GRAMMATICAL THEORIES

Amara Prasithrathsint Yupapan Hoonchamlong

Saranya Savetamalya October 2011

ISBN 974-347-088-3

3 . . 2554 300 . 025141436

Published by A.S.P. Publishers, Bangkok Tel. 025141436

10330

. 022183557, 022183563 http://www.cuprint.chula.ac.th/contact.php

i

( )

. . 2546

2554

ii

( )

. . 2544

(concept)

.

2546

iii

( )

. . 2535 .

.

iv

.

.

1 6

7

10 .

4

11 12

13 14 4

.

4

v

.

. .

.

2544

vi

1 1 1.1 -- 1

1.2 " " 3

1.2.1

" " 3 1.2.2

" " 4

1.2.3

6

1.3 " " 10

1.4 " " 15

1.5 " " 20

( 1) 22

2 25 2.1 25

2.1.1

25

2.1.2

28 2.1.3

30

2.2 32

2.2.1 33

vii

2.2.2 38

2.3

42 2.4 43

( 2) 45

3 47 3.1 47

3.1.1 48

3.1.2 53

3.1.3 54

3.1.4 56

3.1.5 57

3.1.6 60

3.2 64

3.2.1 65

3.2.2 69

3.2.3 70

3.2.4 72

3.3 73

3.3.1 74

3.3.2 75

3.3.3 76

3.3.4 79

3.4 80

( 3) 81

viii

4 83 4.1 83

4.2 84

4.2.1 85

4.2.2 85

4.2.3 86

4.2.4 87

4.3 88

4.4 90

4.4.1 91 4.4.2

91 4.5 93

4.5.1

93

4.5.2 98

4.5.3 99

4.5.4 101

4.6

102

4.6.1 103

4.6.2 106

4.6.3 107

ix

4.6.4 108

4.6.5 108

4.6.6 109

4.7 109

4.7.1 110

4.7.2 110

4.7.3 111

4.7.4 112

4.7.5 112

( 4) 113 5 117 5.1 117

5.2 117 5.2.1 117

5.2.2 121

5.2.3 122

5.2.4

123 5.3 125

5.3.1 128

5.3.2 138

5.4 152

( 5) 153

6 155 6.1 155

6.2

x

157

6.3 163

6.3.1 163

6.3.2 166 6.3.3 167

6.3.4 173

6.3.5 175

6.4 180

6.4.1 180

6.4.2 ( ) 181

6.4.3 186

6.4.4 186

6.4.5 187

6.5

191 6.6 193

( 6) 195 7 197 7.1 197

7.1.1 198

7.1.2 199

7.1.3 200

7.1.4

201 7.1.5

202

xi

7.2 : 209

7.2.1 216

7.2.2 219

7.2.3 227

7.3

1957 228 7.3.1 228

7.3.2 231

7.3.3 231

7.3.4 232

( 7) 232

8 " " 234 8.1

235 8.1.1 235

8.1.2 238

8.1.3 239

8.1.4 242

8.2

243 8.2.1 244

8.2.2 248 8.2.3 248

8.3 249

8.3.1 249

8.3.2 254

xii

( 8) 258

9 260 9.1 260

9.2 274

9.3

281 ( 9) 283

10 285 10.1 1970:

285

10.2 :

286

10.2.1 289 10.2.2

299

10.3 306

10.3.1 306

10.3.2 312

10.3.3 314

10.4 328

( 10) 332

11 1968 334 11.1 334

11.2 343

11.3 1968 346

11.3.1 347

xiii

11.3.2 349

11.4 1968 353

( 11) 354

12 1970 356 12.1 1970 356

12.2 359

12.3 363

12.4 1970 371

12.5 387

( 12) 388

13 390 13.1 390

13.2 394

13.2.1

394 13.2.2 394

13.2.3 395

13.2.4 395

13.2.5

395 13.3 396

13.3.1 398

13.3.2 402

13.4 406

13.4.1 406

13.4.2 408

xiv

13.4.3 414

13.5 417

13.5.1 418

13.5.2

426 13.5.3 430

13.5.4 432

( 13) 435 14 :

437 14.1 437

14.1.1 438

14.1.2 439

14.2 441

14.2.1 443

14.2.2 446

14.2.3 446

14.2.4 447

14.2.5 449

14.2.6 451

14.2.7 461

14.3 464

( 14) 467

470

1

(Basic Concepts in the Grammatical System)

1.1 --

3

3

1 2

(Traditional Grammar)

(Structural

Grammar) (Case Grammar)

(Lexicase Grammar)

(Transformational Grammar)

" " (morphology) (syntax)

(paragraph)

(text) (discourse)

(discourse analysis)

3

(Halliday 1985: 287-314)

1.2 “ ”

“grammar” 2

“ ”

1.2.1 “ ”

"grammar”

1.1

grammar

1) 2)

3)

(Chomsky 1965)

1 4

Generative grammars as theories of linguistic competence.... (p. 4)

A Grammar of a language purports to be a description of the ideal speaker-hearer’s intrinsic competence.... (p. 4)

Before entering directly into an investigation of the syntactic component of a generative grammar.... (p. 18) A grammar can be regarded as a theory of a language.... (p. 24)

A linguistic theory must contain a definition of “grammar” that is a specification of the class of potential grammars. We may, correspondingly say that a linguistic theory is descriptively adequate if it makes a descriptively adequate grammar available for each natural language. (p. 24)

1.2.2 “ ”

(Palmer 1971: 11-13)

" " grammar

(1)

grammar

to write

5

“ ”

(2)

amare ‘love’

100

love 4 love, loves, loved loving

John saw Bill. Bill saw John. steel

sheet sheet steel

(3) " " " "

" " " " It’s me. bad grammar

(4)

1 6

1.2.3

(normative rules)

(descriptive) (prescriptive)

It’s I.

It’s me. prepositions

owing to due to each other

one another

preposition

7

preposition This is

the kind of pedantry up with which I will not put. 1

What

did you bring that book I didn’t want to be read to out of up for?

preposition

2

(convention)

It’s me.

(Palmer 1971: 14)

1

preposition

This is the kind of pedantry that I will not put up with.

2

2

What did you bring up that book for? What did

you bring that book up for? I didn’t want you to read out of that book

to me. I didn’t want you to read to me out of that book.

embedded The book (that) I

didn’t want to be read to out of. 2

What did you bring that book I didn’t want to be read to out of up for?

1 8

" "

4

.

.

I didn’t see nobody. I didn’t go

nowhere.

9

( + / )

.

They was there this morning. (They were there this morning.)

He ain’t coming. (He isn’t coming.) Don’t talk to I. (Don’t talk to me.)

I seed him this morning. (I saw him this morning.)

1 10

.

& (Brown &

Miller 1980: 15) This book is different

from that book. 20

This book is different to that book. 10

This book is different than that book.

& 1980

1.3 " "

(system)

(structure)

(function)

(elements)

3

2

11

1 1 3 7 2 5 9 8

2 1 2 4 8 16 32 64

3 1 3 5 7 9 11 13

2 3

3

3

1 12

1.1

(parts of speech)

1.2

(Halliday 1985: 151)

(Functional

grammar)

13

middle: The glass broke.

clause active: The cat broke the glass.

effective

+Agent passive: The glass was broken

by the cat.

1.3

1.3

2 middle clause effective

clause Agent effective

active passive clause

(para-digmatic class paradigm)

paradigmatic class (determiners)

a, the, some paradigmatic class

man, boy, house

1 14

DETERMINER NOUN a man

the boy

that cat

some house

determiners a, the,

that some 4

1

1 paradigm

amare ‘to love’ 1st person singular am ‘I love’

plural am mus ‘we love’

2nd person singular am s ‘you love’

plural am tis ‘you (plural) love’

3rd person singular amat ‘he/she/it loves’

15

plural amant ‘they love’

1 paradigm

puella ‘girl’

6 1

paradigm

(Nominative) puella

(Genitive) puellae

(Dative) puellae

(Accusative) puellam

(Ablative) puell

paradigm

paradigmatic relationship

a, the, this, some

1.4 " "

(structure)

1 16

syntagmatic

relationship

(interdependency)

(1) (2) (3)

(1)

(2)

(3) the man

*man the

(

) (1) (2)

17

(3)

The red book (the-

- ) le livre rouge (le-

- ) Adj.+N

N+Adj.

(Structural

Grammar)

(Traditional Grammar)

1 18

(Immediate Constituent Analysis IC Analysis)

2

6

(test frame)

(Fries

1952)

" " blue ( )

a blue tie blue

4

1 (Word Class 1)

The _____

______s

A _______

19

2, 3, 4

verbs, adjectives adverbs

1, 2, 3, 4

A, B (function

words) The concert may be good.

Group Class Group Class Class

A 1 B 2 3

The concert may be good.

2

(1) He has pants. (2) He enjoys dancing women.

He has panted. He enjoys dancing with women.

1 -s -ed pant

2 with

dancing 2

1 20

1.5 " "

(function)

(2520)

21

(Halliday 1985 1994) (Halliday 1994:

XIII)

(Functional Grammar)

(formal)

3

2

3

( 7)

Halliday (1985:27)

adjective noun tall tree

1 22

modifier head tall tree

modifier head

3

-------------------------

( 1)

1.

2.

3.

4. “ ” ” “ ”

5.

6.

23

7.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9) Bathing women are interesting.

Bathing women is interesting.

(10) The pretty girl is young.

The girl is pretty young.

(11) His problem is age.

His problem is aging.

1 24

(12) Those boys love challenge.

Those boys challenge love.

(13) His job is to ticket the merchandise.

His job is to merchandise the ticket.

(14) The photography class will film the exhibit.

The photography class will exhibit the film.

2

(Parts of Speech

and Grammatical Categories)

2.1

parts of speech

word classes

form classes

parts of speech word classes

form classes

2.1.1

( 5)

8

(noun)

(pronoun)

2 26

(verb)

(adjective)

(adverb)

(preposition)

(conjunction)

(interjection)

(2480: 70-112)

1

1

27

adjective

adverb 2

2

... ... ...

“ ...” “ ...” “

2 28

...” 3

,

2.1.2

( 1 1.4 6)

1 2 3 A B

(Lexicase Grammar)

(Starosta

1988, 2001)

8

V (verb)

29

N (noun)

Adj (adjective)

Det (determiner)

Adv (adverb)

P (prepostion postposition)

Cnjc (conjunction)

Sprt (sentence particle)

“ ( )

8

8 ” “...no language

(including Thai) may contain a word class which is not identical

with, or a subclass of, one of the ...eight classes..., though not

every language necessarily utilizes all eight classes.”

universal constraint “ ”

(Generative

Grammar)

(

13 14)

2 30

2.1.3

(Halliday 1994: 214)

common

noun proper

pronoun

nominals adjective

numeral

determiner

lexical

verb auxiliary

verbals finite

preposition

adverb adverbials linker

conjunction binder

continuative

2.1

31

(group) 3

(nominals, verbals

adverbials)

3 proper noun, common noun

pronoun

pronoun

preposition

pronoun

noun (Starosta 1988)

(Lexicase grammar) (

13 14 pronoun noun

(simplicity) preposition

verb Starosta

(derivational process)

white (adj.) whiten

(verb) (Halliday 1994: 212-213)

preposition verb

preposition

non-finite verb

near/adjoining (the house), without/ not wearing (a hat), about/

concerning (the trial) non-finite verb

preposition regarding, considering,

including

preposition

2 32

2.2

grammatical categories

33

2.2.1

( )

2.2.1.1 (person)

1,

2 3

I, we / me, us 1

you 2

he, she, it, they/ him, her, them 3

1

inclusive we

1 exclusive we

2.2.1.2 (gender)

(masculine gender) (feminine

gender) (neuter gender)

2 34

Old

English

the

(determiner) : le la

the blackboard - le tableau (m)

the table - la table (f)

the moon - la lune (f) the sun - le soleil (m) the house - la maison (f)

article determiner

le la le la

definite article

(classifier)

35

2.2.1.3 (number)

(1) (=1) (= 1)

(2) (=1) (=2) (= 2) (3) (=1) (=2) (=3)

(= 3)

(4) (=1) (=2) few (=

) many (= )

1

boy boys

2 36

" "

2.2.1.4 (case)

(inflectional language)

(

11 12)

(Nominative case)

(Accusative case)

(Locative case)

(Ablative case)

37

(Genitive case) (Dative case)

0

/-i/ /-de/

ev ‘house’

evi ‘house’

evde ‘at the house, in the house, etc.’

2.2.1.5 (definiteness)

a man the man

, , ,

"

2 38

" " "

2.2.1.6 (countability)

sugar, rice, hair, water, gas

a, an

man, house, tree, flower,

cup a, an

1 2 3

2.2.2

2.2.2.1 (tense)

39

I play tennis every weekend.

I played tennis yesterday.

El se preoccupa mucho.

El se preoccupo mucho. ( )

( )

( )

say, tell, report

2 40

I am going shopping this afternoon.

Anne said she was going

shopping this afternoon

2.2.2.2 (aspect)

present perfect

He has done it.

(continuous) are playing

The children are playing. (habitual)

gets My daughter gets up late every morning.

2.2.2.3 (mood)

41

(indicative)

(interrogative)

(negative)

(imperative)

(subjunctive)

(conditional)

(potential)

(narrative)

(reportative)

(modal

auxiliary) may, might, can, could, would

vivir 'to live' 2

(t ) vives (indicative) 'you live'

(t ) vivas (subjunctive) '(if) you lived'

2 42

(t ) vive (imperative) 'Live!'

(t ) vivieses (imperfect subjunctive) '(if) you had lived'

(t ) vivir as (conditional) 'you would live'

2.2.2.4 (voice)

(unmarked)

2.3

(overt and covert grammatical categories)

2

(overt categories) (covert categories)

43

-ed

(determiner)

2.4

(

)

2 44

“ ”

“ ”

(universals) (typology)

-----------------------

45

( 2)

1. 2

2. 3

3. 2

4. 1

5.

1)

2)

2 46

3) 4) 5) 6) This book presents select case studies that illustrate

the state-of-the-art of language management.

7) There will be a fascinating show about Thailand’s growing health and beauty industry, covering spas,

hospitals, clinics, health tours, health food and

beverages, medical products and equipment, natural

health products, and herbal treatments.

8) The Bangkok Transit System, also known as the Skytrain, opened on December 5, 1999 as the first

phase of a fully automated, elevated electric train

system linking key areas of the city center.

3

(Grammatical Units)

( )

(grammatical units)

3 (structural units)

(functional units) (informational

units)

3.1

( 1.4)

3 48

3.1.1 (word)

“ ”

(Robins 1964: 193)

(Edward Sapir)

(unwritten languages)

“ ”

3

(semantic)

(phonological phonetic)

(grammatical) (Palmer 1971: 45-51, Brown &

Miller 1980: 162-165)

49

“

” “ ”

sing

singer

(one who sings)

sang “ + past tense”

put up with 3

“ ”

heat reheat

“ ”

heavy smoker

( )

heavy smoke smoker

artificial florist

artificial “ ”

3 50

florist florist

criminal lawyer (

)

the king of England’s hat (

)

(Brown & Miller

1980: 162) 2

(word boundary)

“ ” uncivilized un-er-civilized

(stress)

avion general

51

armario

ventana

( Palmer 1971 : 47)

ev ‘house’ evin ‘my house’ (e i )

goz ‘eye’ gozum ‘my eye’ (o u )

yol ‘way’ yolum ‘my way’ (o u )

kiz ‘daughter’ kizim ‘my daughter’ (i )

(juncture)

(Palmer 1971 : 47)

2

2

that stuff that’s tough

a nice cake an ice cake

keep sticking keeps ticking

grey day grade A

a tack attack

3 52

juncture

at all ( a tall)

(Bloomfield 1933)

“ ” “minimal free form”

the a an ( ) a ' ' ( ) je ' ' ( )

(Brown & Miller 1980: 164)

2

(internal

cohesion) (uninterruptibility)

1

53

2

( )

word

lexeme “

” play played

2 lexeme PLAY

lexeme

3.1.2 (morpheme)

morpheme

(Sapir 1921) Language “

” sing , sings , singer

3 54

2 (

)

(Bloomfield 1933)

“

”

-s, re-, - -

dogs repeat

hens recur

cows return

4

dog

dogs 1 2 -s

3.1.3 (phrase)

in the house

55

“ ” “ ”

(head)

, , , John, Mary

(NP)

NP NP John likes Mary NP NP

NP NP

NP NP

(construction) (constituent)

3 56

3.1.4 (clause)

clause

clause 1

(sentence)

(main clause) (subordinate clause)

.

.

[ [ ] ]

. . . .

.

.

[ They called me [ before I had arrived home ] ]

. . . .

. They called me.

. Before I had arrived home.

. . 2

(mutually exclusive)

The hunters shoot The shooting of

57

the hunters

( the)

NP

PP

Det N P NP

the shooting of Det N

the hunters

(sentence)

1

1

1 1

1 1

3.1.5 (sentence)

(Matthew 1981: 26)

(sentence)

“

1 ”

2 2

Go away ! I’m busy.

3 58

1

“

” (Matthew 1981: 27)

I did

S sentence ( )

1 (clause) S

1

1

S Cl. (Clause)

1 S S

59

Yes, Friday

S

however, therefore, later

(anaphora)

(discourse

analysis)

(mood) (aspect)

3 60

3.1.6 (construction)

(construction)

(constituent)

(noun phrase

construction) (prepositional phrase

construction) (relative clause

construction) (passive construction)

(relativizer)

antecedent

antecedent

The house which you saw belongs to my father. house antecedent which

house

61

( )

( )

( ) The teacher punished him.

( ) He was punished by the teacher.

( )

( )

( ) Dokter itu me-meriksa saja

' '

( ) Saja di-periksa oleh dokter itu

' '

( ) Oya wa kodomo o Nihon ni nokosita

' '

( ) Kodomo wa oya ni Nihon ni nokosareta

' '

( ) Le public a accueilli cet ovurage

' '

3 62

( ) Cet ovurage a été accueilli par le public

' '

(noun

phrase construction )

my house

my beautiful house

my beautiful house built by my father

my beautiful house near a river

my beautiful house near a river that flows from a mountain

5

(determiner) my (beautiful) participial phrase (built by my father)

(near a river)

(which flows from a mountain)

63

(Starosta 1988: 107)

(construction)

(head)

(endocentric construction) (NP)

NP

dog

that angry [+N]

[+Det] [+adj]

NP

( + N )

(constituent)

(obligatory) 1

[+N]

(exocentric construction) 1

(PP)

3 64

PP to NP

[+P] the hills

[+det] [+N]

( P NP

)

(verbal construction)

S S

S

NP

the man came

[+Det] [+N] [+V]

came

3.2 (functional units)

3.1

65

(Halliday 1970: 148)

3.2.1 (subject)

3 -s

3 (grammatical subject)

(logical subject)

(psychological subject)

3 66

The mouse was chased by the cat. The

mouse

( ) (

)

“ ”

(nominative case)

(Starosta 1988) " "

(+NOM

nominative)

(unmarked)

(actor)

The mouse was chased by the cat.

The mouse

67

the cat

(Halliday 1970) theme

& (Brown & Miller 1980: 330)

2

(syntactico-semantic)

(agent NP) NP

(thematic subject) 3 G

L

T ( Brown & Miller 1980 330)

John (G, L, T) took the largest kitten. The largest kitten (G, T) was taken by John.

The largest kitten (T), we (G, L) gave away.

Halliday (1970: 165)

3 68

The Borough Council (G, L, T) will restore this

gazebo next year.

Next year (T) this gazebo (G) will be restored by

the Borough Council (L).

“ ”

NP

“Subject”

nominative subject

(subjectless languages)

(topic languages)

69

( 3.3 topic)

3.2.2 (object)

3

1.

2.

3.

he He

was killed.

2

(direct object) (indirect object)

2

John gave Mary ( ) a book. ( )

( ) ( )

3 70

3.2.3 (complement)

(complement)

(

)

(Generative Transformational

Grammar)

(complement clause)

(sentential complement)

He said that he was leaving soon. My teacher was certain that I would pass the exam.

(subject complement)

That he is leaving soon is known by everyone.

71

(object complement)

We know that he is a good man.

He became a soldier. I weigh 120 pounds.

2

& (Brown & Miller 1980: 350)

5

1) 2)

3)

3 72

4)

5) to be

( )

The litmus paper is turning red. ( 1) John is a chairman. ( 2) Mary is in bed. ( 3) Mary is in London. ( 3) Mary has a little lamb. ( 4) John is a fool. ( 5) John is clever. ( 5)

3.2.4 (adjunct)

3

(Brown & Miller 1980: 353)

(optional)

73

He is walking his dog in the park. He always drives carefully. I turned off the T.V. before I went to bed.

3.3 (informational units)

“ ”

2

2

(theme-rheme)

(topic-comment) (given new information) (end

focus) 1

3 74

3.3.1 (Theme-Rheme)

Theme

Rheme

Brown & Miller (1980:

357)

(1) Someone parked a large furniture van right outside our front door last night.

(2) A large furniture van was parked right outside our front door last night.

(3) Right outside our front door someone parked a large furniture van last night.

(4) Last night someone parked a large furniture van right outside our front door.

4

1

(unmarked

thematically) 2 , 3 4

thematization

75

(marked) 2

(unmarked) 3

4

(Halliday 1994: 37-38) "Theme"

(starting-point of the message)

(the ground

from which the clause is taking off)

wa

Topic-

Comment Theme-Rheme

"Topic"

"Theme" "Given"

"Theme-Rheme"

3.3.2 (end-focus)

4 3.3.1

3 76

(unmarked)1

4

(1) Someone parked a large furniture van last night outside our front door.

(2) It was parked right outside our front door last

night, a large furniture van. (3) Parked right outside our front door last night it

was, a large furniture van. (4) A large furniture van, right outside our front door

last night , parked !

3.3.3 (Topic-Comment)

(Brown & Miller

1980: 376)

topic

1

(active construction)

(passive construction)

100 4-5

(marker)

(marked)

(unmarked)

77

Edinburgh

Edinburgh is the most beautiful city in Scotland.

The most beautiful city in Scotland is Edinburgh.

The most beautiful city in Scotland

(Ekniyom 1981)

(1) (definiteness)

(2) (semantic role)

(3)

(4)

(agreement)

3 78

3 1

He plays.

(5)

“ ” “ ”

(comment)

“ ” “ ”

They have just got married. Tom does have a flair for the original.

There has been a lot of bullying in the school this term.

79

3.2.1

(thematic subject)

3.3.4 ( Given and New Information)

(Theme-Rheme)

2

(Given)

(New)

(Halliday 1994: 298-

299)

you were to blame.

you

you were to blame.

3 80

2

2

I haven’t seen you for ages.

Are you coming back into circulation.

3.4

3

81

3.3

____________________________

( 3)

1.

2. (Subject) (Theme) (Topic) (Given)

3 82

3.

4. " "

5. (Agent) (Patient) (Actor) (Initiator)

6. (Halliday)

7.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8) 500

9)

10)

11)

12)

13)

14)

4

(Morpheme and Word)

4.1 (morphology)

3.1.2

(morphology)

(accurate) (concise) (Francis 1958: 26)

(Francis 1958: 30)

“morphology” “morphemics” "

" 1

1

4

(1) (phonetics)

(phones)

(2) (phonemics) (phones)

(groups) (families)

(phoneme)

4 84

“morphology”

“morphemics”

(Nida 1946: 1)

(morphology) (syntax)

(grammar)

4.2

(3) (morphemics)

(morph)

(morpheme) (word)

(4) (grammar)

85

4.2.1

“ ”

1

–er

worker, dancer, runner, singer, walker 1

“ ”

( )

“ ” “ ” (

)

smaller, bigger, wider, deeper, cleaner

–er –er

–er

“ ” “ ”

4.2.2

“ ”

1

(allomorph)

4 86

intolerable (/in-/), intangible(/in-/), indecent (/in-/),

impossible (/im-/), impractical (/im-/), impersonal (/im-/),

income (/i -/), incomplete (/i -/)

/ in-/ (alveolar)

/ im-/ (labial)

/ i -/ (velar)

3

(phonologically conditioned

allomorph)

4.2.3

“ ”

1 -na fi-

87

2 -so ka-

3 -ri po-

3

1 /-na~fi-/ 2 /-so~ka-/ 3

/-ri~po-/

(morphologically conditioned

allomorph)

4.2.4

“ ”

run They run, Their run,

The run in their stockings

pear pair (

) ( ) ( )

run He runs quickly. He runs

4 88

the business.

4.3

(1)

berry

cranberry, raspberry cran, rasp

(Nida

1946)

(Arnoff 1976: 10-11)

blackberry black

black ‘ ’

(“The basic tack is to give

morphemes underdetermined meanings, with contextually

determed allo-meanings.”)

(2)

-er

hammer, ladder, otter, hadger, under, bitter, Roger

89

-er dancer, singer, worker

er

(3) /sl/ slide,

slush, slip, slime, slipper, slick

/sl/

(4)

1

boys,

girls, birds boy, girl, bird

=

(5)

2

du au du restaurant au

restaurant (from the restaurant, to the restaurant) du

de + le (from + the( )) au = à + le (to

4 90

+ the ( )) de + la

à + la = de la maison, à la maison (from the house, to the

house) du au

‘portmanteau’

( 2 )

(6)

took, ran

2

take run

take took run ran

take run

/ / / /

4.4

91

4.4.1

(segmental

phoneme) (suprasegmental phoneme )

(Cuicatec)

(suffix)

(high tone)

(Ngbaka) (Belgian Congo)

-

4.4.2

(prefix)

(suffix) (root)

4 92

(stem)

1-2

/s/, /z/, / z/ /pen/ (pen), / ks/ (axe), /yuniv rsiti/

(university), /piys/ (piece)

: V C

V / -/ alone C /- / cats

CV /ri-/ receive

CVC /p n/ pen

CVCV /l v / lava

CVCVC / / hammer

CCV / / glow

CCVC / / step

CCCV / / spray

CCCVC / / strike

(

)

93

V / -/

CV / /

CVC / /

CVCV / /

CCV / /

CCVC / /

CVCVC / /

CVCVCV / /

4.5

4.5.1

3 (additive

morpheme) (replacive morpheme)

(subtractive morpheme)

4 94

4.5.1.1

re-

receive, return, react, -

(prefix)

(suffix) –er

dancer, writer, organizer -

(infix) /- -/ (

) / / ( / /)

/- -/ / / ‘of a dockyard’

/ / ‘dockyard’

(Nbaka) (suprafix)

(reduplicative)

(Tojolabal): ‘to enter’ ‘to enter little by little’

95

(Samoan):

‘he loves’ ‘they love’

(San Blas) :

‘to rise and fall’ ‘to rise and fall

successively’ ( )

‘to rise

and fall successively ( )

:

( ) ‘ ’

( ) ‘ ’

( ) ‘ ’

/ / ‘ ’ set ‘to go around’

setet ‘to go around and around’ (

) lok ‘to boil’ loklon ‘to boil continuously’ (

/k/ /n/)

4.5.1.2

4.3

took

4 96

2

( take)

took take (1946)

(nasalization)

:

take (present) took (past) / /

/ / / /

safe (noun) save (verb) / /

/ / / / noun verb

bath (noun) bathe (verb) / /

/ /

goose (singular) geese (plural) / /

/ / / /

( )

took

take + / / / / / /

97

4.5.1.3

( Nida

1946: 75)

(base form)

mauvaise / / mauvais / / ‘bad’

heureuse / / heureux / / ‘happy’

grande / ãd/ grand / ã/ ‘big’

froide /f wad/ froid /f wa/ ‘cold’

chaude / od/ chaud / o/ ‘hot’

petite /ptit/ petit / pti/ ‘small’

bonne /b n/ bon /b / ‘good’

grasse /g as/ gras /g a/ ‘fat’

4 98

e

/n/

(nasalization)

4.5.2

3 (successive

morpheme) (included morpheme)

(simultaneous morpheme)

4.5.2.1

1 -

- - bird-s, re-ceive, book-

store

4.5.2.2

99

/pa/ ‘present tense’ /hapya/

‘benefactive’ (Zoque)

4.5.2.3

meet you /t/ meet

/y/ you /t / kiss you /s/

/y/ / / buzz you /z/

/y/ / / lead you /d/ /d/

/d / meet, kiss, buzz,

lead, you

meet: /miyt~ miyt /

kiss: /kis~ki /

buzz: /b z~b /

lead: / liyd~liyd /

you: / ~ ~ ~ ~ /

4.5.3

4 100

(root) (stem)

(affix)

4.5.3.1

hat, house, people

(root) hat hats, like

likely, hand handful

1

(stem)

man manly, friend friends, bookstore bookstores 2

1 bookstores

2

4.5.3.2

(

4.5.1.1)

lavar

‘to wash’, limpiar ‘ to clean’, guisar ‘to cook’, permitir ‘to

101

permit’

–ism

socialism, Buddhism, pragmatism

I do not like this kind of ism.

re-ceive, con-cept, ab-norm, read-er, dis-gust receives,

conceptual, abnormal, readers, disgusted

4.5.4

4.5.4.1 (Derivational morpheme)

–ness happy, good, empty

adjective happiness, goodness, emptiness

noun

un- unhappy, undo re- return, reproduce,

repay

4 102

4.5.4.2 (Inflectional morpheme)

dogs, walked, girl’s

/ / pueri / /

puero

/ /~/ / He sees. She walks.

4.6

2

2 (Gleason 1955: 82) morphophonemic change

(base form)

103

(assimilation) (dissimilation)

(metathesis) (loss of

consonant phoneme) (loss of vowel

phoneme) (palatalization)

4.6.1 (Assimilation)

2

> ( >

)

(base form)3

in-

/ -/ / / imperfect / /

/ / / /

/ / / /

3

(base form)

/ -/ indirect / -/ impossible / -/

incomplete / -/

/ -/ / -/

4 104

4.6.1.1

(progressive vs. regressive assimilation)

> >

gitdi > gitti ‘he went’

> >

/ / (handkerchief) > / /, / /

(line-wood) > / /, / / (income) > / /

4.6.1.2 (contiguous vs.

non-contiguous assimilation)

2 / /

/ / income ( / / / /), / / / /

( / / / /)

2

105

hoz~hez~hÖz ‘toward’

a parthoz ‘toward the shore’

a kerthez ‘toward the garden’

a fÖlthÖz ‘toward the earth’

‘toward’ / /

/ / / / / / /Ö/

/Ö/

4.6.1.3

(partial vs. complete assimilation)

n

> m / / impossible / / / /

2

(/ />/ /)

(/ />/ /) illegal (/ />/ /)4 illiterate

(/ />/ /) irregular (/ />/ /) irrational (/ />/ /)

4 in- (/ -/) in-

/ -/

4 106

4.6.2 (Dissimilation)

2

‘hair’ / /

/- / / / / /

/ / / /

(aspirated)

/ /

/ / / / / / / / / /

/tim/ ‘house’ + /mo/ ‘big’ --> /tinmo/ ‘palace’ (/n/

/m/)

/rag/ ‘water’+ /gumi/ ‘fast’ --> /radgumi/ ‘waterfall’ (/d/

/g/)

/dab/ ‘man’ + /mo/ ‘big’ --> /dadmo/ ‘giant’ (/d/

/m/)

107

4.6.3 (Metathesis)

2

tapya > taypa

arela > alera

> > >

> > ,

/ / ‘dance’ + / / ‘doer, performer’ /prakesti/ ‘dancer’

(ts > st)

/malat/ ‘work’ + /si/ /malasti/ ‘worker’ (ts > st)

/promin/ ‘speak’ + /si/ /promisni/ ‘speaker’ (ns > sn)

4 108

4.6.4 (Loss of consonant

phoneme)

/och/ ‘to enter’+/caan/ ‘behind’ /ocaan/ (ch ) ‘put

behind’

/sh/ ‘tense prefix’ + /sutut/ ‘to whirl around’ /sutut/ (sh ) ‘He whirls around.’

/s/ ‘3rdsg. possessive’ + /huun/ ‘paper’ /suunil/ (h )

‘its paper’

4.6.5 (Loss of vowel phoneme)

1)

2) 3)

gu da + o --> gu do ( / / )

ndaya + o --> ndayo ( / / )

narugo + o --> narugo ( / / )

naru ho + o --> naru ho ( / / )

109

4.6.6 (Palatalization)

/y/

act + -ion action / / / /

/ /

/malat/ ‘walk’ + /-is/ ‘past tense’ /malat is/ ‘walked’ ( > )

/tidak/ ‘see’ + /-is/ /tidat is/ ‘saw’ ( > )

/wilad/ ‘hunt’ + /-is/ /wilad is/ ‘hunted’ ( > )

/pilas/ ‘give’ + /-is/ /pila is/ ‘gave’ ( > )

4.5.2.3

4.7

(morph) (allomorph)

4 110

(lexeme) (compound word) (complex

word)

4.7.1 (morph)

“ ”

13 10

2 1

1

4.7.2 (allomorph)

(allomorph)

(Gleason 1955: 61)

( ) / /

cats, / / dogz, / / pieces 3

/ /

/ /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / / / /

/ /

111

(phonologically conditioned allomorph )

( 4.2.2)

-en

ox oxen

ox /-en/

(morphologically conditioned allomorph)

( 4.2.3)

4.7.3 (Lexeme)

(phoneme) (morpheme)

die, dies, died, dying

4 1 DIE man men

2 ( ) MAN

DIE

MAN

4 112

The dying man does not want to die.

8 7 dying die

4.7.4 (Compound word)

2

, , , , aircraft, waterfall,

housewife

2

“ ” “ ”, “ ”

4.7.5 (Complex word)

(affix) beautiful (beauty + -ful)

happiness (happy + -ness) indirect (in- + direct)

plays, played

_______________________________

113

( 4)

1. 1 1 1

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6) He is studying medical science. 7) The flowers bloom in spring.

8) You are a jack-of-all-trades.

9) Don’t you believe in laisser-faire.

10) These pineapples are sweet and juicy.

2.

melodious graciousness glorious preciousness

spacious laboriousness

4 114

famous tenaciousness

homophonous curiousness

superstitious

curiosity

tenacity

piety

variety

3.

3.1)

( Language Files, The

Ohio State University 1979: 54-55)

1) ninasoma ‘I am reading.’ 2) unasoma ‘You are reading.’ 3) anasoma ‘He is reading.’ 4) nilisoma ‘I was reading.’ 5) ulisoma ‘You were reading.’ 6) alisoma ‘He was reading.’ 7) nitasoma ‘I will read.’ 8) utasoma ‘You will read.’ 9) atasoma ‘He will read.’ 10) atanipenda ‘He will like me.’ 11) atakupenda ‘He will like you.’ 12) atampenda ‘He will like him.’

115

13) atatupenda ‘He will like us.’ 14) atawapenda ‘He will like them.’ 15) nitakupenda ‘I will like you.’ 16) nitampenda ‘I will like him.’ 17) nitawapenda ‘I will like them.’ 18) utanipenda ‘You will like me.’ 19) utampenda ‘You will like him.’ 20) tutampenda ‘We will like him.’ 21) watampenda ‘They will like him.’ 22) atakusumbua ‘He will annoy you.’ 23) unamsumbua ‘You are annoying him.’ 24) atanipiga ‘He will beat me.’ 25) atakupiga ‘He will beat you.’ 26) atampiga ‘He will beat him.’ 27) ananipiga ‘He is beating me.’ 28) anakupiga ‘He is beating you.’ 29) anampiga ‘He is beating him.’ 30) amekupiga ‘He has beaten you.' 31) amenipiga ‘He has beaten me.’ 32) amempiga ‘He has beaten him.’ 33) alinipiga ‘He beat me.’ 34) alikupiga ‘He beat you.’ 35) alimpiga ‘He beat him.’ 36) wametulipa ‘They have paid us.’ 37) tulikulipa ‘We paid you.’

4 116

3.2)

1) You have read. 4) You have beaten us.

2) I have beaten them. 5) We beat them.

3) They have annoyed me. 6) I am paying him.

3.3)

1) atanilipa 4) nimemsumbua

2) utawapiga 5) tutasoma

3) walikupenda 6) nitakulipa

5

(Traditional Grammar)

5.1

Traditional Grammar tradition

20

5 118

5.2

5.2.1

5

onomatopoeia 'the creation

of names'1

1

crash, tinkle, bang

( ) meow,

neigh, bow-wow

119

grammar the art of

writing

(429-347 B.C.)

(truth)

(Herndon 1970: 8)

onoma "the name of one who performs an action"

rhema "the name of an action, and the relationships of the ideas or meanings expressed by each" (Herndon 1970: 8)

2

noun verb

("Good Greek words")

the Bow-Wow theory

5 120

(384-322 B.C.)

aer " "

2 noun verb

syndesmoi onoma rhema syndesmoi conjuction

2

(Dionysius Thrax)

The Art of Grammar 1 400

20

3 1

2

3

" " " " " "

" " (figures of speech)

2 Herndon (1970: 8)

121

8

noun, verb, participle, conjunction, preposition, article,

pronoun, adverb adjective noun

5.2.2

(MarcusVarro)

4

noun, verb, participle, adverb

Nouns are those with case inflections. Verbs are those with tense inflections. Participles are those with case and tense inflections. Adverbs are those with neither. (Robins 1989: 58-59) adjective case noun

noun

6 (Priscian)

18 3

8 noun, verb,

3 Herndon (1970: 9)

5 122

participle, pronoun, adverb, preposition, interjection,

conjunction

article interjection

(Robins 1989: 39, 66)

(Thomas of Erfurt) 8

noun 2 " "

" (n men substantivum n men adjectivum)

(Robins 1989: 89-90)

5.2.3

(The Middle Ages)

(universal)

" " (accidental)

(vernacular) (Lyons 1968:

16)

123

(Lyons 1968: 17)

5.2.4

. . 1660 Grammaire

Générale et raisonnée

(logical and

rational system)

(The French Academy)

" " "

"

(good usage)

5 124

(the human mind) (Lyons 1968: 18)

(Samuel Johnson) (John

Wallis) (Robert Lowth)

(Lindley Murray)

(Herndon 1970: 11)

1)

2) ( )

3)

4) (Herndon 1970: 51-52)

125

5.3

18

4 1)

(Orthography) 2)

(Etymology) ( )

3) (Syntax) 4) (Prosody)

(Murray 1824: 13 Downey 1991: 28)

5 126

19

Orthography Prosody 2

Etymology

Syntax

William Dwight

Whitney (1877) Essentials of English Grammar

I. Language and Grammar ( ) II. The Sentence; the Parts of Speech (

)

III. Inflection ( ) IV. Derivation and Composition (

)

V. Nouns ( ) VI. Pronouns ( ) VII. Adjectives ( ) VIII. Verbs ( ) IX. Adverbs ( ) X. Prepositions ( ) XI. Conjunctions ( ) XII. Interjections ( ) XIII. Syntax: The Simple Sentence ( :

)

127

XIV. Compound and Complex Sentences ( )

XV. Infinitive and Participle Constructions ()

XVI. Interrogative and Imperative Sentences ( )

XVII. Abbreviated and Incomplete Expressions ( )

(Wachtler 1991: 41)

19 parsing

(the

grammatical description of each word in the sentence)

. . 1900

(Downey 1991:

29)

5 128

5.3.1

8 4 noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb,

preposition, conjunction, interjection

"A noun is typically defined as the name of a person, place, or thing." "A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being."

"An adjective is defined as a word that modifies a noun." "A preposition is a word that is used to show a relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other word in a

4 adjective

19 (Sweet 1891)

adjective

Accidence morphology

6 noun, pronoun,

adjective, numeral, verb particle particle

adverb, conjunction, preposition interjection (Sweet 1891:

301-444) 9

noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral, verb, adverb, conjunction,

preposition, interjection

numeral adjective

129

sentence." "An interjection is a word or exclamatory sound that has no grammatical relationship to other

words in a sentence." (Herndon 1970: 53-58)

(grammatical categories)

( 2.2)

3 (three grammatical

persons) (First person) (Second person)

(Third person) (singular) (plural)

5.1 Singular Plural

First person I go We go Second person You go (Thou goest) You go Third person He goes/She goes/It goes. They go

5 130

He goes. go

thing-things, cat-cats,

child-children, sheep-sheep, deer-deer

(gender) 3

Masculine ( ) Feminine ( ) Neuter

( )

Masculine Feminine man, boy, lion Masculine

woman, girl lioness Feminine

Neuter gender house, book, food

Feminine ship, moon

Common gender

person, parent, teacher, friend, servant, child, baby, bird, deer,

camel (Trivedi 1958: 7)

(case)

131

5.2

Singular Nominative boy

Genitive boy's

Accusative boy

Dative boy

Instrumental boy

Plural Nominative boys

Genitive boys'

Accusative boys

Dative boys

Instrumental boys

(redundancy)

(genitive)

5 132

3

2

(Conner 1968: 170)

(aspect) verb

inflections which indicate the distinctions, e.g. preterit I have led. Imperfect I was leading. (Conner 1968: 181)

perfect I have

done it. progressive continuous I am doing i (mood) mode

indicative mode, imperative mode subjunctive mode

mood 5.3

(voice) active passive voice 5.3

5.3 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE ( verb to see

)5

5 Herndon (1970: 56-57

133

Indicative Mood Active Voice Passive Voice Singular Plural Singular Plural Present Tense I see we see I am seen we are seen you see you see you are seen you are seen he/she/it sees they see he/she/it is seen they are seen Present Progressive: I am seeing, and so on Present Emphatic: I do see, and so on

Past Tense I saw we saw I was seen we were seen you saw you saw you were seen you were seen he/she/it saw they saw he/she/it was seen they were seen Past Progressive: I was seeing, and so on Past Emphatic: I did see, and so on

Future Tense

I shall see we shall see I shall be seen we shall be seen you will see you will see you will be seen you will be seen he/she/it will see they will see he/she/it will be seen they will be seen Future Progressive: I shall be seeing, and so on

Present Perfect Tense I have seen we have seen I have been seen we have been seen you have seen you have seen you have been seen you have been seen he/she/it has seen they have seen he/she/it has been seen they have been seen Present Perfect Progressive: I have been seeing, and so on

Past Perfect Tense I had seen we had seen I had been seen we had been seen you had seen you had seen you had been seen you had been seen he/she/it had seen they had seen he/she/it had been seen they had been seen Past Perfect Progressive: I had been seeing, and so on Future Perfect Tense I shall have seen we shall have seen I shall have been seen we shall have been seen you will have seen you will have seen you will have been seen you will have been seen he/she/it will have seen they will have seen he/she/it will have been seen they will have been seen Future Perfect Progressive: I shall have been seeing, and so on

5 134

to see

( tense )

( indicative mood) singular

plural person voice (passive active)

3

preposition, adverb, conjunction

8

(phrase) (clause) (sentence)

(phrase)

prepositional phrase in the house, with your help, to the teacher, by car

participial phrase standing near the door, walking along the street, written in French, made in

Thailand, etc.

135

gerund phrase swimming Swimming is good to your health. Seeing, believing Seeing is

believing.

infinitive phrase to dance I want to dance. To speak To speak in public is not easy.

(clause)

independent clause ( ) dependent

subordinate clause ( )

nominal clause, adjective clause,

adverbial clause

nominal clause noun clause Henry Sweet (1891: 171) noun clause 4

(a) Subject noun clause What you say is true. That you should think so is quite natural.

(b) Predicate noun clause This is what I mean. My opinion is that he is mistaken.

(c) Object noun clause: I know what he means. What he wants I cannot make out. I think you are mistaken.

(d) Apposition noun clause: the wish that he may succeed is very general. The fact that he is a foreigner does not excuse him.

5 136

Adjective clause relative clause the door which leads

to the garden, the man I saw yesterday, the house where I was born, the town he lives in, the way in which it is done, the way it is done, the reason why I did not do it. (Sweet 1891: 171) Adverb clause adverb I was having dinner when the light went out. Please call me before I go out. As soon as I finished reading the book, I returned it to the library.

(sentence) 3

simple sentence, compound sentence complex sentence

Simple sentence I like apples. He has passed the qualifying exam. The book is

very interesting.

Compound sentence simple sentence 2 co-ordinate conjunction

and, but, or I saw him and talked to him for an hour.

I enjoyed the movie but none of my friends did. You may meet

me tomorrow here or call me tomorrow night.

compound sentence

co-ordinate clause Complex sentence simple sentence 2 subordinate

conjunction after, because, while, since I will call you

after I finish reading this page. He likes this subject because it

helps him understand life better, etc.

137

complex sentence subordinate conjunction subordinate clause dependent clause main clause I will call you main clause

after I finish reading this page subordinate clause

4 declarative sentence, interrogative sentence,

imperative sentence, exclamatory sentence

Declarative sentence sentence of statement (a) affirmative sentence The moon is full tonight. (b) negative sentence The moon is not full tonight. (Sweet 1891: 172)

Interrogative sentence sentence of question 2 (a) general interrogative Is the moon full

tonight? (b) special interrogative Who is it? Where does he live? When did he come? (Sweet 1891: 173)

Imperative sentence Come!

You do it at once! Do not do that! (Sweet 1891: 175) Exclamatory sentence exclamative sentence Sweet (1891: 172) How bright

the moon is tonight! What a fool he looks! How well he reads!

5 138

WRONG: It's me. ( verb to be nominative case)

RIGHT: It is I. ( I nominative case)

verb to be (I)

(me)

5.3.2

(2480) " "

4

139

5.3.2.1

"

" (

2480: 1)

3 1 2

3

(phonology)

(prescriptive)

5.3.2.2

" "

(1) (2)

5 140

2 (3)

3

6

3 1 2 3

1

' ' ' ' , ' ' (

2480: 64-65)

" "

" " ' ' ' ' ' ' (= ) ' '

(= ) ( 2480: 65-66)

7

6

141

(1) 4

(2) ( 6

7 (

)

7

()

5 142

(3) 4

(4)

( )

( )

( )

143

(

)

(5)

" "

" " " " (

2480: 58)

, ( )

( )

( 2480: 67) (6)

5 144

( ) … … … ( )

(7)

8

5.3.2.3

" " 8 7

( 5.3.1)

infinitive

(causative)

8

145

9 4

10

3

5

9 " "

" " gender 10

(determiner)

5 146

(

noun in apposition )

5

4

4

3

147

30

5.3.2.4

" "

( 2480: 191)

" 2

…"

( 2480: 199-

208)

() ( 1

)

5 148

( + ) (

" ") ()

(

)

( )

….. ….. ….

! !

" " clause

sentence

3

(1)

149

(2) 2

(3)

(main clause)

(subordinate clause)

3

5 150

( 2 ) ( )

(

)

5.3.2.5

parsing

(formal)

151

5.4 1) 2) ( )

3) 4)

5)

1) . -- -- -- --

2) . 1 2 ( ) -- -- 1.

2.

3) . -- -- --

4)

- 3 ( 4 -- -- 3.

) . 4.

- ( ) --

5)

- ( ( --

) )

- ( ) 5 5 -- 5. " "

- -- -- --

" " - -- --

( 2480: 232, 234, 270,271)

5 152

5.4

(1)

(2) (prescriptive)

(3)

(4)

(5)

153

(6)

(7)

__________________________

( 5)

1. 1

2.

3. to drive, to consider,

4.

(1)

(2)

5 154

(3)

(4) (5)

(6)

(7) In 1936 things were far different from the way they are today, especially in terms of financial matters.

(8) Dad stands still for a moment, then slowly sits down, looking sullen still.

(9) I used to think that all small towns were alike. (10)There were some wonderful people outside of the

political parties who set up an organization called

Justice in Transition.

6

(Structural Grammar)

6.1

20

(layer) (level)

(

)

156 6

(form)

( 2532: 111)

( )

( )

( 2532: 111-112)

(pattern drill)

(substitution drill)

157

2

(Charles C.

Fries) (W. Nelson Francis)

6.2

(structuralism) "

" (a way of

thinking about the world which is predominantly concerned with

the perception and description of structures…") (Hawkes

1977:17)

(structure)

(Jean Piaget 1971: 5-16 Hawkes 1977: 16-17)

(an

arrangement of entities) 3

(1) (wholeness)

(2) (transformation)

(3) (self-regulation)

158 6

(static)

(a basic

human structure)

(… it makes no appeals beyond

itself in order to validate its transformational procedures….)

" "

(A language… does not construct its

formations of words by reference to the patterns of 'reality', but

on the basis of its own internal and self-sufficient rules.)

dog

4

" " " "

(Bloomfield 1933)

Language phoneme ( )

159

(form)

Grammatical forms ( )

morpheme ( ), free forms ( ), grammar

( )

(meaningful arrangements of forms in a language)

3

1. John, ran, away 2. Poor John

ran away Poor John

ran away

3.

John Mary

phoneme, taxeme, glosseme,

morpheme, tagmeme

noeme, sememe episememe

glosseme, morpheme, tagmeme

160 6

(Otto

Jespersen) (Henry Sweet)

In considering the use of grammar as a corrective of

what are called 'ungrammatical' expressions, it must be

borne in mind that the rules of grammar have no value

except as statements of facts: whatever is in general use

in a language is for that very reason grammatically

correct.

" "

:

(Sweet 1891: 5 cited in Fries1940: 4)

161

It has been my endeavor in this work to represent

English Grammar not as a set of stiff dogmatic precepts,

according to which some things are correct and others

absolutely wrong, but as something living and

developing under continual fluctuations and undulations,

something that is founded on the past and prepares the

way for the future, something that is not always

consistent or perfect, but progressing and perfectible--in

one word, human.

--

(Jesperson 1909: preface, cited in Fries 1940: 4)

The grammar of a language is not a list of rules imposed

upon its speakers by scholastic authorities, but is a

scientific record of the actual phenomena of that

language, written and spoken. If any community

162 6

habitually uses certain forms of speech, these forms are

part of the grammar of the speech of that community.

(Grattan and Gurrey 1925: 25 cited in Fries 1940: 4)

A grammar book does not attempt to teach people how

they ought to speak, but on the contrary, unless it is a

very bad or a very old work, it merely states how, as a

matter of fact, certain people do speak at the time at

which it is written.

(

)

(Wyld 1925: 12 cited in Fries 1940: 4-5)

All considerations of an absolute "correctness" in accord

with the conventional rules of grammar or the dicta of

handbooks must be set aside, because these rules or these

dicta very frequently do not represent the actual practice

of "standard" English but prescribe forms which have

little currency outside the English classroom. We

163

assume, therefore, that there can be no "correctness"

apart from usage and that the true forms of "standard"

English are those that are actually used in that particular

dialect. Deviations from these usages are "incorrect"

only when used in the dialect to which they do not

belong…."

(Fries1940: 15)

6.3

6.3.1

The Structure of English

Charles Carpenter Fries (1952) The Structure of

American English W. Nelson Francis (1958)

164 6

The linguistic approach adopted here will differ,

therefore, from that made familiar by the common school

grammars, for it is an attempt to apply more fully, in this

study of sentence structure, some of the principles

underlying the modern scientific study of language.

(Fries 1952: 2)

Since linguistics is a very active science just now, it is

constantly engaged in revising and overhauling all parts

of its methods, findings, and generalizations. In fact, so

rapidly is it moving that parts of this book may well be

out of date by the time it is printed. This would also be

true of a textbook in physics, chemistry, or, indeed, any

other active science.

165

(Francis 1958: 16)

Structural linguistics-- the kind of linguistics which is

primarily interested in discovering and describing as

concisely and accurately as possible the interrelationships

and patterns which make up the intricate structures of

languages.

(Francis 1958: 26)

4

Phonetics ( ), Phonemics ( ),

Morphemics ( ) Grammar ( )

Grammar Morphology ( ) Syntax

( ) (Francis 1958: 41)

166 6

6.3.2

" " "A language is an arbitrary system

of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society." (

) (Francis 1958: 13)

(utterance unit)

(Fries 1952: 23)

(utterance unit)

…utterance unit will mean any stretch of speech by one person before which there was silence on his part and

after which there was silence on his part. Utterance units

are thus those chunks of talk that are marked off by a

shift of a speaker."

( 2 )

167

(Fries 1952: 23)

(a single

minimum free utterance) (sentence)

form classes

( Fries 1952: 64)

6.3.3

(a noun is the name of a person, place, or thing)

blue ( )

a blue tie blue

adjective adjective "a

word that modifies a noun or pronoun" (

)

(structural

signals)

168 6

1) Woggles ugged diggles 2) Uggs woggled diggs 3) Woggs diggled uggles

1-3 woggles, uggs, woggs "thing" words

ugged,

woggled, diggled "action" words

(Fries 1952: 71-72)

" " (structural

meanings)

When morphemes (or the groups of morphemes we call

words) are organized into utterances, a new kind of

meaning emerges which is not associated with the

individual morphemes at all, but is solely a function of

the way they are combined.

( )

(Francis 1958: 227)

169

(signals of syntactic

structures) 5

1) (word order)

2) (prosody) (stress)

(pitch) (juncture)

3) (function words)

4) (inflections)

5) (derivational contrast)

(derivational affix) happy

happiness, beautiful beautifully

1(content word) 4 Class 1, Class

2, Class 3 Class 4 noun,

verb, adjective, adverb

1

adjective nice, pretty, serious adverb carefully,

seriously content word (lexical word), (contentive),

(full word) (function word)

170 6

Class 1

Class 1 Frame A (The) ____is/ was good The concert was good.

____s are/were good Reports were good. Frame B The ___remembered the ___The woman remembered

the tax. Frame C The ____went there The team went there.

Class 2, Class 3, Class 4

Class 2 Frame A The concert ____ good The concert was good.

Reports ____ good Reports were good. Frame B The woman ____ the tax. The woman remembered the

tax. Frame C The team ____ there. The team went there.

Class 3 Frame A The concert was ____ The concert was good. Reports are/were ____ Reports were good. Frame B (The) ____ concert was necessary The good concert

was necessary.

171

Class 4 Frame A The concert was good ____ The concert was good

sometimes. Reports are good ____ Reports are good now.

2

(function words) 15 Group

A Group O

Group A the, a, an , every, no, my, our, your, each,

all, any, some, more, many, this, five

Group B may, might, will, must, has, has to, had,

kept ( kept moving), did

Group C not

Group D very, really, pretty, too, rather, fairly (

very good, really good, pretty good, too good,

rather good, fairlygood)

2

(determiner) the

at, in, for,

(grammatical word), (form word), (structural

word), (functor), (empty word)

172 6 Group E and The concerts and the lectures are

and were interesting and profitable now and

earlier.

Group F at The concerts at the school are at

the top.

Group G do, does, did Do the boys

correct their work promptly?

Group H there There is a man at the door.

Group I WH words when, where,

how, why, who, which, what

When did the student call? Who came?

Group J after, when, whenever, although, because,

since, before, and, but The orchestra

was good after the new director came.

Group K well, oh, now, why Well,

that's more helpful. Oh, I have another suit.

Group L yes, no Yes, we're on our way

now. No, they don't arrive until eight.

Group M look, say, listen Say, I just got on

Saturday another letter from… Listen, did you

get any shoes. Look, I want to ask you two

questions.

Group N please Please take these two letters.

Group O Let's, let us Let us go through the list

and then we'll let you know. Let's do the

173

invitation right away.

Class

Group 4

noun, verb, adjective, adverb

8 ( 15 )

(1) noun determiners: a , the, my, your (2) auxiliaries: can, could, be, get (3) qualifiers: very, right, still (4) prepositions: after, among, in front of, together

with

(5) coordinators: and, not, but, nor, rather than, either…or

(6) interrogators: when, where, which , whichever (7) includers: after, although, relative pronouns (8) sentence linkers: consequently, in addition

attention claimers hey, oh, attention signals yes, yeah, responses yes,

not at all, infinitive marker to, negator--not, hesitators--well

6.3.4 (Types of syntactic structures)

174 6 4

1) (structure of modification) + (head + modifier) a mile from here,

a book from under the table, a tale for after dinner, a trip to

beyond the mountains, the hungry child

2) (structure of predication) + (subject + predicate) he did it at

all; he is here

3) (structure of complementation) + (verbal

element + complement) sailing a boat; electing him

president

4) (structure of coordination) his

father and mother; red, white and blue

3

he lived a year he lived his life

3

175

he walks this way he likes his own way

he saw a mile he measured a mile

6.3.5

(Immediate Constituents)

ran away

ran away

(1) The other things of the monastery

(2) A little arm of the sea

(3) Approved his promotion

(4) The king of England's empire

(5) The king of England's empire

(6) An examination of the students which is thorough

(7) An examination of the students who are here now

(8) The uniforms of the regiment which are there

176 6

(9) The uniforms of the regiment which is there

(10) A good book to read

(11) A book good to read

(12) A heavy box to lift

(13) A box too heavy to lift

(14) The salary checks for the staff

(15) The most well-known faculty member

(endocentric construction)

(exocentric construction) (coordinate

construction)

2

177

6.3.4

6.3.4

and, but, or ( 6.3.4)

(16) The most well-known faculty member

(17) My colleagues are having lunch at a restaurant near our university

178 6 (18) I like durians and magosteens but my daughter likes apples and cherries

(19) The man that I met said that he would come back soon.

(16) faculty

member, most well-known, most well-known faculty member,

the most well-known faculty member

( )

( )

faculty member

member faculty

(17)

near our university ( ), at a

restaurant near our university ( ),

my colleagues …university ( )

179

(18)

and, or, but durians and

mangosteens, apples and cherries, I like … but my daughter

likes ….

(19) that I met man

that he would come back soon said

(binary feature)

2

a pretty girl 3 a, pretty, girl

a pretty girl pretty girl

pretty girl

(17) near our university restaurant

my colleagues are

having lunch at a restaurant in the afternoon in

the afternoon are having lunch at a restaurant

restaurant near our university in the

afternoon

180 6

6.4

6.4.1

181

(

)

6.4.2 ( )

" "

26

1. ____ ( )

2. ____ ( )

____ ( )

3. ____ ( )

4. ____ ( )

____ ( )

5. ____ ( )

____ ( )

6.

182 6

( 2532:

64)

____

____

____ ( )

____ ( ) ____ ( )

( 2532: 67)

7. _____ ( )

_____ ( )

_____ ( )

8. _____ ( )

____ ( )

183

( )

1 2

2

9. ____ (

) 10.

____(

)

11. ____ (

)

12. ____ (

)

13. ____ ( )

14. ____ ( )

15. ____ (

)

184 6

____ ( ( ) ( )

( ) )

16.

17.

18. ____ ____ ( )

19. ____ ____ (

)

20. ____ ( )

21. 2

22. 11

185

(

2532:61) 23.

____ ( )

____ (

)

24. ____ ( )

____ ( )

25. 5 ( )

____ ( ) ____

( )4

26.

4

186 6 6.4.3

5

(

)

6.4.4

clause "

" ( 2532: 97)

187

4

( )

( )5

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

6.4.5

6

5

" "

" " " " " " 6 ( 119)

188 6

" "

" " " " "" 2

" " " "

" "

( 2532: 24)

( 2532: 32-33)

189

( 2532: 97-99)

3

( ) ( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

(

15)

190 6

4

( ) ( ) ( )

( )

4

( ) ( 1)

( 2) ( )

1

1

191

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

1 2

1

1 2

1 2

6.5

(6.3.5)

(20)

192 6 (21)

(22)

(23)

(24)

193

( )

(20)

(21, 22)

(22) 2 (23) 2 (24)

6.6

(1)

(2) (inductive)

(3) (corpu