648-0;available from NAP, $42.00 plus$4.50 shipping).

Improving the Characterization andTreatment of Radioactive Wastes forthe Department of Energy’sAccelerated Site Cleanup ProgramBoard on Radioactive WasteManagement, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2005, 84 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09299-X; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Improving the Scientific Foundationfor Atmosphere-Land-OceanSimulations — Report of a WorkshopBoard on Atmospheric Sciences andClimate, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 84 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09609-X; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Interfaces for Ground and AirMilitary Robots — WorkshopSummaryCommittee on Human Factors,Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, andSensory Sciences, Division ofBehavioral and Social Sciences andEducation (2005, 60 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09606-5; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Interim Design Assessment for thePueblo Chemical Agent DestructionPilot PlantBoard on Army Science andTechnology, Division on Engineeringand Physical Sciences (2005, 92 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09445-3; available fromNAP, $18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

An International Perspective onAdvancing Technologies andStrategies for Managing Dual-UseRisks — Report of a WorkshopDevelopment, Security, andCooperation, Division on Policy andGlobal Affairs; and Board onGlobal Health, Institute of Medicine(2005, approx. 154 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09682-0; available from NAP,$33.50 plus $4.50 shipping).

An International Spent Nuclear FuelStorage Facility: Exploring aRussian Site as a Prototype —Proceedings of an InternationalWorkshopOffice for Central Europe andEurasia, Development, Security, andCooperation, Division on Policyand Global Affairs (2005, approx.232 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09688-X;available from NAP, $46.75 plus$4.50 shipping).

Making Better Drugs for ChildrenWith CancerNational Cancer Policy Board,Institute of Medicine and NationalResearch Council (2005, 56 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09608-1; available fromNAP, $18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Measuring Food Insecurity andHunger — Phase 1 ReportCommittee on National Statistics,Division of Behavioral and SocialSciences and Education (2005, 70pp.; ISBN 0-309-09596-4; availablefrom NAP, $18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Monitoring Nuclear Weapons andNuclear-Explosive Materials: AnAssessment of Methods andCapabilities Committee on International Securityand Arms Control, NationalAcademy of Sciences (2005, 264 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09597-2; available fromNAP, $52.25 plus $4.50 shipping).

Nutrient Composition of Rationsfor Short-Term, High-IntensityCombat OperationsCommittee on Military NutritionResearch, Food and NutritionBoard, Institute of Medicine (2005,approx. 507 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09641-3; available from NAP,$50.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Policy Implications of InternationalGraduate Students and PostdoctoralScholars in the United StatesCommittee on Science, Engineering,and Public Policy, the NationalAcademies; and Board on HigherEducation and Workforce, Divisionon Policy and Global Affairs (2005,approx. 214 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09613-8; available from NAP,$43.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Prospective Evaluation of AppliedEnergy Research and Developmentat DOE (Phase One): A First LookForwardBoard on Energy and EnvironmentalSystems, Division on Engineeringand Physical Sciences (2005, 138 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09604-9; available fromNAP, $38.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS24

The nation turns to the National Academies —National Academy of Sciences, National Academyof Engineering, Institute of Medicine, andNational Research Council — for independent,objective advice on issues that affect people’s livesworldwide. Additional information about the institution and its work can be found online at<national-academies.org>.

The National Academies In Focus features broadcoverage of the National Academies’ activities. We welcome your comments on the magazine; e-mail us at <infocusmagazine@nas.edu>.

In Focus (ISSN 1534-8334) is published three timesa year by the National Academies, 500 Fifth St.,N.W., Washington, DC 20001. Subscription (threeissues): $10; Canada and foreign, $12 (U.S. curren-cy only). Subscription address: In Focus, P.O. Box665, Holmes, PA 19043. Bulk-rate U.S. postage ispaid at Washington, D.C. Back issues and backvolumes can be ordered in microform fromProQuest Information and Learning, 300 NorthZeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106.

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Box 665, Holmes, PA 19043.

Credits:Cover: (clockwise from upper left) Photo by Tim

McCabe, USDA Natural Resources ConservationService; ©Francisco Cruz/SuperStock; coloredscanning electron micrograph of human embry-onic stem cells, ©Simon Fraser/University ofNewcastle Upon Tyne/Science Photo Library; oilbeing removed from Dutch Harbor Beach,Alaska, after motor vessel Swallow ran aground,photo courtesy U.S. Coast Guard

Page 1: (col. 1, from top) ©Photodisc; colored scanningelectron micrograph of differentiated humanembryonic stem cells, ©Simon Fraser/Universityof Newcastle Upon Tyne/Science Photo Library;(col. 2, from top) ©Photodisc; flight deck crewand F/A-18E Hornet on USS Abraham Lincoln,photo by Seth C. Peterson, U.S. Navy

Page 2: Farewell celebration for Bruce Alberts, photo byMark Finkenstaedt

Page 3: Photo by BachrachPage 4: ©Rick Smith/Images.comPage 5: ©GoodshootPage 6: ©Stephanie Carter/Imagezoo.comPage 7: Colored scanning electron micrograph of human

embryonic stem cells, ©Simon Fraser/Universityof Newcastle Upon Tyne/Science Photo Library

Page 8: Researcher examining stem cells, ©SandyHuffaker/Getty Images

Page 9: ©PhotodiscPages 10&11: ©PhotodiscPage 12: Photo by Jeff Vanuga, USDA Natural Resources

Conservation ServicePage 13: ©CreatasPage 14: Spent nuclear fuel rod in cooling pool, ©Tim

Wright/CorbisPage 15: F/A-22 Raptor, photo courtesy U.S. Air ForcePage 16: Bruce Alberts with a young student during visit

to a lab school at Smith College inNorthampton, Mass., photo by Carol Lollis

Page 17: Farewell celebration for Bruce Alberts, photo byMark Finkenstaedt

Pages 18&19: Photos courtesy the National Academies’Christine Mirzayan Science and TechnologyPolicy Graduate Fellowship Program

Page 21: Photo courtesy Marian Koshland ScienceMuseum of the National Academy of Sciences

Public Water Supply DistributionSystems: Assessing and ReducingRisks — First ReportWater Science and TechnologyBoard, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 58 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09628-6; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Review of the HIVNET 012Perinatal HIV Prevention StudyBoard on Population Health andPublic Health Practice, Institute ofMedicine (2005, approx. 150 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09651-0; availablefrom NAP, $33.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Review of the U.S. Climate ChangeScience Program’s Synthesis andAssessment Product on TemperatureTrends in the Lower AtmosphereClimate Research Committee, Boardon Atmospheric Sciences andClimate, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 74 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09674-X; available from NAP,$18.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Risks and Decisions AboutDisposition of Transuranic andHigh-Level Radioactive WasteBoard on Radioactive WasteManagement, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2005, 236 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09549-2; available from NAP,$37.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

The Science of Instream Flows: AReview of the Texas Instream FlowProgramWater Science and TechnologyBoard, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 162 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09566-2; available from NAP,$34.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Signposts in Cyberspace: TheDomain Name System and InternetNavigationComputer Science andTelecommunications Board,Division on Engineering andPhysical Sciences (2005, 416 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09640-5; available fromNAP, $51.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

The Smallpox Vaccination Program:Public Health in an Age ofTerrorismBoard on Health Promotion andDisease Prevention, Institute ofMedicine (2005, 360 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09592-1; available from NAP,$49.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Thinking Strategically: TheAppropriate Use of Metrics for theClimate Change Science ProgramClimate Research Committee, Boardon Atmospheric Sciences andClimate, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2005, 160 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09659-6; available from NAP,$32.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Vaccine Safety Research, DataAccess, and Public TrustBoard on Health Promotion andDisease Prevention, Institute ofMedicine (2005, 152 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09591-3; available from NAP,$35.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

Veterans and Agent Orange: Update2004Board on Health Promotion andDisease Prevention, Institute ofMedicine (2005, approx. 650 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09598-0; availablefrom NAP, $79.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

WIC Food Packages: Time for aChangeFood and Nutrition Board, Instituteof Medicine (2005, approx. 324pp.; ISBN 0-309-09650-2; availablefrom NAP, $47.00 plus $4.50 shipping).

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Summer 2005vol. 5 number 2

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Safeguarding Against Animal Diseases

Toward Cures for Spinal Cord Injury

Using Dispersants on Nearshore Oil Spills

Crucial Guidelines for Stem Cell Research

As scientists carefully search for clues in the sun and storm patterns fromour distant past, they are gradually writing a new history of Earth’s climate.

New physical evidence reveals that centuries of slowlyevolving climate variations have actually been punctuated by

far more rapid changes. Many researchers are now quietlyabandoning the traditional vision of a long, languid waltz of

slumbering ice ages and more temperate periods of interglacialwarming.While this new paradigm represents a significant shift inour picture of Earth’s past, the real question is what it means forour future.

Scientists have long recognized the threats posed by global warm-ing. But they must now consider that the natural behavior of ourclimate is potentially a greater threat than imagined.And thoughthere is no need for immediate alarm, the fact that changes inour climate can happen much more quickly than originallythought — perhaps in the course of a human lifetime — makesit clear that science has a lot of questions left to answer.

Climate Crash by award-winning journalist and author JohnD. Cox seeks to answer these questions, breaking the

story of rapid climate change to a general public that is already intenselycurious about what science has to say on the topic.

ISBN 0-309-09312-0 $27.95 224 pages

JOSEPH HENRY PRESS www.jhpress.org

Abrupt Climate Change and What It Means for Our Future

JH