A survey of breeding Black-necked Grebes in the UK:1973–2004...data held on Black-necked Grebes by the RBBP for the period 1973–2004. In addition, county avifaunas, county bird

Black-necked Grebes Podiceps nigricollisbreed in shallow, eutrophic waters, whichtypically have extensive fringe vegetation

and often floating aquatic plants such asAmphibious Bistort Persicaria amphibia,Bogbean Menyanthes trifoliata and water-liliesNymphaea (Gibbons et al. 1993). Althoughundisturbed lakes are ideal, a variety of sites inBritain have been colonised, including gravel-

pits, reservoirs and even former sludge-depositgrounds. The species will tolerate a limitedamount of land-based disturbance but notwater-based recreational activities (Boe 1992),and it is clear that this greatly reduces thenumber of potential breeding sites. A commonfactor at most, but not all, breeding sites is thepresence of nesting Black-headed Gulls Larusridibundus, which provide an early warning of

368 © British Birds 100 • June 2007 • 368–378

A survey of breedingBlack-necked Grebes in

the UK: 1973–2004Brian Martin and Judith Smith

ABSTRACT Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis is a rare breeding species inBritain which favours shallow, eutrophic pools, preferably those which are

undisturbed. The species first bred in Britain in 1904, and the number of breedingbirds remained low for much of the twentieth century. Data from the Rare

Breeding Birds Panel archives were analysed, and this paper provides a detailedregional summary of the ups and downs of Black-necked Grebes in the UK

during the period 1973–2004. During that time, the population has increased,reflecting a wider expansion across northwest Europe, and the centre of gravity

of the British population has shifted from southern Scotland to northern England;however, productivity remains generally low, and up to 40% of the population

have bred at a single site. This paper discusses the possible factors underpinningthe bird’s continuing rarity and speculates on what the future may hold.

Jan Wilczur

potential danger. It is this combination ofrequirements that may well explain the rarity ofBlack-necked Grebe as a breeding species inBritain.

The bulk of the European population (esti-mated at between 37,000 and 142,000 breedingpairs) occurs from central Europe eastwards,with over 70% in the Ukraine and southernRussia (Hagemeijer & Blair 1997). A northwest-erly expansion from this core area seems to havebegun in the later years of the nineteenthcentury and was believed by Kalela (1949) tohave been caused by the drying out of lakes inthe Caspian region, mainly as a result of climatechange. Adamian & Klem (1999) also reportedmajor losses from important breeding sites inArmenia following the lowering of water levels.

During this period of range expansion,breeding was first proved in Britain & Ireland in1904, in Wales, followed by breeding records inEngland in 1918 and Scotland in 1930. In addi-tion, an unusually large colony was discoveredin Ireland in 1930, at Lough Funshinagh (Co.Roscommon), which may have contained anextraordinary 300 pairs in 1932 but is nowextinct. With this one exception, however, pop-ulation levels remained low during the earlyyears of the twentieth century. A further periodof colonisation occurred in the 1930s and earlyto mid 1940s, when breeding was first proved inCheshire (Guest et al. 1992), Co. Durham

(Temperley 1951), and a number of pairs bredin Yorkshire (Mather 1986). It is doubtful,however, if the British population up to theperiod covered by this paper ever exceeded15–20 breeding pairs, and it was frequentlymuch lower. The period between 1950 and 1970saw the population in retreat, with Black-necked Grebe barely retaining a foothold as aBritish breeding species. During 1968–72, Shar-rock (1976) estimated the number of breedingpairs in Britain & Ireland at fewer than 20, withthe population largely confined to a few sites inthe Scottish lowlands.

MethodsFollowing a decision by the Rare Breeding BirdsPanel (RBBP) to review the status of certainspecies, the authors were permitted access to alldata held on Black-necked Grebes by the RBBPfor the period 1973–2004. In addition, countyavifaunas, county bird reports and breedingatlases have been consulted. These providedfurther information, in particular of fluctua-tions in numbers in the years prior to 1973.

It became apparent at an early stage thatthere was some inconsistency between recordsheld by the Panel and its annual reports pub-lished in BB. Where this was evident, enquirieswere made to individuals with local knowledgeof the species and access to past records. Theseincluded County Recorders and specialist

369British Birds 100 • June 2007 • 368–378

A survey of breeding Black-necked Grebes in the UK

150. Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis, Cavenham Pit, Suffolk,April 2007. A migrant bird, in full breedingplumage; Black-necked Grebes have never nested in Suffolk.

Bill

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groups monitoring regional Black-neckedGrebe populations. In addition, it became clearthat, in its early years, the RBBP was viewedwith suspicion by some fieldworkers, whofeared that breeding sites might be disclosedand were uncertain as to what use their recordsmight be put. Consequently, this led to somedata being withheld. We are satisfied that, fol-lowing our enquiries, any inconsistencies havebeen largely resolved and previously unsub-mitted breeding information released. We areconfident that a more complete database ofBlack-necked Grebe breeding records has beenachieved and that the following account accu-rately reflects the breeding population of Black-necked Grebes in the UK for the period1973–2004.

Regional summariesBlack-necked Grebe is a species targeted by egg-collectors, and unfortunately we have had towithhold the names of many sites. Only coun-ties where either breeding has been proved orbirds have been present long enough to suggestprobable or possible breeding have beenincluded in the text.

Southeast England (Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent)Most records during 1973–99 were of migrants.The William Girling Reservoir in GreaterLondon held 11 birds in both October 1998 andOctober 1999 (Musgrove et al. 2001). Sincethen, this water has become increasingly impor-tant for wintering birds, and a count of 27 inFebruary 2005 was the highest in the UK for anysite in the 2004/05 winter (Banks et al. 2006).

In Kent, a pair was seen at Dungeness in Mayand June 1984, and up to three juveniles were

there throughout August of that year, butbreeding was not confirmed. There was nest-building at Lade Pits in 1988 but both birds hadleft by mid April, and the first confirmedbreeding in Kent occurred in 2002, beingrepeated in 2003. In Essex, failed breedingattempts were reported in 1991, 1999 and 2000,but successful nesting finally occurred at onesite in 2001 and 2002. Between 1990 and 2004,successful breeding took place at a site in Hert-fordshire in five years, which included, remark-ably, a pair of Great Crested Grebes P. cristatushatching and fledging a Black-necked Grebechick there in 2000. Latterly, this water hasbecome the most important in the region,having eight breeding pairs in 2004, and it ishoped that the water company that owns thesite will continue their positive managementrole, in conjunction with the local wildlife trust.

It is perhaps surprising that, given thenumber of gravel-pits in southeast England,Black-necked Grebe remains so scarce as abreeding bird. Recreational pressures may be akey factor preventing colonisation of this region.

Southwest England (Avon, Dorset, Gloucestershire,Hampshire,Wiltshire) The south-coast harbours and estuaries, fromLangstone Harbour (Hampshire/West Sussex)to the Fal estuary complex in Cornwall, areimportant for Black-necked Grebes in winter.Double-figure counts have been regularlyrecorded as part of WeBS surveys, but it is oftendifficult to obtain accurate counts and numbersfluctuate, e.g. 33 on the Fal in December 1997,none there in the two following winters andthen an average of 12 from 2000/01 to 2004/05.Langstone Harbour and Tor and Babbacombe

Bays (Devon) are alsoimportant but othercoastal sites such asThe Fleet (Dorset)and the Tamar (Corn-wall/Devon) appear tobe declining inimportance.

Despite this,breeding has beenrecorded in only twosouthwest counties. InAvon, a pair bred in1998, followed bypossible breeding in1999; and in Hamp-

370 British Birds 100 • June 2007 • 368–378


73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03

Fig. 1. The number of confirmed pairs of Black-necked Grebes Podiceps nigricollisbreeding in the UK, and the number of sites at which confirmed breeding took

place, 1973–2004.

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

no. pairs confirmed breeding

sites with confirmed, probable or possible breeding

shire, a single pair bred successfully at a sewage-farm in 1987. At another site in that county,four pairs plus an extra male arrived in 1995,two pairs hatching young, and another pairnest-building. Although birds were present

intermittently in the following years, there wasno confirmed breeding until 2004, when thesingle young did not survive.

In 1994, up to two birds were in PooleHarbour (Dorset) in May, and up to threeremained on The Fleet from mid May to midJune. Cotswold Water Park straddles the borderof Wiltshire and Gloucestershire and birds atthis site have thus been recorded in both coun-ties, but no breeding has occurred. In 2004, apair was successful at another site in Glouces-tershire and breeding was attempted close by.

Eastern England (Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire,Norfolk, Northamptonshire, Suffolk)The Black-necked Grebe occurs only as apassage migrant in Suffolk and Norfolk, albeitincreasingly so in the latter county. There hasbeen one instance of successful breeding inCambridgeshire, in 1989, and two unsuccessfulattempts in 1992. In Lincolnshire, the firstbreeding in recent times took place in 1998, attwo sites, following display in 1996, and wasrepeated in 1999, 2001 and 2003–04 at one ofthese. Birds have visited 15 waters inNorthamptonshire since 1981 with display, cop-ulation and nest-building noted in the county,but successful breeding has not been proved.



Fig. 2. The regional distribution and spread of breeding Black-necked Grebes Podiceps nigricollis in the UK.The data show the maximum number of pairs proved breeding, by county, in any year in three time periods,

1973–82, 1983–92, 1993–2004.

1–45–8

9–12

13–16

17–20

1–45–8

9–12

13–16

17–20

1–4

1973–82

1983–92 1993–2004

5–8

9–12

13–16

17–20

Central England (Derbyshire, Leicestershire &Rutland, Nottinghamshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire,Warwickshire,Worcestershire)Confirmed breeding has occurred in all coun-ties except Derbyshire and Worcestershire on atleast one occasion during the period underreview. In Leicestershire & Rutland, breedinghas occurred at Rutland Water, with chicks seenin 1978, 1983, 1987 and 1988, but has not beenconfirmed since.

In Nottinghamshire, the first confirmedbreeding was in 1979, when one pair fledged twoyoung. Although two birds returned in 1980,breeding did not occur. A pair was successful in1985 and breeding attempted in 1993, followedby success in four years since at four differentsites. At one of these, in 2000, seven pairs hatchedat least 16 chicks, of which up to ten fledged. In2001, five pairs were thought to have bred at onesite but only three chicks were seen, and therewas probable breeding at a second water. In2002, two pairs bred at one site, producing threeor four young, but a family at another locationwas thought not to have been bred there. In both2003 and 2004, there was successful breeding atone site by two pairs again, raising three juvenilesin each year, and 1–2 other pairs either non-breeding or unsuccessful. Some disturbance wassuspected at this site.

Some of the meres in Shropshire are inprivate ownership and, during 1987–89, con-firmed breeding took place by one pair at anunidentified mere. In Staffordshire, breedingtook place at Barton Gravel-pit in 1996. This sitewas later partly infilled and birds returning in

1997 moved between this and a nearby site thathad also been partly destroyed, but no breedingoccurred. In 2002, a pair failed to hatch a clutchlaid late in the season at an exposed site withlittle vegetation. In 2004, a pair managed tofledge two young at an unprotected site, despitehuman disturbance. In Warwickshire, a pair wasunsuccessful in 1984 and although birds visitedthree other sites in the period 1990–96, only in1994 did a pair stay longer than a few days, butwithout any evidence of breeding. In 2000, anagitated adult was seen at a new site in May, butthis record was not followed up.

In 1983, a pair frequented a reedbed in Der-byshire until it was flooded in early June. In1994, two pairs displayed at a new gravel-pit sitein that county, but left as the pit was pumpeddry to make way for a link road to the M1motorway. In Worcestershire, a pair wasrecorded at the same site in both 1986 and 1996but water-skiing, sailing and fishing made thesite unsuitable for breeding. The 1988 RBBPReport addenda stated that confirmed breedingtook place at two central England localities in1984 and at one in 1995, with presence atanother water. Unfortunately, further details ofthese records could not be traced.

Northern England (Cheshire, Cleveland, Co.Durham, Greater Manchester, Northumberland,Yorkshire)This region is undoubtedly the main breedingarea in the UK, with three major clusters, inCheshire, Northumberland and Yorkshire. Atone point during the period under review, one



151. Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis, Northumberland,April 2006.

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site in Northumberland became the mostimportant in the country. It was established in1977, when one pair bred, and numbers thenincreased steadily to reach 17 confirmedbreeding pairs in 1989, when 28 young wereseen. In 1990–91, there were approximately 16pairs here, but productivity was poor. At thissite, breeding Black-necked Grebes aredependent on Amphibious Bistort for nest-building, and cannot breed until this developssufficiently to support the nest. In some years,plant growth is poor and therefore breedingsuffers correspondingly, and at all times secondbroods are rare. American Mink Mustela vison(or possibly Otter Lutra lutra) caused wholesaledesertion by 11 pairs in mid July 2000, leavingtwo pairs with young and one other pair. In2001, seven pairs bred at this site but only fouryoung were reared, and just one pair waspresent at another site. A return to better timeswas seen in 2002, when nine pairs hatched 12young and just two nests failed, but again onlyfour chicks fledged; at two other sites in 2002,single pairs fledged one and two young respec-tively. In 2003, a breeding attempt was thwartedby Common Coots Fulica atra at the main siteand also at another site in the county.

From 1990, Black-necked Grebes began tocolonise other Northumberland sites and, up to1993, breeding was proved at three further sitesand adult birds were seen at two more. From1994, there was retrenchment to the major site,with expansion again from 1996 when twoadditional sites were used successfully, followedby a fourth new site used in 2000. In 2002,single pairs fledged one and two young respec-tively at this site and at one of the 1993 sites,which is now the pre-eminent water in thecounty, 5–6 pairs fledging young in both 2003and 2004.

In Cheshire, there were records from eightsites during the breeding season in the period1980–83, with probable breeding taking place atNunsmere in 1982 and 1983, followed by suc-cessful breeding there in 1984. The introductionof water sports at this site in 1985 caused thebirds to desert, and although they returned in1986, they did not stay. Colonisation of what isnow probably the most important site in theUK, Woolston Eyes SSSI, began in 1987, withsuccessful breeding by one pair, progressing toeight broods from four pairs by 1991. Disasterstruck in late 1991 when the owners drained themain breeding pool. Returning birds in spring

1992 found the site dry, and they scatteredacross northwest England, displaying at twoother Cheshire sites but there was otherwise noevidence of breeding. Three displaced pairsarrived at a small site in Greater Manchester andall bred successfully, and there were also sight-ings at two sites in Lancashire, but no breeding.This event demonstrates the ability of thisspecies to seek out and colonise newly suitablewaters when necessary. During 1993–94, waterlevels were still too low at Woolston Eyes, butgradually the drainage ditches silted up andwater returned. A pair bred at a nearby site in1993, but this proved to be an isolated event. In1995, two pairs bred successfully at WoolstonEyes, and as the former habitat returned,numbers grew to ten successful pairs in 1998, 15pairs in 2001, a peak of 20 pairs in 2002, 11 pairsin 2003 and ten in 2004, with two and then onealso successful at a second site in 2003 and 2004.

The propensity for this species to breedcolonially was shown by the breeding history inGreater Manchester. As already noted, the firstbreeding here in 1992 was a direct result of dis-persal from Woolston Eyes and two sites wereoccupied in 1993, when the water level at one ofthese was raised to a permanent summer level.Breeding occurred at both of these private andundisturbed sites in 1994 and 1996–98, and atthe first site also in 1995. Subsequently, birdshave withdrawn to Woolston Eyes, with only thesecond, larger, site regularly retaining up to fivepairs, sometimes double-brooded. In 2004, thissite achieved remarkable success when fourpairs, all double-brooded, fledged 16 of 18young hatched. Because the threat to WoolstonEyes has by no means gone away, it is felt thatthe nearby Greater Manchester sites should beprotected in case of further problems.

In Yorkshire, there was successful breeding in1982–84 at a site near Sheffield. From 1993,colonisation of the Lower Derwent Valley NNRbegan, five pairs nesting in the first year,increasing to 14 in 1994, 13 of which producedyoung; then nine pairs in 1995 hatched 15young; 15 pairs in 1996 hatched 34 young; 11pairs in 1997 hatched 11 young, and 4–6 pairsin 1998 on two adjoining sites produced 11young. Fluctuating water levels in 1999–2000then precluded breeding here, but suitable con-ditions returned in 2001, when three provenattempts produced nine young, at least seven ofwhich fledged; up to four more pairs may havebred, but monitoring is extremely difficult at



this complex site. Three pairs returned inMarch 2002 but were not seen after 7th April. In2000, a pair bred for the first time in recentyears at Fairburn Ings RSPB reserve, and pairswere also present in 2001 and 2002. Since 2000,there has been confirmed breeding at threeother sites and possible/probable breeding attwo further sites.

Breeding records in Co. Durham in the late1940s have never been repeated. In Cleveland,there was a promise of first breeding in 2004but Common Coots harassed the pair beforeeggs could be laid.

Scotland, South (Borders, Dumfries & Galloway,Lothians)The first confirmed breeding for the Bordersregion was in 1992, when a pair bred success-fully at a site where a prospecting bird had beennoted the previous June. This site was not occu-pied again until 1995, when a pair again bredsuccessfully. Also in 1995, another site wascolonised by a single pair, with breeding con-firmed. From then until 2004, one or both siteswere occupied annually, and at least one pairwas successful in each year. Both were successfulin 2001 and in 2002 six pairs bred at one site,but only four young were fledged. One of thesesites is threatened because of the loss of emer-gent vegetation. In Dumfries & Galloway, a sus-pected breeding attempt in 1993 was thought tofail because of flooding of the nest. The onlybreeding-season records in the Lothians refer tomigrants.

Scotland, Mid (Angus, Fife, Perth & Kinross)In 1973, the year of the first RBBP report, thesmall British population of Black-neckedGrebes was confined to this region, with a totalof four pairs breeding at two sites in Fife and12–14 pairs at the main site in Perthshire. Thetwo principal sites, one in Fife, the other inPerthshire, continued to be pre-eminentthroughout the remainder of the 1970s,although difficulties of access to the importantPerthshire site meant that accurate data on pop-ulation size and breeding success were difficultto obtain in some years. Nonetheless, it is clearthat the population at this Perthshire site fellfrom the 1973 peak to an average of 3–4 pairsbetween 1977 and 1979.

The main Fife site showed less fluctuation inbreeding numbers, but has suffered in recentyears from flooding. One or two pairs bred in

most years to 2003, and an exceptional fourpairs fledged eight young in 2001, although thebirds were hampered by egg-collectors in1990–91, and possibly by aggression from LittleGrebes Tachybaptus ruficollis in 1995. Thesecond site in that county, where a pair bredsuccessfully in 1973, and which attracted sevenpairs in 1977, from which four broods werereported, now appears to have been desertedbecause of disturbance from fishing boats. Fourpairs bred there in 1978, fledging four young,while three pairs fledged six young in 1979. At athird site in Fife, breeding occurred in 1995only, but the water is subject to disturbancefrom water-skiing.

In Perth & Kinross, the key site held 12–14pairs in 1973, of which five were proved to breed;ten pairs in 1974 of which six bred; eight pairs in1975 and ten pairs in 1976, when the outcomeswere unknown. From 1977 to 1985, numbersthere were reduced, but breeding by two pairswas proved in both 1981 and 1985. Numberswere back to nine pairs in 1986, but breedingdetails were not known. The following year,1987, was a successful year, with seven pairs pro-ducing 12 young, but in 1988, although 11 pairswere present in April and six adults still there inlate June, no breeding outcome was established.In 1989, 1991 and 1992, four, two and six pairsrespectively were present but no outcome wasknown, while in 1990 two pairs were seen withtwo young and in 1993 five pairs had four young.A maximum of six pairs was present in July1995. The last confirmed breeding record herewas in 1996, when a pair with two young wasseen in July; since then, there have been onlypassage records. The reason is thought to be acombination of predation by Otters, whicharrived in the late 1990s, and competition fromLittle Grebe, Great Crested Grebe and CommonCoot, but research is needed to determine theextent of possible changes in water quality,macrophyte and invertebrate populations (M. V.Bell pers. comm.). At a second Perth & Kinrosssite, birds were present every year from 1984 to1988 and probable breeding was recorded in twoof those years. Two further sites also supportedsingle pairs in 1987, each of which raised onechick. At a new site, four pairs bred in 1999 andsix young were seen, of which at least threefledged. Two pairs bred here in 2000 but noyoung fledged. There was probable breeding byone pair of two in 2001.

In Angus, records are mostly from the



RSPB’s Loch of Kinnordy reserve, a site with anabundance of Bogbean among which the grebesbreed. The first record was in 1987, when asingle pair hatched young from two breedingattempts; none survived and it was believed thatthey were predated by Pike Esox lucius. A pairraised two chicks in 1988, and in 1989 oneyoung survived from each of two broods fromone pair, while another adult was also seen tofeed the young. Five pairs fledged nine young in1990, and in subsequent years in this decade upto 11 pairs were present. Productivity has beenlow, with only one or two chicks fledging insome years. Numbers declined to two pairs in1998 and just one pair in 1999–2001. Manage-ment work was carried out in 2001 to removeBranched Bur-reed Sparganium erectum andsilt. Following on from this, a Recovery Project,to address many problems which have led to thesite losing much of its conservation interest,including Black-necked Grebes, is now inprogress and expected to last until 2009. In2001, a pair, probably from Kinnordy, arrivedand bred successfully at a second site in Angus,but in 2002 two attempts there by a single pairfailed. A pair bred at a third site in 2003.

WalesNo breeding occurred during the period of thissurvey in Wales, although migrants or non-breeding single birds have been seen in ten yearsin the period under review in Gwynedd, wherebirds winter off the coast. Migrants were alsoseen in Clwyd and Gwent in 1994.

Northern IrelandSingle adults have been recorded betweenMarch and September at Lough Beg or LoughNeagh in most years since 1994. In 1997, onedisplayed to a Slavonian Grebe P. auritus inMay. There have been no proven breedingrecords since 1944, however (G. Gordon pers.comm.).

DiscussionThe status of the Black-necked Grebe in Britainprior to the first proven breeding attempt in1904 is unclear. Any suggestions of earliernesting must be treated with caution, since con-fusion with Great Crested Grebe, formerlyknown as ‘Eared Grebe’ in some areas, cannotbe ruled out. However, Brown & Grice (2005)stated that Pennant’s (1771) description of birdsin the fens, described as ‘Lesser Crested Grebe’,‘clearly identifies [them] as Black-neckedGrebes.’ Up to the early 1970s, the species wasan annual, but rare, breeding bird with thestronghold of the small UK population centredin southern Scotland. Nesting in the rest of theUK occurred only occasionally during this time,and the pairs that were successful in England,for example in the 1940s, did not develop intoan established population.

By 1973, breeding was confined to Scotland.The population changed little during the fol-lowing years, but by the end of the 1970s thenumber of sites at which birds were reportedbegan to increase slowly. From 1982, however,there was a significant rise in the number of



152. Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis with young chick, Northumberland,April 2006.

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localities recording Black-necked Grebes in thebreeding season, particularly in England, and by1989 a maximum total of 34 pairs was recorded.It is clear that what was then happening inBritain was part of a much wider increase innorthwest Europe, as a dramatic rise in thebreeding population was noted in The Nether-lands during the 1980s (Hustings 1991).

This improved showing continued into the1990s (fig. 1). More waters in east, southeast andcentral England were visited during the breedingseason, although breeding was only occasionallyconfirmed, suggesting that most birds wereeither on passage or found the sites unsuitable.The same applied to southwest England, wherebreeding has occurred on only a few occasions,in Hampshire, Gloucestershire and Avon.Throughout this period, Black-necked Grebescontinued to breed on a number of lochs insouth and mid Scotland, and the annual popula-tion ranged from eight to 17 pairs.

By 1998, birds were reported at 15 sites,which held 50 confirmed pairs, the highestbreeding number ever recorded. Since then,there has been a levelling-off to 25 localities and43 confirmed pairs in 2004. A significant changesince the 1980s has been the shift of the popula-tion into northern England, with sites inCheshire and Northumberland now of majorimportance for this species (fig. 2). A further sitein Nottinghamshire held up to seven successfulpairs, and another in the southeast of Englandhas attracted a small but growing population.

Pleasing though the overall increase is, 40%of the confirmed pairs in 2002 were at just onesite. In addition, productivity at some sites(notably in Scotland) is low. The reasons for thisare unclear. Respondents to a questionnaire sentby the North-west England Black-necked GrebeStudy Group to fieldworkers at current andformer breeding waters blame mammalianpredators such as American Mink and Stoat M.erminea, as well as Pike, for taking eggs andyoung in some years. Common Coots have beenobserved displaying aggressively to Black-neckedGrebes, while at one Cheshire breeding colonyLittle Grebes have regularly attacked both adultsand young (B. Martin pers. obs.). Red-eared Ter-rapins Trachemys scripta have recently beenreported at two sites in the north of England.Whether or not predation is a serious problem isunclear, but it may well be important in someyears. There is no doubt that fluctuations inwater levels, notably during incubation, and per-

sistent cold and wet weather do affect breedingsuccess. At sites where nests are built on floatingvegetation such as Amphibious Bistort, coldsprings delay plant growth and breeding cannotthen begin until late June or even early July.Finally, in the Cheshire and Greater Manchesterarea, four birds are known to have been killed byhitting overhead power lines in recent years. It isnot known if this presents a significant threat tothis nocturnal migrant.

Although information is limited, two long-term studies provide interesting data on thebreeding success of Black-necked Grebes. Leible& Zach (1992) studied a large population ofBlack-necked Grebes (up to 172 pairs) in north-east Bavaria from 1972 to 1990. At one of themain sites, they found that the average numberof hatchlings was 1.92 per pair (n = 751 pairs),while the average number of fledged young wasonly 0.74. Fiala (1991), in a similar study in theCzech Republic, reported that 85.1% of clutchesand 77.1% of eggs hatched successfully (meanclutch size from year to year varying from 2.80to 3.44), although the average number of youngfledged per breeding pair was only 1.01. Itseems that the number of young fledged inmany parts of Europe, the UK included, is low.Fiala (1991) reported the greatest losses occur-ring shortly after hatching and believed thatchilling, disease and the inability of the adultsto meet the food requirements of the young arethe main causes. We can confirm the last factorfrom many years of monitoring the largeCheshire colony. There, broods of three occurregularly, but in 20 years no pair has everfledged three young. At 10–14 days old, thebrood is split between the adults, each of whichgenerally copes successfully with the needs ofonly one chick (B. Martin pers. obs.).

Leible & Zach (1992) found that Black-necked Grebe colonies were always associatedwith Black-headed Gulls. For observers familiarwith breeding sites in the UK, there has longbeen an impression that the presence of Black-headed Gulls is an important factor in nest-siteselection by Black-necked Grebes. Theresponses to the questionnaire referred to aboveshowed that, of the 14 regularly used sites, nine(64.3%) had thriving Black-headed Gullcolonies, ranging from as little as 50–100 pairsup to 14,000 pairs at one site in southern Scot-land (unpubl. data). Of the five sites where gullswere absent, one reported past breeding nearbyand a few pairs holding territory occasionally



on site. Those findings suggest that the presenceof Black-headed Gulls may not be an essentialprerequisite for Black-necked Grebes but it isinteresting that, of the five sites withoutbreeding gulls, only one had a high level ofchick survival. Fiala (1991) related the case of aBlack-necked Grebe colony in central Europewhich failed completely after attacks by HoodedCrows Corvus cornix and Magpies Pica picaduring a year when Black-headed Gulls did notbreed at the site.

Interestingly, concerns about poor breedingsuccess have also been raised for Scotland’sSlavonian Grebe population and the reasons forthis species’ poor productivity are unclear too.Much research has been carried out into thereasons for nest failure of Slavonian Grebes inScotland, including day-and-night camera sur-veillance over two seasons. Otter, Pine MartenMartes martes, European Wildcat Felis silvestris,Badger Meles meles, American Mink, Stoat,Brown Rat Rattus norvegicus and domestic catand dog were the mammals recorded visitingnests, but wave action, flooding and accidentaldisplacement of eggs by the birds themselvesalso led to clutch loss. The presence of crows andPike was found to be circumstantially importantin clutch and chick survival respectively. Thenumbers and distribution of small fish, them-selves dependent on midge (Chironomidae andCeratopogonidae) abundance, may also beimportant and may affect the choice of breedingloch: it is unclear why some apparently suitablelochs are ignored. Human disturbance, particu-larly by bank- and boat-fishing, is an importantfactor, as it is with Black-necked Grebe. Goodweather conditions in the first two weeks afterhatching is also helpful, so that chicks do not dieof hypothermia; stable water levels throughoutthe breeding cycle were also shown to be impor-tant (Benn 2003; Summers et al. in prep.).

Much remains unknown about Britain’ssummer population of Black-necked Grebes.For example, where do they winter? A smallpopulation has wintered for many years in har-bours and estuaries on the south coast, but thenumbers there would not account for all ofBritain’s breeding birds. It may well be thatmany winter further south, perhaps in theMediterranean. During the 1970s and early1980s, up to 3,900 Black-necked Grebes win-tered on saline lagoons at Formentera (BalearicIslands) (Mayol 1984), while in the late 1990sover 15,000 wintered in France, mainly in the

south (Rocamora & Yeatman-Berthelot 1999),though ringing recoveries suggest that win-tering birds in France principally come fromThe Netherlands, Denmark and central andeastern Europe (Dubois et al. 2000). It is pos-sible that some British birds move to France,although there is no evidence to confirm this.

Hope for the futureOne of the most positive developments in recentyears has been the formation, under the auspicesof the RSPB, of two specialist Black-neckedGrebe Study Groups, one in Scotland, the otherin northwest England. Now, previously isolatedfieldworkers are exchanging information, whilestudies have been set up that will hopefullyincrease knowledge of, for example, habitatrequirements, aquatic invertebrate populations,predation levels and water chemistry, aboutwhich little is known at most sites. The dataobtained should prove helpful in the manage-ment of existing Black-necked Grebe breedingsites, while encouraging the development of newsites to attract this fine grebe.

Although many breeding sites in the UKexperience low productivity, there are a fewwhere breeding success is consistently high.There is scope for a study into the reasons forthis. Consideration also needs to be given, at anational level, to the control of alien predators.

The British Black-necked Grebe breedingpopulation has in the past decade reached itshighest known level, but the species remains arare breeding bird. Since birds prefer to nest onundisturbed waters, it is likely to remain scarce,but there is no reason why further increasesshould not continue if disturbance is kept to aminimum and new, carefully managed, sitesbecome available. The Black-necked Grebe isprotected under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife andCountryside Act 1981, and the majority ofbreeding waters are Sites of Special ScientificInterest. Even so, some are known to be vulner-able to development or recreational pressures.Black-necked Grebe is more numerous as abreeding species in other parts of Europe, andsince no British sites support numbers evenapproaching 1% of the European total, nonewould qualify for the higher level of Special Pro-tection Area status.

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, we wish to thank all the CountyRecorders and other observers who have contributedrecords to the Rare Breeding Birds Panel over the years.



Malcolm Ogilvie, the former Secretary to the Rare BreedingBirds Panel, kindly supplied essential datasets for 1973 to2000 and Mark Holling, the Panel’s present Secretary, suppliedthe rest. In addition, we are grateful to many people with pastand current knowledge of Black-necked Grebe breeding siteswho gave much help with the clarification of population levelsin the early years of the period under review, and Ken Shawin particular, who provided invaluable data for several Scottishsites. Others in Scotland who gave freely of their knowledgeincluded Peter Gordon,Alan Leitch and Andrew Wight, whilstthe late W. T. Appleyard, Keith Brockie, Sandra Hacker andMike Ramage contributed much in monitoring Black-neckedGrebe populations in Scotland. Ian Armstrong, Mark Dennisand Graham White readily shared their knowledge of Black-necked Grebes from three important breeding sites, and weare also grateful to Bill Cur tis, Geoff Dobbs, Gar yNuechterlein of the University of North Dakota, and theBTO Nest Record Scheme. Thanks are also due to Prof.David Norman and members of the Scottish Black-neckedGrebe Study Group for reading initial drafts of this paper andsuggesting improvements and corrections. The Cheshire &Wirral Ornithological Society kindly supplied financialassistance towards Brian Martin’s research at the EdwardGrey Institute, where Linda Birch was particularly helpful.

Endnote

Since the completion of thispaper, the Rare BreedingBirds Panel has adopted theBlack-necked Grebe as itsnew logo; a fitting tribute tothis charismatic bird.

References

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Brown,A., & Grice, P. 2005. Birds in England. Poyser, London.

Dubois, P. J., le Marechal, P., Olioso, G., & Yésou, P. 2000.Inventaire des Oiseaux de France: avifaune de la Francemetropolitaine. Fernand Nathan, Lyon.

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Gibbons, D.W., Reid, J. B., & Chapman, R.A. 1993. The NewAtlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland: 1988–1991.Poyser, London.

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Hustings, F. 1991. Explosiev toename van broedendeGeoorde Futen Podiceps nigricollis in 1983–1989 inNederlands. Limosa 64: 17–24.

Kalela, O. 1949. Changes in the geographic ranges of theavifauna of northern and central Europe in relation torecent changes in climate. Bird Banding 20: 77–103.

Leible, F., & Zach, P. 1992. Migration, population size andbreeding biology of Black-necked Grebes in theOberfalz. Vogelwelt 113 (1): 35–47.

Mather, J. R. 1986. The Birds of Yorkshire. Croom Helm,London.

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Musgrove,A. J., Pollitt,W., Hall, C., Hearn, R., Holloway, S.,Marshall, P., Robinson, J., & Cranswick, P. 2001. TheWetland Bird Survey 1999–2000: wildfowl and wadercounts. BTO/WWT/RSPB/JNCC, Slimbridge.

Pennant,T. 1771. A Tour in Scotland. Privately published,Chester.

Rocamora, G., & Yeatman-Berthelot, D. 1999. OiseauxMenaces et a Surveiller en France: listes rouges etrecherches de priorites. Populations, tendances, menaces,conservation. SEOF/LPO.

Sharrock, J.T. R. 1976. The Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britainand Ireland. Poyser, Berkhamsted.

Summers, R.W., Mavor, R.A., & Hancock, M. H. In prep.Determinants of breeding success of Slavonian GrebesPodiceps auritus in Scotland.

Temperley, G.W. 1951. A History of the Birds of Durham.Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durhamand Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle.



153. Black-necked Grebes Podiceps nigricollis,Warrington, Cheshire & Wirral,April 2006.

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Brian Martin, 45 Albert Road, Grappenhall, Warrington WA4 2PFJudith Smith, 12 Edge Green Street, Ashton-in-Makerfield, Wigan WN4 8SL

Documents

A survey of breeding Black-necked Grebes in the UK:1973–2004...data held on Black-necked Grebes by the RBBP for the period 1973–2004. In addition, county avifaunas, county bird