A-Z Young Learner Methodology Guide

8/11/2019 A-Z Young Learner Methodology Guide

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Primary English Teacher Training Online

An A-Z Methodology Guide

to Young LearnerTeaching and Learning


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1. AutonomyWhat and Why?Autonomy has two main aspects in language teaching. The irst concerns the students!use o the language. The ultimate goal o most language teaching is to de"elop the

students! autonomy in their own language use. That is# to de"elop the a$ility to use thelanguage as they need or want to. This has direct implications or the %ind o tas%s thatstudents are as%ed to do. & students are only as%ed to do 'closed tasks'they areunli%ely to de"elop the a$ility to use the language with ease. Open-ended tas%s aremuch more important in this respect. The second aspect o autonomy# howe"er#concerns how the students learn. & all the decisions a$out learning are always ta%en $ythe teacher# the students will not ha"e the opportunity to decide things or themsel"es.This means that they will not de"elop the a$ility to learn $y themsel"es or to wor% outwhat wor%s $est or them as indi"iduals. &n a rapidly-changing world# howe"er# thesea$ilities are increasingly important as people are continually re'uired to learn new s%illsand a$sor$ new inormation. Learning how to learnshould thus $e a "ital component

in any educational course.Practical ideas for the classroom(a"e students decide things or themsel"es# to plan and to e"aluate. You can discussthese tas%s with the students so that they understand the "alue o them in helping themto learn without your direct super"ision. You can spend some time discussing with thestudents how they use the course $oo%# the wor%$oo% and reerence materials and soon. Once the students ha"e done one o the units in the course $oo%# you can return toit ater a wee% or so and as% how many o the techni'ues they ha"e used# why)why not#and so on. This type o e*ercise as%s students to ma%e decisions. You can increase thenum$er o these in order to encourage the students to ta%e more responsi$ility. Ater thestudents ha"e decided something and then carried it out# it is important to e"aluate whatthey ha"e done. You can discuss what they did# how it went and how they couldimpro"e it ne*t time. +tress to the students that there are a num$er o "ital tools orlearning. They need to ha"e a $ilingual dictionary# a grammar $oo%# note$oo%s# and acassette player. You can discuss with the students dierent ways in which they can getpractice.

2. BrainstormingWhat and Why?,rainstorming! is the name gi"en to a num$er o techni'ues used or generating andgathering ideas. The $asic principle is that the students suggest ideas which may $e

collected# or e*ample# on the $lac%$oard. uring the collecting o ideas# allideassuggested are noted down - only ater the $rainstorming is inished are the ideasdiscussed# grouped# or eliminated. rainstorming can encourage students to spea% outand share ideas. &t also gi"es the teacher an immediate impression o how much thestudents already %now a$out something.Practical ideasThere are a num$er o dierent ways you can approach $rainstorming. /rite ,/hat dowe %now a$out 0name o the topic12 in $ig letters on the $lac%$oard. Place a circleround it and some lines out rom the circle. As% the students what they %now a$out thetopic. As they say things# write them around the circle. /rite ,/hat do we %now a$out0name o the topic12 in $ig letters on the $lac%$oard. Gi"e the students a ew minutes to

note down ideas $y themsel"es. Then# collect their ideas on the $oard. As a$o"e# $utstudents wor% in small groups. As a$o"e# $ut play some sot music while they are

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thin%ing)discussing +tudents wor% in groups to generate ideas and then cross-group tocompare. You can use dierent types o music during these stages. The $rainstormingcan $e put up on a poster and reerred to and added to o"er a num$er o lessons.rainstorming doesn!t ha"e to a$out things they %now. &t can $e a$out things they wouldli%e to %now. +tudents can $uild up a 'uestion poster. rainstorming can $e done in

English or in the mother tongue.

3. hecking AnswersWhat and why?Ater students ha"e done an e*ercise# it is important that they ha"e an opportunity tochec% what they ha"e done. This will gi"e them eed$ac% on their wor%. There are anum$er o ways in which you can do this.Practical ideasYou can go through the answers while the students loo% at their own wor%. +tudents canwor% together and then sit with another pair to chec% the answers. +mall groups ostudents can go through their answers together. uring this time# you can circulate

around the class# helping and chec%ing. You can pro"ide an ,answer sheet! or studentsto chec% their own answers. 0This can $e circulated around the class while they aredoing some other acti"ity# pinned up on the $oard or students to chec% ater the lesson#or written on the $lac%$oard1. & students ha"e incorrect answers# you can gi"e hints orclues rather than simply gi"e the correct answers. This can help them thin% through thetas% again and learn more.

!. ritical Language AwarenessWhat and Why?&n language teaching# we now recognise that language is not simply grammar# $ut that itis also a system o !communication!. 3or this reason# we oten in"ol"e students insharing inormation# using language or special purposes# e*pressing opinions# and soon. One result o a "iew o language as !communicating!# howe"er# is that it ignores theact that people do not use language neutrally. Language is used not only as a meanso sharing ideas# $ut also as a way o controlling people and inluencing what they thin%and do. Language use in"ol"es ma%ing choices a$out le*is# grammar# register#discourse structure etc.# and these choices are oten made or particular reasons. 3ore*ample# a choice o words may $e important - an armed group# or instance# might $ecalled !terrorists! or !reedom ighters! depending on whose side you are on. +imilarly#the passi"e "oice# or e*ample# might $e used to hide acts or gi"e authority to astatement as in or instance 4Ten million pounds were lost last year.4 0/e could as% /ho

lost them2 /hy2 (ow2 !lost! means what2 and so on.1 5egister might $e used toencourage people to act in certain ways. Ad"ertisements# or e*ample# oten use ariendly# amiliar tone o "oice 04/e care or you.41 to ma%e people eel that a product isimportant to them personally. iscourse structure can also determine what your !rights!are in a con"ersation - as# or e*ample# in a 6o$ inter"iew where only one person mightha"e the !right! to as% 'uestions.&n recent years# this way o loo%ing at language has de"eloped into what is now called'critical language analysis'and# in schools# many teachers now try to raise thestudents awareness o how language is used so they are not so easily inluenced $yothers. The word !critical!# here# does not mean !negati"e! $ut !careully# thoughtully!.Practical ideas

& you start rom the assumption that language use in"ol"es ma%ing choices# you canas% students 4/hy did they say that2 /hy did they use thatword rather than another

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word24 4/hy did use thattense24 4/hat are they not saying24 and so on. There aremany words in English that are typically only used when tal%ing a$out women# or a$outmen or a$out children and this may aect the way we thin% a$out people. 3or e*ample#!gossip! is typically associated with women# while men might !tal%!. You can gi"e thestudents a list o words and as% them to categorise them and then discuss why they

ha"e categorised them that way. 3or e*ample# they could try to categorise the ollowingwords into !A$out women! !A$out men! !A$out $oys! !A$out girls!7 $eautiul# strong#trustworthy# silly# pretty# mature# gossip# wea%# handsome# rough# am$itious. & they putsome words in two or more categories# you can discuss how they word changes itsmeaning. You can encourage students to thin% a$out statements a$out things and as% ithey are !negati"e!# !positi"e! or !neutral!. & the students read a news story# you can as%how the story would change i someone else was reporting it. 3or e*ample# i the storyis a$out stri%e in a actory# how would the story change i the stri%ers reported it# or theemployers# or the go"ernment# or customers. You can encourage students to thin%a$out what the writer thin%s a$out the reader. 3or e*ample# i you loo% at anad"ertisement# what type o people is it appealing to2 oes the ad"ertisement suggest

0e"en implicitly1 that certain things are desira$le2 (ow does the ad"ertisement do this2& there are words in English in pu$lic places in your country or i English is creeping intothe students! mother tongue# you as% students to consider why# in each case# English isused. +ome writers tal% a$out !linguistic imperialism! to descri$e how English is enteringinto other languages. You can as% students to thin% a$out mother tongue language usetoo7 which words are used mainly $y young people2 /hich words are more !oicial!28an they thin% o any English e'ui"alents2 & that character changed to# or e*ample#!(ead Teacher! how would the language change2

". ritical PedagogyWhat and Why?Language Teaching is increasingly $eing seen as a part o education# and as such hasa responsi$ility towards the students! whole personality# educational and socialde"elopment. +ome teachers ha"e ta%en this idea urther and argue that teachingshould try to de"elop the students! a$ility to 'uestion# to thin% or themsel"es andultimately ta%e more control o"er their li"es. To do this# these teachers chose topicswhich will pro"o%e discussion and thought# and encourage students to criticise. Theyalso try to $ring a$out more student in"ol"ement and try to de"elop the student!s senseo autonomy. A num$er o topics might re'uire students to thin% a$out wider socialissues - the en"ironment# gender roles# the content o news $roadcasts# ethnicminorities 0e.g. 9ati"e Americans in the :+A1 and so on. These should aim to de"elop

the students! a$ility to thin% or themsel"es and organise their own learning.Practical ideasMany topics and themes can $e used as a starting point or students to thin% a$out andin"estigate their own society. +tudents can wor% in small groups on a pro6ect and report$ac% to the class or you can allow time or displaying students! wor%. & you thin% thatmost o the students are li%ely to ha"e the same opinion a$out something# you can as%some o them to prepare an argument against it. You can then in"ol"e them in classdiscussions or get them to prepare posters with their ideas. You can in"ol"e thestudents in planning some part o the wor% they will do in class o"er the ne*t ew wee%s.3or this you can re'uire that they ma%e decisions and plan what they will do. +ee do ityoursel or more ideas. 8ritical pedagogy also encourages students to $e aware or

critical o their ownattitudes# "alues and pre6udices. A te*t or situation may pro"o%ereactions in the students which you can encourage them to 'uestion and discuss.

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#. urriculum linksWhat and why?There should $e lin%s in any language course with $roader educational aims# such as

de"eloping pro$lem sol"ing a$ilities# autonomy# 'uestioning# cooperati"e learning# andso on. There are a num$er o reasons why this is important. Language teaching is apart o education# and needs to ta%e its ull educational responsi$ility and learning andteaching English can $ecome more interesting and more memora$le or students./or%ing with su$6ect %nowledge that is important and interesting in its own right ma%esit more li%ely that students will remem$er the language associated with it.

$. %ecide &ercisesWhat and why?Gi"ing the students a choice o what they can do in terms o e*ercises is a good way toensure that they are doing something $ecause they want to. These e*ercises can $e

done in pairs or in small groups and encourage students to ta%e some responsi$ility ortheir own learning.Practical (deasE*plain the choices clearly to the class $eore they start. Allow enough time or them todecide which tas% to do and how to wor% 0alone)in pairs etc.1 Ma%e sure there is enoughtime let in the lesson to ma%e a start. /hile the class is wor%ing go round and oer helpi needed. +tudents who inish $eore the others can use the time with their languagerecord and the e*ercise $o*.

). %isci*lineWhat and why?The irst thing to as% yoursel as a teacher is !/hat %ind o discipline do & want2!. The%ey should $e maintain a purposeul $ut rela*ed atmosphere in the classroom# wherecertain students don!t distur$ other students. This may mean that some so-calleddiscipline pro$lems are not real pro$lems at all. As long as the o"erall atmosphere isconduci"e to learning# it may not $e worth ma%ing an issue out o minor acts o!mis$eha"iour!. & students were ;


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11. %o (t /ourselfWhat and Why?!o it Yoursel! is an important idea that encourages students to do somethingthemsel"es# rather simply using an e*ercises in the $oo%. &t is to encourage themtowards autonomy - the ultimate goal o education. This also allows students room or

the own indi"idual interests# needs and a$ilities. One o the aims o allowing students tosuggest something else to do is to $ring a$out greater student in"ol"ement and aeeling o !ownership! o what they are learning. +econdly# it is onlythrough ma%ingdecisions that students can $ecome $etter at ma%ing decisions. The important point isthat any suggestion they ma%e and which they actually do is ollowed up $y some %indo e"aluation. This can $e simply as%ing the students how useul they ound what theydid.Practical (deas& students cannot thin% o something to do# you can propose something. (a"e a list oideas ready. 3or e*ample7 choose something orm the E*ercise $o*# do some reading#loo% $ac% through the pre"ious unit# do something rom the wor%$oo%# play one o the

games in the $oo%# write some grammar rules on a poster# listen to a song. Gi"e themsuggestions 0see a$o"e1. You will need to insist that what they decide to do is related tolearning English> You could also allow some time or students to tell other students0either in small groups or to the whole class1 what they ha"e $een doing.

12. &rrors and &rror orrectionWhat and why?Ma%ing errors is an ine"ita$le and necessary part o language learning. &t is onlythrough ma%ing errors# and hearing the correct orms# that students can de"elop theirown understanding o how English wor%s. &t is thus important that students ha"e asmuch opportunity as possi$le to produce language and# with the ocus on using Englishcreati0ely 0rather than simply repeating language1# the num$er o errors that studentsma%e will ine"ita$ly rise. Teachers thus need to thin% careully a$out how they willrespond to these errors.The process o a$sor$ing a new language structure ta%es considera$le time. Teacherscan not# thereore# e*pect that simply correcting an error will produce immediate results.+ome errors can remain e"en up to "ery ad"anced le"els 0such as the !s! in she lives,he goes,etc.1. A strong emphasis on error correction cannot $e e*pected to producestudents who ma%e ew errors. &n act# an o"er-emphasis on error correction is li%ely to$e counter-producti"e as students $ecome deterred rom using - and e*perimenting -with new language and "oca$ulary. ut students do need to ha"e their errors pointed

out to them. The %ey is to limit correction to a small num$er o points at a time and to6udge when the right moment or correction is.Practical (deas8orrecting students when they are in the middle o saying something may producestudents who are araid to tal%. You can ma%e a note o the errors students ma%e andgo through them at the end o the discussion)lesson. Limit yoursel to only correcting aew errors in written wor% or ater the students spea%. 3or errors in writing# students can$e encourage to $uild up a short list o their most common errors. The list can $earranged to orm a mnemonic o things to chec% 0e.g. PATT&+ @ Plurals# Articles#Tenses# etc.1 &n monolingual classes most students will ma%e the same errors. You maywant to ha"e !an error o the wee%! game. 8hoose an error which most students ma%e#

tell them what it is and write the correct "ersion on a piece o paper on the wall. Thisraises the students consciousness a$out this particular error. +tudents then ha"e to try

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to not this error all wee%. The student who succeeds can choose the !error o the wee%!or the ne*t wee%.

13. &0aluationWhat and why?There are two main ways in which e0aluationis important in learning. The irst way is inrelation to whatand how muchstudents ha"e learned - such as through tests and'uies. The second way# howe"er# is in relation to how the students ha"e $eenlearning - whether group wor%# or e*ample# is eecti"e# whether they recei"e enoughguidance# and so on. The irst aspect o e"aluation is the most common in languageteaching. The second aspect is not oten considered in much depth# although it iso$"iously e*tremely important. This second aspect o e"aluation can $e introduced in anum$er o places# particularly in re"ision units# where students tal% a$out theirreactions to the preceding units. The aim through this %ind o e"aluation is to in"ol"e the

students more in thin%ing a$out how they are learning# to encourage them to ta%e morecontrol o"er their learning and to gi"e you# the teacher# an insight into how the studentssee their English classes.Practical (deas&nitially# it is li%ely that the students! e"aluation o how they ha"e $een learning will $e"ery supericial. ?ust li%e learning itsel# e"aluation re'uires practice. The more they doit# the $etter they will $ecome at it# and the more a$le they will $ecome to acceptresponsi$ility. Limit the time or an e"aluation discussion and gi"e the students a clearocus or any group discussion. 3or e*ample# to come up with a list o their points.E"aluation $y the students re'uires the teacher to $e open to listen and discuss# andma%e changes i necessary. E"aluation can $e done in writing directly to you. This cana"oid pro$lems with ,pu$lic! discussions. A"oid# initially at least# as%ing the students'uestions such as ,/hat things did you li%e2! ,/hat things didn!t you li%e2! 9egati"e'uestions will produce negati"e answers. &t is $etter to as% ,/hat do you thin% a$out...!2E"aluation o howthe students ha"e $een learning)wor%ing comes mainly in re"isionunits o course $oo%s. (owe"er# you can in"ol"e the students in e"aluation 0oral or inwriting1 ater any ma6or piece o wor% or period o time.

esearching the lassroomeore gi"ing the students a test gi"e them a list o what they will $e tested on. Then#$eore they do the test as% them to write down what mar% they thin% they will get in each

part o the test. & you do this $eore each test# you can see i the students a$ility toassess their own strengths in English impro"es# and i the gap $etween what they thinkthey will get and what they actually get closes. Ater a lesson# as% the students to writedown a list o what they thin% they learned in that lesson. Thin% $ac% o"er the lesson 0ortape-record it1 and try to identiy when and how they things that they remem$ered cameup. o this or a ew lessons and see i a pattern emerges. & you ha"e one or moreclasses using this course $oo%# you can in"ol"e one class in a lot more e"aluationdiscussions. You can then see i more student e"aluation acti"ities produces morein"ol"ed learners. You could gi"e each class an anonymous 'uestionnaire to disco"erhow much time they de"ote to English in a wee%# how high their moti"ation is# whichaspects they li%e $est and so on. &n the long term# you could also see i more student

e"aluation)planning acti"ities produces $etter a$ilities in English. you could as% somestudents to %eep a diary o their studies in English# what precisely they study outside the

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classroom# how long they spend and so on. This could also gi"e you some idea o thelearning strategies they use. You could inter"iew a ew students to ind out how they goa$out their studies. A word association techniueis "ery useul in gi"ing you a!snapshot! o the students! impressions. 5ead out a list o %ey areas in languagelearning# and ater each one pause or a minute or so. As% the students to note down

their thoughts in relation to that area. This can $e anonymous# o course. You can thencollect in the papers to get a picture o what is going on in the students! head. Bey areasmight $e7 topic lessons# grammar# listening to English in class# writing in English# and soon. You could also try a word association on how they eel a$out things to do withEnglish# English culture and so on 0which will $e related to their moti"ation1. Bey areasmight $e7 English# !Me spea%ing English!# English things# English-spea%ing people# !myEnglish $oo%!# !doing English homewor%! and so on.

1!. &ercise Bo&arly 4inishersWhat and Why?The E*ercise o* is something that can $e used or the entire course. Each class can

ha"e its own E*ercise o* 0a small card$oard $o* or shoe $o* with card$oard di"iders1which# ideally# should $e %ept in the classroom or ta%en to e"ery lesson.The purpose o the E*ercise o* is to encourage students to write their own e*erciseswhich they %eep in the E*ercise o* or other students to use later.+tudents learn agreat deal rom writing e*ercises or each other.Practical ideas+tudents can write a neat# correct "ersion o their e*ercise on a $lan% postcard. Theyshould put the answers on the $ac%. The E*ercise o* will gradually $uild up to oer asource o re"ision and)or remedial wor% or easy reerence# la$el the e*ercises# showingwhat course $oo% unit they come rom. You can di"ide the $o* into sections or eachunit. You may want to colour code the e*ercises or diiculty. You can add your owne*ercises to the $o*# o course.

1". 4eed,ackWhat and why?&n learning# one o the most important actors is a eeling that you are gettingsomewhere. 3or some students# learning can seem li%e an endless lists o e*ercises# inwhich they mo"e rom one tas% to the ne*t. This can lead to a lac% o a sense odirection in their learning or a eeling that there is no "alue in it. &t is important# thereore#that students recei"e eed$ac% on what they ha"e done and that their eort is

recognised and "alued. 3eed$ac% may ocus on the formo what they ha"e done0spelling# grammar# neatness# etc.1 or on its content# 0its message# the opinions andideas e*pressed.1 As teachers# we typically respond to the orm aspect# $ut it is onlythrough the content aspect that we can really recognise our students as indi"iduals withtheir own ideas.Practical ideas3eed$ac% can come rom other students as well as rom the teacher. Allowing time orstudents to show their wor% to each other 0i they wish - this may $e a sensiti"e point1can allow them opportunity to ha"e pride in their wor%# as% 'uestions a$out things theyare unsure o# and share ideas. & the students are engaged in a large acti"ity# allowsome time at the end or them to display their wor%. 3eed$ac% $etween students is $est

done in pairs or threes with students who are riends with each other. 3eed$ac%$etween students can $e gi"en a clear ocus $y as%ing them to produce a single re-

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written "ersion o their wor% which draws on what each o them ha"e done. 3ore*ample# i they ha"e completed a guided piece o writing# they can produce a new"ersion which has corrected spellings# grammar# e*tra ideas etc. &n eed$ac% to eachother# students may $e o"er-critical or ocus only on the orm aspect. One way too"ercome this is to insist that they ma%e positi"e suggestions or impro"ement.

8omments may also $e limited to two or three points. 3eed$ac% to you# as the teacher#can $e gained through e"aluation acti"ities.

1#. 4luencyWhat and Why?Many language learning tas%s ocus on accuracy. These are oten !closed ! e*ercises inwhich there is only one correct answer. 3luency tas%s# on the other hand# are moreopen. They encourage the learners to ta%e ris%s and $e more creati"e with the language$ecause there is no !right! or !wrong! answer. At lower language le"els# language

teaching has traditionally emphasised accuracy# $elie"ing that luency comes once thegrammar has $een mastered. (owe"er# $oth accuracy and luency should $e dealt withright rom the start o any language course. e"eloping luency is important in $uildingup the students! conidence and maintaining a sense o achie"ement in $eing a$le tosay something meaningul. Many students also learn more naturally through tas%swhich ocus on using the language# rather than learning a,outthe language.&n all ours%ills# conidence and luency should $e lin%ed and the teacher should try to encouragethe students to $e more recepti"e to learning. 8onidence and luency in reading andlistening help students to deal with language without eeling the need to understande"ery word# encourages them to guess new words# and ena$les them to understandmain message# including the spea%er)writers attitude. 8onidence and luency in writingand spea%ing allow students to get their ideas across without $eing restricted $y ano"er-concern with orm.Practical ideas&n luency e*ercises# the ocus in on de"eloping and e*pressing ideas. There is nothingwrong with correcting language errors as they arise# $ut don!t let this stop the mainocus. Ma%e a note o signiicant language errors and return to them later. There is onlyone way to $ecoming luent and accurate at the same time7 through using the languageto e*press)understand ideas. This ta%es time# so you will need to e*pect and toleratelanguage errors as students de"elop this a$ility. &n luency ocussed e*ercises# try toreact to whatthe students say# not howthey say it. 3or e*ample# i you are mar%ing

their written wor%# you can add something a$out what you thin% a$out what they ha"esaid# your opinion on the topic# and so on.

esearching the lassroom/here possi$le# %eep a record o what the students ha"e produced in a luencye*ercise 0e.g. written wor% or a recording o a role play or discussion1. 8ompare it withwhat they produce some wee%s or months later to get an idea o their de"elopment.Language errors or a lac% o luency may $e caused $y the situation in which thestudents are wor%ing. 5ecord some class discussions and some small group wor% andcompare what happened. Are students more luent and)or accurate when they aretal%ing a$out particular topics2 &s the sie o the group important2 &s small group wor%

more eecti"e or de"eloping luency2 Ma%e a note o the errors that you correct andnotice when and how those errors come up again. Many teachers say that students

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ma%e the same mista%es time and time again $ecause the students don!t thin% $eorethey spea%)write. &n truth# they are thin%ing a$out something else. /hat is it2 &s themessage more important to the students2 E*periment with pro"iding dierent le"els ocontrol and support o"er what the students spea%)write. o students produce more orless when a topic is let "ery open and language is not controlled2 Try out dierent

open-ended and closed e*ercises and compare the results.

esearching the lassroomMany teachers assume that the most eecti"e way to learn is orally 0through listeningand spea%ing1. /riting and reading are seen as practice stages in learning. & you ha"emore than one class# you could in"ol"e one class in considera$ly more in-class writingand reading. You could then see i there appears to $e a direct eect on their a$ilities inEnglish. +ee writing# interacti"e writing and reading. You could "ary your approach toeach o the s%ills and see i that aects what the students produce. 3or e*ample# youcould sometimes as% students to irst write !luently!# without stopping to chec%# $eorethey go $ac% to read and re"ise what they ha"e done. At other times# you could as%

them to plan what they will write and to thin% careully a$out each sentence as theywrite. You could try similar e*periments with the other s%ills. 3or reading# as% thestudents to sometimes read 'uic%ly through a te*t without chec%ing words# and at othertimes to read careully. 3or listening# you could play a te*t straight through or a generalimpression $eore going $ac% or details. At other times# you could play it in smallsections. 3or spea%ing# you could sometimes as% the students to do a role-play withoutpreparation# at other times you could as% them to prepare in writing irst. ierentstudents will wor% $est in dierent ways. y e*perimenting# you can see how indi"idualstudents respond to each approach. & the ocus is on one main s%ill# you can seewhether in"ol"ing the other s%ills irst produces a $etter result. 3or e*ample# i you wantthe students to write something# you could see i their production is impro"ed i they irstread and spea% a$out and listen to a te*t a$out the topic. identiy what you thin% is thestudents wea%est s%ill. You could e*periment to see i it is possi$le to impro"e that s%ill$y directly in"ol"ing their stronger s%ills. 3or e*ample# i the students seem wea%est atreading# you could in"ol"e them in writing or spea%ing a$out a topic $eore they reada$out it. & writing is their wea%est s%ill# you could as% them to read and spea% a$out atopic irst and to note down useul phrases or ideas or their own writing.

1$. 5amesWhat and why?&n class# games are a li"ely way o maintaining student interest in the language. They

are un $ut also part o the learning process and students should $e encouraged to ta%ethem seriously. &n general they need not $e compulsory7 students may preer to dosomething else while another group plays a game. This gi"es a sense o !ownership!and e*tends the language learning element.Practical (deasAs with all group wor%# the success o the game depends on the clear instructions gi"ento the students. Ma%e sure that they understand the aim o the game and the rules$eore they start e"en in their L; i necessary. You will need to ma%e sure that you ha"ea supply o dice and counters permanently a"aila$le. The $est num$er o students or agame is pro$a$ly C 0si* ma*imum1 otherwise the game will mo"e too slowly and theothers will get $ored while waiting or their turn. +tudents can choose a !leader)reeree!

or the game $eore they start# to decide on disagreements. /hile they are playing youcan $e monitoring and guiding. Ma%e sure they %now how much time they ha"e to play

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the game7 ; You can gi"e students a !i"e minute warning! $eore the time is o"er sothey can wor% towards the end. As the course progresses# you can get the students toin"ent their own games and decide their own $oard.

1). 5rammarWhat and Why?An understanding o the grammar o English is crucial to the de"elopment o thestudents! language learning. y the time students reach secondary school age# they area$le to handle and understand grammatical rules and descriptions. /ith the limitedamount o time which the classroom pro"ides or language learning# grammar can $e a"ital tool in speeding up the students! a$ility to produce !correct !# meaningul English. &norder to see how the language !6igsaw! its together# it is also important that studentslearn to use words such as !noun!# !"er$!# !ad6ecti"e! etc. This will ena$le the students to

wor% things out or themsel"es and you# the teacher# to e*plain things to them.Practical (deasYou should encourage the use o a language record page ater any language wor% romthe course$oo%. These pages help to summarise the grammar points or the students.As the students ill it in# it pro"ides a sel created reerence or re"ision. They can alsowrite their own tests as a creati"e practice to chec% their understanding. To ma%e surethat students understand the meta-language they can write the main words - noun#"er$# ad6ecti"e# personal pronoun etc. on a poster on the wall with e*amples underneathto act as a reminder. As they disco"er the main grammatical rules and structuresstudents can construct a poster or the wall with e*amples sentences underneath eachmain rule The main rules can $e written on a sheet $y some o the students and placedin the class e*ercise $o*. Grammar games are oten a useul way o practisinglanguage. These can $e com$ined with physical mo"ement Total Physical 5esponse16P. 3or e*ample# to practise the comparati"e orms# you can as% one o the studentsto come towards you saying 4Peter# please come here $ecause you aresmaller)$igger)prettier)younger)older etc than & am4 One o the other students thenin"ites you to wal% to them and gi"es a reason using the comparati"e orm. That studentthen is in"ited $y another student# and so on. +imilar games can $e played which as%students to perorm particular actions when they hear a noun# or a "er$ or an ad6ecti"e.esearching the classroom(ow eecti"e is e*plicit teaching o grammar2 +ome writers argue that grammar

teaching has "ery little impact on the language that students produce spontaneously.Loo% careully at the wor% that your students ha"e written or record part o a lesson or asmall group wor%. 8an you trace the language structures that the students use directlyto things that they ha"e $een taught2 Are there some grammatical orms that they areusing that they ha"e not $een taught2 Ater a couple o wee%s# re"ise some languagepoint and gi"e the students a short test and include items on the area you chose to seei the students learned it !naturally! anyway. +ome areas o grammar seem to $eac'uired much later than other areas. Tal% to teachers o students who ha"e a higherle"el o English language a$ility or thin% a$out other classes you ha"e. /hat !typicalerrors! do higher le"el students ma%e2 Are they dierent rom the !typical errors! o lowerle"el students2 /hat areas are in common2 /hen are those areas taught to the

students2 8an you e*periment with changing the order in which language areas are

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taught2

1+. 5rou* workWhat and why?

Group wor% is $ased on the idea that students can learn language and inormation romeach other. The principle o co-operati"e learning is $asic to classroom education. &talso allows teachers the opportunity to help with indi"idual pro$lems# stronger and wea%students to wor% at their own pace and more students to get more practice.Practical ideaseore students $egin group wor%# ma%e sure they %now e*actly what they are e*pectedto do. Ma%e the ocus clear with a deinite outcome 0or e*ample# to write something#ma%e a list o something1. uring the lesson note which students are wor%ing togetherso that you can encourage them to wor% with dierent people ne*t time. Ater wor%ing ingroups# students can $e cross-grouped. This in"ol"es groups re-orming with represento the other groups 0or e*ample# i students are la$elled A## 8# and in their groups#

cross-groups can $e ormed $y all the As coming together# all the s# all the 8s and soon1. &n their cross groups# students can compare ideas. Three or our are pro$a$ly the$est num$ers or group wor%. There are many ways to set up groups. Try to "ary the$asis on which you group students7;1 +tudents can choose who to wor% with.1 They can turn round and wor% with the students $ehind)in ront o )ne*t to them.F1 They can $e grouped according to a$ility.C1 They can $e grouped alpha$etically# according to $irth months.D1 They $e can grouped to maintain a $alance o $oys)men and girls)women.1 They can grouped $y num$ering students ;# # F# C around the class.H1 You can cut up some postcards and distri$ute the pieces round the class. +tudents

ha"e to ind who has the pieces which goes with theirs and thus orm a group.I1 You can gi"e out cards with names o animals 0C o each1. +tudents ha"e to wal%

around the class ma%ing the noise o the animal to ind out who is in their group.

esearching the lassroomJary the way in which you set up groups 0see a$o"e1. Monitor how the students wor%when they are grouped dierently. & group wor% is not unctioning well# as% the studentsto draw up their on !5ules or Group /or%! which they will agree to ollow. Monitor thetype o tas%s which you gi"e students in groups. /hich %ind o tas%s produces mostinteraction2 o closed or open-ended tas%s produce more discussion2 Beep a record o

how the students appeared to wor% in their groups - well# cooperati"ely# noisily#unocussed and so on. Also %eep a record o the details o the group wor%7 who waswor%ing with whom# what they were doing in groups# what time o day it was# when inthe lesson they did it# what preceded the group wor% and so on. Ater a ew lessons# youmay $e a$le to see a pattern in what aects their group wor%. +tudies ha"e shown thatthe way students are la$elled can aect how they perorm. 3or e*ample# studentsla$elled !good students! tend to wor% hard# students la$elled !wea%! tend to ind theirwor% diicult. 0This is %nown as !the sel-ulilling prophecy!.1 You can gi"e each group aname which latters them# to see i this aects the way they wor%. 3or e*ample# !rilliant+tudents7 red group!# !rilliant +tudents7 green group!# and so on. & you put students intoa$ility groups# tell the wea%est students that they will ind the wor% you gi"e them "ery

easy or them. You can see i this increases their conidence in their wor%.

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2-. 7omeworkWhat and why?(omewor% gi"es students time to a$sor$# process and practice what they ha"e learnt in

class. &t also %eeps the students in"ol"ed $etween lessons and maintains theircommitment to learning English. &n most courses# the amount o time a"aila$le in classis simply not suicient or language learning to ta%e place ast enough. E*tra wor%outside class is essential.Practical (deaseore you set homewor% ma%e sure that the students %now which e*ercises they ha"eto do and how long they are e*pected to spend on their homewor%. 09o more than halan hour is recommended.1 You will need to allow a ew minutes at the start o eachlesson to correct any homewor% and you can $uild it in as part o the lesson. There area num$er o ways in which you can correct homewor%. & you set homewor%# $ut indthat students do not do it# you need to consider why this is happening. There may $e a

num$er o possi$le reasons. &t may $e too diicult or too easy. They may not ha"e time$ecause o other commitments. They may not see the point o it. They may not ha"e the$oo% 0>1 They may ha"e other personal pro$lems. You may $e a$le to resol"e thesepro$lems tal%ing to the students a$out it# agreeing with them when they can do theirhomewor%# discussing whether they ind it too easy)diicult# and so on. Perhaps theycan sometimes suggest something to do or homewor%. 0E"ery$ody doesn!t alwaysha"e to do the same thing.1esearching the lassroomTal% to the students a$out homewor%# what they thin% a$out it and why it is necessary.As% them what %inds o homewor% they ind most en6oya$le. As% or ideas o what theywould li%e to do or homewor%. You could also ind out what they students thin% $ygi"ing them a 'uestionnaire or $y inter"iewing a ew students. E*periment with dierent%inds o homewor% to see i it aects their response7 homewor% that re'uires research#homewor% that re'uires to ind)ma%e things# homewor% e*ercises# homewor% they canrecord on cassette and so on. Many teachers ha"e ound that students respond $etterto homewor% that is social 0i.e. that in"ol"es them interacting with other people1 ratherthan solitary. E*periment with how homewor% is organised. 3or e*ample# you couldgi"e students a list o things or homewor% rom which they choose. You couldsometimes as% them to tell you what they are going to do or homewor% and get them toput it in writing. You could in"ol"e the students in monitoring their own homewor%7 whatthey did# when they did it# where they did it# what they ound diicult and how well they

perormed. You can then see in what circumstances they appear to do $est.

21. (nducti0e 5rammarWhat and why?Grammar may $e approached in two main ways7 deducti0ely# in which students aregi"en a rule which they then practise 0that is# they wor% using other people!s deductionsa$out the language1# or inducti0ely# in which they wor% out rules or themsel"es.&nducti"e grammar teaching is useul or a num$er o reasons. &t can in"ol"e thestudents more ully as thin%ing people with ideas o their own and increase moti"ation. &tcan in"ol"e them more ully in understanding the language as they wor% out dierent

rules or orming and using English and it can also help clear up misconceptions theyha"e and ma%e it clear to you# the teacher# what ideas they ha"e a$out how grammar

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wor%s.Practical ideas+ome aspects o English grammar may $e similar in the students! mother tongue.+tudents can as%ed to thin% a$out how things are e*pressed in their mother tongue andwhen they use certain words# etc.# $eore they are as%ed to thin% a$out English.

+tudents can $e gi"en simple ta$les and as%ed to complete them 03or e*ample#sentences with ,don!t! and ,doesn!t! missing.1 They can then loo% through the unit in the$oo% to disco"er which words $elongs with which su$6ect pronoun. +tudents can $rielywor% in small groups)pairs to wor% out a rule $eore you as% or their ideas. & their ideasare incorrect# you can then present the correct rule or gi"e some more e*amples whichma%e them thin% a$out the rule urther.

22. (nteracti0e writingWhat and why?Most oten# the writing that students do in the class is simply or the eyes o the teacher.

&nteracti"e writing in"ol"es students writing to and with other students. There are anum$er o reasons why this might $e useul. 3irstly# writing to other students can gi"ethe students a clear sense o purpose and audience or their writing - they can geteed$ac% rom the reader on how ar their message has $een understood. +econdly#writing with other students can gi"e the students a clear ocus or their wor%. &nteracti"ewriting will in"ol"e the students in as%ing each other a$out grammar# spelling#"oca$ulary# phrasing etc. and so gi"e them the chance to learn in a non-threateningatmosphere.Practical ideas/hile students are wor%ing in groups# you can circulate around the class# reading whatthey ha"e written and helping with any pro$lems. iscussion during interacti"e writingtas%s may $e in the mother tongue. This may not $e a pro$lem since one o thepurposes o interacti"e writing is to ena$le students to e*change ideas. An ,English only!rule may pre"ent this. The important point is to insist that the writing that they produce inEnglish. /riting can $e a sensiti"e area and some students may not want to write withother students or their wor% to $e seen $y other students. &n this case# students should$e entitled to wor% alone i they wish.

23. Learning trategiesWhat and Why?Learning strategies are the techni'ues indi"idual students use to help themsel"es learn.

8lassroom research has identiied three main types o strategies7 Meta-cogniti"e strategies# such as planning# e"aluating and monitoring languageuseK

cogniti"e strategies used in actually !doing the learning!# such as guessing words#repeating# learning things $y heart# and wor%ing out rulesK

social strategies# such as wor%ing with others# as%ing or help and so on.All students come to their English lessons with their own learning strategies. They learnmany o these through their wor%)studies# through watching people# and $y $eing toldwhat to do. Learning strategies are "ery personal - what wor%s or one person may notwor% or another person. +ince the strategies students use are inluenced $y teachingand $y others# students may not $e using the $est strategies or them. Teaching tends

to emphasise particular approaches to learning 0e.g. an emphasis on copying1. +tudentsare unli%ely to aware o what the alternati"es might $e and may assume that the way

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they learn and are taught is the only way.Learning a$out learning is part o the process o education and pro"ides anunderstanding which is transera$le to other su$6ects# other areas o lie and $eyond theclassroom. &t is also important in $ringing a$out student in"ol"ement.Practical ideas

iscuss with students the strategies that they use. Encourage them to try a newstrategy and discuss the results with them a ew lessons later. eore gi"ing a test#discuss with the students howthey will re"ise. /hen they choose an e*ercise# as% themwhy they chose thatone. You could ma%e a !(elp Yoursel! poster with ideas rom thestudents a$out how they re"ise or tests# how they do their homewor%# how they chec%their wor%# what they do to learn English in their ree-time and so on. There are ew!right! or !wrong! ways to learn a language. +ome students may eel happier# ore*ample# loo%ing at a model $eore they write# while others preer to !write rom the topo their heads!. The important point is that students are aware o the possi$ilities. E"erynow and again# discuss with the students how they are going to do an e*ercise andallow a "ariety o learning approaches. &n some cases# this may include loo%ing at the

answers first# or e*ample.esearching the lassroomLearning strategies generally ta%e place inside the students! head# so it is "ery diicultto ind out precisely what strategies they are using. (owe"er# there are ways to get a$etter picture and to determine i you thin% the students are using the most eecti"estrategies. At the end o each lesson as% students to note down 0in the mother tongue inecessary1 what they thought the main point o the lesson was# what they learned romthe lesson# which e*ercise helped them the most)least and what they oundeasiest)most diicult. 8ollect in their papers. This will gi"e you an idea o what theyocus on. This may not $e the same as what you thin% is important. 03or e*ample# oneteacher who did this ater a !grammar lesson!# ound that the students actually thoughtthe lesson was a$out !"oca$ulary!. &n this case# it!s not surprising i the students don!tlearn the %ey grammar points.1 & this is the situation in your class# you may ind it useulto discuss this with the students. As part o their homewor%# as% students to write downe*actly whatthey did# how they approached it# where they did their homewor%# whowith# what they used 0dictionary# cassette# a riend etc1 to help them complete it. 8ollectin their papers You can prepare a $rie 'uestionnaire to ind out what your students dowhen they are learning. 3or e*ample7;. /hat ma%es it easier or you to understand the cassette2. /hen you are reading in English and you see a new word# what do you do2F. (ow do you re"ise or a test2

C. (ow do you remem$er English spelling2

One idea might $e to as% the students to design a 'uestionnaire or another class#perhaps called !(ow do you learn2!. This will not only gi"e the students "ery useullanguage practice $ut it will also tell you a lot a$out what theythin% is important. /atchthem> Ater you ha"e set the students wor%ing# watch what they do. You could ocus onone or two students and notice the steps that they go through# what seems to $eslowing them down or helping them# and so on. Aterwards# you could start a generaldiscussion on this.

2!.8emory

What and Why?Memory is o$"iously crucial in language learning. (ow memory comes a$out# howe"er#

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is still something o a mystery to us. /e %now that the memories which last the longestare oten complete e*periences - research has also shown# or e*ample# that manylanguage learners are a$le to say when they irst heard a word and descri$e the sceneat the time - where they were# what the weather was li%e# what they were doing# and soon.

&n practice# we can thin% o two $asic ways to $ring a$out memoriation. One is throughrote learning# that is# !learning $y heart!. The other is through !acti"ation!# that is# throughuse or $uilding connections with other %nowledge and e*periences. &n the past# muchlanguage learning concentrated almost solely on rote learning7 students wereencouraged to learn words# phrases# and dialogues $y heart# oten without ullyunderstanding them. This approach has $een hea"ily criticised in recent years althoughthere are $eneits in some rote learning. /here# or e*ample# we need re'uent mentalreerence to !i*ed! inormation - such as multiplication ta$les in mathematics or irregular"er$s in a oreign language - it may $e eicient to learn $y heart. +econdly# it is otenpsychologically comorting at any age to learn a piece o te*t# or e*ample# a poem or asong $y heart# particularly i this is done in a group.

The $eneits o rote learning# howe"er# are 'uite dierent rom those achie"ed through!acti"ation! - that is the use o language in a "ariety o conte*ts# to e*press andunderstand meanings# particularly those that are significantto the student# with a "arietyo tas%s. Memory achie"ed through acti"ation is usually transera$le to other conte*tsKmemory achie"ed through rote learning generally has a more limited "alue. 5otelearning is more eecti"e or short term memory needs $ut retention rapidly alls. Aterone year as much as HD= o rote learned inormation is $eyond recall. Long termmemory re'uires understanding# re'uent re"ision# personal in"ol"ement and "ariedopportunities or use and application. &n language learning# it is "oca$ulary with ma%esmost demands on memory.Practical ideasYou can encourage students to thin% a$out what %ind o memory they ha"e7 someremem$er images well# others remem$er spo%en or written te*t# some may remem$ersmells or $odily e*perience well. You can as% the students to picture in their mind ane"ent in the recent past when they heard people tal%ing. As% them to write downanything which they remem$er a$out it7 the weather# the room# the clothes# the wordspeople said# what they could smell# how they elt etc. Their memories will gi"e clues asto the %ind o memoriser they are and the %inds o learning strategies they will $e a$le touse to help them remem$er new inormation. +tudents who remem$er "isual detailswell may ind it helpul to "isualise new words in a picture or ilm. Those who remem$er"er$al details# what people said or e*ample# may memorise new words $est $y itting

them into a narrati"e. You can as% students to e*periment with the ways they use theirlanguage record. The words can $e written in dierent coloured pens7 red may $e morememora$le than $lue or e*ample. Or written in dierent shapes7 words a$out !theen"ironment! may# or e*ample# $e written on a glo$eK words a$out !the news! could $ewritten on a t" screen. You can as% students to classiy words in dierent ways7 puttingnouns# "er$s# ad6ecti"es in separate lists or in alpha$etical order# or lists o opposites# orthe short words irst and then the long ones. +tudents can also e*periment $y writingthe words in dierent places7 in their diary# on the $ac% o an en"elope# on a postcard#around an ad"ertisement cut rom a magaine# on the side o card$oard $o*# on a $ustic%et or chocolate wrapper. The place o learning might also $e important7 students cane*periment with learning language in dierent places7 in dierent rooms o the house# or

outside# in a $usy cae or a 'uiet li$rary. You can also encourage students to $uildlearning into a !complete e"ent!. 3or e*ample# i they are trying to re"ise or a test they

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can play some music at the same time. Later# i they listen to the music it may help to$ring the ideas $ac% to them. +ome students li%e rhymes. Learning new words can $ehelped $y rhyming them with a word they already %now. Encourage students to createdierent ways o using new words while and ater they learn them7 $y writing a pule orrecording a dialogue on the tape or writing a letter. Allow time in class to discuss the

dierent e*periments the students ha"e carried out so that they can e"aluate theirsuccesses and ailures. An e*periment that you can try is to gi"e the same "oca$ularytest again later in the term or e"en in the ne*t term and see which words ha"e $eenremem$ered $est. Then discuss with the students why some words are more easilyremem$ered than others.

2". 8ied A,ility lassesWhat and Why?All classes are !mi*ed a$ility! classes. All classes consist o indi"idual students withdierent personalities and interests. All students also# themsel"es# ha"e !mi*ed a$ilities!.

3or e*ample# some students may ind writing easier than spea%ing or "ice "ersa. +omestudents ind one particular tas% or approach more appealing than other tas%s orapproaches. &t is also important to distinguish two aspects o !a$ility!7 language a$ilityand language learning a$ility. The irst aspect reers to how much language the studentsactually %now)understand at a particular point in time. The second aspect reers to theira$ility to learn. A student may $e wea% in English# or e*ample# $ut gi"en appropriatesupport may $e a$le to learn 'uic%ly. This suggests that some !mi*ed a$ility! classesmay $e the result o particular approaches to teaching 0the a$ility to learn or the a$ilityto $e taught21. 3or this reason# teachers need to adopt a le*i$le methodology thatallows or a "ariety o learning styles and a$ilities.Practical ideasOne %ey principle in teaching mi*ed a$ility groups is trans*arency. Try to ma%e surethat allstudents understand what is happening in the lesson# or e*ample $yo"er"iewing $eore $eginning the lesson or a new tas%. There are a num$er o ways inwhich you can approach teaching groups o mi*ed language and learning a$ility7 i1stronger)a"erage)wea%er students can $e gi"en completely dierent tas%s at dierentle"els o diicultyK ii1 students can gi"en tas%s on the same topic at "arying le"els odiiculty 0see $elow1K iii1 +tudents can $e in"ol"ed in open-ended tas%s which allowthem to respond at their own le"el o a$ility. &n principle# approaches ii1 and iii1 are$etter# since they a"oid students eeling let out. Approach iii1# additionally# allows astudent to de"elop more reely without $eing restricted $y the tas%s themsel"es. To

pro"ide tas%s at "arying le"els o diiculty on the same topic# te*t etc. thin% a$out how atas% can $e made more challenging or how more support can $e gi"en. &n the Teaching9otes or all the Topic and Language 3ocus units there are ideas or ma%ing these %indso ad6ustments to the %ey e*ercises in the units. At the $ac% o this teacher!s $oo%# thereare additional# photocopia$le language wor%sheets or each grammar point in theLanguage :nits. The Time to +pare e*ercises at the end o each Topic and Language3ocus unit pro"ide urther tas%s or "arying le"els o a$ility. The e*ercises in the !ecide!$o*es encourage students to ma%e choices a$out what they need to do and to wor% attheir own pace. &n groupwor%# try to mi* students so that students o all a$ilities canwor% together.

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What and why?&n many parts o a language lesson# students will $e wor%ing in small groups or pairs.This way o wor%ing has many ad"antages# in that it gi"es students a chance to wor% attheir own pace# to as% each other or help# to share ideas and to get more languagepractice. +mall group and pair wor%# howe"er# can run the danger o students wasting

their time together as they $ecome distracted# tal% a$out or do things other thanre'uested# or produce wor% which is ull o errors. 3or this reason# monitoring andguiding $y the teacher is "ery important.Practical ideaseore setting students to wor% in pairs)groups# chec% that they understand ully whatthey are going to do. You can go through one or two e*amples with whole class irst./hile they are wor%ing# go round the class. You can chec% whether they are ha"ing anypro$lems# chec% the wor% they ha"e done# gi"e e*tra ideas where necessary# andgenerally %eep them on the tas%. /hile going round the class# you can also note downcommon errors that you notice. You can then spend a short time at the end o thelesson# going through a ew o these. You also ma%e a note o which students seem to

$e wor%ing well together and which seem to $e ha"ing pro$lems. 9e*t time# you can"ary the way you set up groupwor% accordingly. eore students start wor%ing# you canput some tas%s in $loc%s. /here students ha"e inished the wor%# they can mo"e on tosomething rom the e*ercise $o*# loo% $ac% at pre"ious units# or choose a tas% rom theearly inisher $o*.

2$. 8oti0ationWhat and Why?O all the dierent actors in"ol"ed in language learning# moti"ation is pro$a$ly one othe most important. 5esearchers ha"e suggested that there are two main types omoti"ation in language learning7 !instrumental! - which means that people study in orderto use the language 0e.g. in their wor%1# and !integrati"e! - which means that they study$ecause they want to %now more a$out a oreign language culture. 0/ith youngerlearners# neither o these types o moti"ation are generally rele"ant1.A contrasting "iew is that moti"ation is not something that comes rom outside thestudents. &t is something inside them# which the teacher has to try to !open up!. 5atherthan trying to ind endless ways to !entertain! the students# the teacher loo%s or ways to$ring a$out a deeper# more enduring sense o student in"ol"ement# through such thingsas o*en9ended tas%s. Teachers who thin% this way start rom the assumption that the"ast ma6ority o people naturally want to learn# i they are gi"en the right conditions# and

what oten %ills moti"ation is orcing things on people. They also thin% that peoplenaturally want to assume responsi$ility or their own li"es# and loo% or ways to supportthis in the language classroom. The more they are in"ol"ed in deciding what they willdo# the more !ownership! and personal in"ol"ement they ha"e.Practical ideas& the students do not seem "ery moti"ated to do a particular tas%# as% yoursel why./hat is it a$out the situation that ma%es them unmoti"ated2 on!t e*pect constantmoti"ation> E"ery$ody has ups and downs - there are many other things happening inthe students! li"es and their English classes are 6ust a small part o it. & moti"ationseems to $e a particular pro$lem# perhaps you can discuss it with the students. As%them what they ind uninteresting a$out their wor% - perhaps it!s too diicult# too easy#

too similar to other wor% they ha"e $een doing. Try to thin% positi"ely a$out all thestudents. Assume irst that they will succeed and encourage them. & the students thin%

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that you will e*pect them to ail# they pro$a$ly will> Try to set open-ended tas%s whichyou %now that all students will $e a$le to do at their le"el o a$ility rather than settingtas%s which you %now will generate ailure. Many o these may in"ol"e students inpro$lem sol"ing. uild in opportunities or indi"idual students to $e occasional !e*perts!on something7 students may ha"e an interesting ho$$y or collection or ha"e spent time

o"erseas or perhaps you could as% a student to ind out more a$out a certain su$6ectand then tell the class a$out it. Gi"e the students opportunities to ta%e responsi$ility orthings and to $e in"ol"ed in undamental# important decisions a$out their wor% - ore*ample# to $e in"ol"ed in designing tests# in the e"aluation o their wor%# and in do ityoursel tas%s. Try to de"elop the students! autonomy.

2). 8usicWhat and Why?Potentially# music can ha"e an important role in the classroom. The use o songs isalready "ery amiliar to most teachers. Music# howe"er# plays a ma6or role in many parts

o our li"es. /e may# or e*ample# listen to the radio while we are wor%ing# while we aredri"ing or waiting or something. There may $e $ac%ground music while we are eating orreading. /e may use music to rela* or to mar% a change o acti"ity 0such as ,cominghome rom wor%!1 and so on. &n similar ways# music can $e used to help ma%e theclassroom more welcoming.Practical ideas8hoose music or the atmosphere you want to create7 sot calm music i you want tocalm the students down# energetic music i you want to wa%e them up# and so on. Youcan play music as they come into the classroom. This can help ,$ring them into! Englishagain# and rela* them ready or wor% You could use music regularly at set phases inyour teaching - or e*ample# when they are wor%ing on the Acti"ity :nits. +tudents couldthen suggest or $ring in appropriate pieces o music. & there are a num$er o steps orphases in an acti"ity# you can use music to mar% the transition. 3or e*ample# some astmusic or a $rainstorming phase and a slow# gentle piece music or a writing phase.

2+. :*en9ended uestionsWhat and Why?Open-ended tas%s are tas%s to which there is not a single a$solutely correct answer orwhere a "ariety o answers are possi$le. They can $e distinguished rom !closed tas%s!#where students ha"e to answer in a particular way. An e*ample o an open-ended tas%

might $e where the students are as%ed to imagine a person standing in a pair o shoeswhich they are shown and to then write a description o that person. A closed tas% usingthe same type o language might $e one where they are gi"en a description with certainwords missing# which they ha"e to supply. oth closed tas%s and open-ended tas%s areuseul in language teaching. /here students are wor%ing in groups# or e*ample# closedtas%s can orce the students to discuss more in order to ind the correct answer. Open-ended tas%s# howe"er# are also "ery "alua$le or a num$er o reasons. +ince there is nosingle correct answer# the students can oten answer at the le"el o their a$ility. Thismeans that in mied a,ility classes# students can $e wor%ing on the same tas%s at thesame time. Open-ended tas%s also allow or more student in0ol0ementsince thestudents are as%ed to contri$ute more o their own personal ideas. This means that the

outcomes o classroom wor% will $e richer - there will $e a "ariety o ideas e*pressedwhich students can urther compare and discuss. &n this way# the students! autonomyin

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their own use o English can $e de"eloped. Open-ended tas%s also allow you# theteacher# to get a good idea o what the students are capa$le o producing.Practical ideas at the start o a course# you are uncertain how much English the students %now# youcan use the open-ended tas%s to ind out. You can set the students some open-ended

writing tas%s $y as%ing them to write their ideas a$out some educationally $roaduestions# particularly ones which re'uire *ro,lem9sol0ing. The students! answers toopen-ended tas%s can $e discussed and e"aluated $y the teacher or uture lessonplanning. &nstead o as%ing the students con"entional !closed! comprehension 'uestionsa$out a te*t they ha"e listen to or read# you can as% open-ended 'uestions. 3ore*ample# you can as% !/hat do you thin% a$out...2 ! /hat would you do..2! !o you thin%it was good that...2!# !/hy do you thin% he)she did that2 !/hat do you thin% they said toeach other2! !/hat do you thin% he)she was thin%ing2! and so on.

3-. :0er0iewing

What and Why?A common e*perience o some students is that they oten do not ha"e a "ery clear ideao where they are in a lesson - they may ha"e "ery little idea o what has 6ust happened#an unclear idea o what they are supposed to $e doing now# and no idea at all o what isgoing to happen ne*t. As one teacher put it# or many students $eing in classroom israther li%e $eing put in a ta*i without $eing told where you are going or what landmar%sto loo% out or on the way. O"er"iewing is a techni'ue which helps to gi"e students aclearer idea o where they are in the lesson. That way# i they lose concentration or ashort time# they won!t lose their grip on the whole lesson 0;


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num$er o things that you can do impro"e the chances o students participating.Practical ideas& there one or two students that are persistently 'uiet# you could tal% to them ater alesson to ind out what they thin% a$out it. Alternati"ely# you could ma%e up a'uestionnaire which all students can answer. & possi$le# try to arrange the seating so

that all the students can see you clearly and so that they can see each other. Ahorseshoe arrangement or circle is $est# or try and push the des%s together into pairs orgroups. Accept that some students are 'uiet and may eel happier contri$uting in a lesso$"ious way - perhaps $y producing e*ercises and pules or the early inisher $o*# or$ringing in pictures and !realia! or other acti"ities. +ome students may dominate theclass $y $eing o"er-noisy or always answering 'uestions irst. & this is a pro$lem youcould di"ide the class into our 'uarters and say that you will accept an answer romeach group in turn. +ome students may $e reluctant to !act out! in class. They maypreer to record a con"ersation on tape at home or you to listen to later. on!t orcestudents to spea% out loud i they are not willing or ready. Ma%e sure that the studentsunderstand that many o the acti"ities are open ended so that a "ariety o answers are

accepta$le and !right!. &t is what theythin% that is important. Encourage students tounderstand the importance o e"eryone!s contri$ution in group wor% and that the wor%that the 'uiet students do oten supports the wor% o the more dominant ones. Allowstudents to wor% at their own pace. This will gi"e the more apprehensi"e students anopportunity to wor% without pressure. &t is a good idea to oer a choice o tas%s or themto choose rom. Gi"e the 'uieter students encouragement while they wor% to $uild upconidence. You could ma%e a particular point o praising wea%er or 'uieter studentsand o accepting what they say 0e"en i this contains many errors1 in an eort to $uild uptheir conidence.

3!. Pattern Practice ;%rilling & you arein a noisy classroom# close doors# windows# turn o ans etc# while you are playing thecassette. /ith larger classes# students can listen in smaller groups while the otherstudents are doing something else. :nless you are conducting a test# you can allow thestudents to listen again i they wish or to pause the tape to chec% the meaning. Listeningin this case will $e useul or learning English generally. 8ontrol o the cassette playercan $e passed to a student. Other students may then eel reer to as% or things to $ereplayed or paused. The main te*ts rom the +tudents oo% are also recorded on the/or%$oo% 8assette. +tudents can listen to them $eore or ater the lesson. eore theend o a lesson# you can play the listening passage again as a way o recapping whatyou ha"e done. & the students are doing a listening comprehension e*ercise# they canwor% in pairs with one o the students listening or answers to some o the 'uestions andthe other students listening or answers to the other 'uestions. They can then compareaterwards.

WritingWhat and why?&n common with listening# reading and spea%ing# there are two main roles or writing inlanguage teaching. The irst is as a goalo teaching. &t is important or students tode"elop the writing s%ill in order to e*press themsel"es in written English in letters#messages# stories# and so on. The second role# howe"er# is as a meanso learning./riting can pro"ide urther sources o practice and can help the students remem$er thewords# phrases# grammar etc. that they are learning. y wor%ing on writing tas%s#students can $ecome closely in"ol"ed with the language and# in doing so# de"elop theirgeneral language proiciency. /riting can thus orm a "ery important element in any

course.Practical ideas

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Encourage the students to %eep written records o what they learn. +tudents can also%eep ,Language 9ote$oo%s! in which they note down "oca$ulary# phrases# grammarpoints# etc. They can then loo% at these on the $us# while waiting somewhere# at homein $ed and so on. eore calling on the students to do any large oral acti"ity# such asrole play# students can $e encouraged to plan in writing what they are going to say.

/here students are in"ol"ed in writing as a goalo language learning# encourage themto go through the "arious stages o collecting ideas# drating# getting eed$ac% rom areader# re"ising and inal production. /here possi$le# gi"e the students real lie tas%swhich ha"e a real audience. This could $e writing a letter re'uesting inormation or to apenriend. /riting to other students can also pro"ide an audience . &n correctingstudents! writing# try not to o"er-correct. A page ull o red in% can $e "ery demoralising>There are a num$er o alternati"e ways o approaching correction7 As% the students tounderline the things they are not sure o or where they would li%e you help. You needonly then correct the things they ha"e identiiedK Limit yoursel to no more -I points orcorrectionK 5ather than ocusing on the orm o what they ha"e written# respond to themessage. /rite a $rie reply to the ideas they ha"e e*pressedK 5ather than correcting#

gi"e hints or clues and encourage the students to correct their own wor%. You can use amar%ing scheme 0e.g. +p@+pelling# // @ wrong word# and so on1.

eadingWhat and Why?+imilar to listening# spea%ing and writing# there are two main roles or reading inlanguage learning. The irst is as a goalo learning7 !the s%ill o reading!. The second isas a meanso learning7 as a way o de"eloping the students language proiciency andeducational depth. +tudents need to de"elop the s%ill o reading in English. &t is throughreading that they will most li%ely come into contact with English in higher education orare employed in international wor% o some %ind. ut reading as a meanso learning isalso important. 5eading can support their language learning through conte*tualisingand e*tending "oca$ulary# creating a mental images o correct spellings# pro"idingmodels or writing# and $y de"eloping a !eel! or English - especially i they ha"e "eryew classroom hours. 5eading can also $e a means or de"eloping their learning$eyond 6ust English. Through reading# the students can learn more a$out the world andcome into contact with dierent ideas. 3or these reasons# reading needs to $eencouraged right rom the start. There are a num$er o ways you can do this.Practical (deas+tudents may not read "ery much in their mother tongue so you may need to start $yencouraging reading generally. You can do this $y as%ing# perhaps at the start o e"ery

lesson# what they ha"e read since the last lesson. This can $e anything - a newspaperheadline# a story# an ad"ert# in the mother tongue or in English. Gradually# you cansuggest that they loo% or things to read in English which they can tell the class a$out. &nthis way# the students can $egin to see reading as something o "alue to share. You canencourage e*tensi"e reading through readers or short stories. & possi$le# let thestudents choose what they want to read. &n"ite 0rather than demand1 them to tell otherstudents 0perhaps in small groups1 what they ha"e read. They don!t need to report $ac%on e"erything they read. You can allow time or silent reading in class. +ome studentsmay li%e to read i they inish an e*ercise early. Encourage students to read otherstudents! creati"e wor% such as stories and poems. Encourage the students to guessthe meaning o words they don!t understand. Also# stress that they don!t need to

understand e"ery word in order to read something. +how the students how to use adictionary so that they can read alone. You can also teach the students other reading

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s%ills such as s%imming and scanning. One common techni'ue is to as% students toread aloud $ut this techni'ue is not really recommended. 5eading aloud is# in act# aseparate s%ill rom reading or comprehension. +tudents are unli%ely to need this s%ill -unless they $ecome newsreaders> &n the classroom# students typically ma%e moremista%es when they read aloud than they do normally 0particularly in pronunciation1. &t

also wastes time or the students who ha"e to listen and places the teacher in the roleo ha"ing to correct the reader all the time. Also# since the emphasis is on production#the main s%ills in"ol"ed in reading - guessing words# wor%ing out meaning# predicting -are not used.

*eakingWhat and Why?One o the main aims o a language course is to gi"e students conidence in e*pressingthemsel"es orally. The emphasis is thereore# on spo%en luency rather than on spo%enaccuracy. This should encourage students to $e conident and creati"e in their spo%enEnglish.

Practical (deaseore correcting a spo%en error consider whether it could lead to misunderstanding. &not# there may $e little reason to correct it. Too much error correction can inhi$it thestudents desire to spea%. Encourage students to gi"e their reactions to the pictures andinput at the start o a unit. There is no need to insist on whole sentences - they may onlymanage a phrase or e"en a word. Try to react to whatthey ha"e said rather than howthey ha"e said it.. Allow space and time or the students to spea%> You can record someo your lessons and calculate how much time you spend tal%ing and how much time thestudentsspend tal%ing. & necessary# see i you can change the situation o"er the term.+tudents oten ind it diicult to pro"ide a rapid spo%en reply to a 'uestion without timeto process an answer. +ometimes it may $e useul to gi"e the students in ad"ance the'uestions you will as% them so they can prepare. At the $eginning# it may $e $etter to letstudents "olunteer a reply rather than insist that they answer in turn. The 'uieterstudents may preer to $e gi"en the choice o spea%ing onto a tape at home. They couldthen# perhaps# gi"e you the cassette to listen to. Try to ensure that dierent peoplespea% each time. You can suggest that dierent people do the reporting $ac% atergroupwor%. & you ha"e some students who ne"er say anything# or who participate "erylittle# you need to as% yoursel why this is. &t may $e their preerred learningstrategy)style 0to listen and a$sor$# or they may eel shy# they may eel that they don!t%now enough# or they may eel that the lessons are dominated $y other students. & thesituation persists# you could tal% to the students concerned to ind out what they thin%

a$out the situation. &t may not $e a pro$lem or them at all>

!3. ongsWhat and Why?&n general# nearly all students li%e singing songs particularly i they are melodic. Theyare a way o recycling language in a !un! ormat# they de"elop a natural sense olanguage achie"ement and can also $ring a$out student in"ol"ement.Practical (deasYou can as% the students to suggest a song that you can all sing. &t is $est i the song isone that they all %now already so that e"eryone can sing. & you use songs regularly#

students can ta%e it in turns to $ring in a song or decide in their groups which song theywould li%e to sing ne*t time. &t is pro$a$ly $est to sing the song either at the "ery

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$eginning or the "ery end o a lesson. Ma%e sure you allow enough time - ;< minutes atleast - to gi"e students a chance to listen and then to sing together at least twice. +omestudents may eel shy a$out singing# don!t orce them> Play the song through irst# i youha"e it recorded - ma%e sure students can hear. & the students ha"e the words# theycan read or sing while they listen. &n some songs the students continue $y ma%ing up

words o their own.Try to "ary the presentation7 sometimes hal the class or dierent groups can sing the"erses and the other hal sings the chorus# i there is one. sometimes hal o the classsings alternate "erses. Perhaps an e*tro"ert has a wonderul "oice and can sing a solo>+ome students may ha"e a guitar and would li%e to play the tune along with the music.Perhaps at the end o the term)year# the students could gi"e a concert to other classesin the language centre.The $est thing to do with a song is to sing it> (owe"er# there are "arious teachingtechni'ues that you can use rom time to time with songs7 Gi"e the students the lyricswith some words missed out. The students ha"e to listen and put in the words. & thesong has a chorus or "erses that are repeated# you can put the students into groups

and gi"e each student one sentence rom the song. /hile they are listening# they ha"eto put the sentences in the right out. Gi"e them some 'uestions a$out the song $eorethey listen and sing. Aterwards# they can tell you their answers. +ing all the "ersese*cept the last one. Gi"e a choice o three "erses or the last one# 0you canmodiy)ma%e up you own1. +tudents ha"e to read it and wor% out which one its the tune$est.

!!. *ellingWhat and Why?Many students - and many nati"e English spea%ers - ind English spelling diicult. +inceEnglish has $een inluenced $y many other languages# it does not ha"e a completelyconsistent !it! $etween the way it is spo%en and the way it is written. &n addition# thein"ention o printing in the ;Dth century had the eect o !i*ing! the spelling o English ata time when the language was undergoing many changes.!Good spelling! is important. &t inluences the way people thin% o you# and your a$ility tocommunicate clearly. (owe"er# it is important not to o"er-emphasie spelling. 3or manystudents# spelling is something that ta%es care o itsel as they get more e*posure toEnglish. &n the initial stages o learning# a stress on correct spelling may discouragestudents rom using the language to try to e*press what they want to e*press. +omestudents may ha"e pro$lems in spelling in their own language# and drawing attention tothis in English may strengthen their eeling o ailure. The $est approach is pro$a$ly to

draw the students attention to spellings# and to do a little practice re'uently.Practical (deasEnsure that the students understand that there is little or no relationship $etweenpronunciation and spelling in English. You can ma%e this un $y saying# or e*ample#!/e say two tu7N $ut we write twuN.& all your students share the same mother tongue itis li%ely that they ma%e the same spelling errors. Ma%e a list o them and# i possi$le# putthe correct "ersion on a poster on the wall. +tudents can then reer to this when theyare writing. You could gi"e the students groups o words to learn# grouped aroundsounds. 3or e*ample# e7N words7 sweet# eet# meat# heat# etc. Point out to students howthe same sound is spelled in dierent ways. o the spelling errors all into groups2 3ore*ample# perhaps they ha"e trou$le remem$ering the dou$le consonant in some

comparati"es and superlati"es# or perhaps they conuse !ei! with !ie!. /ith the students#you could try up a chec%list o their common errors. They can then use this chec%list

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e"ery time they write something. Encourage the students to chec% spellings in wordlistsat the $ac% o their course $oo%. !Good spelling! pro$a$ly comes with reading. The morethe students read# the more it may help their spelling. Ater the students ha"e read ate*t# you could as% them to go $ac% and ocus on the words. As% them to write down 0orunderline)circle1 any words which they thin% they will ha"e trou$le spelling correctly

later. iscuss with the group their choices and ind out why they chose those words. Toencourage students to loo% closely at common letter patterns# ater they ha"e read ate*t# write some two- or three- letter patterns on the $oard. 03or e*ample# -ea-# -ough-#-th-. Then indi"idually or in teams as% them to ind as many e*amples as possi$le in thete*t o those letter patterns. +tudents can test each other in groups. Play !+pelling+nap>!# in groups o F-C. /rite on one side o some cards# words which they %now $utmay ind diicult. Ma%e sure there are at least three e*amples o each o the letterpatterns. +hule the cards. Each student has ;< or so cards. +tudents ta%e it in turns toput one o their cards in the centre o the ta$le and say the word on the card at thesame time. & the card which ollows has the same letter pattern they must shout !+nap>!.The person with the most cards at the end is the winner.

esearching the lassroomTo ind out i students who ha"e pro$lems with spelling in English also ha"e pro$lems inmother tongue spelling# as% their other su$6ect teachers i your can see some o theirwor%. Alternati"ely# you can dictate a short te*t to the students. 8ollect in the papers andma%e a note o the errors and the students who made them. Gi"e another $rie dictationin English and compare the results. To ind out the nature o spelling pro$lems that yourstudents ha"e# ma%e a list o the words that they misspell when you correct their wor%.Ater a ew wee%s# see i you can put the words into groups. Are there particular soundsthat they consistently misspell2 Are there words that they conuse2 0e.g. rightand write1oes pressure o time aect the students spelling2 Gi"e them a short period o time andas% them to write as much as they can a$out a topic. +ome time later# suggest anothertopic and di"ide the time up7 ;D minutes to write# D minutes to chec% and change.8ompare the results. Are your students aware o their spelling diiculties2 /hen theywrite something# as% them to underline the words they are not sure how to spell.8ompare this with the mista%es they ma%e.

!". tudent in0ol0ementWhat and Why?+tudent in"ol"ement is pro$a$ly the single most important actor in language learning.One o the greatest causes o drop out and student ailure in learning is that they do not

eel part o their course. 3or this reason# the encouragement o student in"ol"ement iscrucial or any language teacher. The aim is to in"ol"e the students as ully as possi$lein their English course# such that they eel it is theirsand one which is personallyrele"ant to them.Practical ideas+tart rom the students. /hen introducing a new topic# ind out what the studentsalready %now a$out it and what they would li%e to %now a$out it. Encourage regulare0aluation o how they are learning and ta%e steps accordingly Pro"ide choices$etween tas%s. +tudents do not ha"e to $e doing the same things all the time. Allowthem to decide. Pro"ide creati"e tas%s which draw on the students! imagination#e*perience and personal "iews. Pro"ide !larger! tas%s# such as whole acti"ities# where

students can eel reer to wor% in their own way. raw on the mother tongue 0inecessary1 as a means o in"ol"ing the students! %nowledge a$out how language

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wor%s. &n"ol"e students in the production o tests and ma%e tests less threatening.3ocus on topics which are worth learning a$out in their own right.

!#. 6asks in ,locksWhat and Why?A situation which oten arises in teaching is that students# wor%ing either in groups oralone# inish $eore each other. This may not $e a pro$lem. There is no particularreason# or e*ample# why students should ha"e to $e %ept ;


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The students don!t need to $e %ept ;


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"oca$ulary# a person can communicate eecti"ely e"en though he)she may $e "erywea% in grammatical %nowledge. Joca$ulary de"elopment will $e a %ey part o e"erylanguage course. This is achie"ed through "arious "oca$ulary related e*ercises#%eeping a "oca$ulary record $oo%# and recycling passi"e "oca$ulary to encourage amore acti"e use. &t can $e e*pected# howe"er# that the students! *assi0e%nowledge o

"oca$ulary 0their understanding1 will always $e greater than their acti0ea$ilities 0whatthey are a$le to produce1. The same is li%ely to $e true in the mother tongue.Practical (deas/riting "oca$ulary pules or the Early 3inishers! o* gi"es students time to a$sor$new words. Encourage students to compare new words with translations in the mothertongue. Encourage students to guess new words in te*ts. +how the students how theycan use a dictionary. This will help them $uild up their "oca$ulary outside o class time.You could encourage the students to %eep a "oca$ulary note$oo% in which they notedown words)phrases new to them and their meaning in their language. +tudents can $eput into small groups to test each other on "oca$ulary or to de"ise a "oca$ulary test orthe class. 3or each theme# the students could gradually construct a large "oca$ulary

pule. ecide in ad"ance with the students what %ind you will ma%e 0 e.g.7 ind thewords# or one long word acting as the $asis or all the words# a traditional crosswordpule# a circular pule in which the last letter o one word is the irst letter o the ne*tetc.1 and put the plan on the wall. uring the two or three wee%s o the theme eachstudent puts a a clue on the pule. At the end o the theme# students write the cluesand the $lan% pule in their $oo%s and do the pule together. !& spy! is a li"ely"oca$ulary game which younger students li%e playing. 0One student says !& spy with mylittle eye something $eginning with !w! !. The o$6ect must $e in the room. +tudentsguess. The one to get it right has the ne*t turn1esearching the classroomMost research suggests that it is ar easier to learn "oca$ulary in !chun%s! o meaningthan as isolated words generally grouped around themes and topics. This gi"es aconte*t with which the students can associate language and thus ma%es it morememora$le. You can see the eect o conte*t# meaning and association with a ewsimple e*periments with one o your classes. Gi"e your students a list o < randomwords to learn and# at the same time# a short passage a$out something interesting. Testtheir a$ility to recall it in writing. As% them to write down anythingthey remem$er romthe list and anythingrom the passage 0or the purposes o this e*periment# ignorespelling mista%es1. One wee% and two wee%s later# test the students on $oth thingsagain. /hich do they remem$er most2 (ow much is lost rom the list and rom thepassage2 Try a similar e*periment $ut# this time# acti"ely in"ol"e the students with the

language in some way in order to $uild up associations with the language. 3or e*ample#you could identiy each word on the list with a part o the room 0as% the students toimagine that the word !street! is in the corner o the room# !traic! is near the window#!airport! is near the door and so on.1. A wee% later# point to each part o the room andsee i they can recall the word. You can try a similar e*periment with remem$ering!chun%s! o te*t. As% the students to act it out# perhaps in pairs as a dialogue. Orperhaps they could sing it or associate physical mo"ement with each sentence.

"!. ero Le0elWhat and why?Zero le"el is the term oten used to reer to students who are at the "ery $eginnings o

learning a language or at the $eginning o learning a particular aspect o language 0suchas the past tense1. The term ero le"el# howe"er# suggests that they come to us with

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Documents

A-Z Young Learner Methodology Guide