CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION1.1 Background to the study

The overall goal of the Ministry of Education is to provide relevant and quality education

for all Ghanaians, including the disadvantaged, to enable them acquire skills which will

make them functionally literate and productive to facilitate poverty alleviation and

promote the rapid socio-economic growth of the country (Ministry of Education, 2012).

Preparing students for the 21st century cannot be accomplished without a strong and

sustaining emphasis on Social Studies (Ministry of Education 2012). Social Studies

provides cornerstone skills that are the key to opening doors for a more diverse,

competitive workforce and responsible citizenry. Students use critical thinking, self-

assessment, reasoning, problem-solving, collaboration, research, and investigation to

make connections in new and innovative ways as they progress through Social Studies

education. These standards outline the knowledge and skills needed to help young people

develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as

citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world (Shulman,

1986).

Ghana’s education has gone through many reforms dating back to colonial times to date.

All these reforms aim at bringing constant improvements in its availability and relevance

of education to the citizenry. In achieving this, the Ministry of Education in Ghana has

since the early 1950’s modified their entry requirements for admissions into the Teacher

Training Colleges. Time was when applicants entered Training Colleges from standard

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seven, but this changed to entry after Senior Secondary School. Again, the duration of

training was also changed from one year to two years and to three years. These changes

in duration spent at the Training College help to ensure higher content knowledge before

and during training.

It is traditionally accepted that for any effective teaching, the teacher should have both

the content knowledge and the pedagogy. Teachers’ knowledge about the subject matter

to be learned or taught and that of content to be covered in the syllabus are very

important and when applied well will promote effective teaching and learning. A teacher

with deep pedagogical knowledge understands how students construct knowledge and

acquire skills and how they develop habits of mind and positive dispositions toward

learning. As such, pedagogical knowledge requires an understanding of cognitive, social,

and developmental theories of learning and how they apply to students in the classroom.

A thorough grounding in college-level subject matter and professional competence in

professional practice are necessary for good teaching.

Recent scholars have emphasized that meaningful learning is a product not of activity per

se, but of sense-making discourse aimed at developing conceptual understanding and the

links between theory and observable phenomena (Bereiter, 1994; Mortimer & Scotty,

2003). Thus, learning is not accomplished through teacher’s approach to teaching and

learning but rather how the teacher will integrate curriculum content to teacher’s own

professional content knowledge to diverse interests and abilities of learners. The teacher

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is required to blend both the nature and the scope of the subject to achieve its purpose,

goals and objectives.

In Ghana, Social Studies seems to occupy a high profile in the Senior High School

curriculum and it is one of the core subjects to be studied at that level. Because of its

importance, the government of Ghana is committed to ensuring the provision of high

quality Social Studies teachers in our educational system through the Universities in the

country. Besides, Social Studies is compulsory at the Junior and Senior High Schools.

Personal experience and unverified information seem to point to the fact that most of our

graduates from the senior high schools display their inability in the needed behavioural

change which Social Studies seeks to address. Consistently, negative citizenry

behaviours of all sorts are on the increase in the country and one begins to ask if the

subject Social Studies is actually achieving its purpose and goals. Social Studies was

introduced into Senior High Schools in Ghana and made compulsory in September 1996.

It is expected that the nation would have by this time realized some positive behavioural

traits among the products of the Senior High School. The question is why is it that the

subject is not achieving its intended goals and purpose. Do the teachers have any gap in

content?

It is a well known fact that teachers’ content knowledge will influence how teaching is

carried out in the classroom. This awareness prompted the researcher to conduct a study

into teachers’ content knowledge of Social Studies and its effects on the teaching of

Social Studies in Ghana. The effectiveness of teaching is highly enhanced by the

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technique and content knowledge. Integrating teachers’ content knowledge and

pedagogical content knowledge will produce a multifaceted and dynamic classroom

context.

Conceptual framework

The framework for this study is deduced from Shulman’s formulation of “pedagogical

content knowledge”. The researcher has applied Shulman’s theory by extending it to the

phenomenon of teachers integrating content into their pedagogy for effective teaching.

The conceptual framework builds on Shulman’s (1987, 1986) descriptions of pedagogical

content knowledge (PCK) to describe how teachers’ content knowledge and pedagogical

content knowledge interact with one another to produce effective teaching. He claimed

that the emphases on teachers’ subject knowledge and pedagogy were being treated as

mutually exclusive domains in research concerned with these domains (1987). The

practical consequence of such exclusion was the production of teacher education

programmes in which a focus on either subject matter or pedagogy dominated. To

address this dichotomy, he proposed to consider the necessary relationship between the

two by introducing the notion of PCK.

This knowledge includes knowing what teaching approaches fit the content, and likewise,

knowing how elements of the content can be arranged for better teaching. This

knowledge is different from the knowledge of a disciplinary expert and also from the

general pedagogical knowledge shared by teachers across disciplines. PCK is concerned

with the representation and formulation of concepts, pedagogical techniques, and

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knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn, knowledge of students’

prior knowledge and theories of epistemology. It also involves knowledge of teaching

strategies that incorporate appropriate conceptual representations, to address learner

difficulties and misconceptions and foster meaningful understanding. It also includes

knowledge of what the students bring to the learning situation, knowledge that might be

either facilitative or dysfunctional for the particular learning task at hand. This

knowledge of students includes their strategies, prior conceptions (both “naïve” and

instructionally produced); misconceptions students are likely to have about a particular

domain and potential misapplications of prior knowledge. PCK exists at the intersection

of content and pedagogy. Thus, it does not refer to a simple consideration of both content

and pedagogy, but in isolation; but rather to an amalgam of content and pedagogy thus

enabling transformation of content into pedagogically powerful forms. PCK represents

the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular aspects of

subject matter are organized, adapted, and represented for instruction.

Shulman argued that having knowledge of subject matter and general pedagogical

strategies, though necessary, were not sufficient for capturing the knowledge of good

teachers. To characterize the complex ways in which teachers think about how particular

content should be taught, he argued for “pedagogical content knowledge” as the content

knowledge that deals with the teaching process, including “the ways of representing and

formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others”. If teachers were to be

successful they would have to confront both issues (of content and pedagogy)

simultaneously, by embodying “the aspects of content most germane to its teachability”

(Shulman, 1986:9). At the heart of PCK is the manner in which subject matter is

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transformed for teaching. This occurs when the teacher interprets the subject matter,

finding different ways to represent it and make it accessible to learners.

Below is a diagram showing teachers’ content knowledge plus pedagogical knowledge

producing effective teaching outcomes, that is, when properly integrated.

Figure 1.1: An Illustration of the PCK Model

Shulman in his PCK, is concerned with the representation and formulation of concepts,

pedagogical techniques, and knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn,

knowledge of students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology but not how

teachers’ can integrate subject matter and curricula content knowledge with pedagogical

techniques to develop attitudes, values, skills and knowledge for citizenship education.

There is a relationship between teachers’ content knowledge and pedagogy which when

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Effective Teaching Outcome

well integrated will help in achieving the purpose and goals Social Studies seeks to

achieve. That is, teachers’ content knowledge plus pedagogical content knowledge will

promote effective teaching.

1.2 Statement to the Problem

Since 1996, Social Studies was introduced into secondary schools in Ghana and was

made compulsory for all students. It is expected that by now the nation would have

realized some of the benefits of the purpose for which it was introduced in SHS. It is

expected that through the teaching of Social Studies, the nation should produce

responsible citizens who are well informed, reflective, concerned and participatory in the

development of the nation. This implies that most of the students that have passed

through the senior secondary system would have had their civic competencies developed

sufficiently enough to enable them participate actively in the nation’s development.

On the contrary, it is sad to note that despite the goals and purposes of Social Studies, the

expected outcomes in its learners after their contact with it in secondary schools appear

unachieved. Many people are putting up behaviours contrary to the goals and objectives

of the subject. In the researcher’s opinion, Ghanaians are becoming intolerant to national

issues, people are becoming more self- centred than thinking about their neighbours, and

people are showing apathy to national development. There is poor attitude to work and

above all people are more tribally centred neglecting the idea of Ghana as a nation. The

Ghanaian attitude to voting and election in general are matters of concern. These seem to

suggest that Social Studies is not being well taught in our schools. It is this identified gap

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that has compelled the researcher to find out the content knowledge base of the teachers

in Social Studies in our secondary schools and its effects on the teaching of the subject.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

One will expect that sixteen years after the introduction of Social Studies in schools, the

youthful population in Ghana could have justified the purpose and objectives for which it

was brought into the curriculum of Ghana and made compulsory at the SHS and JHS

levels. Since the negative attitudes still persist one would like to find out the cause of

such a negative trend in our national development.

With the increased number of years in training, one expects that the teacher of the subject

would have been adequately exposed to both the content knowledge and the pedagogy.

The researcher therefore investigated whether the content knowledge of teachers is

appropriate and adequate and whether they are able to blend these in the process of

transmission of knowledge. This was to help establish why Ghanaians’ basic attitudes

and values about life are unable to transform the society.

According to Shulman (1997), teaching skills are related to the acquisition of knowledge,

while professional action is considered to be the application of such knowledge.

Consequently, the professional learning of teachers starts from concrete experience and

their subjective perceptions of practical situations. The transmission of general concepts

from theory and research is therefore of limited importance. Context-based experience

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and reflection may indeed be important, but I still suggest that content knowledge among

teachers can make a difference in the level of learning.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are:

To find out how far Social Studies teachers at the SHS level understand the

content of what they are teaching.

To investigate how far Social Studies teachers are able to achieve the objectives

of the subject when teaching.

To examine how teachers’ content knowledge of Social Studies impacts on the

students.

1.5 Research Questions

The research questions that were used to guide this study are:

How far do Social Studies teachers understand the content they are teaching at the

Senior High School?

How far have teachers of Social Studies been able to achieve the objectives of the

subject they teach?

How do the contents of Social Studies taught impact on the students?

What is the general level of effectiveness of Social Studies teachers in the SHS?

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1.6 Significance of the Study

Every subject has its own peculiarity and the essence for its study. By consensus, Social

Studies is citizenship education. This definition has given the teaching of Social Studies

peculiar scope, nature, purpose, goals and objectives which distinguish it from the other

subjects. The ultimate goal of Social Studies is to prepare students to have the needed

civic competencies. Social Studies teaching equips the learner to take certain decisions

for his/her survival.

In this study, the researcher attempted to establish the importance of content knowledge

and the relevance of professional training that a Social Studies teacher ought to get to

make him or her effective. Such findings could inform Colleges of Education and the

Universities on the need to modify their Social Studies curricula to suit what the Ministry

of Education expects at the SHS level. Shulman (1997) stated that teachers’ content

knowledge and pedagogical knowledge should interact with one another to produce

effective teaching. The practice in our Colleges of Education and the teaching

Universities where methods of teaching are taught by the Faculty of Education should be

stopped since it does not allow every subject area with its peculiarity to have its

repertoire of teaching so as to bring out its peculiarity. The study could also help Colleges

of Education and Universities which teach general methodology to restructure their

programmes to suit content methodology for effective teaching and learning. Teacher

Education could restructure contents of Social Studies to reflect its goal and objectives

for effective teaching. Again, teachers who teach Social Studies could know the

relevance of teacher’s content knowledge to the teaching of Social Studies. Social Studies

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Association could also use this study to improve upon its members contents knowledge to

teach to reflect the nature, scope, goal and objectives of the subject to develop civic

competencies of the learners.

1.7 Delimitation

In teaching Social Studies, the content knowledge of the teacher plays a vital role in

achieving the aims and goals of the subject. The researcher restricted herself to Sekondi-

Takoradi Metropolis instead of covering all Social Studies teachers in at least five

Districts in the Western Region for wider coverage. The researcher limited the study to

one District because the researcher wanted to do both qualitative and quantitative work to

unveil the situation on the ground with regards to teachers’ content knowledge. The

researcher restricted herself to areas close by to cut down cost. This means that for a

more complete study on teachers’ content knowledge; other Districts need to be

researched into to help evaluate the performance of Social Studies in the Western region.

1.8 Organisation of the study

This study is organised into six chapters. Chapter one is the introduction to the study

which provides the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose and

objectives, research questions, significance of the study, limitations and delimitations of

the study. Chapter two reviews related literature focusing on content of Social Studies,

the place of content in teaching, teaching effectiveness, Social Studies, attitudinal change

and the place of methods in teaching. Chapter three describes the methodology used for

the study. This includes the research design, population, sample techniques, procedures

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and instruments used to collect data as well as methods used to analyse the data collected.

Chapter four deals with the presentation of data collected. Chapter five is the discussion

on the findings of the research. Chapter six is the summary, conclusion,

recommendations and suggestion for further research.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Introduction

This chapter is a review of literature on the major themes in the study, namely; content

of Social Studies, the place of methods in teaching, and the place of content in teaching,

teaching effectiveness and Social Studies and attitudinal development.

2.1 Content of Social Studies

The content of a discipline is largely dictated by the acceptable definition prescribed by

its practitioners. Unfortunately, in the field of Social Studies the practitioners have held

different definitions and there are those who do not seem to see any link between the

definition and the content.

According to Shulman (1992), teachers need to master two types of knowledge: (a)

content, also known as "deep" knowledge of the subject itself, and (b) knowledge of the

curricular development. Content knowledge encompasses what Bruner (1960) called the

"structure of knowledge" namely: the theories, principles, and concepts of a particular

discipline. Especially important is content knowledge that deals with the teaching

process, including the most useful forms of representing and communicating content and

how students’ best learn the specific concepts and topics of a subject. "If beginning

teachers are to be successful, they must wrestle simultaneously with issues of

pedagogical content or knowledge as well as general pedagogy or generic teaching

principles" (Grossman, as cited in Ornstein, Thomas, & Lasley, 2000: 508). Shulman

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(1995) defined content knowledge as the knowledge about the subject, for example,

mathematics and its structure.

This implies that knowledge of Social Studies and knowledge of Social Studies

presentations are related to content knowledge, while knowledge of students and how

teaching is done is related to pedagogical content knowledge. Thus, what a teacher

perceives the subject to be and the methodology to make known what he/she perceived

will bring about a well presentation of the subject so that its philosophy, nature, goal and

objectives will be well integrated to produce learners whose civic competencies are well

developed. The perceived knowledge of the subject is what Shulman (1995) termed as its

subject matter and deep understanding of the subject matter is the foundation for

pedagogical content knowledge which enables the teacher to teach effectively so that

students become well informed to develop their civic competence.

Shulman (1995) was of the view that, for a teacher to be able to teach effectively, he/she

needs to understand the subject matter deeply so that he/she can relate one idea to

another, and address misconceptions in students. Teachers need to see how ideas connect

across fields of study and to everyday life. This kind of understanding provides a

foundation for pedagogical content knowledge that enables teachers to make ideas

accessible to others.

This means that a number of factors may influence the teaching of Social Studies but

teachers play an important role in the teaching process. The common belief in society is,

if a Social Studies teacher knows Social Studies very well, he or she is the best person to

teach Social Studies. But, what about knowing how to teach Social Studies?

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Fennema and Franke (1992) came out with components of Social Studies teachers’

knowledge as;

1) Knowledge of Social Studies

Content knowledge

The nature of Social Studies

The mental organisation of teacher knowledge

2) Knowledge of Social Studies representations

3) Knowledge of students’ cognitions

4) Knowledge of teaching and decision-making

The first item is about having conceptual understanding of Social Studies. They argue

that if a teacher has a conceptual understanding of Social Studies, this influences

classroom instruction in a positive way. Therefore, it is important for teachers to possess

Social Studies knowledge. Teachers’ interrelated knowledge is very important as well as

procedural rules. They also emphasize the importance of knowledge of Social Studies

representations, because Social Studies is seen as a composition of a large set of highly

related disciplines.

Again, Fennema and Franke (1992) stated that “if teachers do not know how to integrate

these disciplines into a form that enables learners to relate the Social Studies to what they

already know, they will not learn with understanding” (p.19). This means that Social

Studies knowledge for teaching goes beyond that captured in the curriculum content of

Social Studies. For example, teachers of Social Studies do not only need to teach to test

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but also need to know how to use pictures or diagrams to represent Social Studies

concepts and facts which provide students with information that will make them to be

concerned, reflective and participatory citizens who will help solve problems of the

individual’s survival and that of the nation. Social Studies seeks to develop in learners

social understanding and civic efficacy which means the readiness and willingness to

assume citizenship responsibilities and to make informed and reasoned decisions for the

public good as citizens of a democratic society.

Knowledge of students’ cognitions is seen as one of the important components of teacher

knowledge, because, according to Fennema and Franke (1992), learning is based on what

happens in the classroom, and thus, not only what students do, but also the learning

environment is important for learning. The last component of teacher knowledge is

“knowledge of teaching and decision making”. Teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, judgments,

and thoughts have an effect on the decisions they make which influence their plans and

actions in the classroom.

An, Kulm and Wu (2004) pointed out that pedagogical content knowledge has three

components:

• Knowledge of content

• Knowledge of curriculum

• Knowledge of teaching

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They are of the opinion that knowledge of content and curriculum knowledge are of great

importance to knowledge of teaching because teacher’s subject matter which is the

knowledge of content plus the content given in the syllabus will produce effective

teaching and learning. They were of the same view with Shulman (1992) and they accept

that content knowledge is the core component of pedagogical content knowledge. In

Social Studies, for example, its content deals with such distillate knowledge,

development of attitudes, values and skills that are essential in solving the problems of

the individual’s survival in a given community. This means that what can rightly be

called Social Studies would centre on issues, questions and problems of the individual’s

survival in the society and the development of positive mind and skills towards their

solutions. To be able to achieve this requires the teacher’s deep understanding about the

subject and his/her right approach to the teaching of the content as prescribed to him/her.

Grouws and Schultz (1996) summed up the argument when they stated that “pedagogical

content knowledge includes, but is not limited to, useful representations, unifying ideas,

clarifying examples and counter examples, helpful analogies, important relationships, and

connections among ideas (p. 46)”. For example, Kizlik (2012), who for many years

perceived Social Studies as amalgamation of the social sciences, was teaching Social

Studies courses as history, civics and geography at the secondary level. From his

experience, he claimed he had reached some conclusions about what it takes to teach

these diverse subject areas effectively. Social Studies is rather broad set of subject-matter

courses, and for a teacher at the secondary level, it is highly unusual that he or she would

have mastery of more than two or three of them. Included in the Social Studies

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curriculum are such courses as economics, history, geography, civics or government and

anthropology. Political Science is usually reserved for the college level, but it appears as

a course in many high school curricula. Kizlik (2012) stated that “much too often, Social

Studies courses are regarded as relatively unimportant subject matter, whether in

elementary school, middle school, or high school”. This is a perception used by many

practitioners and it leads to diminished attention being paid to Social Studies as a serious

subject area, yet in the overall development of the intellect of students, no other subject

matter content holds as much promise.

Kizlik (2012) made his assertion by using citizenship education. He said “if an intended

learning outcome of the Social Studies curriculum is good citizenship, then it is patently

clear that there is a disconnect between intentions and outcomes” (p.43). This trend has

persisted, despite countless reforms in the curriculum, instructional techniques, and

programmes of studies and goals promulgated by such organizations as the National

Council for the Social Studies, and the virtual mountain of programmes and technology

“solutions" touted as effective.

In the main, Social Studies is about understandings, not skills. Ostensibly, these

understandings will lead one to become just, compassionate, honest, and perhaps even

curious about not just questions of "what," but also questions of "how" and "why." Bob

as cited in Kizlik (2012) said that “learning the content of the social studies is about

creating knowledge, not memorizing facts. Students certainly require factual information

to construct knowledge, but that is only the beginning. As opposed to the content of the

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"structured disciplines," the Social Studies is especially amenable to constructivist ideas

for teaching and learning. Constructivism has little value in learning skills such as those

found in mathematics, language arts, and certain content represented in the sciences

(Kizlik, 2012). For the Social Studies, it can be pure magic in the hands of competent

teachers.

Various schools of thought have emerged to give different definitions to the subject but

there has been a consensus that the definition of Social Studies is Citizenship Education.

Blege (2000) viewed citizenship education as “the instructional preparation of the

younger generation towards making students good and effective persons in society”

(p. 13). Blege’s (2000) definition implies helping the up and coming members of the

society to acquire adequate knowledge, desirable attitudes, values and skills, to enable

them become useful citizens in the society in which they live. Obviously, the word

preparation used in Blege’s (2000) definition means a systematic orientation of students

for readiness towards citizenship functions including active participation in every effort

designed to promote the progress of society. These may involve active participation in

communal life such as clean-up campaigns, voting in elections, etc.

Pecku (1994) viewed citizenship education as education which sharpens the civic

competencies of the individual. Civic competencies here have to do with the citizen’s

ability to perform duties expected of a citizen. These include showing concerns for

activities that help uplift the image of the society he/she finds himself or herself in.

Even though by consensus Social Studies is accepted as citizenship education in Ghana, it

must however be emphasized that there are still arguments about how this citizenship

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education must be carried out (Bekoe, 2006). From these arguments emerge two schools

of thought: one advocating for the integration of knowledge for solving problems of the

individual’s survival (citizenship education) and the other amalgamation of the social

sciences to give students broader knowledge about what happens around him/her; an

opinion Quartey described as education for the citizenry (Quartey, 2003).

Citizenship education in sum is the preparation of citizens to participate actively in a

democratic society (Blege, 2000; Pecku, 1994). Blege (2001) and Odumah (2003) agreed

that “the nature of Social Studies is problem-solving”. In an attempt to give effect to this

position these authors explained that Social Studies deals with the contemporary

persistent problems of human survival. These problems, according to Blege (2001), are

those current and “perplexing issues” in our particular societies which when left

unattended for a long time poses a threat to the continued survival of people in that

society. This raises two major points about the nature of Social Studies. Firstly, Social

Studies deals with the problems of the “here” and the “now”. The “here” refers to the

problems of the particular society. For instance, Social Studies in Ghana should deal with

the problems that confront Ghana as a nation. This is because the problems of Ghana are

not essentially the same as those of Nigeria. Although, the two countries are developing

countries Ghana however faces distinct economic and social problems that Nigeria might

not be facing.

With the problems of the “now”, Social Studies as a subject is concerned with current

socio-economic and political issues or challenges that confront people in their society.

This is better expressed in the definition by Quartey (1985) that Social Studies equips

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“man” with the necessary tools to combat the problems of human survival in his/her

community. For instance, Ghana is currently faced with high rates of road accidents,

HIV/AIDS pandemic, deep seated political division, killings of people by loved ones and

the nation’s currency depreciating as against the foreign currency.

Secondly, the problems Social Studies seek to prepare individuals to be able to identify

and find solution to must be persistent and contemporary. The persistent and

contemporary problems are those re-current problems that continue to afflict society in

spite of the many attempts to deal with them in the past. Some of those problems, in

Ghana, that Social Studies must deal with are corruption, maintaining constitutional

order, ethnocentrism, road accidents, armed robbery and economic dependency

associated with tripling foreign debts among others.

Ultimately, Social Studies is, or at least should be, about helping students develop

positive values that will lead them to make good decisions, do the right thing, and be

decent, moral, caring, and involved citizens. Akinlaye (2003) also share the same view

that “the competence in teaching Social Studies depends largely on sound understanding

of its philosophy” and that how the subject is perceived plays an important role in the

determination of its goal and objectives.

Another writer like Quartey (2003) said that the philosophy of a subject is the main core

that links the content, teaching and assessment of that subject; appropriate teaching

techniques and assessment procedures depend to a large extent on what the subject stands

for. To achieve the intended objective of Social Studies therefore begins with a clear

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understanding of what the subject is about. Effective teaching of Social Studies requires

that its teachers hold perceptions that fall in line with what the subject is intended for.

This implies that, Social Studies knowledge for teaching goes beyond that captured in the

curriculum content of Social Studies and also pedagogy plus content knowledge will lead

to effective teaching of Social Studies which will at the end imbibe in students’ attitudes,

values, knowledge and skills for their survival in the society. For example, teachers of

Social Studies do not only need to teach to test but also need to know how to use pictures

or diagrams to represent Social Studies concepts and facts to students, provide students

with information that will make students to be concerned, reflective and participatory

citizens to help solve problems of man’s survival and that of the nation. The Social

Studies curriculum builds four capacities in young people: disciplinary knowledge,

thinking skills, commitment to democratic values, and citizen participation and at the end

of each lesson, teachers must achieve that in their teaching.

The contents of Social Studies are drawn from several social sciences but not determined

by the discipline of any one of these. Social Studies is meant to cover the ground,

traditionally associated with History, Geography, Economics, Civics etc, if the teaching

of these subjects only imparts miscellaneous and unrelated information and does not

throw any light on it or provide insight into social conditions and problems or create the

desire to improve the existing state of things, their educative significance will be

negligible. The whole group of studies has, therefore, to be viewed as a compact whole,

whose object is to adjust the students to their social environment.

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Social Studies teaching must include material which is conducive to the development of a

well informed, intelligent person who is capable of comprehending properly the current

problems, is keen to accept responsibilities as a citizen for the welfare of all and has

developed insights, skills and moral qualities which are so essential and desirable in a

democratic society, this, Kizlik (2012), also said under his view on pedagogy.

This was exactly again what Shulman (1995: 40) was saying in his pedagogical content

knowledge that effective teaching includes, “the ways of representing and formulating the

subject that make it comprehensible to others … an understanding of what makes the

learning of specific topics easy or difficult; the conceptions and preconceptions that

students of different ages and backgrounds bring with them to the learning of those most

frequently taught topics and lessons” and this portrays a teacher who possesses an in-

depth knowledge of how to represent the subject matter to learners.

Additionally, pedagogical content knowledge refers to the ability of the teacher to

transform content into forms that are pedagogically powerful and yet adaptive to the

variations in ability and background presented by the students (Shulman, 1987, cited in

An, Kulm and Wu, 2004).

Meaning, Social Studies content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge are

integrated parts of effective Social Studies instruction. In order to construct Social

Studies concepts in students’ mind, pedagogical knowledge as well as Social Studies

content knowledge is needed. The manner in which teachers relate their subject matter

(what they know about what they teach) to their pedagogical knowledge (what they know

about teaching) and how subject matter knowledge is a part of the process of pedagogical

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reasoning are seen as integrants of pedagogical content knowledge (Cochran, DeRuiter &

King, 1993).

Most researchers point out the importance of Social Studies content knowledge as well as

pedagogical knowledge. Despite this widespread interest and concern, what counts as

“subject- matter knowledge for teaching” and how it relates to student achievement has

remained inadequately specified in past research. A closer look at the educational

production function literature, for example, reveals that researchers working in this

tradition have typically measured teachers’ knowledge using proxy variables, such as

courses taken, degrees attained, or results of basic skills tests. This stands in sharp

contrast to another group of education scholars who have begun to conceptualize

teachers’ knowledge for teaching differently, arguing that teacher effects on student

achievement are driven by teachers’ ability to understand and use subject-matter

knowledge to carry out the tasks of teaching (Ball, 1990; Shulman, 1986; Wilson,

Shulman, & Richert, 1987).

Kahan, Cooper and Bethea’s (2003) review shared the same concern that “student learn

more Social Studies if their teachers knew more Social Studies but content knowledge in

the subject area does not suffice for good teaching” (p. 223). However, they also outlined

that the content of pedagogical content knowledge is ‘content-specific and at the same

time goes beyond simple knowledge of Social Studies therefore a Social Studies teacher

may not posses it. Because teachers’ knowledge has not been adequately measured, the

existing educational production function research could be limited in terms of its

conclusions, not only regarding the magnitude of the effect of teachers’ knowledge on

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student learning but also regarding the kinds of teacher knowledge that matter most in

producing student learning. Teachers’ content knowledge and pedagogy knowledge

interact with one another to produce effective teaching.

2.2 THE PLACE OF CONTENT IN TEACHING

In recent years, teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter they teach has attracted

increasing attention from policymakers. Programmes such as Social Studies workshop for

SHS Social Studies teachers, English language workshop for SHS English teachers and

the National Science Foundation’s Math-Science Partnerships are all aimed at providing

content-focused professional development intended to improve teachers’ content

knowledge. The focus on subject-matter knowledge is evidence suggesting that teachers

have not made the necessary impact on their teaching and that they lack the essential

knowledge for teaching their field of area (e.g., Ball, 1990; Ma, 1999).

Despite this widespread interest and concern, what counts as “subject matter knowledge

for teaching” and how it relates to student achievement has remained inadequately

specified in past research. A literature read for example, reveals that researchers working

in this tradition have typically measured teachers’ knowledge using proxy variables, such

as courses taken, degrees attained, or results of basic skills tests. This stands in sharp

contrast to another group of education scholars who have begun to conceptualize

teachers’ knowledge for teaching differently, arguing that teacher effects on student

achievement are driven by teachers’ ability to understand and use subject-matter

knowledge to carry out the tasks of teaching (Ball, 1990; Shulman, 1986; Wilson,

Shulman, & Richert,1987).

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The National Council for Social Studies said that, teaching Social Studies powerfully and

authentically begins with a deep knowledge and understanding of the subject and its

unique goals. Social Studies programs prepare students to identify, understand, and work

to solve the challenges facing our diverse nation in an increasingly interdependent world.

Education for citizenship should help students acquire and learn to use the skills,

knowledge, and attitudes that will prepare them to be competent and responsible citizens

throughout their lives. Competent and responsible citizens are informed and thoughtful,

participate in their communities, are involved politically, and exhibit moral and civic

virtues (NCSS, 2008).

Teacher education, competence, and practice is an important topic, but still there has, at

least in the Ghanaian context, been limited research on teachers’ competence as well as

performance when it comes to Social Studies as a school subject. Several studies have

been directed toward the content and evolution of the national curriculum of Social

Studies. Others have been concerned with Social Studies textbooks, while yet others have

done research on students attitudes toward and practicing of democratic values in the

school setting. To my knowledge, there has been an empirical research exploring the

priorities, perspectives, and teaching methods of Social Studies teachers. The conclusion

from these different studies is, of course, more nuanced than I am able to express in a few

lines, but a general tendency appears to be that Social Studies, in line with other school

subjects, has been subject to changing content and intentions based on general trends in

school policy. To Clausen, text books, on the other hand, are still limited in their ability

to express social and political themes from a non-traditional perspective (Clausen 2007), and

teachers are largely unable to depart from text-books and traditional teaching methods.

26

As expressed by Christophersen, et al (2003) a stronger emphasis on social science methods

in national curricula, has not changed the teaching practice of social science teachers.

They are still teaching Social Studies in a classical manner, applying traditional teaching

methods. When this is said, however, teaching and writing textbooks for Social Studies is

not a simple assignment, because there is more than one perspective on what the intention

and content of the subject should be.

According to Børhaug (2005), Social Studies is short of a specific didactical canon

defining the subject matter’s most important purpose, goal, content and teaching

methods. This makes the subject matter a vulnerable one, set out to cover topics and

themes that the school should be concerned with, but that do not fit into any of the other

established school subjects. Such a school subject becomes a difficult one to teach.

Altogether, Børhaug (2005) identifies at least three different perspectives on what should

be the content of Social Studies as a school subject.

Firstly, an important purpose is to legitimize the current structure of the society by

transferring democratic values, and teaching students about the established social and

political Institutions. From a political science perspective this is, of course, important to

maintain established structures, such as for example democracy and free speech (March

& Johan 1995). There are several ways to teach Social Studies to secure such intentions.

For example, one can render democracy as identical with our own political institutions,

one can avoid critical discussion of established institutions, or one can express social and

political institutions as solely subject to a national dimension (Børhaug 2005). Clausen

27

(2007) and Haavelsrud (1979) said that, for those studying Social Studies text-books, this

is exactly what they find. The socialization into certain values is strong, and some topics

are not at all treated in a critical manner. Empirical studies do, indeed, indicate that the

legitimizing/socialization purpose of Social Studies is heavily represented in textbooks as

well as in the daily teaching of Social Studies. There are, nevertheless, reasons to be

sceptical to this trend.

Also, Tønnesson (2003) expressed that, if something is expressed in one perspective,

without presenting the alternatives, this is highly unethical and contrary to scientific

ethics. The second perspective on Social Studies, introduced by Børhaug (2005) is to

treat Social Studies as a subject that should teach students important skills that may be

useful in their everyday life. This would involve for example how to vote and what

welfare rights you have, as well as critical thinking skills and methodological

competence. In the most recent national curriculum, this has become an important

perspective, suggesting that students should learn the appropriate skills to manage

socially and politically. However, there are many themes in Social Studies that do not fit

into this perspective, such as immigration, socialization, and international relations. In

addition, many of those studying trends in the national curriculum are sceptical towards

the tendency to focus on skills rather than knowledge (Skarpenes, 2007; Foros 2006). It

appears plausible that applying skills and methods becomes difficult without some

background knowledge of the society in which new knowledge is to be constructed.

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The third perspective suggested by Børhaug (2005) is a more critical approach where the

goal of Social Studies teaching is that the students should become reflective upon their

own action, and the social and political system. Students should learn to understand that

political behaviour and institutions are not given, but subject to evaluation and change.

This requires knowledge of the social and political system, as well as the student’s

position within it. But it also requires political skills and the ability to cooperate with

other, as well as the methodological skills to independently evaluate information.

According to Habermas (1996) and Englund (2009), studies indicate that text-books have

tendencies to be moralistic and one-sided, and teachers appear unable to teach Social

Studies in critical manner. Teachers should be able to introduce topics and themes from

the national curriculum in various perspectives, even if these various perspectives are not

fully represented in the textbook. Central in this regard is the idea of the deliberative

democracy. This implies that a Social Studies text book does not make a teacher a good

teacher, also, it does not make the subject easier to be taught by any teacher of other

discipline as it is going on in some schools, again, the text book will not make a teacher

teach effectively to achieve the intended goals, purpose and objectives it seeks to achieve.

Englund (2009) also said that, students develop citizenship literacy as they have the

opportunity to expand their competence to understand and to deliberate upon plural ideas

and arguments: a communication which is about sharing as well as contesting different

ways of apprehending the world.

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According to Ljunggren and Öst (2010), the teacher should, therefore, not only introduce

students to the various perspectives, but should open up for discussing these various

perspectives, and possible political controversies, in class. This involves going beyond

the dominant pattern of in-class communication where the teacher teaches and the

students listen. Meaning, Social Studies teachers should be better at making the Social

Studies school subject less abstract by introducing the students to Social Studies research

projects. This makes the student to be part of the lesson. Social and political behaviour

and structures are highly present in the students’ everyday life. To make this possible is

to engage students in social science research projects related to their own environment.

Student can, for example be asked to explore and discuss the practicing of democracy in

their own environment or in the local community; making Social Studies a practical as

well as theoretical subject. This does, however, require that the teachers themselves are

familiar with Social Studies research methods and strategies and can guide students in

their research projects. Content matters because skills are not enough. Skills are

necessary but they are only the beginning of learning. Without skills, one cannot acquire

knowledge. Knowledge builds on knowledge.

2.2.1 The Place of Method in Teaching Social Studies

To teach all students according to today’s standards, teachers need to understand subject

matter deeply and flexibly so they can help students create useful cognitive maps, relate

one idea to another, and address misconceptions. Teachers need to see how ideas connect

across fields and to everyday life. This kind of understanding provides a foundation for

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pedagogical content knowledge that enables teachers to make ideas accessible to others

(Shulman, 1987).

Shulman (1986) introduced the phrase pedagogical content knowledge and sparked a

whole new wave of scholarly articles on teachers' knowledge of their subject matter and

the importance of this knowledge for successful teaching. Especially important is content

knowledge that deals with the teaching process, including the most useful forms of

representing and communicating content and how students’ best learn the specific

concepts and topics of a subject. "If beginning teachers are to be successful, they must

wrestle simultaneously with issues of pedagogical content (or knowledge) as well as

general pedagogy (or generic teaching principles)" (Grossman, as cited in Ornstein,

Thomas, & Lasley, 2000, p. 508).

The NSTA Standards authors define a model of pedagogy familiar to teachers and

teacher educators. This model includes: actions and strategies of teaching, organization of

classroom experiences, providing for diverse learner needs, evaluation and

implementation of learner's prior notions, and transformation of ideas into understandable

pieces (National Science Teachers Association, 1998). These familiar notions were

clearly described in Borko and Putnam's (2000) review of literature on learning to teach.

The treatment in NSTA Standards look exclusively at literature related to science

teaching. The outcome of these standards is reflective of teaching standards found in The

National Science Education Standards (NSES) (1996).

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The NSTA Standards (1998) suggested that teachers of science should be able to provide

all students the opportunity to learn from science instruction, to make sense out of

science and to want to do more science. This is in the spirit of the NSES, but no simple

task. This statement involves multiple pedagogical tasks including: addressing all

students' needs; planning activities that allow and encourage students to learn and reason

about problems; trying to make sense of the world; and instilling in students the desire to

learn more science (National Research Council, 1996).

Looking back at Shulman’s (1992) Content and Pedagogy knowledge, there were some

important themes that overlapped in that document. The Content section expected that

teachers would be able to make connections and see relationships between concepts.

While the Pedagogy section sought to help students learn about societal problems.

Making connections requires an understanding of the problems faced man for his/her

survival. The Content section expects Social Studies teachers to learn and teach about the

process of developing attitudes, values, skills and knowledge, while the Pedagogy section

expects teachers to plan experiences for their students to be reflective, concerned,

responsible and participatory citizens. This presents the intersection in the learning how

to teach Social Studies using different approaches. Making similar connections relies on a

facile understanding of both the content students are learning and how students learn.

Lee Shulman (1987) developed the construct of "pedagogical content knowledge" (PCK)

in response to some of the problems of teaching and teacher education. Ironically, it is

only mentioned to explain that the content standard would be looking at the content

specific aspect of the subject. There is a connection between content knowledge and

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pedagogical knowledge in Social Studies teaching, which is implicit in many research

made. Careful reading reveals connections in the two domains that cannot be neglected.

For example the pedagogy standard suggests that teachers know about organization of

classroom experiences. However to design such organization requires a deep

understanding of content. This was what Shulman (1987) was talking about when stating,

"The key to distinguishing the knowledge base of teaching lies at the intersection of

content and pedagogy" (pg. 15).

Based on Shulman’s (1987) notion of pedagogical content knowledge, effective teachers

can possess an in-depth knowledge of how to represent the subject matter to learners

(Parker & Heywood, 2000). Shulman (1987) also stated that pedagogical content

knowledge must include the knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge

of educational contexts, knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values, and their

philosophical and historical bases. Additionally, pedagogical content knowledge refers to

the ability of the teacher to transform content into forms that are pedagogically powerful

and yet adaptive to the variations in ability and background presented by the students

(Shulman, 1987, cited in An, Kulm and Wu, 2004). Social Studies is short of a specific

didactical canon defining the subject matter’s most important purpose, goal, content and

teaching methods.

2.3 EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Learning the basic skills necessary for you to become an effective educator can be

especially difficult for a first year teacher. Becoming an effective teacher takes practice

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and time and special guidance from mentors. Effective teaching does not involve

presenting your exciting lessons or activities to the class, it is a craft learned over time.

Effective teaching is a teaching philosophy that can distinctly change given the situation.

For example, a classroom with five students is a much different situation than addressing

a class of forty students. Having the skills and abilities necessary to become an effective

teacher will allow you to craft your lessons and teaching style to accommodate any size

of class.

According to Foros (2006) the characteristics of effective teaching include; positive

expectations, enthusiasm, effective classroom manager / organization, ability to design

lessons and activities, and rapport with students. Effective teachers should have high

expectations for their entire class. Whether a student constantly makes hundreds on tests

or a fifty, each student should be given positive reinforcement in class. Effective teachers

should exhibit positive expectations to ensure each student believes he can excel.

Transmitting positive reinforcement by telling each student that they have high abilities

and are a capable learner will allow students to excel to their highest abilities. In addition,

setting positive expectations in the classroom will help students who do not have proper

motivation and support at home.

Effective teachers should always exhibit enthusiasm in the classroom. Enthusiasm will

allow your students to be interested in class discussions and classroom activities.

Effective teachers should speak in expressive ways, not a monotone style. In addition,

gestures with arms and constantly moving around the classroom will allow your students

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to be interested in the classroom discussion. Effective teacher should also maintain eye

contact with their students at all times.

Educators need to have proper classroom management skills in order to be effective

teachers. Classroom management is not about disciplining your class; it deals with how to

effectively manage the classroom. Classroom management deals with how to take roll,

keep an effective grade book and how to discipline students. One of the most important

skills for an effective teacher to master is how to design and implement lessons in the

classroom. Designing lessons involves how to cater for the needed curriculum content

into discussions, activities and assignments. In addition, an effective teacher should also

be able to evaluate whether or not their students mastered the lesson.

An effective teacher should always establish rapport with their students. Establishing

interpersonal relationships with students is crucial to form a trusting bond with each

student. Effective teachers should be available outside of class to answer questions and

provide additional help to students. In addition, an effective teacher should show

tolerance to differing points of view during class.

There are not many who, when given an option, would choose to have a poor classroom

teacher rather than a good one. But just how important is the teacher to student

achievement and learning? Researchers are finding that the effect of good teaching is

substantial and lasting. Perhaps the most well known research on this question was

performed by William L. Sanders and June C. Rivers at the University of Tennessee. In

one study, they found that "groups of students with comparable abilities and initial

achievement levels may have vastly different academic outcomes as a result of the

35

sequence of teachers to which they are assigned" Sanders (1994). Three years of highly

effective teachers can boost student achievement by as much as 50 percentile points,

compared to having relatively ineffective teachers for three years. Sanders' (1994)

research examines "the improvement of students from the beginning of the school year to

the end" based on test scores, what is called the "value added" by teachers.

In fact, classroom teachers contribute more to student achievement than any other factor.

Specifically, Sanders' (1994) value-added research found that teacher effectiveness has a

greater impact than "race, poverty, [or] parent's education". In addition, Linda Darling-

Hammond (2000), from Stanford University, notes in a research review that differences

in teacher effectiveness are more important than "differences in class size". Darling-

Hammond's (2000), own analysis of data from the National Assessment of Educational

Progress found "that the effects of well-prepared teachers on student achievement can be

stronger than the influences of student background factors, such as poverty, language

background, and minority status" (2000). Finally, John Schacter from the Milken Family

Foundation and Yeow Meng Thum from UCLA found in a review of relevant studies that

"When compared to virtually every other school reform effort to date (e.g. class size

reduction, charter schools, vouchers, direct instruction, technology, etc.), students who

have effective teachers achieve the most" (2004). The quality of the teacher, then, is the

most important school-related factor and can be more powerful than many out-of-school

factors.

2.3.1 Characteristics of Effective Teachers

36

What the studies cited so far do not tell us, however, is what makes teachers effective.

More recent research has attempted to answer this question by pairing value-added

research methods with studies of teacher characteristics (Foros, 2006). Not surprisingly,

there is no universal agreement among researchers about which teacher qualities matter

the most. However, several research reviews have identified teacher qualities that seem to

make a difference:

Verbal ability: There is near universal agreement that the verbal skills of teachers

matter. In fact, Kate Walsh and Christopher Tracy of The National Council on

Teacher Quality assert that "two recent reviews of the research found that a

teacher's level of literacy as measured by vocabulary and other standardized tests

affects student achievement more than any other measurable teacher attribute."

Content knowledge: It is also commonly acknowledged that a secondary teacher

with a degree in math or science will "routinely get higher student performance

than teachers" that do not have a degree in those fields (Haycock, 1998).

However, some research notes that, while it is important for teachers to know the

material to be taught, the importance of knowing the subject will "grow smaller

beyond some minimal essential level" (Darling-Hammond, 2000).

Certification: The research on the importance of teacher certification to student

achievement is less clear. Linda Darling-Hammond's (2000) study found that

"teacher quality characteristics such as certification status and degree in the field

to be taught are very significantly and positively correlated with student

outcomes".

37

Experience: Most agree that a teacher with some experience is usually more

effective than someone new on the job. But most studies have found that teachers

become more effective during the first five years of their careers and then level

off until close to the end of their careers. Interestingly, however, Darling-

Hammond (2000), reports that "veteran teachers in settings that emphasize

continual learning and collaboration continue to improve their performance".

While Sanders (1994) agree that "some experience does have an impact on

student achievement" they also maintain that "experience has less of an impact on

student achievement than other measurable teacher attributes."

The four attributes discussed above are the most commonly studied because they are the

easiest to measure. Other teacher qualities may be as or more important, but are difficult

to measure on a large scale. For example, Sanders (1994) suggests that the qualities that

Teachers for America has found to be common among their most successful teachers

(academically successful in school and college, responsible, able to think critically,

motivated, respectful, and sharing the organization's goals) may be important contributors

to teacher effectiveness. Similarly, Linda Darling-Hammond (2000) identifies a "positive

relationship between student learning and teachers' 'flexibility', 'creativity', or

'adaptability' ...Successful teachers tend to be those who are able to use a range of

teaching strategies and who use a range of interaction styles, rather than a single rigid

approach". Such "soft" attributes are undoubtedly important, but they are difficult to

ascertain without observing or interviewing teachers directly.

2.3.2 Quality Teaching

38

The research on teacher characteristics and their effect on student achievement have been

useful in recent discussions about how to construct policies to encourage high quality

teachers to enter and remain in the profession. However, it is most likely that the positive

effects on student achievement attributed to good teachers are as much a result of quality

teaching as of teacher qualities. In other words, it is how teachers teach that makes the

most difference in student achievement. Like the personality traits mentioned above,

however, how teachers teach is more difficult to measure than how many years someone

has been a teacher. In fact, NCSS (2008) notes that "there are no comprehensive reviews

that neatly synthesize research on teaching practices". Rather than relying on research

reviews, then, this section summarizes a few studies that attempt to identify effective

teaching practices as measured by effects on student achievement.

The Teacher’s Curriculum Institute (TCI) (2004), sought to determine "whether high-

quality teaching was related to better outcomes for all children" using data from more

than 7,000 students and almost 400 teachers. To determine teacher quality, they relied on

classroom observations by a teacher's principal or assistant principal, using a set of

standards for teachers. The standards in the study dealt with teachers' content knowledge,

use of a variety of instructional methods, lesson planning, use of assessment data,

adaptively to student needs, persistence, and engaging "students cognitively in activities

and assignments ...congruent to instructional objectives." The researchers examined

student performance data in grades 4-6 in math and reading. After accounting for other

factors, such as "teacher experience and student pretest score, minority status, and free-

lunch status," TCI (2004) found that "better teaching appears to be related to better

39

learning outcomes." In other words, teachers who were rated highly according to the

standards produced better results for kids.

Schacter and Thum (2004) used a similar approach to measuring teacher practice and its

effect on student achievement in a study of more than 50 teachers at five Arizona

elementary schools. Schacter and Thum (2004) developed "12 teaching performance

standards and rubrics to assess teaching quality." Their standards were drawn from a

comprehensive review of research on "teacher behaviours, teaching models, teaching

strategies and teacher qualifications." The standards included such practices as:

Communicating learning objectives

Connecting learning to student experiences

Presenting new information important to a lesson logically

Efficient use of instructional time

Planning activities to support learning and student interaction

Asking a variety of types of questions

Communicating learning expectations clearly

Providing students regular feedback on their performance

Participants were evaluated on their use of those 12 practices during eight observations.

The results of their findings are clear: "teachers who implement effective teaching as

measured by our 12 teaching standards and performance rubrics produce students who

make considerable achievement gains."

40

As demonstrated by the two studies discussed above, measuring the effect of teacher

quality through an observation of classroom practice is a labour intensive process. One

way that researchers have dealt with this is by studying teachers who are already

identified as excellent through some other method.

The Teacher’s Curriculum Institute (2004) seeks to "advance the quality of teaching and

learning by developing professional standards for accomplished teaching, creating a

voluntary system to certify teachers who meet those standards and integrating certified

teachers into educational reform efforts". Teachers achieve board- certification based on

portfolios of student work and videos of the applicants teaching and also on their score on

a test of their subject-matter knowledge. They are evaluated on:

Their commitment to students and their learning, including their use of different

approaches for different students that are consistent with principles of cognitive

development

Their knowledge of the subjects they teach and how best to teach them

Their ability to manage student learning by establishing an appropriate

environment and using regular student assessments

Their ability to think about their teaching and to use what they learn to improve

Their ability to create learning communities that engage parents and others

So, are nationally board certified teachers the most effective? Teacher’s Curriculum

Institute (2004) set out to answer this question in 2004 by comparing the effectiveness of

board-certified teachers against teachers who had tried to become certified but did not

41

make it. They found that "teachers who are successful in their attempts to attain

certification are more effective than those who are unsuccessful applicants, providing

evidence that TCI (2004) is, in fact, identifying the more effective teachers of those they

actually evaluate." In addition, those who are or eventually become board-certified are

more effective than those who do not meet the selection criteria or who do not apply.

They concluded that students in the classrooms taught by board-certified teachers’

outperformed students in classrooms with non-board certified teachers 100% of the time.

Thus, the qualities of effective teaching identified by the National Board appear to be

teaching practices that have a positive impact on student achievement.

Finally, the authors of the TCI (2004) research review on effective teaching offer five

"key themes ...that reflect key findings from the research" on teaching practices. The five

themes are:

Building on students' prior knowledge

Linking goals, assessment, and instruction

Teaching content and critical thinking

Developing language skills

Creating a culture of learning

Interestingly, each of these themes finds some support in one or more of the studies

summarized above. In other words, all of these teaching practices have been

demonstrated, to one degree or another, to have a positive effect on student achievement

as measured by student performance on standardized tests.

Conclusion

42

While these studies have identified important characteristics and practices of effective

teachers, teaching occurs in a complex environment. Many factors contribute to student

achievement, and while the quality of the teaching is the most important school factor in

student achievement, teaching quality itself is affected by contextual factors. For

example, Laczko, and Berliner (2001) both of the American Educational Research

Association, found that "fourth-grade students have higher achievement in mathematics

and reading when they attend schools characterized by higher levels of teacher

collaboration". It may be the case, then, that effective teachers will be even more

effective in a collaborative workplace (or less effective in a dysfunctional environment).

Finally, as many have noted before, standardized tests are not the only measure of student

learning or the effects of a good teacher. Standardized tests may not be the best measure

of critical thinking, writing, or creativity. Nor do they typically measure what may in fact

be the most important result of an excellent teacher, instilling a lifelong love of learning

in students. Inspiration, curiosity, an ability and desire to pursue knowledge: the best

teachers provide all of these to their students, and yet these effects are not measured on

the SAT. In the end, the importance of quality teaching in our classrooms may be beyond

measure.

2.4 SOCIAL STUDIES AND ATTITUDE DEVELOPMENT

According to Martorella (1994), an attitude can be defined as a positive or negative

evaluation of people, objects, event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your

environment. An attitude is "the relatively stable over behaviour of a person which

affects his status." "Attitudes which are different to a group are thus social attitudes or

43

`values' in the Thomasonian sense (Martorella, 1994). The attitude is the status-fixing

behaviour. This differentiates it from habit and vegetative processes as such, and totally

ignores the hypothetical 'subjective states' which have formerly been emphasized.

Ferguson &Womack (1993) has defined attitude as "the totality of those states that lead

to or point toward some particular activity of the organism. The attitude is, therefore, the

dynamic element in human behaviour, the motive for activity." For Childolue (1996) an

attitude is "a susceptibility to certain kinds of stimuli and readiness to respond repeatedly

in a given way—which are possible toward our world and the parts of it which impinge

upon us." Attitudes are judgments. They develop on the ABC model (affect, behaviour,

and cognition). The affective response is an emotional response that expresses an

individual's degree of preference for an entity. The behavioural intention is a verbal

indication or typical behavioural tendency of an individual. The cognitive response is a

cognitive evaluation of the entity that constitutes an individual's beliefs about the object.

Most attitudes are the result of either direct experience or observational learning from the

environment.

Unlike personality, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience. Tesser

(1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes - but believes that they

may do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be

consistent in our beliefs and values. The most famous example of such a theory is

Dissonance-reduction theory, associated with Childolue (1996), although there are others,

such as the balance theory.

44

Attitudes can be changed through persuasion and we should understand attitude change

as a response to communication. Experimental research into the factors that can affect the

persuasiveness of a message include:

1. Target Characteristics: These are characteristics that refer to the person who

receives and processes a message. One such trait is intelligence - it seems that

more intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages. Another

variable that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is

sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there

is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is

actually curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily

persuaded than both those of high and low self-esteem levels (Parker & Hey-

woods, 2000). The mind frame and mood of the target also play a role in this

process.

2. Source Characteristics: The major source characteristics are expertise,

trustworthiness and interpersonal attraction or attractiveness. The credibility of a

perceived message has been found to be a key variable here; if one reads a report

about health and believes it came from a professional medical journal, one may be

more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some

psychologists have debated whether this is a long-lasting effect. For example,

Holland and Weiss (1951) found that the effect of telling people that a message

came from a credible source disappeared after several weeks (the so-called

"sleeper effect"). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Perceived

wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before hearing it,

45

there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and then

told its source.

3. Message Characteristics: The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion.

Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes.

4. Cognitive Routes: A message can appeal to an individual's cognitive evaluation to

help change an attitude. In the central route to persuasion the individual is

presented with the data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an attitude

changing conclusion. In the peripheral route to attitude change, the individual is

encouraged to not look at the content but at the source. This is commonly seen in

modern advertisements that feature celebrities. In some cases, physician, doctors

or experts are used. In other cases film stars are used for their attractiveness.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter examines the methodology and procedures used to carry out the research.

The chapter concerns itself with the research design, population, sample and sampling

technique, instruments used in the study, the administration of the instruments, collection

of data and data analysis procedure. The aim of the researcher is to examine teachers’

content knowledge of Social Studies and its effects on the teaching of the subject at the

Senior High School level.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

The study was designed to examine the content knowledge of Social Studies teachers in

the Senior High Schools in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis. This has become necessary

because, since the introduction of Social Studies in the SHS, there have been several

reviews of the curricula content presentation to teachers since the curricula contents were

not properly fused. It was more of an amalgamation of subject disciplines than integration

since the contents were from Geography, History, Economics, Government and the

Humanities. However, in all these attempts at making the subject more responsive to the

needs of the people in particular and the nation generally, little or no attention has been

paid to the actual content knowledge teachers possess for effective teaching and learning.

To fulfil this important need of examining what is taught in the Social Studies classroom,

the researcher sought respondents’ opinion on Social Studies, teachers’ characteristics

47

and content knowledge on Social Studies and this makes it a survey in design. It includes

a qualitative and quantitative aspect. Data collected was analysed in the form of tables

and words were used to explain it.

Avoke (2005) viewed descriptive survey as a design that portrays accurately the

characteristics of particular individuals, groups or situations. That is, survey provides a

quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by

studying a sample of that population. Cohen and Manion (1994), said, “the descriptive

survey was also found to be appropriate because it is concerned with conditions or

relationships that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs, points of views or attitudes that are

held, processes that are going on, efforts that are being felt or trends that are developing”

(p.35). This is in line with the purpose of this study because it examined teachers’ content

knowledge of Social Studies and how it affects learning in the Social Studies classroom.

3.2 POPULATION

Social Studies teachers in the Senior High Schools in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis

constituted the population for the study. Information from the Metro Education Service

indicates that there are twelve (12) public SHS in the Metropolis with sixty-nine (69)

Social Studies teachers. There are 595 public senior secondary schools in Ghana. Each of

these schools has at least three Social Studies teachers. The Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis

is made up of ninety-six public Junior High Schools and twelve Senior High Schools.

Each Junior High School has one (1) Social Studies teacher, so the ninety-six JHS have

ninety-six Social Studies teachers and sixty-nine Social Studies teachers in the Senior

48

High Schools. The total population of Social Studies teachers in the Metropolis are one

hundred and sixty-five (165).

The breakdown of the schools that formed the study’s population is as follows:

Table 3.1: Social Studies Teachers in Senior Secondary Schools in the Sekondi-

Takoradi Metropolis

Secondary schools Number of Social Studies Teachers

Arch Bishop Potter Girls Senior High School (A.P.S.S)

ST John’s Senior High School

Bompeh Secondary Technical Senior High School (B.S.T.S.H.S)

Takoradi Senior High School (TADISCO)

Fijai Senior School

Diabene Senior High School

Ahantaman Senior High School (A.H.A.S.S)

Sekondi Senior High School (SECKO)

Ghana Secondary Technical Senior High School (G.S.T.S)

Adiembra Senior High School

Methodist Senior High School (MESEC)

Takoradi Technical Institutes Senior High School (TTI)

TOTAL

3

4

7

9

4

5

6

4

4

5

6

8

65

49

3.3 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Teachers in public Senior High Schools in Ghana today are all university graduates. The

researcher limited herself to nine Senior High Schools in the Sekondi-Takoradi

Metropolis. The total teachers for the study were fifty-four (54). The secondary schools

are scattered in the regional capital and each of them can be identified in the community

in which they are situated, called circuits. For instance, in Adiembra we have Fijai Senior

High School, Adiembra Senior High School and Arcbishop Porter Senior High School.

Sekondi circuit is made up of St John’s Senior High School and Methodist Senior High

School. Again, Ketan circuit is made up of Ahantaman and Diabene Senior High School.

In Takoradi East is Ghana Secondary and Technical school. In Takoradi central is

Bompeh Secondary Technical School. In Effia-Tanokrom is Takoradi Technical Institute

which has currently turned into a Senior High School. In Anaji circuit is Takoradi Senior

High School, in Kojokrom and Essikado is Sekondi Senior High School.

The researcher randomly picked the nine out of the 12 Senior High Schools in the

Metropolis for the study, because, the population was dispersedly framed and the cost to

reach all was high. Cluster sampling technique was used for the researcher’s

convenience. Questionnaires for the study were administered in all the nine schools.

Convenience was therefore considered in the selection of the schools so that data

collected would be of some consistency and within the scheduled period of the study. All

teachers teaching Social Studies in all the nine public secondary schools selected were

used as sample for the study. In all, fifty-four (54) Social Studies teachers were used for

the study to respond to the questionnaire, two (2) of those who responded to the

50

questionnaire (i.e. two from four of the selected schools) were interviewed and observed

while they taught.

3.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The main instruments used for the study were questionnaire, interview guide and

observation check list. The three instruments were used to enable the researcher

triangulate the information to test the consistency of the findings obtained from each of

the instruments used. Bekoe (2006) supported this view when he stated “triangulation in

research is to test for consistency of findings obtained through different instruments”. It

was therefore important that different instruments were used to validate the information

gathered.

The questionnaires were used to give the researcher an insight into the content knowledge

of teachers of Social Studies. Through the use of interviews, the study explored each

respondent’s understanding of Social Studies and what forms his\her bases for the content

he/she uses for the teaching and learning activities. According to Cohen and Manion

(1989), an interview entails a type of conversation which is initiated specifically by the

interviewer purposefully for obtaining relevant information and description, prediction or

explanation which cannot be obtained when the questionnaire is solely relied on for the

information. Observation checklists were also used to investigate the effect of teachers’

content knowledge in Social Studies lessons. This is because “observation brings the

investigator into contact with the phenomenon being studied’’﴾Kumekpor, 2002, p.25﴿.

51

3.4.1 Questionnaire

Questionnaires were used to reach all teachers of Social Studies to solicit their views on

what the subject is all about. A twenty ﴾20﴿ item questionnaire was prepared (see

appendix A). The questionnaire was divided into two parts, consisting of six items on

preliminary personal data and fourteen items on other research items. The personal data

made the researcher to have teachers’ characteristics as to the schools they teach, sex,

educational qualification, University attended, area of specialization and their experience

in teaching. This was to find out whether the teacher has been trained or untrained whilst

the other part was to find out whether teachers have knowledge of what constitute

knowledge of the subject. Teacher’s experience in the questionnaire was to find out

whether experience counts when it comes to subject matter. The research items mainly

sought to investigate teachers’ content knowledge in relation to their selection of content

to be taught.

These questionnaire items were developed first to examine teachers’ content knowledge

in Social Studies in the Senior High School. In order to ensure that the questionnaire

items were valid and reliable, the drafted questionnaire was trial-tested in three Senior

High Schools in the Western Region. The revised questionnaire was further improved

upon based on the suggestions of the researcher’s supervisor.

3.4.2 Interview

Interviews were used to enable the researcher to probe into some information provided on

the questionnaire. Interview provides the interviewer more flexibility and also certain

52

confidential information the interviewer might not have put in writing using the

questionnaire ﴾Kumekpor, 2002; Twumasi, 2001﴿. To Kumekpor ﴾ 2002﴿, an interview

affords the interviewer the opportunity to explain the purpose of the investigation and can

explain more clearly just what information s/he wants. “If the subject misinterprets the

question, the interviewer may follow it up with a clarifying question,” ﴾ Kumekpor, 2002

p.29﴿. The interview guide (see appendix B) consisted of twelve ﴾12﴿ items which were

mostly closed-ended questions to ensure that respondents express themselves to give the

researcher detailed information for the study. Again, the interview was preferred because

it ensures that each of the respondents was basically asked the same questions so as to

facilitate the analysis of data obtained. The questionnaires were pre-coded. This gave a

clue to the persons who answered the questionnaire. Personal letters were used to select

teachers for the interview and the observation. This helped the researcher to pick teachers

who majored in Social Studies and those who did not do Social Studies. This was

anonymous because of research ethics. This helped the researcher to triangulate.

The interview guide was developed based on Social Studies teachers’ understanding of

the goals and objectives of the subject; content knowledge of Social Studies teachers in

teaching Social Studies. In order to ensure the validity the reliability, the items for the

interview were trial tested in two schools in the Western Region which did not form part

of the population. The revised interview guide was scrutinised by panel at the proposal

defence and was given to the researcher’s principal supervisor for another scrutiny and

advice for further improvement.

53

3.4.3 Observation

Observation was also used in this research, because “observation brings the investigator

into contact with the phenomenon being studied” ﴾Kumekpor, 2002, p.31﴿. In this way,

observation becomes an effective means of reporting precisely what prevails about the

phenomenon under study with greater reliability. This technique afforded the researcher

the opportunity to see the teaching of Social Studies as done in schools in the study area.

An observation checklist was prepared (see appendix C) to cross check the questions

asked in the questionnaire on teachers’ competences in the subject. The checklist was

based on the objectives the teaching addresses, how the Social Studies teacher develops

the attitudes, values and skills of students, teachers efforts in drumming in the needed

attitude, how teachers make students conscious of the problems of man’s survival, how

the teachers address and solve the problem and the relevance of the teaching activities

teachers make students to perform. Similarly, the observation guide went through the

same refining process as the questionnaire and the interview guide.

3.4.4 Justification of the Triangulation Method

The researcher used questionnaire, interview and observation to cross check the

responses given on the questionnaire for authenticity. The observation guide was used to

test the reliability of the responses given in the interview. To do this, personal coding was

done on the questionnaire to give clue to teachers who are Social Studies trained and

those who are not. This was anonymous because of research ethics. Two teachers, one

54

trained and one untrained were selected from each selected school for the interview and

observation. The essence of this was for triangulation.

Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007) defined triangulation as the use of two or more

methods of data collection in the study of some aspect of human behaviour. They further

added that triangulation technique in the social sciences attempts to map out, or explain

more fully, the richness and complexity of human behaviour by studying it from more

than one stand point by making use of both quantitative and qualitative data. The

researcher acknowledged the fact that triangulation can assist in explaining teachers’

content knowledge in Social Studies and its impact on the teaching of the subject.

Combining data from different methods will certainly increase the quality of the data. In

view of this Thomas and Nelson (1996), pointed out that triangulation is valuable because

of the increased quality control achieved by combining methods and data sources. The

complementary function of each of these data collection methods enriched the quality of

this study. Combining different sources and methods in the research process helped the

researcher to build on the strength of each type of data collection. This minimized the

weakness of any single approach (Nau, 1995). However, this is not to say triangulation is

the most perfect method of data collection in research. That is why Thomas and Nelson

(1996) cautioned that multiple methods may serve to magnify error. In view of this, the

researcher was cautious in using these three types of data collection instruments. This

caution was taken to reduce the error margin of the study as a result of using the three

methods.

55

3.5 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

Administration of the research instruments began in November, 2011. The exercise

begun with visits to the selected schools to seek for permission for the administration of

the instruments. Introductory letters from the Head of the Department of Social Studies

Education, in the University of Education, Winneba were attached to the verbal

permission sought. A visit was made to each school selected with the introductory letter

seeking permission from respective heads of department to schedule an ideal time for the

administration of the instruments viz questionnaire, interview, and observation of Social

Studies lessons. Mostly, the heads of Social Studies department did not hesitate to help to

organize the teachers for the data collection exercise.

To attain objective scoring of items listed in the observation checklist and interview

guide, a recorder was used for validity and reliability. The researcher spent one week in

each school to enable her to reach all respondents and most importantly to afford them

enough time to administer the instruments. The process of administering the

questionnaire began with the identification of Social Studies teachers and briefing them

on the objective and significance of the study after which the questionnaires were

distributed to them. The teacher had one week to respond to the questionnaire and return

them to the researcher. The teachers gladly took the questionnaire and some even

immediately answered them and handed over to the researcher. Others returned the

completed questionnaire the next day.

56

One teacher from each selected school who had also completed and returned the

questionnaire was selected for the interview. Some teachers were unwilling to be

interviewed and therefore selection was based on teacher’s willingness. Teachers were

briefed on the essence of the exercise and were assured of confidentiality of the exercise

after which the interview was conducted and recorded on a tape recorder. The interviews

lasted between ten ﴾10﴿ to fifteen ﴾15﴿ minutes for each teacher.

Social Studies lessons were observed for three separate times depending on the selected

teacher’s schedule for the day of observation. The observation lasted for four weeks since

the researcher was able to visit three schools a week. Eight teachers were conveniently

selected from the twelve public Senior High Schools in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis.

The students were first curious to know why the researcher was with them. However,

their curiosity had little significance since it was not related to what was to be observed.

Each teacher was observed on three different occasions to confirm or deny earlier

impression made in their previously observed lessons. Each of the lessons observed

lasted for eighty ﴾80﴿ to ninety (90) minutes due to the differences in the time allotted for

subject periods in the various schools.

3.6.1 Validity

Every good research must have some kind of validity and reliability so far as its data

collection instruments are concerned. The validity of the questionnaire instrument,

particularly the face validity, was ascertained through the discussion of the questionnaire

items with the research supervisor. This was done by checking the content to ensure that

57

it measures what it is supposed to measure. For validation of the interview discussions,

the tape recorded interaction was transcribed verbatim. With the observation checklist,

the items were cross checked with the responses given in the interview with the research

supervisor. This was done by checking the content to be sure it measures what it is

supposed to measure.

According to Opoku (2005), validity refers to the fact that the test items constituting a

questionnaire in survey research are measuring the construct that the test developer has

designed it to measure.

Burns (2000) also said that if the study and its findings make sense to participants then, it

must at least have some validity. In this research, validity was also addressed by

triangulating the findings from the three instruments used for the study. This was

necessary because of the value triangulation adds to the research work.

3.6.2 Reliability

The reliability of the questionnaire was ensured by pilot testing the questionnaire,

observation checklist and the interview guide. The pilot testing was done at Takoradi

Senior High School in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis of the Western Region. The

students were selected because they had the same characteristics as respondents from the

study area. Pilot testing these enabled modification and clarification of questionnaire

items that appeared ambiguous to respondents. Other materials that were found

unsuitable were dropped. With the experience from this pilot testing only Social Studies

teachers were selected as respondents for the actual data collection because of their

58

experience and their academic background. All these were geared towards improving the

reliability of the research. According to Bell (1993) reliability is the extent to which a test

or procedure produces similar results under constant conditions on all occasions. There

should be consistency of scores when the research instruments are administered multiple

times on different occasions.

3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The researcher employed the combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods

for the data analysis. The data will be analysed by using tables and percentages. Words

were used to interpret the tables and percentages for easy understanding. The mixed-

method approach is a way to come up with creative alternatives to the study or a more

monolithic ways to conceive and implement ultimate findings of the study. It is likely

that the blending of two methodologies in a single research paradigm can produce

alternatives that will not be able to represent radical shifts in the short run. Integrating

different methods is likely to produce better results in terms of quality and scope. Adding

qualitative flesh to the quantitative bones is a good strategy to overcoming some of these

problems.

The responses were described and explained in the form of narratives. Sometimes

responses were quoted verbatim to authenticate claims made. The responses were

answers to open-ended questions. This was important for a particular reason. Koul,

(2000) quoted Patton (1982 p. 28) on this issue as expressing the view that “responses

from open-ended questions in the form of direct quotations reveal level of emotions of

respondents, the way in which they have organized their world, their thought and

59

experiences about certain happenings, and their perceptions.” Quantitative data were

tabulated, organized, analyzed and interpreted to draw sound conclusions and

generalizations.

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CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF DATA

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents and discusses the data collected from respondents. The

triangulation method was adopted in the data collection process. The questionnaires, an

interview schedule and observation checklist were designed to collect data for the

following research questions:

How far do Social Studies teachers’ understand the content they are teaching at

the Senior High School?

How far have teachers of Social Studies been able to achieve the objectives of the

subject they teach?

How do the contents of Social Studies taught, impact on the students?

What is the general level of effectiveness of Social Studies teachers in the SHS?

The analysis of respondents’ bio-data has become necessary because the researcher was

trying to see whether teachers’ ability to teach the content well depends on qualification

and experience.

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

In this, the researcher will present the schools of the Social Studies teachers, educational

qualification, university attended, area of specialization, and teaching experience in

teaching Social Studies.

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Table 4.1: Name of Schools

School Number of Teacher Respondents PercentTADISCO 9 16.7SECKO 5 9.3BOMPEH 10 18.5ST JOHN'S 6 11.1FIJAI 11 20.4GSTS 7 13.0ADIEMBRA 6 11.1APSS 0 0Total 54 100.0

Data in Table 4.1 show the respondents and the name of school in which they teach. The

table shows that 11 (20.4%) of the teachers teach at Fijai Senior High School, 10 (18.5%)

indicated they teach at Bompeh Senior High School, 9 (16.7%) were from Takoradi

Senior High School (TADISCO), while 5 (9.3%) of the teachers were from Sekondi

Senior High School (SECKO). So Fijai Senior High School has the highest number of

Social Studies teachers, followed by Bompeh and Tadisco.

Table 4.2: Sex of respondents

Sex Frequency Percentage

Male

Female

33

21

61.1

38.9

Total 54 100

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Data in Table 4.2 shows that 33 (61.1%) of the respondents were male, while the

remaining 21 (38.9%) were females. This means that there were more male respondents

in the study than female.

Table 4.3: Educational qualification

Qualification Frequency Percentage

First Degree

Postgraduate Degree

46

8

85.2

14.8

Total 54 100

Table 4.3 shows that out of the 54 respondents sampled for the study, 46 representing

85.2% of them were degree holders, while the remaining 8 (14.8%) were holders of

postgraduate degrees. This means that majority of the respondents used for the study

were first degree holders.

Table 4.4: University Attended

University Attended by Respondents

Percent

UEW 25 46.3University of Ghana 5 9.3UCC 23 42.6KNUST 1 1.9Total 54 100.0

63

Results in Table 4.4 indicate that 25 representing 46.3% of the respondents were products

from the University of Education, Winneba (UEW), 23 (42.6%) were graduates from the

University of Cape Coast, 5 (9.3%) were graduates from the University of Ghana, and 1

(1.9%) is from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology.

Table 4.5: Area of specialization

Frequency PercentEconomics 10 18.5History 5 9.3Geography 7 13.0Political Science 2 3.7Social Studies 30 55.6Total 54 100.0

Table 4.5 shows that 30 (55.6%) of the respondents specialized in Social Studies, 10

(18.5%) specialized in economics, 7 (13%) specialized in geography, 5 (9.3%) history,

while 2 (3.7%) of the respondents specialized in political science. The result shows that

55.6% of the respondents sampled for the study specialized in Social Studies at the

University.

Table 4.6: Experience in teaching Social Studies

Frequency Percentless than a year 6 11.11-5 years 16 29.66-10 years 18 33.3Above 11 years 14 25.9Total 54 100.0

64

Data in Table 4.6 indicate that 18 (33.3%) of the respondents have been teaching Social

Studies between 6-10 years, 16 (29.6%) indicated 1-5 years, 14 (25.9%) indicated they

have been teaching Social Studies for more than 11 years, while 6 (11.1%) stated they

have been teaching Social Studies for less than a year.

4.2 Data Collected on Research Questions

In this section the main data collected in response to the research questions will be

presented to address the four research questions that guided the study. The questionnaire,

the one-on-one interview and observation checklist were presented side by side to address

each research question. The data from the questionnaire have been presented using

frequencies, percentages and tables. The interview session centred on soliciting in-depth

views of respondents on how far they understand the content they are teaching, how far

they are able to achieve the objectives of the subject they teach, how the content they

taught impact on the students, and why their teachings are not making the needed impact.

The themes that emerged from the interview were combined with the responses from the

questionnaire and the items of the observation checklist to address the research questions.

This authenticates the responses given by respondents in the questionnaire. The

observation checklist was used to test the reliability of the responses given in the

interview. This helped the researcher to do the triangulation.

Research Question One

How far do Social Studies teachers understand the content they are teaching at the

Senior High School?

65

This question sought to find out the understanding of Social Studies teachers regarding

the content of the subject they teach. Items 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 19 on the

questionnaire (see appendix A) were used to solicit responses from the respondents on

the understanding of the Social Studies content. Questions 7, 9 and 10 of the observation

checklist (see appendix C) were the items used to find teachers understanding of what

constitute the content of Social Studies. Also, questions 2, 3, and 9 of the interview guide

were used to complement the questionnaire items as well as the observation checklist.

Below are the compiled views.

The table below shows items on teachers’ knowledge of Social Studies and how that

helps in achieving the goals and objectives of the subject. Respondents gave various

responses to the items.

Table 4.7: Teachers’ Content Knowledge

Statements A U D7. Social studies can be taught by teachers from any educational

background10 6 38

8. The main focus of Social Studies teaching is making students to acquire relevant facts

36 5 13

9. The problem stated in the Social Studies syllabus for SHS helps in the selection of the right content to be taught in the subject

42 8 4

10. Teachers’ knowledge in social studies can enhance the teaching of the subject

53 - 1

13. Teachers’ knowledge of social studies helps in achieving goals and objectives of the subject

54 - -

14 Social Studies is citizenship education 47 4 315. Social Studies is a combination of knowledge of Geography,

History, Economics and Government46 2 6

16. Citizenship education enables one to understand the past, the geography of the world and how we are governed

30 12 12

17. As soon as you see a Social Studies topic what comes to the mind is the meaning of it

29 9 16

19. In teaching Social Studies, the teacher tries to address the concept for the topic

41 10 13

66

Where A stands for Agreed, U = Undecided, D = Disagreed

Data in Table 4.7 show that all 54 (100%) of the Social Studies teachers sampled for the

study agreed that teachers knowledge of Social Studies helps in achieving goals and

objectives of the subject, 53 (98.1%) agreed that teachers knowledge in Social Studies

can enhance the teaching of the subject, 1 (1.9%) disagreed with the statement. Still on

teachers understanding about the content they teach, 47 (87%) of the teachers agreed that

Social Studies is a citizenship education, 4 (7.4%) were undecided, while 3 (5.5%)

disagreed with the statement; 46 (85.2%) agreed that Social Studies is a combination of

knowledge of Geography, History, Economics and Government, 2 (3.7%) were

undecided about the statement, while 6 (11.1%) disagreed with the statement. The result

also shows that 41 (75.9%) of the respondents agreed that in teaching Social Studies, the

teacher tries to address the concept for the topic, 10 (18.5%) were undecided, while 13

(24%) also disagreed.

The interview questions that fall under research question one are as follows;

“In teaching Social Studies, do you consciously develop attitude, values,

knowledge and skills in the students?”

“Which of these directs a Social Studies teacher in the teaching of

topics in the subject?

a) Nature of topic

b) the problems of man’s survival in the country

c) the related content the topic addresses”

67

“Which of these will be the driving force when you are teaching the

topic ‘Physical Environment’ in Social Studies?

a) The relief, climate and the drainage of the area

b) The climate and the geomorphology of the world

c) How the individual can utilize the physical environment for his benefits

d) How the physical environment dictates the activities of the individual.”

The responses from the respondents during the interview revealed the following:

A respondent said the following:

1. “It is better to get someone who has a broad spectrum of the subject (Social Studies). It will be very difficult for a science teacher to teach social studies. It will be very difficult for most teachers who are more biased in science to teach social studies. It will be better for someone who has a good Arts background to teach social studies”.

2. “Generally, yes, but what is very important is, normally, you know Social Studies has a whole lot of areas, for example, economics, an aspect of geography, it entails an aspect of environmental science, so I think that if a teacher has a background knowledge, it will go a long way to build capabilities and capacity in students”

3. “With the problems, it helps us a lot. Although, it is a challenge, being a teacher, it helps to strive to overcome those challenges in terms of research and other things in order to teach the students very well.”

9. Nature of topic

Another teacher also had this to say

1. “Some topics are technical, for example, geography, teachers who have not gotten the knowledge in Social Studies may not teach the subject effectively”.

2. “Not necessarily, because the issue is not only about the facts but the facts acquired should be used in daily life situation”.

68

3. “It really helps you very much because when you read the problem and in your absence or when you are not there and somebody comes who has no knowledge in Social Studies, that person will have a background knowledge and it will enable the person to look for the necessary materials to take over the subject.”

9.” The problems of man’s survival in the country.”

A teacher had this to say;

1. “Yes and No, because for those who teach in their speciality that is Social Studies has something in social aspect over human life”. He further added that “such a person can teach other subjects but not into detailed as the one who has knowledge in the subject”.

2. That is what is supposed to be, because it involves the human settlement and the various topics relate very well in human existence, so I think it is in the right direction.

3. “Because the topics and the problems are set out, they help the teacher to go straight to the problem without even digressing from the issue.”

9 “The problems of man’s survival in the country”

A colleague also had this to say;

1.“ It is impossible, I do not think so, because in my observation, Social Studies, though any teacher with a social science background can teach, I think it is an additional advantage to teach the subject, but then it needs more of the understanding of what the subject matter is than applying any other thing in teaching Social Studies.”

2. “No, because it is about attaining the knowledge but looking at the practical aspect of it, I think this is the way Social Studies should be taught.”

3.” The problem stated in the syllabus needs to be garnished by you the teacher because, sometimes it does not commensurate the content you are going to teach. But then all the same, you can add up to what you have.”

9. “To me, all the three options are right to be considered when teaching the topics in Social Studies.”

This is what another teacher from other schools interviewed said:

69

1. “No, because, looking at the subject you have to be trained. Although, people from other subject background teach the subject, to me, the subject should be taught by its specialists, that is, the trained personnel to teach it.”

2. “No, it is not only the presentation of facts. The subject needs to be imparted for

attitudinal change.”

3. “I present the subject in a practical way”

9. “The problems of the individual’s survival in the country”

Teacher B in the same school had this to say;

1. “No, if we say it can be taught by teachers with any educational background, it

means we are not helping the subject. It means anybody can handle the subject

which is not true.”

2. “This is not the main focus of Social Studies because we are not just only

imparting the knowledge but we are inculcating the right attitude as well so that

they will be self disciplined in the society.”

3. “It helps a lot because knowing the problem at hand, when teaching I use the problem as my introduction and with that, the background, it helps me to impart the right knowledge to the children.”

9.” The related content the topic addresses.”

Below is what went on in the classroom when the researcher visited the classroom to

observe teachers as they teach to find out whether responses those teachers gave during

the interview session were authentic. The items in the table falls under the research

question one.

Table 4.8 below are data collated from the evaluation of the teachers’ content knowledge

through the observation of their lessons.

70

Table 4.8: Observation of lessons

To what extent are the following true of the Social Studies teaching.

Very great extent

Great extent

Moderately true

Averagely untrue

Not true

Facts used make the students’ conscious of the problems for the individual’s survival.

- - 2 - 6

Did teacher’s content address the stated problem?

- - - 8 -

Teacher’s knowledge in Social Studies helped in achieving the stated objectives.

- - - 8 -

The data in the table 4.8 show that out of the eight (8) teachers observed, 2 (25%)

moderately presented facts of Social Studies to make students conscious of the problems

for the individual’s survival, 6 (75%) do not present facts to make students conscious of

the problems for the individual’s survival. Also, 8 (100%) of the teachers observed lack

content knowledge of the subject although, they agreed that Social Studies is citizenship

education. The result also shows that 8 (100%) of the teachers observed were in no way

teaching for the attainment of the stated objectives of the subject.

Research Question 2: How far are teachers of Social Studies able to achieve the

objectives of the subject they teach?

71

Items 11, 12, 13, 18, and 20 of the questionnaire address the research question 2 above.

These try to find out whether Social Studies teachers make deliberate effort to develop

positive attitudes and skills in the students and they try to work for the achievement of the

goals and objectives to enable students to solve the problems of the individual’s survival.

Table 4.9: Responses to questionnaire on objectives of the subject

Statements ResponsesA U D

11. The Social Studies teacher makes deliberate efforts to develop certain

positive attitudes and values in students when teaching

49 2 3

12. Goals and objectives of Social Studies direct the whole process of

teaching the subject

44 6 4

13. Teachers’ knowledge of Social Studies help in achieving goals and

objectives of the subject

54 - -

18. In teaching Social Studies the teacher tries to ensure he is helping the

student to solve the problem of survival

49 1 4

20. Social Studies is best taught through the use of relevant life experiences

36 9 9

Data in Table 4.9 indicate that all the 54 (100%) respondents agreed that teachers

knowledge of Social Studies help in achieving goals and objectives of the subject, 49

(90.7%) agreed that in teaching Social Studies the teacher tries to ensure that he/she is

helping the student to solve the problem of the individual’s survival, 1 (1.9%) was

undecided, while 4 (7.4%) disagreed. The result also show that 49 (90.7%) respondents

agreed that the Social Studies teacher should make deliberate efforts to develop certain

positive attitudes and values in students when teaching, 2 (3.7%) were undecided and 3

(5.5%) disagreed, 44 (81.4%) respondents agreed that goals and objectives of Social

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Studies direct the whole process of teaching the subject, 6 (11.1%) were undecided and

4 (7.4%) disagreed and 36 (66.6%) respondents agreed to the statement that Social

Studies is best taught through the use of relevant life experiences, 9 (16.6%) were

undecided and 9 (16.6%) disagreed.

The two interview questions below were designed to find out whether teachers of Social

Studies at the Senior High Schools in Ghana teach for the attainment of the objectives of

the subject.

5. As Social Studies teacher, what is the importance of the goal and general aims of the

subject to you?

6. With the goal of the subject in mind, what do you think the subject seeks to inculcate

in learners?

The responses from the respondents during the interview were as presented below.

A respondent said in response to the interview questions above:

The main aim or if I should say the goal of Social Studies is to be able to get background knowledge in all areas. Since Social Studies entails a lot of issues, it is more or less a general perspective so to speak, so it will be very important for a student to learn Social Studies to get knowledge in the other aspects of social science.

“With the goal in mind I made sure students broaden their horizon by learning the other social science topics.”

Another teacher also had this to say:

The goals and objectives of Social Studies enable me to really plan my lesson towards the goals which help me to come out with the facts to make teaching very practical.

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The goals enable the students to see the subjects as part of them and it enables them to adjust to any situation they find themselves at any point in time because, it enables the learners to see any other people as themselves and that prevents conflict.

A teacher had this to say:

As I indicated earlier, you have your goals already set, so it directs you to what you are supposed to teach. You drive straight to the goal when it comes to the physical environment. You know these days the problem is sanitation; this is practical, so it helps you to positively impact on the children.

“With the goal in mind, I am able to impart whatever thing the student ought to know.”

The respondent also said:

Okay, it has numerous importance to the individual and the society as a whole in that everything as human, apart from the inanimate object, you have to know the subject is there to guide us to the way we see things in like our social perception on how things are to be done, so Social Studies life goes beyond the acquiring of knowledge.

A respondent also had this to say:

I do not know what to say about the goals and objectives of the subject and how it helps me in my teaching

Another respondent said:

Knowing the goals and the objectives of the subject helps me to know what to teach.

It inculcate in the learners the right attitude and values as a student so that it will help them to solve personal problems and the society as well.

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The observation items which fall under research question 2 are 1, 2, 3 and 4, sought to

find the extent to which Social Studies teachers have been able to achieve the objectives

of the subject they teach.

Table 4.10: Evaluation of lessons

To what extent are the following true of the Social Studies teaching.

Very great extent

Great extent

Moderately true

Averagely untrue

Not true

The overall objective of the lesson was achieved.

- - 4 1 3

Students’ attitudes were being developed by the teacher.

- - 2 4 2

Students’ values were being developed.

- - 2 4 2

Students’ skills are being developed by the teacher.

- - 2 4 2

Data in the above table shows that none of the eight teachers observed teaching the

subject did their teaching for the attainment of the objective, 4 (50%) of the teachers

moderately taught towards achieving the objectives, 1 (12.5%) somehow tried to achieve

the objectives and 3 (37.5%) did not attempt to achieve the teaching objectives. Table 10

also shows that 2 (25%) of the teachers moderately developed students attitude, values

and skills in the teaching, 4 (50%) somehow did that, while 2 (25%) did not attempt to do

that.

Research Question 3: How do the contents of Social Studies taught impact on the

students?

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This question sought to find out the contents of Social Studies as taught in the class and

how they impact on the students. Items 9 and 11 of the questionnaire were used to solicit

responses to research question 3. Also, questions 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 of the

interview guide were used to complement the questionnaire items. Again questions 5, 6,

and 7 of the observation items were used to complement the interview conducted. Below

are the illustrations.

Table 4.11: Questionnaire responses to research question 3

Statements A U D9. Problem stated in the Social Studies syllabus for SHS helps in

the selection of the right content to be taught in the subject

42 8 4

11. The Social Studies teacher makes deliberate efforts to develop

certain positive attitudes and values in students when teaching

49 2 3

The data in table 4.11 indicate that, 42 (77.7%) respondents agreed that the problem

stated in the Social Studies syllabus for SHS help in the selection of the right content to

be taught in the subject, 8 (14.8%) were undecided and 4 (7.4%) disagreed; 49 (90.7%)

respondents agreed to the statement the Social Studies teacher makes deliberate efforts to

develop certain positive attitudes and values in students when teaching, 2 (3.7%) were

undecided and 3 (5.5%) disagreed.

The responses from the interview conducted revealed the following

Interview questions:

1. In what ways will your knowledge in Social Studies help you in your teaching?

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7. In teaching Social Studies, do you consciously develop attitude, values, knowledge

and skills in the students?

9. Which of these directs a Social Studies teacher in the teaching of topics in the

subject?

a. Nature of topic

b. the problems of the individual’s survival in the country

c. the related content the topic addresses

10. Which of these will be the driving force when you are teaching the topic ‘Physical

Environment’ in Social Studies?

a) The relief, climate and the drainage of the area

b) The climate and the geomorphology of the world

c) How the individual can utilise the physical environment for his benefit

d) How the physical dictates the activities of the individual

11. When teaching a Social Studies topic ‘Science and Technology’ the teacher will be

concerned with

a) The meaning of Science and Technology

b) What constitutes Science and Technology?

c) How the study of Science can be applied in Technology?

d) The advantages of Science and Technology

12. When teaching Social Studies topic ‘institution of marriage’ at SHS the teacher will

be concerned with

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a) How to help people to solve the problem of selecting a future partner?

b) What constitutes the preparation that ought to be made before getting married?

c) Meaning of marriage

d) The types of marriages we have in Ghana.

13. In teaching Social Studies topic ‘National Independence and Self reliance’ which of

these will be the driving force.

a) The meaning of the concept political independence and self reliance.

b) The implication of attaining independence.

c) The political ambition of people.

d) The history of Ghana’s colonial masters and how they gain independence.

This is what respondents said:

Actually, like I said, once Social Studies entails a broad spectrum, being a teacher, if I am able to get the needed skills and knowledge, I think I will be able to teach because there are some areas you have to do a lot of research and if you are very naive and a novice, I think it will be a great challenge, but if you have a broad spectrum in terms of knowledge, it will help you in other social issues. It will help you to teach the subject very well.

The knowledge I have acquired in Social Studies helps me to relate all the issues related to real life situations, in the sense that it makes you to relate the topic to situations to the understanding of the children.

“How the study of science can be applied in technology”

“What constitute the preparation that ought to be made before getting married?”

“The implication of attaining independence.”

A respondent had this to say:

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I did not do Social Studies nor did social science but my profession as a Rev. minister relating to the people from all walks of life and then the liberal studies that I did at the University also helps me to deal with problems in the society. My knowledge and experiences as a minister and liberal studies helps me to teach Social Studies. With experience I share what I have experienced with the students.

“How the study of science can be applied in technology.”

“What constitute the preparation that ought to be made before getting married?”

“The meaning of the concept political independence and self reliance.”

Another respondent said that:

“My knowledge in Social Studies helps me to garnish my teaching.”

“Personally, all the three options go together.”

Under the interview questions 7 and 8, this is what a respondent said:

“Yes, once you have knowledge in Social Studies, it will help you to learn certain skills, knowledge and other things. It also entails an aspect of values because a curriculum or syllabus aspect of Social Studies helps the teacher to teach the students certain skills and capabilities. For example, topics like self identity and self consciousness. Although the teacher is naïve in the area of knowledge of the subject, will she/he not be able to build the capabilities of students”.

“How can the study of science be applied in technology?”

“How to help people to solve the problem of selecting a future partner?”

“The implication of attaining independence.”

A respondent also had this to say:

“What constitute science and technology?”

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“What constitute the preparation that ought to be made before getting married?”

“The political ambition of people”

A respondent from the same school also said that,

“How can the study of science be applied in technology?”

“What constitute the preparation that ought to be made before getting married?”

“The implication of attaining independence”

Yes, because looking at the concept you make sure of what the topic really requires the students to get at the end of the lesson. I also make sure to prepare my lesson delivery towards the achievement of the goals.

Respondents had this to say under questions 7 and 8 of the interview guide;

Exactly, because there are some things students are already having but whether that is the right thing, you take advantage to educate them and that calls for attitudinal change.

It is something that I keep hammering on or at times I use role play. I spend time to argue sometimes and even ask them to vote. Sometimes the majority might be wrong because of their preconceived ideas sometimes; I use that to change their mind from that attitude.

I think yes, because in teaching, it garnishes that line, but then changing of attitudes in students is difficult because of even how the student see the subject, so it is an aspect of my teaching to change the behavioural aspects of the student.

I give them so many research works and upon their findings I indicate what is relevant to the individual students and the impact to the society.

A respondent had this to say:

Through the topics we teach the students because one of the topics works on their social values and at times in the course of teaching, students might misbehave so, I have to teach them the right thing like attitude, skills and value

“I consciously inculcate in student the right attitude, skills and values.”

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Table 4.12: Evaluation on how Social Studies content are taught

To what extent are the following true of the Social Studies teaching.

Very great extent

Great extent

Moderately true

Averagely untrue

Not true

Students’ attitudes are being

developed by the teacher.

- - 2 4 2

Students’ values are being

developed.

- - 2 4 2

Students’ skills are being

developed.

- 2 1 3 2

Teacher makes repeated

efforts in encouraging in the

needed attitudes for

students.

- - 2 - 6

The data in Table 4.12 indicate that, 2 (25%) of the Social Studies teachers moderately

made the attempt to teach to develop students’ attitudes, 4 (50%) averagely made the

attempt to deliberately teach to develop students’ attitudes and 2 (25%) did not attempt to

teach to develop students’ attitudes. It was also revealed that 2 (25%) of the Social

Studies teachers were able to develop students skills to a great extent, 1 (12.5%)

moderately did that, 3 (37.5%) averagely made the attempt, while 2 (25%) did not

attempt to teach to develop teachers skills.

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Research question 4: What is the general level of effectiveness of Social Studies

teachers in the SHS?

This question sought to find out whether Social Studies is making the necessary impact it

seeks to make on learners. Items 14 and 15 of the interview guide were used to solicit

responses to Research Question 4. Items 7 and 8 of the observation checklist were also

used to complement the interview items to address research question 4.

The responses derived from the interview conducted as presented below:

Respondents had this to say:

Somehow along the line I think it is making the necessary impact since it will go a long way to be able to help students to develop the necessary skills and knowledge to be able to build their future.

Well, Social Studies has become a driving force to shape some of these students in terms of hygiene, in terms of preparation when they are picking their future partners and other things.

Another respondent also said that:

Yes, because it enables the children to learn about citizenship education and with the knowledge in all these areas. It will enable the child to be able to know his or her rights in the society which helps the child to live and to organise him or herself well when it comes to the problem that comes around the child.”

Yes, because it enables the children to find their ways in life without any difficulty.

I have a problem because, it has been a long time but I believe that gradually we shall get there because to change a preconceived idea is not easy to change.

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Again, a respondent said:

I think yes. It has achieved its purpose because, during class discussions in the topics for example, as being treated in science and technology, they are able to understand their science problems especially, in the science classes that am handling and especially, why is Ghana not attaining her technological age because of certain factors I will bring on board.

Originally, I will say that, because that borders on much of socialization because, some people cultivate the habit before coming to school, it will be very difficult because it takes some time for them to change.

“Somehow”

“In some ways it is achieving and in another way it is not.”

“Yes it does”

It helps the children to be patriotic citizen. It helps them to solve their own problem and societal problems as well since in Social Studies we do not give any value judgment. We base everything on judgment, so anything you have to do you analyse the problem and to know what you are about to do before you give your judgment.

Really, to others it has had a positive impact but to others too, nothing because they see the subject as examination subject so they learn to pass exams not any behavioural change.

Table 4.13: Impact of Social Studies at the SHS level

To what extent are the following true of the Social Studies teaching.

Very great extent

Great extent

Moderately true

Averagely untrue

Not true

Teacher tries to address how to solve the problem.

- - - 8 -

Student activities performed in class were relevant to the topic

- - 6 2 -

Teacher makes repeated efforts in encouraging in the needed attitude to students.

- - 2 - 6

Facts used make the students’ conscious of the problems for man’s survival.

- - 2 - 6

Teacher’s content address the - - - 8 -

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stated problem.

The data in Table 4.13, 8 (100%) of all the teachers observed did not attempt to address

the problem stated in the syllabus as they teach, 6 (75%) somehow gave activities to be

performed by students to reflect on the topic taught in class, 2 (25%) deliberately made

the effort to repeatedly encourage the needed attitude for students whilst 6 (75%) did not

make the effort to repeatedly encourage the needed attitude to students, 2 (25%) in a way

used facts in content to make students conscious of the problems for the individual’s

survival during lesson presentation, 6 (75%) did not show any attempt to use facts to

make students conscious of the problems for the individual’s survival and 8 (100%) did

not use their content knowledge to address the stated problem.

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CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINDS

5.0 Introduction

In this section the main data are analysed. The analysis addresses the four research

questions that guided the study. Data derived from the questionnaire, the one-on-one

interview and observation checklist are analyzed side by side to address each research

question. The instruments centred on soliciting in-depth views of respondents on how far

they understand the content they are teaching, how far they are able to achieve the

objectives of the subject they teach, how the content they taught impact on the students,

and why their teachings are not making the needed impact. The findings that emerged

from the interview were combined with the responses of the questionnaire and the

observation checklist to address the research questions.

5.1

How far do Social Studies teachers understand the content they are teaching at the

Senior High School?

Despite the government’s effort to focus on subject-matter knowledge of teachers by

organising seminars for teachers, it is evident that, teachers have not made the necessary

impact through their teaching and that they lack the essential knowledge for teaching

their in area of specialization.

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From the data collected, although all the respondents 54 (100%) agreed that teachers’

content knowledge is important and that it enhances good teaching skills which enable

the subject to achieve the purpose it seeks to achieve in the questionnaire, it proved

contrary during the interview session, because responses given to the interview items 2, 3

and 9 show that teachers lack content knowledge about the subject. This was not different

when the observation was conducted in the classroom. One of the respondents’ response

to interview items 2, 3 and 9 were as follows:

No, because it is about attaining the knowledge but looking at the practical aspect of it, I think this is the way Social Studies should be taught.

The problem stated in the syllabus needs to be garnished by you the teacher because, sometimes it does not commensurate the content you are going to teach. But then all the same, you can add up to what you have.

To me, all the three options are right to be considered when teaching the topics in Social Studies.

This implies that knowledge of Social Studies and knowledge of Social Studies

representations are related to content knowledge, while knowledge of students and

knowledge of teaching are related to pedagogical content knowledge. It is surprising that

a graduate teacher who has been exposed to both the content and the pedagogy of Social

Studies and after many years of teaching the very subject does not possess mastery of the

content of the subject. Shulman (1992) is of the view that for a teacher to be able to teach

effectively, s/he needs to understand the subject matter deeply so that s/he can help

students create useful cognitive pictures, relate one idea to another, and address

misconceptions.

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The definition of a subject directs its content. As seen from the findings from the

questionnaire, 87% of the respondents agreed that Social Studies is citizenship education.

The teaching and content of Social Studies should therefore be geared towards the

development of learners’ civic competencies. Findings from the observation schedule

show that teachers are merely presenting facts which do not develop the attitudes, values

and skills of students. Thus, in practice hardly are Social Studies teachers developing the

civic competencies of the learners. From the interview and the observation out of the

eight teachers observed 4 (50%) moderately made the attempt to present facts to make

students conscious of the problem stated in the syllabus. Since all the teachers have

degrees in Social Studies one wonders why this should occur. The CRDD curriculum in

Social Studies has a column for the problem. This implies that the teachers are not aware

of the essence of the stated problem. There seems to be misconceptions about what

citizenship education is and this cut across all the teachers from the various Universities

who responded. This gives room for teachers of Social Studies to see the subject as

amalgamation of the social sciences.

From the interview conducted all the 8 respondents agreed that, for the subject not to

suffer, experts who are trained in Social Studies should teach the subject as the accepted

definition given to it so that teachers will not still teach Social Studies in a classical

manner by applying traditional teaching methods but this was not so, even teachers who

were trainees of the University of Education have certain misconception about what the

subject is, although, they perceive it to be citizenship education. From the findings 30

(55%) of the respondents were undecided, that is, they do not understand citizenship

education. Only 12 (22.2%) disagreed to the statement that citizenship education enables

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one to understand the past, the geography of the world and how we are governed,

meaning, the teacher does not know what citizenship education is. If all respondents

agreed on accepted definition of Social Studies as citizenship education, then it is out of

context for a teacher to say s/he is able to teach Social Studies because s/he has broader

spectrum of knowledge in social sciences. This is a quote from the interview granted to

him, “In teaching Social Studies you need someone who has a broad spectrum of the

social sciences”. Such teacher will still teach Social Studies as an amalgam of the social

sciences, Social Studies being broad go to the other disciplines to borrow ideas and

integrate it to solve problems of man’s survival. This integration is done in a way that

each discipline is not seen in isolation but well fused to give the subject its unique nature

and scope.

Kizlik (2012) ,said that, much too often, Social Studies courses are regarded as relatively

unimportant subject matter, whether in elementary school, middle school, or high school.

This perception leads to diminished attention paid to Social Studies as a serious subject

area, yet in the overall development of the intellect of students, no other subject matter

content holds as much promise.

Kizlik (2012) believes that, Social Studies curriculum taught in our schools is a mile wide

and an inch deep. So much has to be "covered" in a year that there is literally no time to

go into much depth in anything. In many cases learning is judged to have taken place

because students correctly answer the requisite number of questions on multiple choice

tests. To think of such results as meaningful learning is an exercise in self-deception, but

it is done every day in thousands of classrooms. There is no reason for students to do

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anything with such content once the test is over, and so it is quickly forgotten, only to be

"relearned" and "retested" later on. The researcher agrees that learning the content of

Social Studies is creating of knowledge, values, skills and attitudes but not just mere

presentation of facts.

Looking back at Shulman’s (1992) Content and Pedagogy knowledge, there were some

important themes that overlapped in that document. The content section expected that

teachers would be able to make connections and see relationships between concepts.

While the Pedagogy section sought to help students learn about societal problems,

making connections requires an understanding of the problems facing human for their

survival. The content section expects Social Studies teachers to learn and teach about the

process of developing attitudes, values, skills and knowledge, while the Pedagogy section

expects teachers to plan experiences for their students to be reflective, concerned,

responsible and participatory citizens. From the findings, 36 (66.6%) of the respondents

agreed with the statement that, the main forms of Social Studies teaching is making

students acquire relevant fact. It is not just a mere fact or knowledge but a distilled

knowledge that will develop the students’ civic competency.

5.2 How far have teachers of Social Studies able to achieve the objectives of the

subject they teach?

A greater percentage (87%) of the respondents agreed that Social Studies is citizenship

education, so the nature, goal and objective should be dictated by the prescribed

definition. The goal of the subject is the ultimate purpose for teaching the subject. The

Curriculum Research Development Division (CRDD) breaks the broad goal of the

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subject into systematic attainable objective called the general objectives which direct the

whole process of teaching the subject. Unfortunately, teachers do not know the goal and

objectives of the subject they are teaching. From the questionnaire administered, 44

(81.4%) of the respondents agreed that goals and objectives direct the whole process of

teaching the subject but different result showed up during the interview. This means that

teachers teaching Social Studies do not understand the goal and the general objectives of

the subject so they do not select facts which will address the attainment of the goal and

the general objectives. For example, a teacher who has taught Social Studies for eleven

years had this to say about the goal and objectives of the subject;

“The main aim or if I should say the goal of Social Studies is to be able to get a background knowledge in all areas, since Social Studies entails a lots of issues, its more or less a general perspective so to speak, so it will be very important for a student to learn Social Studies to get knowledge in the other aspects of social science.”

With the goal in mind I make sure students broaden their horizon by learning the other

social science topics.

The observation carried out in class did not show something different from the interview

conducted. During the class evaluation, 4 (50%) of the Social Studies teachers

moderately addressed their teaching to the objectives of the subject. This finding is in line

with Borhang’s (2005) assertion that, the purpose, goal, content and teaching methods are

most important and these make the subject-matter a vulnerable one and that a proper

integration of these will make the subject achieve the intended goals, purpose and

objectives it seeks to achieve. Relating this to Ghana, it is expected that while in school

and even after leaving school, students should be well informed citizens and actively get

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involved in the affairs of the nation with an understanding and appreciation of Ghana’s

system of government and civic life (Akinlaye , 1997). This is exactly what the stated

goal and objectives of the subject in the syllabus seek to achieve. So a teacher who

perceives the subject as citizenship education but teaches the subject as amalgamation of

the social sciences will not be able to achieve the goal and objectives of the subject. That

is the reason why teachers teach the subject the way it is being taught in class, although

they profess to have content knowledge about the Social Studies. None of the teachers

observed was seen to have set any achievable instructional objectives. All 8 teachers

observed were mostly concerned about giving learners knowledge that were related to the

topics they were teaching. This is mere knowledge. This supports Akinlaye’s (2003) view

that “the competence in teaching Social Studies depends largely on sound understanding

of its philosophy” and that how the subject is perceived plays an important role in the

determination of its goal and objectives.

5.3 How do the contents of Social Studies taught impact on the students?

The questionnaires administered showed that, 42 (77.7%) of the respondents agreed that

the problem stated in the Social Studies syllabus helps in the selection of the right content

to teach the subject. The observations made, prove that teachers of the subject do not

understand what the problem stated in the syllabus means to the teaching of the subject.

They do not know that the stated problem should help them in the selection of the right

approach to solve the problem for the individual’s survival. They could not link the

problem to the appropriate approach to the teaching of that particular content, so, they

neglect the problem stated to do their own thing during teaching. The question is how to

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use the stated problem to effect change, impart values, skills and knowledge into students

to become concerned, reflective, well informed and participatory citizens was the

problem. None of the teachers observed tried to solve the problem let alone to

consciously effect change in students.

Looking at Shulman’s (1992), Content and Pedagogy knowledge, there were some

important themes that overlapped in that document. The Content section expected that

teachers would be able to make connections and see relationships between concepts.

While the Pedagogy section sought to help students learn about societal problems.

Making connections requires an understanding of the problems faced by man for his/her

survival. The Content section expects Social Studies teachers to learn and teach about the

process of developing attitudes, values, skills and knowledge, while the Pedagogy section

expects teachers to plan experiences for their students to be reflective, concerned,

responsible and participatory citizens. This presents the intersection in the learning how

to teach Social Studies using different approaches. Making similar connections relies on a

facile understanding of both the content students are learning and how students learn.

With this, the Social Studies teacher after teaching should develop attitudes, values, skills

and knowledge so that learners will be reflective, concerned, responsible and

participatory citizens for the individual’s survival. The data from the questionnaire shows

that 49 (90.7%) of the respondents deliberately effect possible attitudes and values in

students when teaching Social Studies. This unfortunately does not reflect teacher’s

teaching because they do not know the goals and objectives of the subject. This is as a

result of wrong misconception of citizenship education or they are confused with

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citizenship education and education of the citizenry. For example, a teacher said this

during the interview section; “through the topics we teach the students. Topics that work

on their social values are at times used to inculcate the right thing like attitude, skills and

values.”

“I consciously inculcate in student the right attitude, skills and values.”

According to Martorella, (1994), an attitude can be defined as a positive or negative

evaluation of people, objects, event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your

environment. This implies that wrong teaching of Social Studies coupled with bad

environment can develop a negative attitude in students. In effect, a wrong conception

about the subject will not develop positive attitudes in learners.

The researcher totally agrees with Martorella (1994) who said that attitudes are

judgments. They develop on the affective, behavioural intention and the cognitive

evaluation of the entity that constitutes an individual’s beliefs about the object. Most

attitudes are the results of either direct experience or observational learning from the

environment. This means the persuasive and the communication ways that a teacher can

use to change attitudes are missing in their effort of changing attitudes when we consider

the above statements.

The 49 (90.7%) respondents who agreed on the statement that, the Social Studies teacher

makes deliberate efforts to develop certain positive attitudes and values in students when

teaching and 36 (66.6%) who agreed that Social Studies is best taught through the use of

relevant life experiences both in the questionnaire, showed a different thing when the

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researcher interviewed the sampled teachers and observed them in class. As seen from the

findings from the interview that teachers deliberately effect change in attitudes, value and

skills, things were different during the observation session. From the observation, only 2

(25%) of the teachers moderately made the attempt to deliberately developed learners’

attitudes, skills and values by repeatedly encouraging the needed attitude for students.

This means that teachers presenting mere facts to learners will not make any positive

impact.

The National Council for the Social Studies said that, teaching Social Studies powerfully

and authentically begins with a deep knowledge and understanding of the subject and its

unique goals. Social Studies content prepare students to identify, understand, and work to

solve the challenges facing our nation in an increasingly interdependent world. Social

Studies as citizenship education should help students acquire and learn to use the skills,

knowledge, and attitudes that will prepare them to be competent and responsible citizens

throughout their lives. Competent and responsible citizens are informed and thoughtful,

participate in their communities, are involved politically, and exhibit moral and civic

virtues.

5.4 What is the general level of effectiveness of Social Studies teachers in the SHS?

The findings from the observation revealed that only 2 (25%) of the teachers teaching

mentioned wrong attitudes casually to students when they were teaching the topic “the

need for the individual to serve”. All the others were only presenting facts to students to

copy. The deliberate change in attitudes was not seen. In certain times, the researcher

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expected the teacher to call the student to share what s/he has learnt during the teaching

period with friends but that was not seen. It was also revealed in another class where the

teacher was teaching “conflicts and conflicts resolution” that did not give the student the

opportunity to contribute to the lesson when teaching. This means that, the application of

the content and facts were not presented in the lesson. This is in line with Ljunggren and

Öst (2010) saying that, effective teaching does not involve presenting your exciting

lessons or activities to the class, it is a craft learned over time. They added that, effective

teaching is a teaching philosophy that can distinctly change given the situation. For

example, a classroom with five students is a much different situation than addressing a

class of forty students. Having the skills and abilities necessary to become an effective

teacher will allow you to craft your lessons and teaching style to accommodate any size

of class. They are talking about class size, but the researcher is of the view that class size

should not prevent teachers to do the right thing.

According to the Teacher’s Curriculum Institution (2004), most researchers agree that a

teacher with some experience is usually more effective than someone new on the job. But

most studies have found that teachers become more effective during the first five years of

their careers and then level off until close to the end of their careers. This to a large extent

can be true but on the contrary it did not show in the research conducted. Interestingly,

however, Darling-Hammond (2000) reported that "veteran teachers in settings that

emphasize continual learning and collaboration continue to improve their performance".

While TCI (2004) agree that "some experience does have an impact on student

achievement" they also maintain that "experience has less of an impact on student

achievement than other measurable teacher attributes."

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5.5 Limitations

This study concerns itself with teachers’ content knowledge and its effects on the

teaching of Social Studies at the Senior High School level in the Sekondi-Takoradi

Metropolis. The metropolis has twelve (12) public Senior High Schools with each school

having at least four (4) Social Studies teachers and a maximum of eight. The accessible

population used for this study was fifty-four (54) Social Studies teachers. Noting that

there are about 600 public Senior High Schools in Ghana, the study cannot capture the

intentions and actions of most of the Social Studies teachers in Ghana. But since in

Ghana, it is only the University of Cape Coast and the University of Education, Winneba

that produce most Social Studies teachers, one expects that their practices will be a

reflection of what is taught in these two universities.

Again, during the interview session, some respondents were reluctant to answer some of

the questions and some of them were under the pretence that their competences were

being tested, so there was lack of co-operation from them. Some were even saying the

questions should have been given to them to study and make reference to their school

notes. Due to this, the anticipated interviewed persons became smaller. This made the

researcher to observe the lessons of the teachers two times at different times to get the

result the researcher was looking for.

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CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this chapter, the researcher will present the summary of the study, conclusions,

recommendation as well as suggestions for further research.

6.0 Summary

The main objective of this study was to investigate how far Social Studies teachers at the

Senior High Schools understand the content they are teaching, how they have been able

to achieve the objectives of the subject and how this impacts on the students. The study

area was the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis of the Western Region of Ghana. To achieve

these objectives, the researcher used three instruments, namely, the questionnaire,

interview guide and observation checklist. In all, 54 teachers responded to a questionnaire

and 8 teachers were both interviewed and observed. Four (4) research questions were

formulated to serve as a guide to the study, namely: how far do Social Studies teachers

understand the content they are teaching at the SHS?, how far have teachers of Social

Studies been able to achieve the objectives of the subject they teach?, how do the content

of Social Studies taught impact on the students?, why are Social Studies teachers in the

SHS not making the needed impact? Through convenience sampling, secondary schools

were selected. Random sampling was used in selecting four (4) schools for the study and

two (2) teachers from each of the four selected schools for interview and observation.

Data collected from the questionnaire and observation guide were analyzed using

percentages and frequency tables. The data collected from the interview were triangulated

to establish the truthfulness of the findings.

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From the questionnaire it is clear that all the 47 respondents accept that Social Studies is

citizenship education. However, the interview and observation revealed that they did not

understand what citizenship education means. Thus 55.6% of the respondents viewed

citizenship education as education for the citizen. There was also evidence of teachers

not knowing the goals and objectives of the subject and what the problem stated in the

syllabus stands for. The study further revealed that though experience and certification

matter in students’ achievement, but under this research, the revelation was that it has no

correlation because bad things taught many years can produce more bad students than

good ones. Another revelation from the study relating to relevant content selected for

Social Studies instruction was that teachers could not connect specific objectives to the

general objectives.

6.2 Conclusions

Based on the findings it can be concluded that many teachers in the Sekondi-Takoradi

Metropolis do lack content knowledge in Social Studies. This made them not able to

understand the essence of the problem in the syllabus. They therefore did not select facts

which will develop the civic competences of the learners. Again many Social Studies

teachers do not know what the general objectives of the subject are. They therefore do not

select facts which address the attainment of these goals and objectives. Again, achieving

good WASSCE results give teachers some fame and reward and so teachers are poised to

achieve these rewards rather than developing the learners’ attitudes, values, skills and

giving them knowledge which will benefit the society and the nation at large.

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6.4 Recommendations

Based on the outcome of the study, the following recommendations have been made:

Since content knowledge is vital to good teaching, there should be courses on

Social Studies content so as to develop teachers’ knowledge about the subject to

enhance effective teaching.

The goal and objectives direct the content to be taught. Therefore, authors of

Social Studies should be advised to keep the goal and objectives of the subject in

mind so as to guide them in their write ups and teaching.

Questions in Social Studies should emphasise on how to address the problems of

human survival. WAEC style of setting questions should be such that students

will apply what they have acquired in class rather than reproducing what is in the

textbooks.

There should be periodic seminars for Social Studies teachers to refresh the minds

of those who have been outside the university for a long time so that they will be

abreast with new information about the subject.

Colleges of Education should restructure their programmes to suit content

methodology of Social Studies for effective teaching and learning.

Social Studies Association should organised in-service training for newly trained

graduates from the Universities and Colleges on the content of Social Studies to

enhance effective teaching.

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6.5 Suggestions for Further Research.

The current study was limited in scope. This is because the study covered only the

Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis of the Western Region of Ghana. A replication of this

study could be conducted in other Metropolitan areas of the country to find out what the

situation is.

It is also suggested that studies should be conducted in the study area to find out the

views of teachers on the teachers’ content knowledge in Social Studies and its effect in

the teaching of the subject at the Senior High Schools. Further studies may also be

necessary to find out whether there is a correlation between teachers’ content knowledge

and students’ achievement.

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APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

Please answer the following questions by either ticking the appropriate answer or proving

the answer where needed.

1. Name of

school: ..................................................................................................................

2. Sex: male [ ]

Female [ ]

3. Educational qualification

Diploma [ ]

Degree [ ]

Post graduate [ ]

4. University attended

University of Education, Winneba [ ]

University of Ghana [ ]

University of Cape Coast [ ]

University of Development Studies [ ]

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology [ ]

Other Universities (please

specify)..........................................................................................

5. Area of specialization

Economics [ ]

History [ ]

Geography [ ]

Political science [ ]

Social science [ ]

Other (specified) [ ]

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6. Experience in teaching social studiesLess than a year [ ]1-5years [ ]6-10years [ ]Above 11years [ ]

Below is a list of statement about social studies. Read carefully and select which statement best describes your understanding of Social Studies, Tick () in the appropriate column.Note that the ratings are as follows:A = AgreeU = UndecidedD = DisagreeTeacher’ content knowledge A U D7 Social studies can be taught by teachers from any

educational background8 The main focus of social studies teaching is making

students to acquire relevant facts9 The problem stated in the social studies syllabus for SSS

helps in the selection of the right content to be taught in the subject

10 Teachers knowledge in social studies can enhance the teaching of the subject

11 The social studies teacher makes deliberate efforts to develop certain positive attitudes and values in students when teaching

12 Goals and objectives of social studies direct the whole process of teaching the subject

13 Teachers’ knowledge of social studies help in achieving goals and objectives of the subject

14 Social studies in citizenship education15 Social studies is a combination of knowledge from

Geography, History, Economics and Government16 Citizenship education enables one to understand the past,

the geography of the world and how we are governed17 As soon as you see a social studies topic what comes to

mind is the meaning of it18 In teaching social studies the teacher tries ensure he is

helping the student to solve the problem of survival19 In teaching social studies, the teacher tries to address the

concept for the topic20 Social studies is best taught through the use of relevant life

experiences

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APPENDIX B

INTERVIEW GUIDE

Male [ ] Female [ ]

1. Can social studies be taught by teachers from any educational background?

2. Is making students to acquire relevant facts the main focus of social studies?

3. How the problem stated in the syllabus does helps you in teaching the subjects?

4. In what way will your knowledge in social studies help you in your teaching?

Social studies teachers understanding of the goals and objectives of the subject.

5. As Social Studies teacher, what is the importance of the goal and general aims of

the subject to you?

6. With the goal of the subject in mind, what do you think the subject seeks to

inculcate in learners?

7. In teaching social studies, do you consciously develop attitude, values, knowledge

and skills in students?

8. How?

Content knowledge of social studies teachers in teaching social studies.

9. Which of these directs a social studies teacher in the teaching of topics in the

subject?

d) Nature of topice) The problems man’s survival in the countryf) The related content the

10. Which of these will be the driving force when you are teaching the topic ‘Physical Environment’ in Social Studies?e) The relief, climate and the drainage of the areaf) The climate and the geomorphology of the worldg) Man/woman can utilize the physical environment for his benefitsh) How the physical dictates the activities of man/woman

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11. When teaching a social studies topic ‘Science and Technology’ the teacher will be

concerned with

a) The meaning of science and technology

b) What constitute science and technology

c) How the study of science can be applied in technology

d) The advantage science and technology

12. When teaching a social studies topic ‘institution of marriage’ at SHS the teacher will

be concerned with

a. How to help people to solve the problem of selecting a future partner

b. What constitutes the preparation that ought to be made before getting married

c. Meaning of marriage

d. The types of marriages we have in Ghana

13. In teaching social studies topic ‘National Independence and Self reliance’ which of

these will be the driving force.

a. The meaning of the concept political independent and self reliance.

b. The implication of attaining independence

c. The political ambition of people

d. The history of Ghana’s colonial masters and how they gain independent

14. Do you think Social studies is achieving the purpose it seeks to attain?

15. What can you say about the impact of the subject on learners?

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APPENDIX C

OBSERVATION CHECK LIST

To what extent are the following true of the social studies teaching

Very great extent

Great extent

Moderately true

Averagely untrue

Not true

The overall objective the teaching addresses was achievedStudents’ attitudes are being developed by the teacherStudents’ values were being developedStudents’ skills are being developed Teacher tries to address how to solve the problemStudents’ activities performed in class were relevant to the topicTeacher makes repeated effort in encouraging the needed attitude to students’Facts used make the students’ conscious of the problem for man’s survivalTeachers’ content addressed the stated problemTeachers knowledge in social studies helped in achieving the stated objective

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