Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
abraham
Citation preview
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 1/29
Jewish Star of David (top),Christian cross (middle),Islamic crescent moon withstar (bottom)
Abrahamic religionsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Abrahamic religions (also Abrahamism) are the monotheistic faiths ofMiddle Eastern origin, emphasizing and tracing their common origin toAbraham[1] or recognizing a spiritual tradition identified with him.[2][3][4]
They are one of the major divisions in comparative religion, along withIndian religions[5] (Dharmic) and East Asian religions[5] (Taoist).
As of the early twenty-first century, it was estimated that 54% of the world'spopulation (3.8 billion people) considered themselves adherents of theAbrahamic religions, about 30% of other religions, and 16% of no organizedreligion.[6][7] The Abrahamic religions originated in the Middle East.[8]
The largest Abrahamic religions in chronological order of founding areJudaism, Christianity, and Islam; the Bahá'í Faith is sometimes listed aswell.[9] There are other more obscure religions that are also actuallyAbrahamic but rarely mentioned.
Contents1 Etymology2 Origins and history3 Common aspects
3.1 Monotheism3.2 Theological continuity3.3 Scripture3.4 Ethical orientation3.5 Eschatological world view3.6 Importance of Jerusalem
4 The significance of Abraham4.1 For Jews4.2 For Christians4.3 For Muslims
5 The religions5.1 Judaism5.2 Christianity5.3 Islam
6 God6.1 Judaism6.2 Christianity6.3 Islam
7 Religious scriptures7.1 Jewish7.2 Christian7.3 Islamic
8 End times and afterlife
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 2/29
Major religious groups as a percentage of world population.
8.1 Judaism8.2 Christianity8.3 Islam
9 Worship and religious rites9.1 Judaism9.2 Christianity9.3 Islam9.4 Circumcision9.5 Food restrictions9.6 Sabbath observance
10 Proselytism10.1 Judaism10.2 Christianity10.3 Islam
11 Violent conflicts11.1 Between Abrahamic religions11.2 Between branches of the same Abrahamic religion11.3 Between Abrahamic religions and non-adherents
12 Other Abrahamic religions12.1 Bahá'í Faith12.2 Ethnographic Abrahamic religions
13 See also14 Notes15 References16 Further reading17 External links
EtymologyIt has been suggested that thephrase, "Abrahamic religion",may simply mean that all thesereligions come from one spiritualsource.[2] Christians refer toAbraham as a "father infaith".[Rom. 4] There is an Islamicreligious term, Millat Ibrahim(faith of Ibrahim),[3][4] indicatingthat Islam sees itself as havingpractices tied to the traditions ofAbraham.[10] Jewish traditionclaims descendance fromAbraham, and adherents followhis practices and ideals as the firstof the three spiritual "fathers" orbiblical Patriarchs: Abraham,Isaac, and Jacob.
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 3/29
All the major Abrahamic religions claim a direct lineage to Abraham:
Abraham is recorded in the Torah as the ancestor of the Israelites through his son Isaac, born to Sarahthrough a promise made in Genesis.[Gen. 17:16][11] All variants of Judaism through the early 20thcentury (prophetic, rabbinic, reform, and conservative) were founded by Israelite descendants.The sacred text of Christianity is the Christian Bible, the first part of which, the Old Testament, isderived from the Hebrew Bible, leading to similar ancestry claims as above, though most Christians aregentiles who consider themselves as grafted into the family tree under the New Covenant, seesignificance of Abraham for Christians for details.It is the Islamic tradition that Muhammad, as an Arab, is descended from Abraham's son Ishmael.Jewish tradition also equates the descendants of Ishmael, Ishmaelites, with Arabs, as the descendants ofIsaac by Jacob, who was also later known as Israel, are the Israelites.[12]
Other terms sometimes used include Abrahamic faiths, Abrahamic traditions, religions of Abraham,Abrahamic monotheistic religions, semitic religions, Semitic monotheistic religions, and Semitic one godreligions.[13]
Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be considered misleading, as itconveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination.While there is commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to theirrespective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences.[14] For example, the common Christianbeliefs of Incarnation, Trinity, and Jesus' Resurrection are not accepted by Judaism or Islam (see for exampleIslamic view of Jesus' death). There are key beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most ofChristianity (such as strict monotheism and adherence to Divine Law), and key beliefs of Islam andChristianity not shared by Judaism (such as the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus, respectively).[15]
Origins and historyMain articles: Judaism, Christianity, and IslamSee also: Canaanite religion and Arabian mythology
Judaism regards itself as the religion of the descendants of Jacob,[n 1] a grandson of Abraham. It has a strictlyunitary view of God, and the central holy book for almost all branches is the Masoretic Text as elucidated inthe oral Torah. In the 19th century and 20th centuries Judaism developed a small number of branches, ofwhich the most significant are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform.
Christianity began as a sect of Judaism[n 2] in the Mediterranean Basin[n 3] of the 1st century CE and evolvedinto a separate religion—the Christian Church—with distinctive beliefs and practices. Jesus is the centralfigure of Christianity, considered by almost all denominations to be divine, one person of a Triune God.[n 4]
The Christian Bible is usually held to be the ultimate authority, alongside Sacred Tradition in somedenominations (such as Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy). Since its founding, Christianity hasdivided into three main branches (Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant), dozens of significant denominations,and hundreds of smaller ones.
Islam arose in Arabia[n 5] in the 7th century CE with a strictly unitary view of God.[n 6] Muslims (adherents ofIslam) typically hold the Qur'an to be the ultimate authority, as revealed and elucidated through the teachingsand practices[n 7] of a central, but not divine prophet, Muhammad. Soon after its founding Islam split into two
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 4/29
main branches (Sunni and Shi'a), each of which now have a number of denominations. Lesser-knownAbrahamic religions, originally offshoots of Shi'a Islam, include the Bahá'í Faith[n 8] and Druze.[16]
Common aspectsThe unifying characteristic of Abrahamic religions is that all accept the tradition that God revealed himself tothe patriarch Abraham.[17] All are monotheistic, and conceive God to be a transcendent Creator-figure and thesource of moral law,[18] and their sacred narratives feature many of the same figures, histories, and places ineach, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings.
Monotheism
Main article: Monotheism
All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, though known by differentnames.[17] All of these religions believe that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, andforgives.[14] However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods — but rather threepersons, or hypostases, united in one essence — the Trinitarian doctrine, which is a fundamental of faith forthe vast majority of Christian denominations, conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism.Since the conception of divine Trinity is not amenable to tawhid, the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islamconsiders Christianity to be variously polytheistic or idolatrous.
Jesus himself (Arabic: Isa or Yasu, among Muslims and Arab Christians respectively) is revered byChristianity, and Islam but with vastly differing conceptions, viewed as the Saviour of mankind by Christians(and God incarnate by most Christians as well), and as a Prophet of Islam[19] by Muslims. However, theworship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as shirk in Islam and shituf in Judaism), istypically viewed as the heresy of idolatry by Islam and Judaism. The incarnation of God into human form isalso seen as a heresy by Judaism.
Theological continuity
See also: Messianism
All the Abrahamic religions affirm one eternal God who created the universe, who rules history, who sendsprophetic and angelic messengers and who reveals the divine will through inspired Scriptures. They alsoaffirm that obedience to this creator God is to be lived out historically, and that one day God will unilaterallyintervene in human history on the day of judgment.
Scripture
See also: Development of the Hebrew Bible canon, Development of the Christian biblical canon, andHistory of the Qur'an
All Abrahamic religions believe that God guides humanity through revelation to prophets, and each religionrecognizes that God revealed teachings up to and including those in their own scripture.
Ethical orientation
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 5/29
See also: Biblical law in Christianity and Judeo-Christian
An ethical orientation: all these religions speak of a choice between good and evil, which is associated withobedience or disobedience to a single God and to Divine Law.
Eschatological world view
An eschatological world view of history and destiny, beginning with the Creation of the world and theconcept that God works through history, and ending with a Resurrection of the dead and final judgment andWorld to Come.[20]
Importance of Jerusalem
See also: Jerusalem in Judaism, Jerusalem in Christianity, and Jerusalem in Islam
Judaism: Jerusalem became Judaism's holiest city in 1005 BCE[citation needed] when according toBiblical tradition David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his sonSolomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah. Since the Hebrew Bible relates that Isaac's sacrificetook place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews pre-dates even these prominent events. Jewsthrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding ofthe Holy Temple (the Third Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistfulstatement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal.Jerusalem has served as the only capital of all five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400BCE (the United Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah, Yehud Medinata, the HasmoneanKingdom, and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues throughtoday.[21][22]
Christianity: Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity. The Pagan Romans under EmperorVespasian, in order to end the First Jewish Revolt, used forces led by Vespasian's son and heir to thethrone, Titus to lay siege to Jerusalem, sack the city, and destroy the Second Temple in 70 AD(eventually building a shrine to Jupiter Capitolinus in its place). In 135 AD, under Hadrian, as aresponse to another Jewish revolt against Roman rule (the Third Jewish Revolt of Simon Bar Kochba),the Romans further expelled all Jews from the area, after three revolts in 70 years, to ensure anotherrevolt was not forthcoming. This is when the area surrounding Jerusalem, until then called RomanJudaea, first was given the name "Palestine", or "Syria Palaestina". There has been a continuousChristian presence there since.[23] William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at theUniversity of Virginia, Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the Islamicconquest in the middle of the 7th century, the Roman province of Palestine was a Christian nation withJerusalem its principal city.[23] According to the New Testament, Jerusalem was the city Jesus wasbrought to as a child to be presented at the temple[Luke 2:22] and for the feast of the Passover.[Luke 2:41]
He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the money changers in disarray from thetemple there, held the Last Supper in an "upper room" (traditionally the Cenacle) there the night beforehe is said to have died on the cross, was arrested in Gethsemane. The six parts to Jesus' trial—threestages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. Hiscrucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby (traditionally the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and hisresurrection and ascension and prophecy to return all are said to have occurred or will occur there.
Islam: Jerusalem, the city of David and Christ, became holy to Muslims, third after Mecca and Medina(even though not mentioned by name in the Qur'an). The Al-Aqsa mosque, which translates to "farthest
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 6/29
An interpretation of the borders (in red) of the PromisedLand, based on God's promise to Abraham.[Genesis 15]
mosque" in sura Al-Isra in the Qur'an, and its surroundings are addressed in the Qur'an as "the holyland". Muslim tradition has recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. Thefirst Muslims did not pray toward Kaaba (Al-Haram Mosque), but toward al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem(this was the quibla for 13 years): the qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill a wish ofMuhammad of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144-150). Another reason for itssignificance is its connection with the Miʿrāj,[24] where, according to traditional Muslim piety,Muhammad ascended through the Seven heavens on a winged mule named Buraq, guided by theArchangel Gabriel, beginning from the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, in modern times underthe Dome of the Rock.[25][26]
The significance of AbrahamMain article: Covenant of Abraham
Even though members of Judaism, Christianity,and Islam do not all claim Abraham as anancestor, some members of these religions havetried to claim him as exclusively theirs.[27]
For Jews
For Jews, Abraham is simply (with his wife,Sarah) the first Jew, the founding patriarch of thechildren of Israel. God promised Abraham: "Iwill make of you a great nation, and I will blessyou."[Gen. 12:2] With Abraham, God entered into"an everlasting covenant throughout the ages tobe God to you and to your offspring tocome."[Gen. 17:7]. It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants Jews, not the chronology of thename Y'hudi. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham(and Sarah).
Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or patriarch (referred to as Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו in hebrew)"Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberlessdescendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land"). According to Jewish tradition,Abraham was the first post-Flood prophet to reject idolatry through rational analysis, although Shem and Ebercarried on the tradition from Noah.[28][29]
For Christians
Christians view Abraham as an important exemplar of faith, and a spiritual, as well as physical, ancestor ofJesus — a Jew considered the Son of God through whom God promised to bless all the families of the earth.For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear as well as/rather than a direct ancestor depending on theindividual's interpretation of Paul the Apostle,[Rom. 4:9–12] with the Abrahamic covenant "reinterpreted so asto be defined by faith in Christ rather than biological descent" or both by faith as well as a direct ancestor; inany case, the emphasis is placed on faith being the only requirement for the Abrahamic Covenant to apply;[30]
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 7/29
see also New Covenant and Supersessionism. In Christian belief, Abraham is a role model offaith,[Heb. 11:8–10] and his obedience to God by offering Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering ofhis son Jesus.[Rom. 8:32][31]
Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianitysubsequent to (and sometimes rather than (as in Supersessionism) being applied to Judaism, whose adherentsrejected Jesus. They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as a Gentile (before he was circumcised)"believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness" [Gen. 15:6] (cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those whohave faith are children of Abraham" [Gal. 3:7] (see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed in Paul'stheology where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham.[Rom. 4:20] [Gal. 4:9][32]
However, with regards to [Rom. 4:20] and [Gal. 4:9], in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the"sons of God"[Gal. 4:26] rather than "children of Abraham".[33]
For Muslims
Main article: Islamic view of Abraham
For Muslims, Abraham is a prophet, the "messenger of God" who stands in the line from Adam toMuhammad, to whom Allah gave revelations,[Quran 4:163 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-
texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php#004.163)], who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., the Kaaba)[Quran 2:127
(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/002-qmt.php#002.127)] with his first son, Isma'il, a symbol ofwhich is every mosque.[34] Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a genealogy for Muhammad. Islam considersAbraham to be "one of the first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism waslost, and the community of those faithful to God,[35] thus being referred to as ا���� ا����� or "Our FatherAbraham", as well as Ibrahim al-Hanif or "Abraham the Monotheist". Islam holds that it was Ishmael,(Isma'il, Muhammad's ancestor) rather than Isaac, whom Ibrahim was instructed to sacrifice. In addition to thisspiritual lineage, the Sayyid who are the descendants of Muhammad and his daughter Fatima, who are spreadacross the Middle East and Indian Subcontinent and trace their lineage to Isma'il, and thus to Abraham.[36]
Abraham is also recalled in certain details of the annual Hajj pilgrimage.[37]
The religionsSee also section Other Abrahamic religions
Judaism
Judaism's oldest text is the Tanakh, an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliesthistory until the building of the Second Temple (c. 535 BCE). Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and thefather of the Jewish people. One of his great-grandsons was Judah, from whom the religion ultimately gets itsname. The Israelites were initially a number of tribes who lived in the Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom ofJudah.
After being conquered and exiled, some members of the Kingdom of Judah eventually returned to Israel. Theylater formed an independent state under the Hasmonean dynasty in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, beforebecoming a client kingdom of the Roman Empire, which also conquered the state and dispersed itsinhabitants. From the 2nd to the 6th centuries Jews wrote the Talmud, a lengthy work of legal rulings and
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 8/29
The tomb of Abraham, a cenotaphabove the Cave of the Patriarchstraditionally considered to be theburial place of Abraham.
Biblical exegesis which—along with the Tanakh—is a key text of Judaism.
Christianity
Christianity began in the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by Jesus. His followers viewed himas the Messiah; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate,[38] who wasresurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom ofGod. Within a few decades the new movement split from Judaism.
After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace vis a vis the Roman authorities underdifferent administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been splitinto various churches from its beginning. An attempt was made by theByzantine Empire to unify Christendom, but this formally failed with theEast–West Schism of 1054. In the 16th century the birth and growth ofProtestantism further split Christianity into many denominations.
Islam
Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran. Although it considersMuhammad to be the Seal of the prophets, Islam teaches that everyprophet preached Islam, providing a historical back-story for the religionby independently recognizing Jewish and Christian prophets, and addingothers. The teachings of Quran are presented as the direct revelation andwords of Allah, and earlier scriptures are considered to have beencorrupted over time. Islam (meaning "submission", in the sense ofsubmission to Allah) is universal (membership is open to anyone); likeJudaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of Allah, called tawhid, or"strict" or "simple" monotheism.[36] Early disputes over who would leadMuslims following the death of Muhammad led to a split between Sunniand Shia, Islam's two main denominations.
GodMain article: God in Abrahamic religions
All the Abrahamic religions are monotheistic. In both Judaism and Islam, God is viewed as a single divinebeing; this view is not shared by Christianity which views God as an indivisible Trinity. While the Christianshold that the Trinity is the same as the Judaic and Islamic singular divine being view of God, the distinction issufficiently huge as to require an overt explanation on the part of the Christians and on the part of the Islamicfaith which restates the issue with an admonition in chapter 112 of the Qur'an.
Judaism
Main article: God in Judaism
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 9/29
The Shield of David, morecommonly known as the Star ofDavid (or Magen David), is agenerally recognized symbol of theJewish community and of Judaism.
Jewish beliefs are based on the Hebrew Bible (called the Tanakh in Hebrew), which consists of the Torah(traditionally regarded as the writings of Moses), along with the writings of the prophets, psalmists, and otherancient canonized scriptures, all of which reveal the nature andcommandments of God. Additionally, Jewish faith has a basis in theOral Law, as recorded in the Mishnah and Gemara that together formthe Talmud.
The Supreme Being is referred to in the Hebrew Bible in severalways, such as Elohim, Adonai or by the four Hebrew letters "Y-H-V(or W) -H" (the tetragrammaton), which observant Jews do notpronounce as a word. The Hebrew words Eloheynu (Our God) andHaShem (The Name), as well as the English names "Lord" and"God", are also used in modern-day Judaism. The latter is sometimeswritten "G-d" in reference to the taboo against pronouncing thetetragrammaton.[39]
The word "Elohim" has the Hebrew plural ending "-īm", which someBiblical scholars have taken as support for the general notion that theancient Hebrews were polytheists in the time of the patriarchs;however, as the word itself is used with singular verbs, this hypothesisis not accepted in traditional Jewish thought. Jewish texts point outother words in Hebrew used in the same manner according to the ruleof Hebrew Grammar, denoting respect, majesty and deliberation, similar to the royal plural in English andancient Egyptian, and the use of the plural form "vous" for individuals of higher standing in modern French.Jewish Biblical scholars and historical commentary on the passage also suggest that Elohim in the plural formindicates God in conjunction with the heavenly court, i.e., the Angels. Some Kabbalistic texts explain the useof the Elohim as a pluralistic singularity, one essence sustaining all levels of creation from the mundanephysical to the sublime and Holy spiritual.[40]
Christianity
Main article: God in Christianity
Christians believe that the God worshiped by the faithful Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era has alwaysrevealed himself as he did through Jesus; but that this was never obvious until the Word of God (the divineLogos) became flesh and dwelt among us (see John 1). Also, despite the fact that the Angel of the Lord spoketo the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, it has always been only through the Spirit of God granting themunderstanding, that men have been able to later perceive that they had been visited by God himself. AfterJesus was raised from the dead—according to Christian scriptures—this ancient Hebrew witness of how Godreveals himself as Messiah came to be seen in a very different light. It was then that Jesus' followers began tospeak widely of him as God himself,[John 20:28] although this had already been revealed to certain individualsduring his ministry. Examples were the Samaritan woman in Shechem and Jesus' closest apostles.[41]
This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the Trinity, which is the doctrine that God is asingle entity (singular God), but that there is a "triunity"[citation needed] in God, which has always been evidentalbeit not understood. This mysterious "triunity" is hypostatic; that is, there are three hypostases (personae inLatin) or "persons" of the Godhead (though this is an often misleading English rendering).
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 10/29
The Christian cross (or crux) is thebest-known religious symbol ofChristianity; this version is known asa Latin Cross.
The word Allah written in Arabic.
In the traditional Christian concept, God the Father (the Source) hasonly revealed himself through his eternal Word (who was incarnatedin human history as Jesus Christ). The three different hypostases arenot "Gods" because they are one, and share the same Divine Nature;they are the one and the same God. The Father is the Begetter, theSon is the eternally Begotten, and the Spirit eternally proceeds fromboth (in Catholicism and Protestantism) or from just the Father (inEastern Orthodoxy).
Non-trinitarian views have constructed various theologicalunderstandings, ranging from Binitarianism to Modalism. Some non-trinitarians would understand that the three are not three but oneplaying three different roles, in three different ages or dispensations.In the Age of the Father, as Jehovah. In the Age of the Son, as Jesus.And finally in the Age of the Holy Spirit, with a New Name, as theSecond Coming of Christ. However, it should be noted that someChristian denominations reject the trinity and follow nontrinitarianbeliefs, Jehovah Witnesses, Oneness Pentecostalism, somePentecostals, and Jesus-name Baptism churches being some of the nontrinitarianism.
Islam
Main article: God in Islam
There is only one God in Islam. Allah is the Arabic name for God("ʾilāh" is the Arabic term used for a deity or a god in general).Islamic tradition also describes the 99 names of God. These 99 namesdescribe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, ThePeace and Blessing, and the Guardian. Islamic belief in God is distinctfrom Christianity in that God has no progeny. This belief is summedup in chapter 112 of the Qur'an titled Al-Ikhlas, which states "Say, heis Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does notbeget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent.".[Quran 112:1 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/112-
qmt.php#112.001)]
The Qur'an also draws a similitude between Jesus and Adam—thefirst human being created by God—saying they were both 'createdwithout a father' by God who said the simple word "Be" (Arabic:kun).[Quran 3:59 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/003-qmt.php#003.059)] Thus, both the Torahand the Gospels are believed to be based upon divine revelation, but most Muslims believe them to have beencorrupted (both accidentally, through errors in transmission, and intentionally by certain Jews and Christiansover the centuries).
Muslims revere the Qur'an as the final uncorrupted word of God, or 'The Final Testament' as revealed throughthe last prophet, Prophet Muhammad. Muhammad is regarded as the "Seal of the Prophets" i.e. the last in along chain, and Islam as the final monotheist faith, perfect in all respects as taught by the Qur'an.[Quran 5:3
(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/005-qmt.php#005.003)]
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 11/29
Religious scripturesAll these religions rely on a body of scriptures, some of which are considered to be the word of God—hencesacred and unquestionable—and some the work of religious men, revered mainly by tradition and to the extentthat they are considered to have been divinely inspired, if not dictated, by the divine being.
Jewish
Main articles: Masoretic Text, Septuagint, Targum, Tanakh, and Bible
The sacred scriptures of Judaism are the Tanakh, a Hebrew acronym standing for Torah (Law or Teachings),Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). These are complemented by and supplemented with various(originally oral) traditions: Midrash, the Mishnah, the Talmud and collected rabbinical writings. The Tanakh(or Hebrew Bible) was composed between 1,400 BCE, and 400 BCE by Jewish prophets, kings, and priests.
The Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular, is considered holy, down to the last letter:transcribing is done with painstaking care. An error in a single letter, ornamentation or symbol of the300,000+ stylized letters that make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use; hence theskills of a Torah scribe are specialist skills, and a scroll takes considerable time to write and check.
Christian
Main articles: Old Testament, New Testament, and Bible
The sacred scriptures of most Christian groups are the Old Testament and The New Testament. The OldTestament in the Protestant King James is the same as the Hebrew Bible allowing for slight variations ingrammar or slang. The Bible originally contained 73 books, however 7 books, collectively called theApocrypha or Deuterocanon depending on one's opinion of them, were removed by Martin Luther due to alack of original Hebrew sources. For reference, the books removed were:
BaruchWisdom of ben Sirach (Also known as Sirach or Ecclesiasticus)1 Maccabees, which notably contains the miracle of Hanukkah2 MaccabeesWisdomTobitJudithAdditions to EstherAdditions to Daniel
SusannaSong of the Three ChildrenBel and the Dragon
The New Testament comprises four accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus (the Four Gospels, traditionallyattributed to the apostle Matthew; the apostle John; Mark, a student of the apostle Peter; and Luke, a student ofthe apostle Paul), as well as several other writings by the apostles (such as Paul). They are usually consideredto be divinely inspired, and together comprise the Christian Bible. Thus, most Christians consider thefundamental teachings of the Old Testament, in particular the Ten Commandments, as valid (see Biblical law
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 12/29
A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display inMalmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England.This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.
in Christianity for details). However, some Christians believe that all "old covenant" laws have beenabrogated while others (known as Dual-covenant theology) believe that non-Jewish Christians only have tofollow the Noahic laws (e.g. idolatry, lying, adultery, theft).
The coming of Jesus as the Messiah and saviour of humankind as predicted in the Old Testament would shedlight on the true relationship between God and mankind by restoring the emphasis of universal love andcompassion, as mentioned in the Great Commandment, above the other commandments, also de-emphasisingthe more "legalistic" and material precepts of Mosaic Law (such as circumcision and the dietary constraintsand temple rites) most of which would not apply to non Jewish Christian believers. Very few Christiansbelieve that the link between Old and New Testaments in the Bible means that Judaism has been supersededby Christianity as the "new Israel",[42] and that Jesus' teachings described Israel not as a geographic place, butrather an association with God and promise of salvation in Heaven, a revisionist position rejected by Jews andothers.
The vast majority of Christian faiths (generally includingCatholicism, Orthodox Christianity, Anglicanism and most formsof Protestantism) derive their beliefs from the conclusionsreached by the First Council of Nicaea in 325 in a documentknown as the Nicene Creed. This describes the belief that God(as a Trinity of distinct persons with one substance) becamehuman on earth, born as Jesus pursuant to the Old Testamentscriptures, was crucified by humanity, died and was buried, thenwas resurrected by God on the third day to rise and enter theKingdom of Heaven and "sit at the right hand of God" with apromise to return and establish a World to Come. Christiansgenerally believe that faith in Jesus is the way to achievesalvation and to enter into Heaven and/or receive Eternal life, andthat salvation is a gift given by the grace of God.
The vast majority of Christian faiths (including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and most forms ofProtestantism) recognize that the Gospels were passed on by oral tradition, and were not set to paper untildecades after the death of Jesus, and that the extant versions are copies of those originals. The version of theBible considered to be most valid (in the sense of best conveying the true meaning of the word of God) hasvaried considerably: the Greek Septuagint, the Syriac Peshitta, the Latin Vulgate, the English King JamesVersion and the Russian Synodal Bible have been authoritative to different communities at different times.
In particular, Christians usually consult the Tanakh when preparing new translations, although some believethat the Septuagint should be preferred, as it was the Bible of the Early Christian Greek Church, and becausethey believe its translators used a different Hebrew Bible to the ones that make up the current MasoreticHebrew text, as there are some variant readings of the Dead Sea Scrolls confirmed by the Septuagint. In thesame sense that the Jewish mystics viewed the Torah as something living and existing prior to any written text,so too do Christians view the Bible and Jesus himself as God's "Word" (or logos in Greek), transcendingwritten documents.
The sacred scriptures of the Christian Bible are complemented by a large body of writings by individualChristians and councils of Christian leaders (see canon law). Some Christian churches and denominationsconsider certain additional writings to be binding; other Christian groups consider only the Bible to be binding(sola scriptura).
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 13/29
Islamic
Main articles: Muhammad, Qur'an, Hadith, Sunnah, and Origin and development of the Qur'an
Islam's holiest book is the Qur'an, comprising 114 Suras ("chapters of the Qur'an"). However, Muslims alsobelieve in the religious texts of Judaism and Christianity in their original forms, albeit not the current versions(which they believe to be corrupted). According to the Qur'an (and mainstream Muslim belief), the verses ofthe Qur'an were revealed by Allah through the Archangel Jibrail to Muhammad on separate occasions. Theserevelations were written down and also memorized by hundreds of companions of Mohammad. Thesemultiple sources were collected into one official copy. After death of Mohammed, Quran was copied onseveral copies and Caliph Uthman provided these copies to different cities of Islamic Empire.
The Qur'an mentions and reveres several of the Israelite prophets, including Moses and Jesus, among others(see also: Prophets of Islam). The stories of these prophets are very similar to those in the Bible. However, thedetailed precepts of the Tanakh and the New Testament are not adopted outright; they are replaced by the newcommandments accepted as revealed directly by Allah (through Gabriel) to Muhammad and codified in theQur'an.
Like the Jews with the Torah, Muslims consider the original Arabic text of the Qur'an as uncorrupted and holyto the last letter, and any translations are considered to be interpretations of the meaning of the Qur'an, as onlythe original Arabic text is considered to be the divine scripture.[43]
Like the Rabbinic Oral Law to the Hebrew Bible, the Qur'an is complemented by the Hadith, a set of booksby later authors recording the sayings of the prophet Muhammad. The Hadith interpret and elaborate Qur'anicprecepts. Islamic scholars have categorized each Hadith at one of the following levels of authenticity or isnad:genuine (sahih), fair (hasan) or weak (da'if).[44]
By the 9th century, six major Hadith collections were accepted as reliable to Sunni Muslims.
Sahih al-BukhariSahih MuslimSunan ibn MajahSunan Abu DawudJami al-TirmidhiSunan an-Nasa'ii
Shia Muslims, however, refer to other authenticated hadiths instead.[45] They are known collectively as TheFour Books.
The Hadith and the life story of Muhammad (sira) form the Sunnah, an authoritative supplement to the Qur'an.The legal opinions of Islamic jurists (Faqīh) provide another source for the daily practice and interpretation ofIslamic tradition (see Fiqh.)
The Qur'an contains repeated references to the "religion of Abraham" (see Suras 2:130,135; 3:95; 6:123,161;12:38; 16:123; 22:78). In the Qur'an, this expression refers specifically to Islam; sometimes in contrast toChristianity and Judaism, as in Sura 2:135, for example: 'They say: "Become Jews or Christians if ye would
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 14/29
be guided (to salvation)." Say thou (O Muslims): "Nay! (I would rather) the Religion of Abraham the True,and he joined not gods with Allah." ' In the Qur'an, Abraham is declared to have been a Muslim (a hanif,more accurately a "primordial monotheist"), not a Jew nor a Christian (Sura 3:67).
End times and afterlifeMain article: Eschatology
In the major Abrahamic religions, there exists the expectation of an individual who will herald the time of theend and/or bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth; in other words, the Messianic prophecy. Judaismawaits the coming of the Jewish Messiah; the Jewish concept of Messiah differs from the Christian concept inseveral significant ways, despite the same term being applied to both. The Jewish Messiah is not seen as a"god", but as a mortal man who by his holiness is worthy of that description. His appearance is not the end ofhistory, rather it signals the coming of the world to come.
Christianity awaits the Second Coming of Christ, though Full Preterists believe this has already happened.Islam awaits both the second coming of Jesus (to complete his life and die) and the coming of Mahdi (Sunnisin his first incarnation, Shi'a as the return of Muhammad al-Mahdi).
Most Abrahamic religions agree that a human being comprises the body, which dies, and the soul, which iscapable of remaining alive beyond human death and carries the person's essence, and that God will judge eachperson's life accordingly after death. The importance of this and the focus on it, as well as the precise criteriaand end result, differs between religions.[citation needed]
Judaism
Main article: Olam Haba
Judaism's views on the afterlife ("the Next World") are quite diverse. This can be attributed to the fact thatalthough there clearly are traditions in the Hebrew Bible of an afterlife (see Naboth and the Witch of Endor),Judaism focuses on this life and how to lead a holy life to please God, rather than future reward, and itsattitude can be mostly summed up by the rabbinical observation that at the start of Genesis, God clothed thenaked (Adam and Eve); at the end of Deuteronomy, he buried the dead (Moses) and the Children of Israelmourned for 40 days before getting on with their lives.[citation needed]
Christianity
Main articles: Christian eschatology and World to Come#Christianity
Christians have more diverse and definite teachings on the end times and what constitutes afterlife. MostChristian approaches either include different abodes for the dead (Heaven, Hell, Limbo, Purgatory) oruniversal reconciliation in which all souls are made in the image of God. A small minority teachannihilationism, the doctrine that those persons who are not reconciled to God simply cease to exist (thoughthe Roman Catholic Church has no official teaching on what kind of place hell is, and indeed allows that itmight be a locale of oblivion).[citation needed]
Islam
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 15/29
Main article: Islamic eschatology
In Islam, God is said to be "Most Compassionate and Most Merciful" (Qur'an 1:1, as well as the start of allsuras but one). However, God is also "Most Just"; Islam prescribes a literal Hell for those who disobey Godand commit gross sin. Those who obey God and submit to God will be rewarded with their own place inParadise. While sinners are punished with fire, there are also many other forms of punishment described,depending on the sin committed; Hell is divided into numerous levels.
Those who worship and remember God are promised eternal abode in a physical and spiritual Paradise.Heaven is divided into seven levels, with the highest level of Paradise being the reward of those who havebeen most virtuous, the prophets, and those killed while fighting for Allah (martyrs).
Upon repentance to God, many sins can be forgiven, on the condition they are not repeated, as God issupremely merciful. Additionally, those who believe in God, but have led sinful lives, may be punished for atime, and then eventually released into Paradise. If anyone dies in a state of Shirk (i.e. associating God in anyway, such as claiming that He is equal with anything or denying Him), this is not pardonable — he or she willstay forever in Hell.
Once a person is admitted to Paradise, this person will abide there for eternity.[46]
Worship and religious ritesWorship, ceremonies and religion-related customs differ substantially among the Abrahamic religions. Amongthe few similarities are a seven-day cycle in which one day is nominally reserved for worship, prayer or otherreligious activities—Shabbat, Sabbath, or jumu'ah; this custom is related to the biblical story of Genesis,where God created the universe in six days, and rested in the seventh.
Judaism
Orthodox Judaism practice is guided by the interpretation of the Torah and the Talmud. Before the destructionof the Temple in Jerusalem, Jewish priests offered sacrifices there two times daily; since then, the practice hasbeen replaced, until the Temple is rebuilt, by Jewish men being required to pray three times daily, includingthe chanting of the Torah, and facing in the direction of Jerusalem's Temple Mount. Other practices includecircumcision, dietary laws, Shabbat, Passover, Torah study, Tefillin, purity and others. Conservative Judaism,Reform Judaism and the Reconstructionist movement all move away, in different degrees, from the stricttradition of the law.
Jewish women's prayer obligations vary by denomination; in contemporary orthodox practice, women do notread from the Torah and are only required to say certain parts of these daily services.
All versions of Judaism share a common, specialized calendar, containing many festivals. The calendar islunisolar, with lunar months and a solar year (an extra month is added every second or third year to allow theshorter lunar year to "catch up" to the solar year). All streams observe the same festivals, but some emphasizethem differently. As is usual with its extensive law system, the Orthodox have the most complex manner ofobserving the festivals, while the Reform pay more attention to the simple symbolism of each one.
Christianity
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 16/29
Main article: Christian worship
Christian worship varies from denomination to denomination. Individual prayer is usually not ritualised, whilegroup prayer may be ritual or non-ritual according to the occasion. During church services some form ofliturgy is frequently followed. Rituals are performed during sacraments, which also vary from denomination todenomination and usually include baptism and communion, and may also include confirmation, confession,last rites and holy orders.
Catholic worship practice is governed by the Roman Missal and other documents. Individuals, churches anddenominations place different emphasis on ritual—some denominations consider most ritual activity optional,see Adiaphora, particularly since the Protestant Reformation.
Islam
The followers of Islam (Muslims) are to observe the Five Pillars of Islam. The first pillar is the belief in theoneness of Allah, and in Muhammad as his final and most perfect prophet. The second is to pray five timesdaily (salat) towards the direction (qibla) of the Kaaba in Mecca. The third pillar is alms giving (Zakah), aportion of one's wealth given to the poor or to other specified causes, which means the giving of a specificshare of one's wealth and savings to persons or causes, as is commanded in the Qur'an and elucidated as tospecific percentages for different kinds of income and wealth in the hadith. The normal share to be paid is twoand a half percent of one's earnings: this increases if labour was not required, and increases further if onlycapital or possessions alone were required (i.e. proceeds from renting space), and increases to 50% on"unearned wealth" such as treasure-finding, and to 100% on wealth that is considered haram, as part ofattempting to make atonement for the sin, such as that gained through financial interest (riba).
Fasting (sawm) during the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, Ramadan, is the fourth pillar of Islam, towhich all Muslims after the age of puberty in good health (as judged by a Muslim doctor to be able fastwithout incurring grave danger to health: even in seemingly obvious situations, a "competent and uprightMuslim physician" is required to agree), that are not menstruating are bound to observe—missed days of thefast for any reason must be made up, unless there be a permanent illness, such as diabetes, that prevents aperson from ever fasting. In such a case, restitution must be made by feeding one poor person for each daymissed.
Finally, Muslims are also required, if physically able, to undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one'slife: it is strongly recommended to do it as often as possible, preferably once a year. Only individuals whosefinancial position and health are severely insufficient are exempt from making Hajj (e.g. if making Hajj wouldput stress on one's financial situation, but would not end up in homelessness or starvation, it is still required).During this pilgrimage, the Muslims spend three to seven days in worship, performing several strictly definedrituals, most notably circumambulating the Kaaba among millions of other Muslims and the "stoning of thedevil" at Mina.
At the end of the Hajj, the heads of men are shaved, sheep and other halal animals, notably camels, areslaughtered as a ritual sacrifice by bleeding out at the neck according to a strictly prescribed ritual slaughtermethod similar to the Jewish kashrut, to commemorate the moment when, according to Islamic tradition, Allahreplaced Abraham's son Ishmael (contrasted with the Judaeo-Christian tradition that Isaac was the intendedsacrifice) with a sheep, thereby preventing human sacrifice. The meat from these animals is then distributedlocally to needy Muslims, neighbours and relatives. Finally, the hajji puts of ihram and the hajj iscomplete.[citation needed]
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 17/29
Circumcision
See also: Circumcision in the Bible, Brit Milah, Khatna, Circumcision controversy in earlyChristianity, and History of male circumcision
Judaism practices circumcision for males as a matter of religious obligation at the age of 8 days old, as doesIslam as part of Sunnah (the practice is not mandated by the Qur'an)
Western Christianity replaced that custom with a baptism[47] ceremony varying according to thedenomination, but generally including immersion, aspersion, or anointment with water. The Early Church(Acts 15, the Council of Jerusalem) decided that circumcision is not required for Gentile Christians. TheCouncil of Florence in the 15th century[48] prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism callsnon-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.[49][50] Many countries with majorities of Christian adherentshave low circumcision rates (with the notable exceptions of the United States[51] and the Philippines). CopticChristianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy still observe circumcision. See also Aposthia.
Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the (in Arabic): fitrah, or the innate disposition andnatural character and instinct of the human creation.[52]
Food restrictions
Main articles: kashrut, halal, and italSee also: Apostolic Decree
Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with permitted food known as kosher in Judaism, and halal inIslam. These two religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam prohibits the consumption of alcoholicbeverages of any kind. Halal restrictions can be seen as a modification of the kashrut dietary laws, so manykosher foods are considered halal; especially in the case of meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughteredin the name of God. Hence, in many places Muslims used to consume kosher food. However, some foods notconsidered kosher are considered halal in Islam.[53]
With rare exceptions, Christians do not consider the Old Testament's strict food laws as relevant for today'schurch; see also Biblical law in Christianity. Most Protestants have no set food laws, but there are minorityexceptions.[54]
The Roman Catholic Church believes in observing abstinence and penance. For example, all Fridays throughthe year and the time of Lent are penitential days.[55] The law of abstinence requires a Catholic from 14 yearsof age until death to abstain from eating meat on Fridays in honor of the Passion of Jesus on Good Friday. TheUnited States Conference of Catholic Bishops obtained the permission of the Holy See for Catholics in theU.S. to substitute a penitential, or even a charitable, practice of their own choosing.[56] Eastern Rite Catholicshave their own penitential practices as specified by the Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) embraces numerous Old Testament rules and regulations such astithing, Sabbath observance, and Jewish Food laws. Therefore, they do not eat pork, shellfish, or other foodsconsidered unclean under the Old Covenant. The "Fundamental Beliefs" of the SDA state that their members"are to adopt the most healthful diet possible and abstain from the unclean foods identified in theScriptures."[Leviticus 11:1–47] among others[57]
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 18/29
In the Christian Bible, the consumption of strangled animals and of blood was forbidden by ApostolicDecree[Acts 15:19–21] and are still forbidden in the Greek Orthodox Church, according to German theologianKarl Josef von Hefele, who, in his Commentary on Canon II of the Second Ecumenical Council held in the4th century at Gangra, notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, the rule of theApostolic Synod [the Council of Jerusalem of Acts 15] with regard to blood and things strangled was still inforce. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show." He also writesthat "as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third, in 731, forbade the eating of blood or thingsstrangled under threat of a penance of forty days."[58]
Jehovah's Witnesses abstain from eating blood and from blood transfusions based on Acts 15:19–21.
Sabbath observance
See also: Biblical Sabbath, Shabbat, Christian Sabbath, and jumu'ah
Sabbath in the Bible is a weekly day of rest and time of worship. It is observed differently in Judaism andChristianity and informs a similar occasion in several other Abrahamic faiths. Though many viewpoints anddefinitions have arisen over the millennia, most originate in the same textual tradition. Though not a day of rest(creation does not make God tired and therefore He did not rest on the 7th day in Muslim belief), Islam holdsFriday as a day of special prayer.[citation needed]
Proselytism
Judaism
Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit missionaries since the end of the Second Temple era.Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of moralimperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God[59] as a binding set of laws for the "children ofNoah" – that is, all of humanity.[60][61]
The Rambam (Rabbi Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers) commented: "Quoting from oursages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come, if they have acquired whatthey should learn about the Creator". Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much moredetailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be agood non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jewswere married to non-Jews.[62] See also Conversion to Judaism.
Christianity
Christianity encourages evangelism. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, sendmissionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world. See also Great Commission. Forcedconversions to Catholicism have been documented at various points throughout history. The most prominentlycited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodoxduring the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where they were offeredthe choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernán Cortés. Forced conversions toProtestantism have occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (seerecusancy and Popish plot).
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 19/29
The Sermon on the Mount by CarlHeinrich Bloch.
Forced conversions are condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church,which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so thatpast or present offenses are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is oneof the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one therefore is tobe forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."[63]
Islam
Dawah is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuinga summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practicesda‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer communityeffort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invitespeople to understand Islam through a dialogical process, and may becategorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, asone who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.
Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studiesspecifically to perform Da'wah. Mosques and other Islamic centerssometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches.Others consider being open to the public and answering questions tobe Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding theirknowledge can also be considered Da'wah.
In Islamic theology, the purpose of Da‘wah is to invite people, bothMuslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments ofAllah as expressed in the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet, aswell as to inform them about Muhammad. Da‘wah produces convertsto Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim Ummah, or community of Muslims.
Violent conflicts
Between Abrahamic religions
The wars between the emerging Islamic Caliphates and the Christian Byzantine or Eastern RomanEmpire between the 7th and the 11th centuries CE were a series of military, political and religiousconflicts which led to the islamization of large territories in the Near East such as Egypt and Syria.
The Crusades (end of 11th – end of 13th century CE) were a series of military expeditions fromWestern Europe to the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean: a rather unsuccessful attempt by Western(Catholic) Christians to conquer what was perceived by all Christians as the Holy Land from its Musliminhabitants. In passing, Crusades were also marked with conflicts between Western and Eastern(Orthodox, Syro-Jacobite and Armenian) Christians and unilateral damage inflicted by WesternChristians to Jews.
The conquest and the following Reconquista of Spain (beginning of 8th – end of 15th century CE)were a series of wars between Muslims and Christians in the Iberian peninsula resulting in the foundingof several Muslim and Christian Medieval states and the final victory of the Catholic Crown of Castileand Aragon against the Muslim Emirate of Granada.
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 20/29
The Ottoman conquest of the Balkan peninsula (mid-14th – end of 15th century CE) followed by aseries of wars between the Islamic Ottoman Empire and various Christian powers and alliances (end of14th – beginning of 20th century CE) was an important political, military and cultural process forSouth-Eastern Europe resulting in the fall of the Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) Empire and its successorstates and finally leading to the emerging of several modern nations in that region.
The Spanish inquisition was an attempt by the Christian Catholic church in Spain in the wake of thecenturies long Reconquista to suppress or expel Jews and Muslims and to prosecute Christian heretics.Openly Jewish and Muslim people were expelled rather than killed, but many submitted to forcedconversion to Catholicism to avoid expulsion. The Inquisitors often did not trust the converts, andpersecuted them cruelly for being secret adherents of their original religions, which was often true butsometimes fabricated. Jewish forced converts were known as "anusim," or sometimes by the pejorative"morrano (pig)."
At various points in history pogroms against Jews were common in Christian Europe, and in manyIslamic areas. See blood libel.
The Christian Reformation of the 16th century CE was an attempt towards a religious reform in theWestern (Catholic) Christian Church which resulted in a series of Religious Wars between Catholic andemerging Reformist/Protestant Christian forces during the 16th and 17th centuries CE throughoutWestern Europe.
Persecution of Bahá'ís and Political accusations against the Baha'i Faith review the substantive efforts inparts of the world against the Bahá'ís and their religion.
Between branches of the same Abrahamic religion
The Fourth Crusade and subsequent wars between Catholic Europeans and the Orthodox ByzantineGreeks following the Great Schism.
The Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) was due to religious conflict between Catholic and ProtestantChristians, and economic causes.
There have been many violent conflicts between the Sunni and Shi'a branches of Islam; see Shi'a–Sunnirelations.
After the 2003 invasion of Iraq by a western coalition there was armed conflict between branchesof Islam, with fighting and bombings, even of mosques.
Between Abrahamic religions and non-adherents
Some proclaim that During the initial expansion of both Christianity and Islam, a number of pagancommunities were converted by force, Muslims deny this saying that those claims are biased opinionsby early historians .
The Catholic Inquisition, mentioned above, also targeted non-believers[citation needed] in the orthodoxdoctrines of Roman Catholicism and many accused of atheism (regardless of what they professed) losttheir livelihoods or their lives.[citation needed]
Christian evangelism was a partial motivation for the colonization of the Americas[citation needed]
Abrahamic religions have had large numbers of their adherents persecuted in the form of loss of life,
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 21/29
Christian cross (top-left), Islamiccrescent moon with star (top-right),Jewish Star of David (bottom-left),Bahá'í Faith starburst(bottom-right)
seizure of property and other forms of persecution due to Communism, Fascism and Nazism.
Other Abrahamic religionsHistorically, the Abrahamic religions have been considered to beJudaism, Christianity and Islam. Some of this is due to the age andlarger size of these three. The other, similar religions were seen aseither too new to judge as being truly in the same class, or too small tobe of significance to the category.
However, some of the restriction of Abrahamic to these three is dueonly to tradition in historical classification. Therefore, restricting thecategory to these three religions has come under criticism.[64] Thereligions listed below here claim Abrahamic classification, either bythe religions themselves, or by scholars who study them.
Bahá'í Faith
Main article: Bahá'í Faith
Recently the Bahá'í Faith, which dates only to the late 19th century,has sometimes been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources invarious fields.[27][65][66]
Though smaller and younger than the well-known Abrahamic religions, the Bahá'í Faith is significant becauseof its activities, distribution and numbers. The religion is almost entirely contained in a single, organized,hierarchical community, and is also recognized as the second-most geographically widespread religion afterChristianity.[7][67] The Association of Religion Data Archives estimated some 7.3 million Bahá'ís in 2005[68]
and the only religion to consistently surpass population growth in each major region of the planet over the lastcentury, often growing at twice the rate of the population.[69]
Bahá'u'lláh, the founder, affirms the highest religious station for Abraham and generally for prophetsmentioned among the other Abrahamic religions,[70] and has claimed a lineage of descent from Abrahamthrough Keturah and Sarah.[71][72][73] Additionally Bahá'u'lláh actually did lose a son, Mírzá Mihdí.[74]
Bahá'u'lláh, then in prison, eulogized his son and connected the subsequent easing of restrictions to his son'sdying prayer and compared it to the intended sacrifice of Abraham’s son.[75]
The religion also shares many of the same commonalities of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.[70][76][77] Thereligion emphasizes monotheism and believes in one eternal transcendent God,[78][79][80] the station of thefounders of the major religions as Manifestations of God come with revelation[79][81][82] as a series ofinterventions by God in human history that has been progressive, and each preparing the way for the next.[66]
There is no definitive list of Manifestations of God, but Bahá'u'lláh and `Abdu'l-Bahá referred to severalpersonages as Manifestations; they include individuals generally not recognized by other Abrahamic religions- Krishna, Zoroaster, and Buddha[83] - and general statements go further to other cultures.[84]
Ethnographic Abrahamic religions
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 22/29
Some small religions are Abrahamic—Samaritanism,[85] Yazidi,[86] Druzes,[87] Mandeans,[88] and Rastafarimovement.[72] These religions are regional: Samaritans largely in Israel and the West Bank,[89] Yazidi amongthe Kurds though there has been some emigration,[90] Druze among the Syrians, Lebanese, and Israelis,[91]
Mandean largely in Iraq,[92] Rastafari mostly in Jamaica.[93]
See alsoAbrahamitesAncient Semitic religionCenter for Muslim-Jewish EngagementChrislamChristianity and IslamChristianity and JudaismIslam and JudaismJudeo-ChristianPeople of the BookTen Commandments
General:
Comparative religion
Notes1. ^ Jacob is also called Israel, a name the Bible states he was given by God.2. ^ cf. Judaizer, Messianic Judaism3. ^ With several centers, such as Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria, Thessaloniki and Corinth, Antioch, and later spread
outwards, eventually having two main centers in the empire, one for the Western Church and one for the EasternChurch in Rome and Constantinople respectively by the 5th century AD
4. ^ Triune God is also called the "Holy Trinity"5. ^ Islam arose specifically in Tihamah city of Mecca and Hejaz city of Medina of Arabia6. ^ The monotheistic view of God in Islam is called tawhid which is essentially the same as the conception of God in
Judaism7. ^ Teachings and practices of Muhammad are collectively known as the sunnah, similar to the Judaic concepts of
oral law and exegesis, or talmud and midrash8. ^ Historically, the Bahá'í Faith arose in 19th century Persia, in the context of Shi'a Islam, and thus may be classed
on this basis as a divergent strand of Islam, placing it in the Abrahamic tradition. However, the Bahá'í Faithconsiders itself an independent religious tradition, which draws from Islam but also other traditions. The Bahá'íFaith may also be classed as a new religious movement, due to its comparatively recent origin, or may beconsidered sufficiently old and established for such classification to not be applicable.
References1. ^ "Philosophy of Religion" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497132/philosophy-of-religion).
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Archived(http://web.archive.org/web/20100721151923/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497132/philosophy-of-religion) from the original on 21 July 2010. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
2. ^ a b Massignon 1949, pp. 20–233. ^ a b Smith 1998, p. 276
^ a b Derrida 2002, p. 3
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 23/29
4. ^ a b Derrida 2002, p. 35. ^ a b C.J. Classification of religions: Geographical. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007
(http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38030/classification-of-religions). Accessed: 15 May 20136. ^ Hunter, Preston. "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents"
(http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html). Adherents.com.7. ^ a b "Worldwide Adherents of All Religions by Six Continental Areas, Mid-2002"
(http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911). Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. Retrieved 31 May 2006.8. ^ Spirituality and Psychiatry - Page 236, Chris Cook, Andrew Powell, A. C. P. Sims - 20099. ^ *"Why "Abrahamic"?" (http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html). Lubar Institute for
Religious Studies at U of Wisconsin. Retrieved 3 March 2012.Lawson, Todd (December 13, 2012). "Baha'i Religious History" (http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history). In Cusack, Carole M.; Hartney, Christopher. Journal ofReligious History 36 (4): 463–470. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9809.2012.01224.x(http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9809.2012.01224.x). ISSN 1467-9809(//www.worldcat.org/issn/1467-9809). Retrieved September 5, 2013.Collins, William P., reviewer (September 1, 2004). "Review of: The Children of Abraham : Judaism,Christianity, Islam / F. E. Peters. -- New ed. -- Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 2004"(http://www.hclib.org/pub/bookspace/discuss/?bib=1061320&theTab=Reviews). Library Journal (NewYork) 129 (14): 157, 160. Retrieved Sep 13, 2013.
10. ^ The Quran, albaqarah; v. 13511. ^ Scherman, pp. 34–35.12. ^ Saheeh al-Bukharee, Book 55, hadith no. 584; Book 56, hadith no. 71013. ^ David Kay, The Semitic Religions—Hebrew, Jewish, Christian & Moslem, Reqd books, 200814. ^ a b Dodds, Adam (July 2009). "The Abrahamic Faiths? Continuity and Discontinuity in Christian and Islamic
Doctrine". Evangelical Quarterly 81 (3): 230–253.15. ^ Greenstreet, p. 95.
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 24/29
16. ^Dolbee, Sandi (27 Mar 2003). "Faith, Hope and Understand: Teenagers Questions and learn about eachother's Faiths" (http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sandiego/access/319404861.html?dids=319404861:319404861&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Mar+27%2C+2003&author=Sandi+Dolbee&pub=The+San+Diego+Union+-+Tribune&edition=&startpage=E.1&desc=FAITH%2C+HOPE+AND+UNDERSTAND+%7C+TEENAGERS+QUESTIONS+AND+LEARN+ABOUT+EACH+OTHER%27S+FAITHS). The San Diego Union –Tribune. p. E.1. Retrieved 3 March 2012."WORLD RELIGIONS RESOURCES" (http://www.warnerpacific.edu/current-students/library/resources/world-religions-resources). WPC library catalog. Warner Pacific College. 2012.Retrieved 3 March 2012."The Journey of Abraham" (http://www.sandiego.gov/public-library/pdf/prabram081004.pdf). Part ofLibrary’s Stories of Faith Program; Discussion to Focus on Shared Beliefs of Semitic Religions. San DiegoPublic Library. Retrieved 3–3-2012."Tagged: Abrahamic religions" (http://trove.nla.gov.au/book/result?l-publictag=Abrahamic+religions&q&s=0). Search Results. National Library of Australia. 2012. Retrieved 3March 2012."Why "Abrahamic"?" (http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html). Lubar Institute forReligious Studies at U of Wisconsin. Retrieved 3 March 2012.Mayton, Daniel M. (2009). Nonviolent Perspectives Within the Abrahamic Religions. Peace PsychologyBook Series. Springer US. pp. 167– 203. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-89348-8_7(http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-89348-8_7). ISBN 978-0-387-89348-8."Abrahamic religions" (http://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2008008229). Library of Congress Authorities &Vocabularies. The Library of Congress. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 3 March 2012.Bacquet, Karen (May 2006). "When Principle and Authority Collide: Baha'i Responses to the Exclusion ofWomen from the Universal House of Justice". Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and EmergentReligions (University of California Press) 9 (4): 34–52. doi:10.1525/nr.2006.9.4.034(http://dx.doi.org/10.1525%2Fnr.2006.9.4.034). JSTOR 10.1525/nr.2006.9.4.034(//www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525%2Fnr.2006.9.4.034).
17. ^ a b Peters, Francis E.; Esposito, John L. (2006). The children of Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam(http://books.google.com/?id=Zu6EAAAACAAJ). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12769-9.
18. ^ "Religion: Three Religions – One God"(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html). Global Connections of theMiddle East. WGBH Educational Foundation. 2002. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
19. ^ Uri Rubin, Prophets and Prophethood, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an20. ^ Wiener, Philip P. Dictionary of the History of Ideas. (http://etext.virginia.edu/DicHist/dict.html) Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1973–74. The Electronic Text Center at the University of Virginia Library. Retrieved 4 August2009.
21. ^ Morgenstern, Arie; Translated by Joel A. Linsider (2006). "Epilogue: Emergence of a Jewish Majority inJerusalem" (http://books.google.com/books?id=N4q25b69yQ8C&lpg=PA201&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q&f=false).Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel (http://books.google.com/?id=N4q25b69yQ8C). US: Oxford University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-19-530578-4.
22. ^ Lapidoth, Ruth; Moshe Hirsch (1994). The Jerusalem question and its resolution: selected documents(http://books.google.com/?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&lpg=PA384&pg=PA384#v=onepage&q). Martinus NijhoffPublishers. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-7923-2893-3.
23. ^ a b Wilken, Robert L. "From Time Immemorial? Dwellers in the Holy Land." Christian Century, 30 July – 6August 1986, p.678.
24. ^ Miraj(Britannica) (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384897/Miraj,)25. ^ "Jerusalem (Britannica)" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302812/Jerusalem), Jerusalem(Britannica)26. ^ Dome of the Rock (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30995/Al-Aqsa-Mosque)27. ^ a b "Why "Abrahamic"?" (http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/abrahamic.html). Welcome. Lubar Institute for
Religious Studies at University of Wisconsin - Madison. 2007. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 25/29
28. ^ Shultz, Joseph P. "Two Views of the Patriarchs", in Nahum Norbert Glatzer, Michael A. Fishbane, Paul R.Mendes-Flohr (eds.) (1975). Texts and Responses: Studies presented to Nahum N. Glatzer on the occasion of his70th birthday by his students. Brill Publishers. pp. 51–52. ISBN 9789004039803
29. ^ Kaplan, Aryeh (1973). "The Jew". The Aryeh Kaplan Reader. Mesorah Publications. p. 161. ISBN9780899061733
30. ^ Blasi, Turcotte, Duhaime, p. 592.31. ^ "The Hymn of Security MacArthur, John (1996). The MacArthur New Testament Commentary: Romans.
Chicago: Moody Press. ISBN 0-8254-1522-5.32. ^ "So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith." "In other words, it is not the
children by physical descent who are God’s children, but it is the children of the promise who are regarded asAbraham’s offspring." (Rom. 9:8)
33. ^ Bickerman, p.188cf.34. ^ Leeming, David Adams (2005). The Oxford companion to world mythology (http://books.google.com/?
id=kQFtlva3HaYC&lpg=PA209&pg=PA209#v=onepage&q). US: Oxford University Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0.
35. ^ Fischer, Michael M. J.; Mehdi Abedi (1990). Debating Muslims: cultural dialogues in postmodernity andtradition (http://books.google.com/?id=J5RGlpx0j8sC&lpg=PA163&pg=PA163#v=onepage&q). Univ ofWisconsin Press. pp. 163–166. ISBN 978-0-299-12434-2.
36. ^ a b Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ataglance/glance.shtml),BBC, 5 August 2009.
37. ^ Hawting, Gerald R. (2006). The development of Islamic ritual; Volume 26 of The formation of the classicalIslamic world (http://books.google.com/?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&lpg=PR18&pg=PR18#v=onepage&q). AshgatePublishing, Ltd. pp. xviii, xix, xx, xxiii. ISBN 978-0-86078-712-9.
38. ^ Pavlac, Brian A (2010). A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities. Chapter 6.39. ^ "Otherness and nearness." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web: 15 Jul 2010.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/307197/Judaism/35235/God40. ^ e.g. Likutei Moharan I 4:2.41. ^ See Raymond E. Brown's "Does the New Testament call Jesus God?" in Theological Studies No. 26, 1965, pp.
545–573 for the technical discussion.42. ^ Merkle, John C.; Harrelson, Walter J. Faith transformed: Christian encounters with Jews and Judaism. Liturgical
Press, 2003. p.189.43. ^ Baker, Mona; Saldanha, Gabriela (2008). Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies
(http://books.google.com/?id=eXsDckV5GuMC&lpg=PA227&pg=PA227#v=onepage&q). Routledge. p. 227.ISBN 978-0-415-36930-5.
44. ^ ʻUthmān ibn ʻAbd al-Raḥmān Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ al-Shahrazūrī; Eerik Dickinson (2006). An Introduction to theScience of Hadith: Kitab Ma'rifat Anwa' 'ilm Al-hadith (http://books.google.com/?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&lpg=PA15&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q). Garnet & Ithaca Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-85964-158-3.
45. ^ Momen, Moojan (1985). An introduction to Shiʻi Islam: the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism(http://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C&dq). Yale University Press. pp. 173–4. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5.
46. ^ al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib (1994). Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller).Amana Publications. pp. 995–1002. ISBN 0-915957-72-8.
47. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=222&letter=B&search=Baptism):"According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8),Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte toJudaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, wasmuch more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). Butas circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole conditionfor initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands,which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first alsoaccompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not anecessary condition".
48. ^ "Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)" (http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/). TheCircumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 26/29
49. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church: Article 5—The Fifth commandment(http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS). Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi. Retrieved 10July 2007.
50. ^ Dietzen, John. "The Morality of Circumcision" (http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/), TheCircumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
51. ^ Ray, Mary G. "82% of the World's Men are Intact" (http://www.mothersagainstcirc.org/majority.htm), MothersAgainst Circumcision, 1997.
52. ^ http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html53. ^ "Halal & Healthy: Is Kosher Halal" (http://www.soundvision.com/info/halalhealthy/halal.kosher.asp),
SoundVision.com—Islamic information & products. 5 August 2009.54. ^ Schuchmann, Jennifer. "Does God Care What We Eat?"
(http://www.christianitytoday.com/tc/todaysculture/healthhealing/3.40.html?start=1), Today's Christian,January/February 2006. Retrieved 6 August 2009.
55. ^ Canon 1250, 1983. The 1983 Code of Canon Law specifies the obligations of Latin Rite Catholic.56. ^ "Fasting and Abstinence" (http://www.catholic.org/clife/lent/abfast.php), Catholic Online. 6 August 2009.57. ^ "Fundamental Beliefs" (http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html), #22. Christian Behavior.
Seventh-Day Adventist Church website. 6 August 2009.58. ^ Schaff, Philip. "Canon II of The Council of Gangra." The Seven Ecumenical Councils. 6 August 2009.
Commentary on Canon II of Gangra (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html).59. ^ According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry Ben Noah, page 349), most
medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given to Adam, although Maimonides (MishnehTorah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.
60. ^ Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry Ben Noah, introduction) states that after thegiving of the Torah, the Jewish people were no longer in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides(Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicates that the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud(Bavli, Sanhedrin 59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles areobligated in, albeit with some differences in the details.
61. ^ Compare Genesis 9:4–6 (http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php?book=%20Genesis&verse=9:4–6&src=HE).
62. ^ Kornbluth, Doron. Why marry Jewish?. Southfield, MI: Targum Press, 2003. ISBN 978-1-56871-250-563. ^ Pope Paul VI. "Declaration on Religious Freedom"
(http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html), 7 December 1965.
64. ^ *Micksch, Jürgen (2009). "Trialog International – Die jährliche Konferenz" (http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885). Herbert Quandt Stiftung. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
Collins, William P., reviewer (1 September 2004). "Review of: The Children of Abraham : Judaism,Christianity, Islam / F. E. Peters. New ed. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 2004"(http://books.google.com/?id=Zu6EAAAACAAJ). Library Journal (New York) 129 (14): 157, 160.ISBN 978-0-691-12769-9. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
65. ^ "Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and related forms of Intolerance, follow-up and implementation ofthe Durhan Declaration and Programme of Action"(http://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/1227_1225896113_egypt.pdf). Human Rights Council; Ninth session; Agendaitem 9. United Nations. 29 August 2008. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
66. ^ a b Lawson, Todd (December 13, 2012). "Baha'i Religious History" (http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history). In Cusack, Carole M.; Hartney, Christopher. Journal of ReligiousHistory 36 (4): 463–470. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9809.2012.01224.x (http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9809.2012.01224.x). ISSN 1467-9809 (//www.worldcat.org/issn/1467-9809). Retrieved September 5, 2013.
67. ^ MacEoin, Denis (2000). "Baha'i Faith". In Hinnells, John R. The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions:Second Edition. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-051480-5.
68. ^ "World Religions (2005)" (http://www.thearda.com/QuickLists/QuickList_125.asp). QuickLists – The World –Religions. The Association of Religion Data Archives. 2005. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 27/29
69. ^ Johnson, Todd M.; Brian J. Grim (26 March 2013). "Global Religious Populations, 1910–2010"(http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118555767.ch1). The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction toInternational Religious Demography (http://books.google.com/books?id=CkFVF8nFiqkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q&f=false). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 59–62.doi:10.1002/9781118555767.ch1 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118555767.ch1). ISBN 9781118555767.
70. ^ a b May, Dann J (December 1993). "Web Published" (http://bahai-library.com/may_principle_religious_unity).The Bahá'í Principle of Religious Unity and the Challenge of Radical Pluralism(http://iii.library.unt.edu/record=b1785599~S12). University of North Texas, Denton, Texas. p. 102. Retrieved 2January 2010.
71. ^ Hatcher, W.S.; Martin, J.D. (1998). The Bahá'í Faith: The Emerging Global Religion. Wilmette, IL: Bahá'íPublishing Trust. ISBN 0-87743-264-3.
72. ^ a b "Abrahamic Religion" (http://www.christianity-guide.com/christianity/abrahamic_religion.htm). Christianity:Details about…. Christianity Guide. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
73. ^ Flow, Christian B.; Nolan, Rachel B. (16 November 2006). "Go Forth From Your Country"(http://www.abrahampath.org/downloads/harvard_crimson.2006.11.16.pdf). The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved 19September 2009.
74. ^ Ma'ani, Baharieh Rouhani (2008). Leaves of the Twin Divine Trees. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. p. 150.ISBN 0-85398-533-2.
75. ^ Taherzadeh, A. (1984). "The Death of The Purest Branch"(http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha'i/Others/ROB/V3/p204-220Ch10.html). The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume3: `Akka, The Early Years 1868–77 (http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha'i/Others/ROB/V3/Cover.html). Oxford, UK:George Ronald. pp. 204–220. ISBN 0-85398-144-2.
76. ^ Stockman, Robert H. (2006). Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael, eds. Introduction to New andAlternative Religions in America (http://books.google.com/?id=ClaySHbUEogC&lpg=PP1&pg=RA3-PA185#v=onepage&q=). Greenwood Publishing. pp. 185–218. ISBN 0-275-98712-4.
77. ^ Buck, Christopher (1999). Paradise and paradigm: key symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baháí ̕Faith,Volume 10 of Studies in the Bábí and Bahá'í religions (http://books.google.com/?id=whfW9rEG2h4C&pg=PA326#v=onepage&q=). SUNY Press. p. 326. ISBN 978-0-7914-4061-2.
78. ^ Britannica 199279. ^ a b Smith 2008, p. 10680. ^ Effendi 1944, p. 13981. ^ Cole, Juan (1982). "The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahá'í Writings" (http://bahai-
library.com/cole_concept_manifestation). Bahá'í Studies. monograph 9: 1–38.82. ^ Smith 2008, pp. 111–11283. ^ Smith, Peter (2000). "Manifestations of God". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld
Publications. p. 231. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.84. ^ Buck, Christopher (1996). "Native Messengers of God in Canada? A test case for Baha'i universalism"
(https://www.msu.edu/~buckc/Buck_PDFs/Buck_Native_1996.pdf). The Bahá'í Studies Review (London:Association for Bahá'í Studies English-Speaking Europe): 97–132. Retrieved 2009-12-06.
85. ^ "Introduction to Judaism Classroom Materials"(http://www.jhsm.org/sites/default/files/IntroductiontoJudaismcurriculum2007_000.pdf). Jewish Museum ofMaryland. 2007. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
86. ^ Yazidis borrow elements from the Abrahamic religions and consider Abraham among their greatest prophets (seeThe Kurdish national movement: its origins and development (http://books.google.pt/books?id=FCbspX-dGPYC&pg=PA20&dq=Yazidism+Abrahamic#v=onepage&q&f=false), Wadie Jwaideh, pp. 20–21), though theseare highly mixed with Indo-European elements (see Global Encyclopaedia of Education (4 Vols. Set)(http://books.google.pt/books?id=6XCRmgig69MC&pg=PA513&dq=Yazidism+Abrahamic#v=onepage&q&f=false), Rama Sankar Yadav andB.N. Mandal, p. 513), and sometimes they are even described as Zoroastrians (see Debating Muslims: culturaldialogues in postmodernity and tradition (http://books.google.pt/books?id=J5RGlpx0j8sC&pg=PA487&dq=Yazidism+Abrahamic#v=onepage&q&f=false), Michael M. J. Fischer andMehdi Abedi, p. 487)
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 28/29
87. ^ "Synopsis of book, "The Druze and Their Faith in Tawhid"" (http://www.eurospanbookstore.com/display.asp?K=9780815630975&ds=Islam&sf1=bic2_subj_code&st1=HRH*&sort=sort_date/d&m=79&dc=232).
88. ^ Mandeans claim Abraham was of their people (see The Mandeans of Iraq and Iran (http://books.google.pt/books?id=hcQUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=Mandeanism+Abrahamic#v=onepage&q&f=false), pp. 265–269). On theother hand, though they have many affinities, they consider that «the Jewish God was an evil spirit, the law wasgiven by the evil ruha and the seven planets, and the Hebrew Bible was read with a particularly critical eye» (seeNeusner on Judaism: History (http://books.google.pt/books?id=qE4jXXhr8X8C&pg=PA536&dq=Mandeanism+Abrahamic#), Jacob Neusner, pp. 536–537)
89. ^ "Joshua, The Samaritan Book Of:" (http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=546&letter=J&search=samaritan). JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
90. ^ Allison, Christine (20 February 2004). "Yazidis" (http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yazidis-i-general-1).Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 31 March 2008.
91. ^ Danna, Nissim (December 2003). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status(http://books.google.com/?id=2nCWIsyZJxUC&lpg=PA99&pg=PA99#v=onepage&q). Brighton: Sussex AcademicPress. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9.
92. ^ "Save the Gnostics" (http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/06/opinion/06deutsch.html) by Nathaniel Deutsch, 6October 2007, New York Times.
93. ^ Hubbard, Benjamin Jerome; Hatfield, John T; Santucci, James A (April 2007). Chanting down Babylon: theRastafari reader (http://books.google.com/?id=iesWzLHb_GUC&lpg=PA1&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q). p. 69.ISBN 978-1-59158-409-4. Retrieved 1 February 2010.
Further readingBakhos, Carol (2014). The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05083-9.Derrida, Jacques (2002). Anidjar, Gil, ed. Acts of Religion (http://books.google.com/?id=c_kgAmFbvP0C). New York & London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92401-6.Assmann, Jan (1998). Moses the Egyptian: the memory of Egypt in western monotheism(http://books.google.com/?id=nJv0oyQ-9_AC). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-58739-7.Barnett, Paul (2002). Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times(http://books.google.com/?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC). InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2699-5.Blasi, Anthony J.; Turcotte, Paul-André; Duhaime, Jean (2002). Handbook of early Christianity: socialscience approaches (http://books.google.com/?id=vgG8TVZVpYAC). Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0015-2.de Perceval, Armand-Pierre Caussin (1847). Calcutta review – Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avantl'islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loimusulmane (http://books.google.com/?id=bQg2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=) (in French).Paris: Didot. OCLC 431247004 (//www.worldcat.org/oclc/431247004).Dodds, Adam (July 2009). "The Abrahamic Faiths? Continuity and Discontinuity in Christian andIslamic Doctrine". Evangelical Quarterly 81 (3): 230–253.Firestone, Reuven; American Jewish Committee, Harriet and Robert Heilbrunn Institute ForInternational Interreligious Understanding (2001). Children of Abraham: an introduction to Judaism forMuslims (http://books.google.com/?id=IuKNIR5qlS0C). Hoboken, NJ: KTAV. ISBN 978-0-88125-720-5.Freedman H. (trans.), and Simon, Maurice (ed.), Genesis Rabbah, Land of Israel, 5th century.Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology, (trans., & ed.),Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998Kritzeck, James (1965). Sons of Abraham: Jews, Christians, and Moslems (http://books.google.com/?id=h7MOAAAAIAAJ). Helicon.
12/24/13 Abrahamic religions - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions 29/29
Greenstreet, Wendy (2006). Integrating spirituality in health and social care (http://books.google.com/?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95#v=onepage&q=). Oxford; Seattle, WA: Radcliffe. ISBN 978-1-85775-646-3.Johansson, Warren (1990). "Abrahamic Religions"(http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf). In Dynes, Wayne R. Encyclopedia ofHomosexuality. New York: Garland. ISBN 978-0-8240-6544-7.Longton, Joseph (1987–2009). "Fils d'Abraham" (http://www.cibmaredsous.be/cibf4.htm). In Longton,Joseph. Fils d'Abraham. S.A. Brepols I. G. P. and CIB Maredsous. ISBN 2-503-82344-0.Massignon, Louis, "Les trois prières d'Abraham, père di tuos les croyants", Dieu Vivant, 13, (1949) 20–23.Masumian, Farnaz (1995). Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions. Oxford:Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-074-8.Reid, Barbara E. (1996). Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke. Liturgical Press.Scherman, Nosson, (ed.), Tanakh, Vol.I, The Torah, (Stone edition), Mesorah Publications, Ltd., NewYork, 2001Smith, Jonathan Z. (1998). "Religion, Religions, Religious". In Taylor, Mark C.. Critical Terms forReligious Studies. University of Chicago Press. pp. 269–284. ISBN 978-0-226-79156-2.Smith, Peter (2008). An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-86251-6.
External linksAbrahamic Faiths: A Comparison (http://groups.yahoo.com/group/jesus-net/message/8061). How doJudaism, Christianity, and Islam differ? Accessed October 21, 2012Why Don’t Jews Believe In Jesus?(http://www.simpletoremember.com/articles/a/jewsandjesus/)Accessed October 21, 2012Reconciling the Abrahamic Faiths (http://abrahamicfamilyreunion.org/) Accessed October 21, 2012What's Next? Heaven, hell, and salvation in major world religions(http://www.beliefnet.com/story/173/story_17380_1.html) A side-by-side comparison. AccessedOctober 21, 2012Three Faiths, One God (http://lasjan.page.tl/EARLY-LAW.htm) Accessed October 21, 2012
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abrahamic_religions&oldid=587581329"Categories: Abrahamic religions Monotheism Monotheistic religions Religious comparison
This page was last modified on 25 December 2013 at 00:36.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms mayapply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
