Abdurrahman Atcil Phd--Excerpt 1

8/12/2019 Abdurrahman Atcil Phd--Excerpt 1

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realm.10Predictably,hispoliciescauseddiscontentatvariouslevelsofsociety.11However,

voicesofdiscontentcallingforthereversalofsomeofthesepolicieswerenotraiseduntilthe

reignofhissonBayezidII,becauseMehmedII,havingtheprestigeofthecaptureof

Constantinople,nevercameclosetogivinguphisautocraticrule.

IV.B.HigherEducationalInstitutionsduringMehmedIIsreignAsignificantcomponentoftheimperialprogramwasarchitectural:tobuildmonumentsof

varioustypesmosques,highereducationalinstitutions,bathhouses,marketplacesetc.to

convertoldByzantinebuildingstonewpurposes,andtoprojectthenewimperialvisionon

Constantinopleandothercitiesinstone.12

Anothercomponentwastoincreasetheimportanceof

Ottomancities,especiallyConstantinople,ascentersoflearning.Theresultwastheconstruction

ofanumberofhighereducationalinstitutionsinConstantinopleandelsewherebyMehmedII

andhisdignitaries.

ItseemsthatMehmedIIintroducedIslamiclearningtoConstantinoplebyconverting

somechurchesintoinstitutionsofhighereducationandappointingprominentscholarstoteachin

them.Forexample,accordingtoTa!kprizade,MollaZeyrektaughtinoneofthechurchesthat

MehmedIIassignedforteachingbeforetheestablishmentofhiseducationalinstitutionsin

Constantinople.WhenHocazadeMuslihuddindefeatedMollaZeyrekinanacademicdebate,the

10Forhiscancellationofformerfreeholdpropertiesandreligiousfoundations,see$nalck,MehemmedII;idem.,ThePolicyofMehmedII,245,andBabinger,MehmedtheConquerorandHisTime,447.

11Kafadar,BetweenTwoWorlds,147"8,andStefanosYerasimos,KostantiniyeveAyasofyaEfsaneleri,trans."irinTekeli(Istanbul:Ileti!im,1993),7"11.

12Forabriefoverviewofthearchitecturalworks,undertakenduringMehmedIIsreign,seeEkremHakkAyverdi,FatihDevriMimariEserleri(Istanbul:IstanbulMatbaas,1953).


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latterwasdismissedandtheformerassumedhisposition.13Itseemsthatthesechurches"turned"

highereducationalinstitutionswerediscontinuedafterMehmedIIfoundedhisowneducational

institutionsinConstantinople.Ontheotherhand,whentheChurchofHagiaSophiawas

convertedintoamosquefollowingthecaptureofthecity,partofitwasreservedforteaching,

andtheprestigiousscholarMollaHsrevwasappointedtothisjob.Unlikeinotherchurches,

teachingintheHagiaSophiadidnotstop,andaseparatebuildingwasconstructedforteaching

inthefollowingperiod.14

In1459,MehmedIIestablishedhisfirstinstitutionofhighereducationinthearea,known

todayasEyp,outsidethewalledcityofConstantinople.DuringthesiegeofConstantinople,

MehmedIIsmentor,Ak!emseddin,determined,withspiritualinsight,theareaastheburial

placefortheProphetscompanion,Halidb.Zeyd(knownasAb& Ayy&bal"Ans'r(),who

supposedlyjoinedtheUmayyadarmythatattemptedtocaptureConstantinoplein672.Afterthe

captureofConstantinople,MehmedIIorderedtheconstructionofacomplex,includinga

mosque,atombforHalidb.Zeyd,ahighereducationalinstitution,andasoupkitcheninthis

area.15Healsoestablishedareligiousfoundationforthemaintenanceoftheseinstitutionswithin

thecomplex.16

13ShN,125.

14OM,474"5.

15FahriUnan,Kurulu"undanGnmzeFatihKlliyesi(Ankara:TrkTarihKurumuBasmevi,2003),50,andBaltac,XV"XVI.AsrlardaOsmanlMedreseleri,201"5.Fortheendowmentdeedoftheinstitution,seeFatihSultanMehmedVakfiyeleri(Istanbul:amlcaKltrveYardmVakf,2003),vol.2.TheendowmentstipulatedthatMehmedIIbetheadministratorofthefoundationandthathisdescendantssucceedtothistask.Ifhisprogenybecameextinct,therulerintheareawouldtakeovertheadministration.Forthis,seeibid.,346"8.


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MehmedIIsmoreimportantcontributiontoeducationaroseinhisbuildingcomplex,

whichincludedamosque,eighthighereducationalinstitutions,eightpreparatoryschools,an

elementaryschool,alibrary,ahospitalandasoupkitchen,inConstantinople.Thecomplexwas

constructedin1463"1470.Theeighthighereducationalinstitutionsinthiscomplexclearly

surpassedallpreviousOttomaninvestmentsineducationbothinsizeandintheextentof

endowment.Theendowmentdeedprovidedeightscholarsandtheirassistantswithdecent

salaries.Inaddition,all120studentsintheeightinstitutionswereassignedstipends.17Itis

obviousthatwiththeconstructionoftheseinstitutionsofhighereducation,MehmedIIwantedto

impresshiscontemporarieswithhisgenerositytoscholarsaswellastoemphasizehis

commitmenttolearning.

Inaddition,MehmedIIencouragedhisstatesmenanddignitariestoestablishinstitutions

inConstantinopleinordertocontributetotheprosperityofthecity.18MahmudPa!a(d,1474),19

MuradPa!a(d.1473)20andDavudPa!a(d.1498"9)21establishedbuildingcomplexes,including

highereducationalinstitutions,inConstantinople.

16Fortheendowmentdeedfortheseinstitutions,seeIbid.,vol.3.Accordingtoendowmentdeed,therulerintherealmhadtherighttoadministertheseinstitutions.Forthis,seeibid.,40.17Unan,Kurulu"undanGnmzeFatihKlliyesi,51"67.

18$nalck,ThePolicyofMehmedII,235"41,andStavrides,TheSultanofVezirs,21"8.

19ForMahmudPa!asarchitecturalpatronage,seeStavrides,TheSultanofVezirs,267"87.Theendowmentdeedstipulatedthathisdescendantsadministerthefoundationafterhim.Iftheybecameextinct,thentheirfreedmenwouldtakeovertheadministration.ItseemsthatMahmudPa!asprogenybecameextinctby1546.Forthis,seeibid.,265"6.ForaninterpretationofarchitecturalfeaturesforhisinstitutionsinConstantinople,i%demKafesio%lu,TheOttomanCapitalintheMaking:TheReconstrcutionofConstantinopleintheFifteenthCentury,(PhDdiss.,HarvardUniversity,1996),163"183.

20ForMuradPa!asarchitecturalpatronageinIstanbul,seeStavrides,TheSultanofVezirs,415"6.SeealsoKafesio%lu,TheOttomanCapitalintheMaking,190"6.ForMuradPa!as


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AlthoughConstantinoplebecamethelocusformostofthepublicarchitecturalpatronage

duringMehmedIIsreign,someothercitieshadtheirshareandalsoacquiredhighereducational

institutions.Forexample,RumMehmedPa!aestablishedamosqueandahighereducational

institutioninskdar;22MahmudPa!aconstructedahighereducationalinstitutioninKrklareli

andhissonAliBeybuiltanotheroneinEdirne.23MollaHsrev(d.1480)24and$shakPa!a(d.

1487)25foundedhighereducationalinstitutionsinBursaand$neglrespectively.

ThecapacityoftheOttomandynastytopatronizereligiousscholarsthrough

appointmentstoinstitutionswhichtheythemselvesestablishedseemstohavedoubledduring

MehmedIIsthirty"yearreign.Inaddition,thehighereducationalinstitutionsestablishedby

dignitariesenabledagreaternumberofreligiousscholarstoliveandbeemployedin

Constantinopleandothercities.

endowmentsinEdirneforthemaintenanceofhisinstitutionsinIstanbul,seeM.TayyibGkbilgin,XV."XVI.AsrlardaEdirnevePa"aLivs:Vakflar,Mlkler,Mukataalar(Istanbul:lerBasmevi,1952),335"7.

21OM,183"8.

22ForRumMehmedPa!asarchitecturalpatronageinIstanbul,seeStavrides,TheSultanofVezirs,413"4.SeealsoKafesio%lu,TheOttomanCapitalintheMaking,183"90.Fortheendowmentsoftheseinstitutions,seeGkbilgin,XV."XVI.AsrlardaEdirnevePa"aLivs,334"5.

23ForMahmudPa!asbuildingsinKrklareli,seeStavrides,TheSultanofVezirs,278"9. ForAliBeyshighereducationalinstitutioninEdirne,seeIbid.,446.Foritsendowments,seeGkbilgin,XV."XVI.AsrlardaEdirnevePa"aLivs.322"3.

24ForMollaHsrevshighereducationalinstitutionandothersbuiltinBursainthisperiod,seeMefailHzl,OsmanlKlasikDnemindeBursaMedreseleri(Istanbul:$zYaynclk,1998),109"31.

25For$shakPa!asinstitutionsin$negl,seeStavrides,TheSultanofVezirs,412"3.


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IV.C.MehmedIIsAttempttoMonopolizePatronageforReligiousScholarsInthepreviouschapter,itwasemphasizedthathighereducationalinstitutions,establishedinthe

pre"OttomanperiodorbypeopleotherthanthemembersoftheOttomandynasty,providedan

alternativeforreligiousscholarsandstrengthenedtheirpositionsvis""vistherulingauthority.

However,itseemsthatMehmedIIdisregardedthereligio"legalprinciplethatthereligious

foundationswereinviolableandthattheirendowmentdeedswerebindingforallpeoplein

generationstocomeandattemptedtobringsomehighereducationalinstitutions,notbuiltbythe

Ottomandynasty,underhisdirectadministrativeandfinancialcontrol.Thissquaredwith

MehmedIIsdecisiontoannulallfreeholds,includingprivateproperties(mlks)and

foundations,andusetheirrevenuesformilitarypurposes.

DuringtheOttomanexpansion,newlyconqueredlandswererecognizedasstatelands

(miri),andtheirrevenuesweremostlyassignedtoMuslimandChristiansoldiersinreturnfor

theirserviceduringthecampaigns.26Ontheotherhand,thestatusofMuslimandChristian

foundationswasrecognized,andtheirrevenuesfromlandsandothersourceswereintact.27In

addition,thehereditaryrightsofsomeMuslimfamiliesfortaxrevenuesremainedintactafterthe

OttomanexpansionintoAnatolia.28Moreover,theOttomansthemselvesassignedsomestate

26Halil$nalck,StefanDu!andanOsmanl$mparatorlu%una:XV.AsrdaRumelideHristiyanSipahilerveMen!eleriinhisOsmanl#mparatorlu$u,ToplumveEkonomi(Istanbul:Eren,1993),90"3,andidem.,OttomanMethodsofConquest,SI2(1954):13"6.

27EugeniaKermeli,CentralAdministrationversusProvincialArbitraryGovernance:PatmosandMountAthosMonasteriesinthe16thCentury,Byzantine&ModernGreekStudies32(2008):189"202.

28merLtfiBarkan,Trk"IslamToprakHukukuTatbikatnnOsmanlImparatorlu%undaAld%"ekillerI:Malikane"DivaniSistemi,TrkHukukuve#ktisatTarihiMecmuas2(1932"9):119"84. Oktayzel,LimitsoftheAlmighty:MehmedII's'LandReform'Revisited,JESHO42/2(1999):231"2.


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landsandbuildingsasfreeholdpropertyforvariouspurposes.29Forexample,MehmedIIgranted

housesandbuildinglotsasfreeholdtopeoplewhocametoConstantinopleaftertheconquestin

ordertofacilitateandquickenresettlementandprosperityinthecity.30However,inthelast

decadeofhisrule,MehmedIIdecidedtoabolishalltypesoffreeholdsandorderedthemtobe

convertedintostatelandsandtheirrevenuestobeassignedtosoldiers.Accordingtoareport,the

statusofsometwentythousandvillageswaschangedtostatelandasaresultofMehmedIIs

order.31Acorollaryofthisreorganizationofpropertyrights,relatedtoourpurposes,wasthe

eliminationofalternativepatronagesourcesforreligiousscholarsintheOttomanrealm.

Ta!kprizadesgrandfatherHayreddinHalilb.Kasms(d.1474/5)biographyintheal"

Shaq%iqillustratesthechangeduringMehmedIIsreignwithregardtoreligiousfoundations,

highereducationalinstitutionsandreligiousscholars.HayreddinHalilreceivedhiseducationin

EdirneandBursa.HisprofessorMollaYeganrecommendedhimtotherulerofKastamonu

$smailBey(r.1443"1461)forappointmenttothehighereducationalinstitutioncalledthe

MuzafferuddinMedreseinTa!kpr.Hereceivedthirtyaspersadayfromthefoundationofthe

institutionandfiftysilvercoinsfromtherevenueofcoppermineinKre.WhenMehmedII

defeated$smailBeyandannexedhisdomainin1461,HayreddinHalilforwenthisincomefrom

thecoppermine.Later,whenMehmedIIcompletedhiseighteducationalinstitutionsin1470,he

orderedHayreddinHaliltocometoConstantinopleandteachinoneofthem.HayreddinHalil,

however,didnotfollowthesultansorder.Inreturn,MehmedIIdismissedhimfromhisteaching

29Ibid.,242"3

30$nalck,ThePolicyofMehmedII,"240"3.

31zel,LimitsoftheAlmighty,227.


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positionintheMuzafferuddinMedreseinordertoforcehimtogoandteachinConstantinople.

Intheend,HayreddinHalildidnotgoandearnedhislivingbypreachinginKre.32

HayreddinHalilscareerandrelationshipswithrulersepitomizessignificantaspectsand

changesinscholarlylifeinthemiddleofthefifteenthcentury.Firstofall,hismovementfrom

BursatoTa!kprandhisemploymentinnon"Ottomanterritoriespointstothelackofformal

andinformalbarriersforscholarstomovebetweendifferentpolities.Inaddition,heprobably

gaveuphisincomefromtheminebecauseitdidnotcomefromthefoundationoftheinstitution

andbecauseMehmedIIclaimeditsrevenuefortheOttomantreasury.However,heclearlydid

notexpectMehmedIItodismisshimfromhispositionwhenherejectedMehmedIIsoffer,

becauseheservedinapre"Ottomaninstitutionwithafoundation.MehmedIIsfiringof

HayreddinHalilillustrateshisattempttomonopolizethepatronageofscholarswithinthe

Ottomanrealm.Nevertheless,HayreddinHalildidnotyieldtoMehmedII,inorderto

demonstratetheautonomyofreligiousscholars.

Inaddition,MehmedIIinterferedinappointmentstoinstitutionsestablishedby

dignitarieswhowerenotpartoftheOttomanfamily.33Moreover,heattemptedtoinvolve

himselfintheaffairsofinstitutionswhosefounderswerestillalive.Forexample,heappointed

MollaManisazadetoMahmudPa!asinstitutioninConstantinople.34

MehmedIIsdecisiontoenlargetheOttomandynastysinvestmentineducationand

learningandtobringtheadministrationofmost,ifnotall,oftheeducationalinstitutionsinthe

32ShN,120"3.SeealsoHSh,139"42.

33Babinger,MehmedtheConquerorandHisTime,483.

34ShN,190.SeealsoHSh,209.AccordingtoMecdi,MehmedIIhimselfdidnotmaketheappointmentbutadvisedMahmudPa!atodoso.


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Ottomanrealmunderhiscontrolprovidedhimwiththeopportunitytoattractagrowingnumber

ofreligiousscholarstohiscourtinsearchofemployment.Thenheputtheminahierarchyand

drewrulesfortheirpromotions.

IV.D.CreationofaHierarchyforGovernmentOfficialsMehmedIIsambitionstoclaimthelegacyoftheByzantineandRomanEmpiresandto

reconstructConstantinopleinordertomakeitanimperialcapitalledhimtoundertakeimmense

projectsthathadarchitectural,intellectualandsocialaspects.Inadditiontohiseighthigher

educationalinstitutions,heconstructedtwopalacesinConstantinople. Heencouragedand

sometimesforcedpeopletomovetoConstantinopleinordertoincreasethepopulationand

enliventheeconomyandsociallife. Meanwhile,thenumberofmilitarypersonnel,bureaucrats

andscholarsaffiliatedwiththeOttomandynasty,increased.Thus,inthe1470s,MehmedII

decidedtoorganizeallhismeninahierarchy,toclearlydesignatetheirranksinaprotocoland

todrawrulesofpromotioninhisservice.35Hefulfilledthistask,inthemannerofrulersinthe

post"Mongolperiod,byissuingalawcode(kanunname)anddeclaringrulesandregulationson

hisownauthority.36

MehmedIIslawcodeontheorganizationofofficialsincludesanumberofclauseson

thehierarchyandranksofreligiousscholars.However,sinceallofitsearliestextantcopiesare

35ForaninterpretationofMehmedIIslawcodeasaninstrumentoforganizationofreligiousscholarsandmilitaryandciviladministrators,attachedtothedynastyandofadministrativecentralization,seeNecipo%lu,Architecture,Ceremonial,andPower,16"21.SeealsoStavrides,TheSultanofVezirs,29"30.

36CornellHFleischer,BureaucratandIntellectualintheOttomanEmpire:TheHistorianMustafali(1541"1600)(Princeton,N.J:PrincetonUniversityPress,1986),197;Halil$nalck,OsmanlHukukunaGiri!,rfi"SultaniHukukveFatihinKanunlar,inhisOsmanlImparatorlu$u,ToplumveEkonomi(Istanbul:Eren,1993),319"23;idem,KanunandKanunname,EI2.


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datedtotheseventeenthcenturyandincludesomeanachronisticelements,theirauthenticityis

questionable.37Nevertheless,evidencefromothersourcesforMehmedIIslegalenactmentsto

organizetheofficialsissoabundantthattheexistenceofanoriginallawcodecannotbe

denied.38Infact,CornellH.Fleischerarguesthattheexistenceofanachronisticelementsinthe

morerecentcopiesdoesnotindicateforgerybutitscontinuingimportanceforlatergenerations.

AccordingtoFleischer,intheOttomanunderstanding,thelawcodesofrulerswereaccretive

and,withinlimits,mutable,andhenceMehmedIIslawcodewassubsequentlyamendedas

needed.39

Thus,itispossibletoconsiderthatthecurrentdocumentknownasMehmedIIslawcode

isanamendedversionoftheoriginaldocument.Itseemsimpossible,however,toreconstructthe

originalpreciselywithourcurrentknowledgeandtheavailablehistoricalsources.Nevertheless,

anexaminationoftheclausesintheextantdocumentgivesanideaaboutMehmedIIspurposes

andthenatureofhislegalactivity.

37KonradDilger,UntersuchungenzurGeschichtedesosmanischenHofzeremoniellsim15.und16.Jahrhundert(Mnchen:Dr.RudolfTrofenik,1967),16"20and34"6.DilgermainlyseesthislawcodeasattributedtoMehmedIIasaresultofthetendencyofhistoriansinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturytobasetheirargumentsonanauthorityinafar"distantpast.Foranachronismsinthelawbook,seealsoR.CRepp,TheMftiofIstanbul:AStudyintheDevelopmentoftheOttomanLearnedHierarchy(London:IthacaPress,1986),36"42.

38ThehistorianIdrisiBitlisi(d.1520)gaveinformationaboutthecontentofMehmedIIslawbookatthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury.SeeAbdlkadirzcan,FatihinTe!kilatKanunnamesiveNizam"AlemIinKarde!KatliMeselesi,#stanbulniversitesiEdebiyatFakltesiTarihDergisi33(1980"1),8.Inthelatesixteenthcentury,severalauthorsdiscussedthislawbookandgiveinformationaboutitscontent.See,ibid.,9"10andFleischer,BureaucratandIntellectualintheOttomanEmpire,192.

39Ibid.,197"200.Forasimilarargument,seeNecipo%lu,Architecture,Ceremonial,andPower,20.


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MehmedIIslawbook,aswehavereceivedit,containsthreesections.Thefirstsection

treatstherankingofpeopleinhisservice,theirplacesintheprotocol,theirprivilegesandduties,

andrulesfortheirpromotion.Thesecondsectionorganizeslifeintheprivatepartoftheroyal

palace,i.e.,thedailypersonallifeoftheOttomanrulerandhisrelationshipwithhisservantsand

theoutsideworld.Thethirdsectiondealswiththefinesimposedoncriminaloffenses,the

salariesofcertainpeopleinhisserviceandthetitlesandhonorificsusedinaddressingthem.The

clausesrelatedtoreligiousscholarsarelocatedinthefirstsection.Thescholarsaretreated

togetherwiththeotherpeopleintherulersserviceandplacedinaceremonialhierarchyin

whichthegrandvizieroccupiesthetopposition.

Itisnoticeablethatinthislawcode,religiousscholarswereshownaseligibletoservein

positionswhichtheynormallywouldnotbeabletoundertakeinthelatesixteenthand

seventeenthcenturies,whentheybecamespecializedintheeducationalandjudicialservices.40

Forexample,ajudgeatthelevelofa300"asperincomecouldbepromotedtothepositionof

financedirector(defterdar);ajudgeatthelevelofa500"asperincomecouldundertakea

governor"generalposition;higher"levelprofessorshadamonopolyonthechancellorposition,

andprofessorscouldserveasthefinancialofficial(maldefterdar).41Sincetheseclausesdonot

40JosefMatuz,DasKanzleiwesenSultanSleymansdesPrchtigen(Wiesbaden:FranzSteinerVerlagGmbH,1974),33"45;Fleischer,BureaucratandIntellectualintheOttomanEmpire,214"231;idem.,PreliminariestotheStudyoftheOttomanBureaucracy,JournalofTurkishStudies10(1986):135"41;idem.,BetweentheLines:RealitiesofScribalLifeintheSixteenthCentury,inStudiesinOttomanHistoryinHonourofProfessorV.L.Mnage,editedbyColinHeywoodandColinImber,45"61(Istanbul:TheIsisPress,1994);LindaT.Darling,Revenue"RaisingandLegitimacy:TaxCollectionandFinanceAdministrationintheOttomanEmpire1560"1660(Leiden,NewYork,Kln:E.J.Brill,1996),49"67,andChristineWoodhead,AfterCelalzade:theOttomanNi!ancc.1560"1700,inStudiesinIslamicLaw:AFestschriftforColinImber,AndreasChristmannandRobertGelave,eds.,299"304(OxfordandNewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2007).


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accordwiththemorespecializedrealitiesofthelatesixteenth" andseventeenth"centuryOttoman

bureaucracy,thereisnoreasontoassumethattheseclauseswereinterpolatedlatertobringthe

lawbookuptodate.Therefore,wecanreasonablyconsiderthemasauthenticandreflectingthe

understandingofanadministrativehierarchywithoutstrictspecialization.

Thelawcodecontainsanumberofclausesorderingpromotionsofreligiousscholars

specifically.Forexample,aprofessorcouldserveinthehighereducationalinstitutionsgraded

accordingtohispay,anywherebetweentwentyandfortyaspers,beforereachingMehmedIIs

institutionsandsomeotherspayingfiftyaspers.Afterteachingintheseeducationalinstitutionsat

thetopoftheinstitutionalhierarchy,professorscouldmovetojudicialpositionsorfinancial,

scribalandmilitarypositions,asmentionedabove.42Infact,someoftheseclauseshavecome

underattackbycontemporaryhistoriansbecauseofelementsanachronistictothefifteenth

century.Forexample,theusagesofthetermssahnforMehmedIIseighthighereducational

institutions,dahilandharicfortheinstitutionsbelowtheeightinstitutionsandjudgeshipat

thelevelof500"aspersforcertainjudicialpositionsseemtohavebeeninterpolatedtothecode

inlatercenturies.43Itisimpossibletodetermineiftheseanachronisticelementsenteredintothe

lawbookasaresultofchangesinthenamesofthesepositionsorasaresultofamendmentsdue

tothechangesintheorganizationofbureaucraticlifeandroyalservice.

Nevertheless,takingtheextantcopiesofthelawcode,despitetheirupdates,asa

reflectionofthespiritandpurposeofMehmedIIsreorganization,wecanobservethatMehmed

41OK,vol.1,321.

42Ibid.,324.

43Dilger,Untersuchungen,16;zcan,FatihinTe!kilatKanunnamesi,39andRepp,TheMftiofIstanbul,32"41.


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IIdesiredtoestablishahierarchyforhisservants,officialsandreligiousscholarsprimarilyfor

ceremonialpurposes.Inaddition,heencouragedtheirattachmenttotheOttomandynastyand

enterprisebydeterminingrulesforpromotionsandcreatingcareerexpectations.However,as

willbeseen,MehmedIIwasnotable(ornotwilling)toestablishaself"regulatingbureaucracy

withdefiniterulesforpromotions,dismissalsandappointments;healwayspreferredtohavea

personalrelationshipwithhisservants,officialsandreligiousscholarsandtohandletheiraffairs

accordingtohiswishes.

IV.E.MehmedIIandReligiousScholarsIV.E.1.MehmedIIsInterestinLearningandScholarsinHisServiceMehmedIIwaseagertoattractprominentscholars,artistsandbureaucratstohiscourt.

ClaimingthelegaciesofboththeRomanandByzantineEmpiresandwishingtoberecognized

asemperorinbothEastandWest,hewaskeenonacquiringtheservicesoflearnedmen

belongingtodifferentconfessions.Hehimselfwasinterestedinlearning,enjoyedthecompany

ofscholarsandaspiredtobeagreatpatronoflearningandscholarship.

Itisknownthat,afterthecaptureofConstantinople,MehmedIIwantedtokeep

ByzantineGreekscholarsofthecityintheirplaces.Heestablishedapersonalrelationshipwith

GeorgeScholariusGennadius,presumablydiscussedChristiandogmawithhim,andinstalled

himasthepatriarchinConstantinopletopresideoverthereligiousaffairsoftheGreekOrthodox

communityintheEmpireinthemannerthatthepatriarchshadbeendoingintheByzantine

period.44

Inaddition,MehmedIIwasabletoattractChristianlearnedmenfromotherpartsofthe

Empiretohiscourtandbenefitfromtherenownoftheirworkandtheirsupportofhis

ideologicalclaims.Forexample,KritovoulosoftheAegeanislandImbroswroteahistoryofa

44Babinger,MehmedtheConquerorandHisTime,104"5and118.


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partofMehmedIIsreigninGreekand,init,presentedhimasemperor.45 GeorgeAmirutzesof

TrabzontutoredMehmedIIongeographyandpreparedforhimasingleworldmapcombining

partialmapsinPtolemyswork.46Anotherscholar,GeorgeofTrabzon,recognizedMehmedIIas

theinheritoroftheRomanEmpireandpossessoroftherighttorulethewholeworld.George

receivedMehmedssupportforhisphilosophicalandgeographicalstudies.47Moreover,Mehmed

IIinvitedfamousItalianartistsandscholarsandofferedthempatronageathiscourt.For

instance,hecommissionedGentileBellinitodrawhisportraitsandreceivedtheservicesof

architectsAristoteleFioravantiandFilareteintheconstructionofhispalacesandbuilding

complexes,includingthehighereducationalinstitutions.

48

However,MehmedIIsinterestinfaith,artsandthesciencesarticulatedbytheByzantine

GreeksandItaliansshouldnotobscurehisinterestandinvestmentinthedevelopmentofMuslim

cultureandtraditions.Amonghissignificantarchitecturallegacies,whichreflectedhisdevotion

toMuslimculture,ishisfamousbuildingcomplex,whichincludesamagnificentmosqueand

highereducationalinstitutions,aswellasasoupkitchen.Throughouthisreign,hecompeted

withotherMuslimrulersofthedaytobeconsideredthegreatestpatronoflearning.Heinvited

AbulfazlMuhmudGilani(Ab& al"Fa)lMa#m&db.ShaykhMu#ammadofGilan),Abdurrahman

Cami(Abdal"Ra#m'nal"J'm()(d.1492)andCelaleddinDevvani(Jal'lal"D(nal"Daww'n()(d.

45SeeKritovoulos,HistoryofMehmedtheConqueror,trans.CharlesT.Riggs(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1954),esp.3"6.

46AhmetT.Karamustafa,IntroductiontoOttomanCartography,inCartographyintheTraditionalIslamicandSouthAsianSocieties,eds.,J.B.HarleyandDavidWoodward,210(Chicago&London:ChicagoUniversityPress,1992),andBabinger,MehmedtheConquerorandHisTime,247"8.

47Ibid.,248"51.

48Necipo%lu,Architecture,Ceremonial,andPower,13"5.


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1501)tohisdomain,andeventhoughtheydidnotcomehesentthemhandsomegifts.49He

convincedAliKu!u,thefamoustheologian,astronomerandmathematician,toleavethecourt

ofhisAkkoyunlurivalUzunHasanandteachinConstantinople.UponAliKu!usarrivalinthe

Ottomandomain,MehmedIIsenthisservantstowelcomehimandaccompanyhimontheway

toConstantinople.Heorderedthespendingofonethousandsilvercoinsateverystopofthe

caravan.HeappointedAliKu!utotheteachingpositionintheHagiaSophiawiththesalaryof

twohundredsilvercoinsaday.50Hissendinggiftstoillustriouslearnedmenandthespectacleof

AliKu!usreceptionandappointmentdemonstratestheirimportancetoMehmedII.This

munificencewasintendedtodisplayhissincerityandgenerosityinthesupportofintellectual

pursuitsandtodemonstratehissuperioritytotheotherMuslimrulersinthatrespect.Inaddition,

MehmedIIworkedfortherecognitionofscholarsinhisservicebytheircolleaguesinother

realmsinordertoincreasehiscredentialsasapatronofscholars.Forexample,MehmedII

financedthecopyingofMollaGranisbooksandhadthemsenttoMecca,presumablyinorder

tobedistributedtoscholarsfromaroundtheIslamicworldduringthepilgrimageseason.51

InadditiontothescholarsMehmedIIpersonallyinvited,manyotherschosetheOttoman

landsastheirnewresidence.Therewassurelyanarrayofmotivationsthatledthedifferent

scholarstodecampandsettleintheOttomanrealm.Asbrieflydiscussedinthelastchapter,after

Timurdiedin1405,hisempirewasdividedamonghisdescendants.Politicalfragmentationin

49Babinger,MehmedtheConquerorandHisTime,471"2.VonHannaSohrweide,DichterandGelehrteausdemOstenimOsmanischenReich(1453"1600),EineBeitragzurtrkisch"persischenKulturgeschichte, DerIslam46(1470):265"6.ForMehmedIIsrelationshipwithCami,seeErtu%rul$.kten,"J'm( (817"898/1414"1492):HisBiographyandIntellectualInfluenceinHerat"(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2007),193"4.

50ShN,159"62.SeealsoMecdi,HSh,180"4.

51ShN,89.SeealsoHSh,108"9.


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84

thelandsofhisempirecontinuedthroughoutthefifteenthcentury.Theriseinthefifteenth

centuryoftheOghuzgenealogyasthesourceofpoliticallegitimacybroughtaboutthe

establishmentoftwomainTurcomanpolities,theKarakoyunlus(1380"1469)andAkkoyunlus

(1403"1508).ThestruggleoftheTimuridsandTurcomansforthecontrolofmoreorlessthe

sameterritoriesIran,Azerbaijan,KhorasanandTransoxaniacausedpoliticaldestabilization

andrapidchangesintherulersintheseareas.Theimportanceofthesedevelopmentsforour

purposesisthattheycausedmanyscholars,bureaucrats,artistsandpoetswhowereclosely

affiliatedwiththedisintegratingTimuriddynastiestoleavetheirlands.Someofthesecameto

theOttomanterritories.Forexample,whenUzunHasandefeatedtheTimuridSultanAbuSaid

(Sul*'nAb& Sa(d)in1469,thelattersseal"keeperanddoctorHekimKutbuddinAcemi,who

hadtoleaveKhorasan,cametotheOttomanlandsandreceivedMehmedIIspatronage.52

Similarly,SiracHatibhadtoleavetheEastbecauseofthepoliticalturmoilthere.Hecametothe

OttomanlandsandwasappointedastheprayerleaderinMehmedIIsmosquein

Constantinople.53

ItismoredifficulttodiscernthemotivationsofotherscholarsformovingtoOttoman

lands.Forexample,Musannifek(d.1470"1)receivedhiseducationandtaughtinHerat.He

movedtoAnatoliain1444"5andbegantoteachinKonya,whichwasundertheKaramanidsat

thetime.ThegrandvizierMahmudPa!aarrangedforhistransfertoConstantinople,and

52ShN,220,andHSh,235"6.SeealsoSohrweide,DichterandGelehrteausdemOstenimOsmanischenReich(1453"1600),267and283"4.

53ShN,218"9,andHSh,234"5.SeealsoSohrweide,DichterandGelehrteausdemOstenimOsmanischenReich(1453"1600),267.SohrweidesuggeststhatSiracHatibwasaffiliatedwithKarakoyunlusandthatwhentheyweredefeatedbyAkkoyunlusin1467,hemigratedtotheOttomanlands.


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85

MehmedIIassignedhimasalaryofeightyaspersaday.54Inaddition,Hekim"ukrullah"irvani,

HekimLariAcemiandHocaAtaullahAcemicametotheOttomanterritoriesfromtheEast.55

Moreover,MollaAlaeddinArabiandHekimArabmovedtotheOttomandomainfromAleppo

andJerusalemrespectivelyandfoundfavorwithMehmedII.56

Ontheotherhand,duringMehmedIIsreign,onlyafewscholarslefttheOttoman

territoriestoreceivetheireducation.AlaeddinAlib.YusufFenari(d.1497"8),Molla"emseddin

(d.1494"5),MollaMelihiandMeyyedzadeAbdurrahman(d.1516)wenttotheEasternlands

andFenariHasanelebi(d.1481)toEgypttoreceiveeducation.57ThefactthattheAnatolian

studentswerenotasinterestedingoingabroadfortheireducationastheyhadbeeninthe

previousperiodshowsthesuccessofOttomaninvestmentinhighereducationalinstitutionsand

thehighlevelofeducationthattheyprovidedduringMehmedIIsreign.Infact,manyofthe

prestigiousscholarswhomMehmedIIfavoredwereofAnatolianoriginandreceivedtheir

educationinAnatolia.Forexample,HocazadeMuslihuddinstudiedunderMehmedb.Kadiof

Ayasolu% inIspartaandHzrBeyinBursa.HewasMehmedIIsfavoriteamongthereligious

scholars.Hewasinvolvedinanumberofacademicdebatesandrewardedforhissuccessat

MehmedIIscourt.58Inaddition,MollaKestelliandMollaHayalireceivedtheireducationfrom

54ShN,165.SeealsoHSh,186.



57ShN,181"5,185"8,216,217"8and290"4.SeealsoHSh,199"204,204"6,231"2,232"4and308"11.



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86

HzrBeyinBursa.59SamsuniHasanb.AbdussamedandMollaManisazadewereMolla

HsrevsstudentsinConstantinople.60Allofthesescholarsreachedprestigiouseducationaland

judicialpositionsintheOttomanEmpire.

IV.E.2.PositionsTakenbyReligiousScholarsDuringMehmedIIsreign,thenumberofeducationalandjudicialpositionstowhichthe

Ottomanrulerappointedreligiousscholarsincreased,andmorereligiousscholarsbecame

affiliatedwiththeOttomandynastyandenterprise.Asmentioned,MehmedIIconstructednew

highereducationalinstitutionsandsupportedthemthroughelaboratefoundations.Inaddition,he

attemptedtomonopolizethepatronageofreligiousscholarsbyabolishingreligiousfoundations

supportingthehighereducationalinstitutionsbuiltinthepre"Ottomanperiodandbyinterfering

inappointmentstotheinstitutionsconstructedbypeopleoutsidetheOttomanfamily.

Itseemsthat,duringMehmedIIsreign,morescholarswerecentrallyappointedto

judicialpositionsaroundtheEmpire. Inthebiographiesinal"Shaq%iq,weseereportsof

appointmentsofjudgestoOttomantownsduringMehmedIIsreign,whilethereisnomention

ofappointmentstothesametownsintheperiodprecedingMehmedIIsreign.Atleastfromthe

beginningofthefifteenthcentury,theOttomanrulersthemselvesappointedreligiousscholarsas

judgestoBursaandEdirne.Inaddition,theycontinuouslyappointedjudgesfromamongstthe

religiousscholarsinConstantinopleafter1453.HzrBeyb.Celaleddinwasthefirstjudgein

Istanbul.61Ta!kprizadementionstheappointmentsofHocazadeMuslihuddintothejudgeship

in$znik,ofHachasanzadeandMollaVildantothejudgeshipinGelibolu,ofSinanPa!atothe

59ShN,139"42and142"7.SeealsoHSh,148"61and161"6.

60ShN,157and190"2.SeealsoHSh,179and208"10.

61ShN, 92.SeealsoHSh,113.


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87

judgeshipinSeferihisar,ofMftiAhmedPa!a(d.1521)tothejudgeshipofskpandof

IbrahimPa!atothejudgeshipofAmasya.62

Ta!kprizadesevidencemayseeminsufficienttoarguefortheextension,fromthe

centertooutlyingtowns,ofacentralizedjudicialadministrationandtheappointmentofreligious

scholars,asjudgesduringMehmedIIsreign. However,acomplaintsubmittedtoBayezidII(r.

1481"1512)intheearlyyearsofhisreignandpublishedbyHalil$nalckpointsoutatransitionin

thejudicialadministrationandprovidesevidenceforthecentersincreasedinvolvementinthe

appointmentofjudges.63TheanonymousauthorofthedocumentinformsBayezidIIof

appointmentsofpeoplewhohavenotreceivedtheproperreligiouseducationandofthosewho

weresuitableforanddemandedlowerpositionsasjudges.Hegivesalistofjudgesbelongingto

thesetwogroupsandmentionssomeotherjudges,intheprovinceofAnatolia,ashaving

improperhabits,suchasreceivingbribesanddrinkingwine.HeblamesMollaVildan,who

becamethemilitaryjudgeofAnatoliawhenBayezidIIascendedthethronein1481,64fornot

preventingtheseunqualifiedpeoplefromreceivingthejudicialpositionsandcallsonBayezidII

todismissthem.

ThedocumentshowsthatcertainjudgeshipsinAnatoliawereregisteredandorganizedin

ahierarchypossiblyaccordingtothesalaryoftheholder.Forexample,thejudgeshipofMazin

wasregisteredasthatoffifteensilvercoinsandthejudgeshipofKestelasthatofthirtyaspers.65

62ShN,131,158,198,175,178and204.SeealsoHSh,150,179,215,195,197and222.

63Halil$nalck,AReportonCorruptKadisunderBayezidII,inStudiaOttomanica,FestgabefrGyrgyHazaisum65.Geburtstag,BarbaraKellner"HeinkeleandPeterZieme,eds.,75"86(Wiesbaden:OttoHarrassowitz,1997).

64Ibid.,75,andShN,198"9,andHSh,215"7.


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88

Accordingtotheauthor,militaryjudgeshadtherightandresponsibilitytomake

appointmentstojudgeships;theymishandledthistask,however,becausetheyconcededtothe

demandsofintercessorsonbehalfoftheunqualified.66Forexample,theincumbentjudgeof

Kestel,whohadbeentheadministratorofthegrandvizierGedikAhmedPa!asfreehold

properties(d.1482),somehowreceivedajudgeship.Hewasabletoreceivethejudgeshipof

MazinandthenthatofKestelwiththehelpofMollaVildansstewardHacYusuf.67

Inaddition,theauthorofthedocumentconsistentlycomplainsabouttheappointmentof

unqualifiedpeopletojudgeships.Inhisopinion,thepeoplequalifiedforthesepositionswere

thosewhoreceivedtheireducationfromprominentreligiousscholars(mev%li"ii&%m),andthese

peoplewereveryfewandcouldnotfindsupporterstoreceiveproperpositions.Ontheother

hand,theunqualifiedpeoplewerenotproperlyeducatedbutwereabletoascendtojudgeships

afterservinganotherjudgeasassistant.Accordingtohim,thereweremoreunqualifiedthan

qualifiedamongtheincumbentjudges.68

SincetheauthorofthedocumentblamesMollaVildananddoesnotmentionanew

arrangementduringtheearlyyearsofBayezidIIsreign,wecanassumethatthepracticeof

appointingjudgestocertainprovincesfromthecenterbeganduringthereignofMehmedII.It

seemsthatatransitioninthejudicialadministrationwasunderway.Themilitaryjudges

undertookthetaskofappointinganddismissingjudgesintheprovincesandestablishinga

65$nalck,AReportonCorruptKadisunderBayezidII,79"80.

66Ibid.,78"9.

67Ibid.,79"80.

68Ibid.,78"9.ThisapproachisaprecursortotheattackagainsttheforeignersintheOttomanbureaucracyinthepoliticalwritingsofthelatesixteenth" andseventeenth"centuryauthors.


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89

centralizedjudicialadministration.However,peoplewithlocalconnections(theunqualified,in

theauthorsview)werestillpreferred(orhadthepowertoensuretheirappointment)overthose

withareligiouseducationfromthecenter(thequalified),toserveinthejudicialadministration

intheprovinces.

Wedonothaveanexactdateforthebeginningoftheappointmentofjudgestothe

provincesbythemilitaryjudgesinthecenter.Areportinal"Shaq%iqsuggestsitsexistenceat

thebeginningofMehmedIIsreign.Accordingtothatreport,MehmedIIofferedhistutorMolla

Graniavizieralpost.MollaGranirejectedtheoffer,withtheexplanationthatvizierposts

werefortheslaveservantsintheroyalhouseholdandthatifsomebodyfromoutsidethis

hierarchyreceivedavizierialposition,theslaveservantswouldbedisappointed.Pleasedwith

thisexplanation,MehmedIIappointedMollaGraniasthemilitaryjudge.However,according

tothereport,MollaGranihandledtheaffairsofthispositionsoindependentlythathedidnot

eveninformMehmedIIofhisappointmentstoeducationalandjudicialinstitutions.

Consequently,MehmedIIarrangedMollaGranisremovalfromthepositionofmilitary

judge.69

ItisknownthattowardstheendofMehmedIIsreign(possiblyin1477or1480)70two

militaryjudgesbegantobeappointedinsteadofone.Oneofthemwasresponsibleforaffairsin

AnatoliaandtheotherforaffairsinRumelia.Ta!kprizadeascribesthischangetothegrand

vizierKaramaniMehmedPa!asfearthattheincumbentmilitaryjudgeMollaKestellicould

lobbyagainsthimbeforeMehmedIIandhisconsequentdesiretohaveasecondmilitaryjudgeto


70Mustafa"entop,OsmanlYargSistemiveKazaskerlik(Istanbul:Klasik,2005),37


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90

attendthemeetingswithMehmedIIandtoinformhimofwhatMollaKestellisaidabouthim.71

Nomatterwhattheimmediatereasonsbehindthisdivisionintheofficeofmilitaryjudge,it

certainlyshowsthat,bythistime,theofficeofmilitaryjudgehadassumedtheresponsibilityof

appointingjudgesintheprovinces.Forifthemilitaryjudgehadcontinuedtobethe

administratorofjusticeonlyinthearmyduringcampaigns,thisdivisionoftheofficeaccording

togeographywouldhavebeenmeaningless.

Inadditiontopositionsofprofessorship,judgeshipandmilitaryjudgeship,somereligious

scholarswereappointedtotheofficeofchiefjurist,whichmayhavebeenestablishedduring

MuradIIsreign,andissuedreligio"legalopinions.DuringMehmedIIsreign,MollaGrani,

MollaHsrevandMollaAbdulkerimservedaschiefjurists.72Moreover,anumberofreligious

scholarsservedastutortoMehmedII.AccordingtoTa!kprizadesaccount,Hocazade

Muslihuddin,HatipzadeMuhyiddin,SamsuniHasanb.Abdussamed,Molla$yas,Hoca

Hayreddin,SinanPa!a,MollaAbdulkadirandAhmedPa!ab.Veliyyuddin(d.1496)tutored

MehmedII.73

Finally,weseesomescholarsservingMehmedIIincapacitiesnotdirectlyrelatedtotheir

expertiseinthereligioussciences.Somescholarshadcompetenceinmedicineandserved

MehmedIIinthatcapacity.OntheevidenceofTa!kprizade,wecanmentionHocaAtaullah

Acemi,Hekim"ukrullah"irvaniHekimLarielebi,HekimKutbuddinAcemi,YakubHekim,

ArabHekimandMollaAltnczadeasMehmedIIspersonalphysicians.74Inaddition,religious

71ShN,143.SeealsoHSh,162.

72HSh,102"11,135"9and176"8.SeealsoRepp,TheMftiofIstanbul,125"74.

73ShN,126"39,147"50,157,169"70,170"1,173"7,179"80and200"2.


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92

professorshipscouldhopetoreachajudgeshipatthelevelof500"silvercoinsandthentheoffice

ofmilitaryjudge.Itisnotaltogetherclearwhichjudgeshipswereatthelevelofa500"silvercoin

income.Inanycase,thepointofthesestipulationswasclearlytoestablishahierarchyofoffices

governingthepromotionofreligiousscholars,anditisclearthattheyrequiredaprofessorinthe

highesteducationalpositiontoserveinajudgeshipbeforeattainingthepositionofmilitary

judge.

Thecareersofsevenoutoftheelevenscholarswhoreachedthepositionofmilitaryjudge

duringMehmedIIsreignfollowthepatterndescribedinthecode.ThepathsofMollaKestelli,

AlaeddinAlib.YusufFenari,MollaManisazade,HachasanzadeMehmed,AhmedPa!ab.

Veliyyuddin,MollaVildanandAliFenaritothepostofmilitaryjudgeweremoreorlessthe

same.Eachreachedoneofthehighest"leveleducationalpositionsandservedasjudgebefore

takingthepostofmilitaryjudge.79Ontheotherhand,thecareersofotherthreescholarsarenot

congruentwiththelawcodesprescriptions.80HocazadeMuslihuddintaughtatalow"level

institutioninBursa.AfterhewasinvolvedinadebatewithMollaZeyrekandrefutedhis

opinions,MehmedIIchosehimashistutor.Thenhewasappointedasmilitaryjudge.81Molla

AbdulkerimwasappointedasmilitaryjudgeafterservingasprofessorinMehmedIIs

79AlaeddinAlib.YusufFenaritaughtinthemonastery,whichOrhanturnedtoaneducationalinstitution,inBursa,beforehewasappointedtothejudgeshipofBursa.However,hissalaryintheteachingpositionwassixtysilvercoinsaday.Thus,consideringthatthesalaryinMehmedIIsinstitutionswasfiftysilvercoinsaday,wecansurmisethathewastreatedasahigh"levelprofessor.

80Ta!kprizadedoesnotprovideinformationaboutthepositionsthatKpelio%luMuhyiddinreceivedbeforethepositionofmilitaryjudge.

81ShN,126"39.


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93

institutions.82SamsuniHasanb.AbdussamedtaughtinMehmedIIsinstitutionsandtutored

MehmedII,beforebecomingamilitaryjudge.ItispossibletosaythatMehmedIIhadaconcept

ofahierarchyofpositions,asreflectedinthelawcode,andmostlymadeappointments

accordingly.However,heevidentlyconsideredhimselfbeyondtherulesandashavingtheright

toelevateanyonesrankathiswill.

Someotherreportsinal"Shaqaiqaboutappointmentsanddismissalsfromofficeof

religiousscholarsshedfurtherlightonthepersonalizednatureofthehierarchyduringMehmed

IIsreign.Readingthesereports,onegetstheimpressionthatthehierarchydidnothavean

objectivebasisoutsidehiswill.ItwasMehmedIIscreationbutdidnotbindhim.Forexample,

asmentioned,MollaManisazadereachedthepositionofmilitaryjudgebyfollowingthesteps

describedinthelawcodeafterteachinginMehmedIIshighereducationalinstitutionsand

servingasjudgeinIstanbul.MehmedIIonceaskedMollaManisazadeaboutanArabicverse.

SinceMollaManisazadecouldnotrememberitsprovenance,MehmedIIdismissedhimfromthe

officeofmilitaryjudge.83

MehmedIIwaskeenonremindingreligiousscholarsthathewasthedispenserof

patronageintheOttomanrealm.Itseemsthathefrequentlyvisiteddifferenteducational

institutionsandlistenedtolectures.AccordingtoTa!kprizade,MehmedII,togetherwith

MahmudPa!a,attendedthelecturesofAlaeddinTusi,MollaAbdulkerimandHocazade

Muslihuddinwithoutpriorwarning.84Inaddition,hefrequentlyorganizedacademicdebatesin

hiscourtandrewardedthevictors.HocazadeMuslihuddinseemstohavefiguredinmostofthese

82HSh,176"8.

83ShN,190"2.SeealsoHSh, 208"10.

84HSh,117"20.


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94

debates.OnMehmedIIsorder,heconfrontedMollaZeyrek,MollaAbdulkadirandAlaeddin

Tusiandwasdeclaredtobethewinner.85

MehmedIIestablishednewhighereducationalinstitutions,attemptedtobringother

educationalinstitutionsunderhiscontrolandestablishedahierarchyforreligiousscholarsinhis

service.SignificantthoughhisactswereinordertoincreasetheOttomanprestigeasapatronof

learningandtoinitiatetheformationofagroupofreligiousscholarswhoidentifiedwiththe

Ottomanenterprise,hecouldnotexhausttheoptionsavailabletoreligiousscholarsandforce

themtoseekemploymentfromhimandloseautonomy.WehavementionedTa!kpriHayreddin

HalilsdistantrelationshipwithMehmedII.MehmedIIdismissedhimfromhisteachingpostto

obligehimtocometoIstanbulinsearchofemployment.HayreddinHalil,however,refusedto

gotoIstanbul,stayedintheareaofhishometownandearnedhislivingbypreaching.86Alaeddin

TusileftforTransoxania,whenMehmedIIfavoredHocazadeMuslihuddinagainsthiminan

academicdebate.87Similarly,MollaZeyrekleftforBursaandreceivedthepatronageofa

merchantinordertocontinuehisstudiesafterhehadlostacompetitionwithHocazade.Itis

reportedthat,althoughMehmedIIlaterofferedhimapositioninIstanbul,MollaZeyrekrejected

theoffer.88Inaddition,thereligiousscholarswereawareoftheoptionsavailabletothem

collectivelyandofMehmedIIsneedtokeepthemintheOttomandomain.WhenMehmedII

imprisonedSinanPa!ab.HzrBey,thereligiousscholarsprotestedsayingthatunlesshewas

released,theywouldburntheirbooksandleavetheOttomandomains.Apparently,theyhadin

85HSh,117"20,142"5 and198"9.

86ShN,160"3.

87Ibid.,163"5.

88HSh,142"5.


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95

mindemigratingtoMamlukSyriaorEgyptortotheTurcomanandTimuridlandsintheEast.

Thus,MehmedIIhadtoaccedetotheirrequestandreleasedSinanPa!a.89

ItwascertainlyprestigioustohaveacloserelationshipwithMehmedIIandtoclimbto

thetoppositionsinthehierarchyheenvisaged.However,accordingtotheunderstandingof

religiousscholarsatthetimeandeventhatofMehmedII,proximitytoMehmedIIorthe

particularpositionsthemselvesdidnotascribeanagreedlevelofintellectualcompetence.For

example,HatipzadeMuhyiddinclaimedtobesuperiortoHocazadeMuslihuddinintellectually,

becausehewasMehmedIIstutor.MehmedIIdidnotlikeHatipzadesclaimanddismissed

him.

90

ItseemsthatSadeddinTaftazaniandSeyyid"erifCrcanisstudieswereconsideredthe

pinnacleofintellectualachievement.Once,HocaHayreddinandEfdalzadeHamiduddinclaimed

thatCrcaniwereinfallible.HocazaderefutedthisbyshowingCrcaniscontradictions.91

However,giventhehighesteemTaftazaniandCrcanienjoyedintheOttomanrealm,religious

scholarsmadeclaimstoexcellencebyclaimingthattheysurpassedthesetwolaureates.For

example,MollaZeyrekclaimedtobesuperiortoal"Jurjani,whileMollaAbdulkadirclaimed

superioritytobothTaftazaniandCrcani.92Asmentioned,HocazadeMuslihuddingotthebetter

ofbothscholars.However,helaterlostadebatetoMollaHayali.93

89ShN,175.

90Ibid., 147.

91Ibid.,126"39.

92HSh,142"5and198"9.

93ShN,139"42.


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Theseexamplesillustratethat,intheunderstandingofthetime,intellectualachievement

wasnotconsidereddirectlyrelatedtoachievementsintherulersservice.Thereexisteda

hierarchyofrespectdifferentfromMehmedIIscodifiedsystem.Infact,somescholars

consideredreceivingapositionfromtherulerasreflectingadverselyupontheirintellectual

achievement.Forexample,oneofTa!kprizadesprofessors,AlaeddinYetimrefusedtoreceive

apositionandtaughtstudentsforfree.94Inaddition,somescholarsnotaversetobeingemployed

bytherulerconsideredjudgeshippositionsasimpedimentstointellectualprogress.Accordingto

Hocazade,oneofthereasonswhyhecouldnotreachCrcanisintellectuallevelwasthathehad

servedasajudge.

95

ThefamousscholarMollaHsrevreluctantlyacceptedpositionsof

judgeshipbutconsideredhisyearsinthesepositionsaswastedtime.96

94Ibid.,338.

95Ibid,126"39.

96MollaHsrev,Duraral"'ukk%mf( Shar) Ghuraral"A)k%m,vol.1(Istanbul:Matbaa"iMehmedEsad1299/1881),3.

Documents

Abdurrahman Atcil Phd--Excerpt 1