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7/30/2019 Abhijit Banerjee and Lackshmi the Legaby of Colonial Land
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TABLE 1 : STATE-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF LANDLORD AND NON-LANDLORD DISTRICTS
Mean non- Total districts
State landlord Landlord Individualproportion based based Landlord Non-landlord
Andhra Pradesh 0.66 2 8 0 0 10
Bihar 0.00 12 0 0 0 12
Gujarat 1.00 0 7 0 0 7
Haryana 0.85 0 0 0 5 5
Karnataka 1.00 0 15 0 0 15
Madhya Pradesh 0.10 14 1 0 0 15
Maharashtra 0.78 4 14 0 0 18
Orissa 0.32 6 2 0 0 8
Punjab 0.87 0 0 0 6 6
Rajasthan 0.00 1 0 0 0 1
Tamil Nadu 0.75 2 9 0 0 11
Uttar Pradesh 0.42 0 0 12 35 47
West Bengal 0.00 11 0 0 0 11
Total 0.51 52 56 12 46 166
Notes: This table lists only districts which used to be part of British India. Areas where the British
did not set up the land revenue system are excluded.
Districts of British India which are currently in Pakistan, Bangladesh or Burma are excluded.
The table also excludes the states of Assam and Kerala, for which agricultural data is not available
in the World Bank dataset.
The table lists 1960 districts, some of which were split into two or more districts over time. We use
un-split districts in all our analysis.
Classification of revenue systems
Village bodies
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TABLE 2 : DIFFERENCES IN GEOGRAPHY AND DEMOGRAPHICS
Mean Standard Differencea
Standard error
deviation of difference
Geography
Latitude 22.19 5.60 -4.35*** (0.961)
Altitude 366.41 148.14 93.64*** (25.98)
Mean annual rainfall (mm) 1263.09 471.64 -373.99*** (80.83)
Coastal dummy 0.1497 0.3579 0.084 (0.065)
Top 2 soil types: Black soil 0.2096 0.4082 0.244*** (0.072)
Alluvial soil 0.1677 0.3747 -0.135** (0.067)
Red soil 0.5689 0.4967 0.075 (0.090)
Top-soil depth 300 cm 0.5482 0.4991 -0.268*** (0.088)
Area share of various crops:1956-1987
area share of rice 0.366 0.298 -0.194*** (0.054)
area share of wheat 0.149 0.157 -0.058** (0.026)
area share of other cereals 0.205 0.172 0.128*** (0.031)
area share of oilseeds 0.067 0.088 0.065*** (0.013)
area share of cotton 0.041 0.096 0.066*** (0.018)
area share of tobacco 0.003 0.015 0.005** (0.002)area share of sugarcane 0.031 0.053 0.005 (0.008)
Cash crops to cereals ratio 0.149 0.257 0.152*** (0.048)
Demographics: 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991
log(Population) 14.26 0.634 -0.088 (0.109)
Population density 36.44 85.92 -11.22** (4.02)
Proportion of scheduled castes 0.1598 0.0733 -0.034** (0.014)
Proportion of scheduled tribes 0.0980 0.1630 -0.010 (0.031)
Proportion rural 0.8102 0.1237 -0.066*** (0.023)
Proportion of working population in farming 0.7119 0.1352 -0.050* (0.027)
Standard errors in parentheses, corrected for district-level clustering.
* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%aDifference represents the average difference between non landlord and landlord districts
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ESINAGRICULTURALINVESTMENT
SANDYIELDS
tion=0.5051(s.d.=0.4274)
M
eanofdependent
variable
OLS
OLS
OLS
OLS
Fulls
ample
ExcludingBenga
l
Fullsample
Excludingvillage-
andBihar
baseddistricts
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
MENTS
reairrigated
0.276
0.065*
0.066*
0.077***
0.005
(0.0
34)
(0.035)
(0.027)
(0.032)
24.64
10.70
8***
10.992***
9.988***
10.695***
(3.3
45)
(3.406)
(2.301)
(3.040)
HYV
0.298
0.079*
0.094**
0.016
0.074*
(0.0
44)
(0.043)
(0.032)
(0.038)
erHYV
0.518
0.09
2**
0.119***
0.031
0.107**
(0.0
46)
(0.045)
(0.036)
(0.052)
eaunderHYV
0.196
0.057*
0.084***
-0.035
0.109***
(0.0
31)
(0.024)
(0.025)
(0.041)
TIVITY
0.15
7**
0.152**
0.173***
0.089
(0.0
71)
(0.074)
(0.053)
(0.085)
0.17
1**
0.195**
0.099
0.173**
(0.0
81)
(0.081)
(0.062)
(0.079)
0.229***
0.228***
0.188***
0.143
(0.0
67)
(0.070)
(0.054)
(0.098)
166
143
166
109
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
ontrol
YES
YES
YES
YES
ses,correctedfor
district-levelclustering.*significantat10%;**significantat5%;***significan
tat1%
efficientfromaregressionofthedependentv
ariableonthemeasureofnon-landlordcontrol.
taforareaunderh
igh-yieldingvarieties(HYV)isafter1965.
itude,latitude,me
anannualrainfall,anddum
miesforsoiltypeandcoastalregions.
sassignedasfollo
ws:thedummyequalsone
forallindividual-baseddistrictsandallvillage-based
districtsexcept
d-baseddistrictsandthevillage-baseddistrictsofOudh,thedummyiszero.
Coeffic
ientonnon-landlordproportion
Coefficientonnon-landlorddummy
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TABLE 5: ARE YIELDS EXPLAINED BY INVESTMENTS?
Log total yield Log rice yield Log wheat yieldOLS OLS OLS
(1) (2) (3)
Proportion non-landlord 0.035 0.070 0.109
(0.053) (0.063) (0.063)
Proportion of gross cropped area irrigated 0.693** 0.439** 0.435**
(0.112) (0.096) (0.117)
Fertilizer use (kg/ha) 0.007** 0.004** 0.001
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
% area under HYV 4.274** 0.580** 0.618**
(1.122) (0.063) (0.070)
Adjusted R-squared 0.60 0.52 0.56
No. of districts 166 166 166
Year fixed effects YES YES YES
Geographic controls YES YES YESDate of British land revenue control YES YES YES
Standard errors in parentheses, corrected for district-level clustering.
* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%
Data are from 1956-87. Data for area under high-yielding varieties (HYV) is after 1965.
Geographic controls are altitude, latitude, mean annual rainfall, and dummies for soil type and coastal regions.
Dependent variables
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TABLE 6: WHEN DO THE DIFFERENCES APPEAR?
PANEL A : FULL SAMPLE
Dependent variable Difference1956-65 After 1965
(1) (2) (3)
AGRICULTURAL INVESTMENTS
Proportion of gross cropped area irrigated 0.046 0.079** 0.033**
(0.033) (0.036) (0.016)
Fertilizer use (kg/ha) 1.026** 15.581*** 14.55***
(0.425) (4.763) (4.44)
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY
log(yield of 15 major crops) 0.066 0.201*** 0.135***
(0.065) (0.076) (0.033)
log(rice yield) 0.108 0.196** 0.088**
(0.069) (0.089) (0.044)
log(wheat yield) 0.146** 0.268*** 0.122*
(0.058) (0.079) (0.063)
No. of districts 166 166 166Year fixed effects YES YES YES
Geographic controls YES YES YES
Date of British land revenue control YES YES YES
Standard errors in parentheses, corrected for district-level clustering.
* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%
Data are from 1956-87. Geographic controls are altitude, latitude, mean annual rainfall, and dummies
for soil type and coastal regions. Estimates in column (3) are computed from a regression of the dependent
variable on the interaction of the non-landlord proportion and a dummy for year>1965, after controllingfor the main effects of these variables, as well as geographic controls.
PANEL B: RICE YIELDS FOR TAMIL NADU DISTRICTS
Sample : 10 districts of Tamil Nadu
Data are for 1870, 1901, 1911, 1917, 1919, and five-yearly intervals from 1922 to 1982
Dependent variable
Before 1965 After 1965 Difference
Log rice yield -0.099 0.415 0.514**
(0 172) (0 366) (0 217)
Coefficient on non-landlord proportion
Coefficient on non-landlord proportion
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TABLE 7: IMPACT OF STATE POLICY
Dependent variables Mean of
dependent OLS OLS OLSvariable Base specification Control for state State FE
dev exp per capita
(1) (2) (3)
PANEL A: AGRICULTURAL INVESTMENTS
Proportion of gross cropped area irrigated 0.276 0.065* 0.074** 0.028
(0.034) (0.035) (0.036)
Fertilizer use (kg/ha) 24.64 10.708*** 10.805*** 4.297
(3.345) (3.717) (3.308)
Proportion of rice area under HYV 0.298 0.079* 0.007 0.000
(0.044) (0.040) (0.042)
Proportion of wheat area under HYV 0.518 0.092** 0.061 0.028
(0.046) (0.047) (0.039)
Proportion of other cereals area under HYV 0.196 0.057* 0.025 0.043*
(0.031) (0.030) (0.026)
PANEL B: AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY
log(yield of 15 major crops) 0.157** 0.174** 0.059
(0.071) (0.076) (0.072)log(rice yield) 0.171** 0.083 0.016
(0.081) (0.082) (0.078)
log(wheat yield) 0.229*** 0.243*** 0.150***
(0.067) (0.072) (0.045)
PANEL C: EDUCATION AND HEALTH INVESTMENTS 1981
Proportion of villages having:
Primary school 0.745 0.154*** 0.062* 0.102***
(0.036) (0.037) (0.039)Middle school 0.204 0.125*** 0.093*** 0.064***
(0.023) (0.021) (0.018)
High school 0.082 0.052*** 0.019 0.030**
(0.018) (0.014) (0.013)
Primary health center 0.023 0.011*** 0.002 0.012***
(0.004) (0.004) (0.004)
Primary health subcenter 0.031 0.033*** 0.011 0.006
(0.011) (0.009) (0.006)
PANEL D: EDUCATION AND HEALTH OUTCOMES
Literacy rate (1961, 1971, 1981, 1991) 0.2945 0.0524** 0.0290* 0.0241
(0.0190) (0.0171) (0.0176)
Infant mortality rate (1991) 82.17 -32.71*** -25.43*** -15.81***
(5.38) (5.28) (5.40)
Coefficient on non-landlord proportion
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TRICTSOFBRITISHINDIA,WITHDATESANDMODEOFAC
QUISITIONBYTHEBR
ITISH
Datean
dmodeofacquisition
Districtsincluded
SetupbyBritishin1690
Calcutta
onland
obtainedfromMughalemperor
s
Cameu
nderBritishpoliticalcontrol
24-Parganas(parts),Burdwan,Midn
apore(parts),
from1
757to1761
Chittagon
g
ehar
Revenu
ecollectionrightsgranted
Bankura,
Birbhum,Hooghly,Howra
h,Malda,Murshidabad,
byMughalemperorin1765
Nadiya(m
odernWestBengal);Bhagalpur,Champaran,
Darbhang
a,Gaya,Hazaribagh,Lohardagga,Munger,Patna,
Purnea,SantalParganas,Saran,Shahabad,Singhbhum
(modernBihar);Bakirganj,Bogra,D
acca,Faridpur,Dinajpur,
Jessore,Khulna,Maimansingh,Noa
khalli,Pabna,Rajshahi,
Rangpur,Tipra(modernBanglades
h)
Cameu
ndercontrolin1826
Jalpaiguri,Darjeeling.
and1838respectively.
Conque
redin1803
Balasore,
Cuttack,Puri
(restofO
rissaundertributarychiefs)
GrantedbyNawaboftheCarnatic
Chingleput,Madras
in1750-63
ars
GrantedbyMughalemperorin1765,
Vizagapatam,Ganjam,Kistna,Goda
vari
grantconfirmedbyNizamofDeccan
in1768.
tained
ObtainedfromMysoreafterthe
Salem,Coimbatore,Malabar,Kanara,
SecondMysoreWar1792
somearea
sofMadura
ts
ObtainedbyNizamofDeccanafter
Anantapu
r,Bellary,Cuddapah,Karn
ul
Mysore
Warandthencededto
British
in1800
icts
CededtoBritishbyNawabof
Nellore,N
orthArcot,SouthArcot,M
adura,
Carnaticin1801
Trichinop
oly,Tinnevelly
TakenoverbyBritishduetoincap
acity
Tanjore
ofHind
urulerin1799
TakenoverbyBritishin1831due
to
Mysore
misman
agementofruler,givenbackto
Wodey
arsin1881
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Datean
dmodeofacquisition
Districtsincluded
CededbytheNawabofOudhin1775
Benares,Mirzapur,Jaunpur,Ghazipur,Ballia,
ts
CededbytheNawabofOudhin1801
Azamgarh,Gorakhpur,Basti,Allaha
bad,Fatehpur,Kanpur,
Farukhabad,Etawa,Mainpuri,Etah,
Shahjahanpur,Badayun,
Bareli,Pilibhit,Moradabad,Bijnaur,TaraiParganas
stricts
ConqueredbyLordLakefromScindia
Agra,Ma
thura,Aligarh,Bulandshah
r,Meerut,
andoth
ersin1803
Muzaffarnagar,Saharanpur
Conqueredinpartsfrom1803-17.
Banda,Hamirpur
Takenoverduetolapse,forfeiture
etc.
Jalaun,Jh
ansi,Lalitpur
inyearsafter1840.
CededaftertheNepalwarin1815
Dehradun
.
Annexe
dfromNawabofOudhin1856.
Kheri,Sitapur,Hardoi,Lucknow,Unao,Barabanki,Rai-Bareli,
Partabgar
h,Sultanpur,Faizabad,Gonda,Bahraich
ObtainedfromNawabofSuratin1800
Surat
ConqueredfromBarodain1803a
nd
Ahmedab
ad,Kaira,Broach
Marathasin1818.
ory
ConqueredfromPeshwain1818
Thana,Khandesh,Nasik,Ahmednag
ar,Poona,Sholapur,
Kolaba,R
atnagiri,Belgaum(somep
artsobtainedin1827),
Bijapur,D
harwar
Takenoverbylapsein1848
Satara
Transfe
rredfromMadrasin1862
Kanara
Conqueredin1843
Karachi,Haidarabad,Shikarpur,UpperSindhFrontier,
Thar&Parkar(modernPakistan)
Obtainedin1861
PanchMahals
Obtainedaspartofdiwaniin1765
,
Goalpara
(modernAssam),Sylhet(m
odernBangladesh)
latertr
ansferredtoAssam
Conqueredin1824
Darrang,Kamrup,Lakhimpur,Naug
ong,Sibsagar
Brough
tundercontrolin1830-35
Cachar,C
acharHills,EasternDwars
(1866),Jaintya
Parganas,KhasiandJaintyas,NagaHills.
ory
ConqueredfromBhonslein1818;
someareas
Balaghat,
Betul,Bhandara,Bilaspur,Chanda,Chhindwara,
leftund
erBhonsletill1854
Damoh,H
oshangabad,Jabalpur,Ma
ndla,Nagpur,
Narsinghpur,Nimar(1820),Raipur,
Sagar,Seoni,Wardah
Conqueredin1818,underlocalch
ief
Sambalpu
r
till184
9
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Datean
dmodeofacquisition
Districtsincluded
Conqueredin1803
Delhi,Gu
rgaon,Hisar,Karnal
ObtainedafterSikhWarin1845-46
Ambala,Firozpur,Hoshiyarpur,Jala
ndhar,Kangra,Ludhiana
ObtainedafterSikhWarin1849
Amritsar,
Gurdaspur,Rohtak(India)
;Bannu,DeraGhaziKhan,
DeraIsmailKhan,Gujranwala,Gujr
at,Hazara,Jhang,Jhelum,
Kohat,Lahore,Montgomerty,Multa
n,Muzaffargarh,Peshawar,
Rawalpin
di,Shahpur,Sialkot(Pakistan)
Obtainedin1815
Shimla
894),Kumar(1982)
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APPENDIX TABLE 2: ESTABLISHMENT OF LAND REVENUE SYSTEMS IN BRITISH INDIA
Province Dates of British Formation of land tenure systemland revenue control
Bengal 1757, 1765 Revenue auctions in early 1770s; old landlords dispossessed,
Presidency several defaults and famine;old landlords reinstated in 1784;
Lord Cornwallis announces Permanent Settlement in 1793:
landlords' rents fixed in perpetuity with stiff penalties for default.
Madras 1765, 1790-1801 1765 territories came under Permanent Settlement.
Presidency Munro and Read tried individual system in some districts from
1796-1805; in 1807 all districts put under landlords for 3 years,
leases renewed for 10 years in 1810-11; Munro went to England
and convinced the Directors of the East India Company to order
an individual settlement in the whole of Madras;order implemented
after 1820 when leases expired; all future defaulting landlord
estates also converted to individual system.
Bombay 1803, 1817-18 Individual system tried in Poona in 1820's, but failed; Wingate andPresidency Goldsmid start Bombay Survey System in 1835 for individual
settlement system; a few long-standing landlords left in place in
certain areas.
North-West 1775, 1801-03 Permanent Settlement in 1775 areas.
Provinces 3 and 4-year landlord leases in 1802-1819. Question of Permanent
Settlement widely debated; revenue secretary Holt Mackenzie's
1819 Minute recognized the existence of village bodies and asked
for their rights to be protected in any settlement; regulation passedin 1822.
Oudh 1856 Lord Dalhousie announced settlement with village bodies wherever
possible; Mutiny in 1857 before this could be done; Lord Canning
reversed policy in 1858 and brought back landlords (talukdars ) with
full proprietary rights.
Central 1818, 1849 No fixed policy until landlord settlement (malguzari )
Provinces announced in 1853, implemented in 1850s. Sambhalpurdistrict however put under individual cultivator system.
Berar 1856 Was under Nizam till 1856; landlord system tried found unsuccessful;
Bombay Survey System (individual cultivator based) implemented.
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APPENDIX TABLE 3: DATA SOURCES AND CONSTRUCTION OF VARIABLES
Post-Independence dataData on district geography, crop areas, yields, irrigation, fertilizer use, adoption of
high-yielding varieties: India Agriculture and Climate Data Set (World Bank)
http://www-esd.worldbank.org/indian/home.cfm
District level data on literacy, occupation classes, proportion of scheduled castes etc:
Indian Database Project Vanneman, Reeve and Douglas Barnes (2000)
Indian District Data, 1961-1991: Machine-readable data file and codebook, Center on Population,
Gender, and Social Inequality, College Park, Maryland.
URL: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/districts/index.html
Districts and maps of modern India: http://www.mapsofindia.com
Village infrastructure variables: State statistical abstracts of 1981
Land-holdings by size category: Agricultural census of 1990-91.
Data on poverty and inequality (1972, 1987): based on National Sample Surveys.
Data on state development expenditure: Database on Poverty and Growth in India compiled by
Berk Ozler, Gaurav Datt and Martin Ravallion (World Bank)
Data on state land reforms: Besley and Burgess (2000)
Historical data
Districts and maps of British India: Baden-Powell (1892)
Non-landlord proportion:
For Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Panjab: computed from district-level Land Settlement
Reports as the proportion of villages, estates or land area not under the revenue liability of landlords.
The Settlement Reports were compiled by British administrators in the 1870's and 1880's.
For Madras Presidency: non-landlord proportion obtained from Baden-Powell (1892).
For Bombay Presidency, Bengal Presidency, Orissa, Berar and districts for which we do not have
district-level settlement reports: Non-landlord measure is assigned as zero or one based onhistorical accounts of the dominant land tenure system in the district. Sources of information include
Baden-Powell (1892), Gupta (1940), Kumar (1982), Misra (1942), Mukherjee (1962) and Patel (1957).
Land revenue inequality 1885: Digital South Asia Library (http://dsal.uchicago.edu)
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AILEDREGRE
SSIONSPECIFICATION
ulturalyield(basedon15majorcrops)
Nocontrols
Altitude,latitude
Meanannualrainfall,
Soildummies
Dateo
fBritish
coastaldummy
landreve
nuecontrol
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0.101
0.091
0.123
0.117*
0.1
57**
(0.076)
(0.088)
(0.086)
(0.069)
(0.071)
0.296
0.425*
0.644***
0.722***
(0.243)
(0.245)
(0.194)
(0.189)
0.004
0.003
-0.007
-0.006
(0.006)
(0.007)
(0.007)
(0.007)
0.161**
0.029
0.006
(0.067)
(0.060)
(0.062)
0.171*
0.072
0.032
(0.096)
(0.094)
(0.093)
-0.409***
-0.396***
(0.085)
(0.085)
0.137*
0.104
(0.071)
(0.069)
0.196***
0.190***
(0.053)
(0.052)
ontrol
-0.002***
(0.001)
-0.314***
-0.503***
-0.782***
-0.494***
3.5
86**
(0.038)
(0.145)
(0.181)
(0.186)
(1.502)
ye
s
yes
yes
yes
yes
166
166
166
166
1
66
0.1
7
0.19
0.23
0.42
0
.43
cantat5%;***significantat1%
adjustedfordistrict-levelclustering.
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TOFNEIGHBO
RINGDISTRICTS
Landlorddistricts
Non-landlorddistricts
Reasonfordifferenceintenure
Srikakulam
EastGodavari
AreasputunderlandlordsandPermanent
Vishakhapatnam
SettlementbeforetherestofMadras
Presidencywasconvertedtoindividualsystem.
Madurai
Coimbatore
AreasputunderlandlordsandPermanent
Ramanathapuram
Thanjavur
SettlementbeforetherestofMadras
Tiruchirapalli
Presidencywasconvertedtoindividualsystem.
Tirunelveli
Bilaspur
Raigarh
Sambalpurdistrictwas
putunder
Raipur
Sambalpur
individualcultivatorsy
stem,unlikethe
restoftheCentralProv
inces.
Chandrapur
Amravati
Berarprovincewasind
ividual-based
Wardha
Yavatmal
whileCentralProvinceswaslandlord-based.
Betul
Faizabad
Allahabad
Oudhdistrictshavegre
ater%of
Gonda
Azamgarh
landlordsbecauseofch
angeof
Pratapgarh
Basti
policyafter1857Mutiny.
Sultanpur
Gorakhpur
Jaunpur
Hardoi
Farrukhabad
Oudhdistrictshavegre
ater%of
Kheri
Fatehpur
landlordsbecauseofch
angeof
RaeBareli
KanpurNagar
policyafter1857Mutiny.
Unnao
Pilibhit
Shahjahanpur
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NDINEQUALI
TY
Meanof
dep.var
OLS
OLS
OLS
IV
OLS
Fulls
ample
Fullsample
Neighborsonly
Fullsample
StateFE
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
oefficientfrom
-0.0018
0.033**
0.019*
0.011
-0.013
0.018**
(0.013)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.026)
(0.007)
atiofrom
-10.95
-3.491
-6.844***
-4.951
8.187
-5.701**
(3.108)
(2.466)
(2.965)
(13.235)
(2.275)
218
218
37
218
150
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
N
O
YES
YES
YES
YES
Britishrevenueco
ntrol
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
N
O
NO
NO
NO
YES
correctedforNS
Sregionlevelclustering.
cantat5%;***s
ignificantat1%
de,latitude,mean
annualrainfall,anddummiesforsoiltypeandcoastalregions.
atevariationinth
enon-landlordproportion(WestBengal,Bihar,Gujaratand
pedfromregressionsinvolvingstatefixedeffects,andthenumberofdistrictsis
atevariationinth
enon-landlordproportion.
henumberofdis
trictsis184for1981and1
50for1971.C
oefficientonnon-landlordproportion
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DEVELOPMEN
TEXPENDITURE
Landlor
dstates
Non-landlordsta
tesDifference
(1
)
(2)
(3)
(1960rupeespercapita)
26.38
44.24
7.37
(2.45)
12.80
19.18
5.67
(1.83)
29.40
49.40
8.18
(2.54)
edomesticproduct
0.0869
0.1056
0.0218
(0.0071)
0.0497
0.0639
0.0195
(0.0071)
0.0952
0.1135
0.0227
(0.0074)
ntheses.
andnon-landlord
statesiscomputedbyregressingonstate-level
on,aftercontrollingforstatedomesticprodu
ct(SDP)percapitaandyearfixedeffects.
dhyaPradesh,Orissa,Rajasthan,UttarPrade
shandWestBengal.
aPradesh,Assam
,Gujarat,Karnataka,Kerala,Maharashtra,PunjabandTamilNadu.
Mean
7/30/2019 Abhijit Banerjee and Lackshmi the Legaby of Colonial Land
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RATES
Meanof
dep.var
O
LS
OLS
IV
OLS
Full
sample
Neighborsonly
Fullsample
StateFE
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
1991
2.024
-0.7
33***
-0.178
-1.998**
-0.4
61**
(0.239)
(0.423)
(0.888)
(0.223)
0.246
-0.0
70***
-0.045*
-0.178**
-0.021
(0.023)
(0.026)
(0.083)
(0.019)
0.055
-0
.002
-0.007
-0.059
-0.007
(0.009)
(0.010)
(0.039)
(0.009)
2
18
37
218
150
Y
ES
YES
YES
YES
Britishrevenueco
ntrol
Y
ES
YES
YES
YES
NO
NO
NO
YES
correctedfordistrict-levelclustering
cantat5%;***s
ignificantat1%
de,latitude,mean
annualrainfall,anddummiesforsoiltypeandcoastalregions.
,homicide,rape,
kidnap,dacoityandriots.
andcounterfeiting.
atevariationinth
enon-landlordproportion(WestBengal,Bihar,Gujaratand
pedfromregressionsinvolvingstatefixedeffects,andthenumberofdistrictsis
atevariationinth
enon-landlordproportion.
henumberofdis
trictsis184for1981and1
50for1971.
Coefficientonnon
-landlordproportion
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Fig 2: Land tenure and land inequality
Lan
downershipinequality(Gini)
A. Provinces 1885Nonlandlord proportion
0 .25 .5 .75 1
0
.25
.5
.75
1
CP
Oudh
NWP
Madras
Panjab
BerarBombay
La
ndrevenueinequality(Gini)
B. Uttar Pradesh districts 1948Nonlandlord proportion
0 .25 .5 .75 1
.25
.5
.75
1
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Fig 3: Agricultural yields in Colonial period
Logriceyield
A. Uttar Pradesh rice yields: 1870sNonlandlord proportion
0 1
1.95945
.508931
Logwheatyield
B. Uttar Pradesh wheat yields: 1870sNonlandlord proportion
0 1
1.08671
1.37976
Logriceyield
C. Tamil Nadu districts 1911Nonlandlord proportion
.373244 .99279
.122169
.633193
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Fig 4: Instrumental variables strategy
Non
landlord
proportion
Kernel regressionsDate of British conquest
Log
agriculturalyield
Nonlandlord prop.(first stage)Log yield(reduced form)
1765 1800 1820 1856
.125587
.876013
.194232
.155067
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Fig 5: Investment and productivity time series
A. Proportion of irrigated areayear
Landlord districts Nonlandlord districts
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
.176707
.466565
B. Fertilizer usageyear
Landlord districts Nonlandlord districts
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985
.346324
85.713
C. Mean log yieldyear
Landlord districts Nonlandlord districts
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985
.488489
.418232
D. Log rice yield: Tamil Nadu districtsyear
Landlord districts Nonlandlord districts
1901 19111917 1927 1937 1947 1957 1967 1977
.148565
.773232