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The Islamic University - Gaza
Deanship of Research and Graduate Studies
Faculty of Education
Master of Curricula & Teaching Methods
A Suggested Program for Tackling Tense
Errors in Writing among Female EFL Senior
Students at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza
المستوى الرابع في الباتخطاء الزمن في الكتابة لدى طأ لعالجبرنامج مقترح جنبية في جامعة االقصى بغزةألغة اللغة االنجليزية ك
Submitted by
Arafat Ibrahim Ahmed Al-Farra
Supervised by
Prof. Awad Suliman Kishta
Professor of English Teaching Methods at the Islamic University_ Gaza.
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master in Curricula and Teaching Methods
September
2018
بغزة ةـــــالميــــــة اإلســـــــــامعـالج
عمادة البحث العلمي والدراسات العليــــــا
ة التربيةــــليـــــك
ماجستـــير مناهــــــج وطرق تدريـــــــس
II
IV
Abstract
The present study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of a suggested
program for tackling tense errors in writing among female EFL senior students at
Al-Aqsa university of Gaza. The researcher adopted two approaches. The first one
is the descriptive analytical approach and the second one is the quasi-experimental
approach. An experiment was conducted on a purposive sample of English senior
majors who were enrolled in writing II course at Al-Aqsa University during the first
semester of the academic year 2017-2018. The participants of the study consisted of
(31) female students grouped as a one-group design.
The instrument required for the study was a writing test which was conducted on
the participants of the study before and after the implementation of the suggested
program. The researcher used the paired-sample T-Test to check the differences
among the participants' performances in the pre-post test which was used to identify
Al-Aqsa University EFL senior students' errors in writing.
The results revealed that the participants' performances in the post writing test
surpassed their performances in the pre writing test and most of the tense errors
which were committed by Al-Aqsa English majors in the pre writing test were not
found on the post writing test. This means that the suggested program that was
designed by the researcher is effective and fruitful in tackling EFL learners' tense
errors in writing.
In the light of the above-mentioned findings, the researcher stresses some
recommendations and suggestions for university lecturers, EFL students, and the
designers of writing books of English.
V
ملخص الدراسة
هذه الدراسة للتحقق من فعالية برنامج مقترح لمعالجة اخطاء الزمن في الكتابة لدى طلبة المستوى هدفت
حيث استخدم الباحث اداة واحدة لتحقيق هدف . الرابع في اللغة االنجليزية كلغة اجنبية في جامعة االقصى بغزة
حيث كان المنهج , لتحقيق هدف الدراسة بنى الباحث منهجين وت. صيلي للكتابةوهي االختبار التح, الدراسة
حيث بدأ دراسته مستخدما المنهج . تجريبيالشبه منهج الثاني هو المنهج وال ا تحليلي االول منهجا وصفيا
تجريبي عندما تأكد من كفاءة البرنامج الشبه عندما وصف اخطاء الزمن ثم استخدم المنهج التحليلي الوصفي
.المقترح
في البداية قام الباحث . مثل البرنامج المقترح, حيث اتبع الباحث العديد من الخطوات الثانوية لجمع البيانات
بإنشاء اختبار قبلي بعدي واعتبر االختبار القبلي كاختبار تشخيصي حيث اخذت نتائجه بعين االعتبار لجمع
برنامج المقترح الذي تكون من اربعة عشر درسا البيانات الضرورية لتحديد االهداف المرجوة لتصميم ال
.باإلضافة الى درس تمهيدي اعطي في بداية البرنامج اعتبر الدرس الخامس عشر
شاور الباحث بعض محاضري مادة الكتابة في الجامعة في تصميم كل من االختبار التحصيلي للكتابة
للكتابة على لجنة من خبراء اللغة االنجليزية من حيث عرض الباحث االختبار التحصيلي . والبرنامج المقترح
الءمت االسئلة قدرات . ثم راجعوا بعض االسئلة وأعادوا صياغة بعضا آخر, مختلف المؤسسات االكاديمية
.الطالب واهتماماتهم ومستواهم ايضا
لين في مادة الكتابة بجامعة االقصى وسل ط الضوء على طلبة هذه اختار الباحث طلبة المستوى الرابع المسج
المرحلة تحديدا ألنهم مشارف التخرج لذلك هم اكتر من يحتاجون لتحسين مهارة الكتابة كونهم يتجهون نحو
لين في مادة الكتابة للفصل الدراسي االول . حقل العمل تكونت عينة هذه الدراسة من احدى وثالثين طالبة مسج
ومن . ى االختبار القبلي على الطلبة قبل ان ينفذ البرنامج المقترحكان الباحث قد اجر. 7102-7102من العام
.ثم تم تطبيق البرنامج وبعد ذلك طبق االختبار البعدي للتحقق من تقدم الطالب ومن فاعلية البرنامج
وأظهرت نتائج الدراسة ان . قام الباحث بتحليل البيانات احصائيا مستخدما برنامج التحليل االحصائي
المضارع التام والمضارع التام المستمر والماضي البسيط : طالبات لديهن أخطاء في األزمنة التالية ال
ثم عولجت هذه األزمنة من خالل . والماضي التام والماضي المستمر والمستقبل المستمر والمستقبل التام
كانت اعلى من درجاتهن في الن الباحث وجد ان درجات الطالبات في االختبار البعد , البرنامج المقترح
لذلك يوجد فروق ذات داللة احصائية في االختبار التحصيلي للكتابة لصالح االختبار البعدي . االختبار القبلي
.يعزى لكفاءة البرنامج المقترح العالية
في ظل تلك النتائج يؤكد الباحث على بعض التوصيات والمقترحات لمحاضري الجامعات وطالب اللغة
. نجليزية كلغة اجنبية ولمصممي كتب مهارات الكتابة باللغة االنجليزيةاال
VI
﴿وما أوتيتم من العلم إال قليال ﴾
[اإلسراء: 58]
VII
Dedication
I respectfully dedicate this humble work to Allah, Who is the source of wisdom,
patience, and infinite love. The researcher, also, dedicates this work:
To our prophet Mohammed peace be upon him,
To the candle that still enlightens my way towards success,
To the meaning and hope of my life,
To the origin of kindness and good-heartedness,
To my real paradise in this life,
To my kind, beloved and good-hearted mother,
Na'ema Abdo Abdullah Al-Farra, who deserves my great love, respect and my whole life
for her long encouragement and sacrifice at every stage,
To my great father (Ibrahim Ahmed Al-Farra), brothers and my kind-hearted sisters, who
gave me a hand to accomplish this work,
To the cause of my happiness and joy,
To my other half, to my impressive-hearted wife (Alaa Kamal Othman), who motivated
and encouraged me to finish this work, and
To the souls of martyrs, who sacrificed their lives for Al-Aqsa Mosque and Palestine.
VIII
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to Allah, Who granted me
the power and provided me with energy to complete this study despite the difficulties
I faced while writing it.
I would like to thank my supervisor: Prof. Awad Suliman Kishta Professor of
Curriculum and English Instruction in Faculty of Education at The Islamic
University for his continuous support, guidance and encouragement. He generously
gave me much of his time, thoughtful guidance, stimulating ideas throughout the
implementation of this study. This work would not have been possible without his
support. Really, I submit my limitless regards and thanks to him. I managed to learn
many things from him.
Special thanks must go to Dr. Sadeq Firwana, who exerted good effort and guided
me in achieving this work.
My limitless appreciation and gratitude are extended to the jury of the program and
study instruments, who provided me with support, assistance and efforts.
In addition, I am deeply grateful to English department staff whether professors or
students at Al- Aqsa University of Gaza for all the facilities, help, cooperation and
advice they offered, especially Dr. Adham Abu Hatab and Dr. Ra'fat Abu Ghaly.
Thanks to all my friends, and colleagues, who have shown interest and
encouragement in my work, especially, Mr. Khalil Aburezeq.
IX
Table of Contents
Contents
Declaration..………………………………………………………………………………….II
يجة الحكم على اطروحة ماجستيرنت ……………………………………………………………….III
Abstract .................................................................................................................................. IV
V ............................................................................................................................. ملخص الدراسة
Dedication ............................................................................................................................. VII
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................... VIII
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... XII
Chapter One ............................................................................................................................. 2
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Background of the Study ........................................................................................ 2
1.2 The Context of the Problem ................................................................................... 5
1.3 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................... 5
1.4 Questions of the Study ........................................................................................... 6
1.5 Research Hypotheses ............................................................................................. 6
1.6 Purpose of the Study .............................................................................................. 6
1.7 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 7
1.7 Limitations of the Study ......................................................................................... 7
1.8 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................... 7
1.9 Summary .............................................................................................................. 9
Chapter Two ........................................................................................................................... 11
Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 11
2.2 English Writing ................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Characteristics of Effective Writing ................................................................. 11
2.2.2 Importance of Writing ................................................................................... 12
2.2.3 The Writing Process ...................................................................................... 13
2.2.4 The role of Teachers in the Writing classes ..................................................... 15
2.2.5 Reasons for Learning Writing ......................................................................... 15
2.2.6 How to Teach Writing for EFL Learners ........................................................... 16
2.2.7 Approaches of Writing ................................................................................... 18
X
2.2.8 Phases of the Writing Process ........................................................................ 21
2.3 Error Analysis ..................................................................................................... 24
2.4 Error Correction Techniques in Writing ................................................................ 25
2.5 The Classification of Errors.................................................................................. 25
2.6 Previous Studies ................................................................................................... 27
2.6.1 Previous studies in relation to tense errors and errors of writing. ..................... 27
2.6.2 Previous studies related to the skills of writing................................................ 31
2.6.3 Commentary on the Previous Studies ............................................................. 34
Chapter Three ......................................................................................................................... 38
Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 38
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 38
3.2 Research Design................................................................................................... 38
3.3 Study Sample ...................................................................................................... 38
3.4 Variables of the Study ......................................................................................... 39
3.5 Instrumentation ................................................................................................... 39
3.6 Validity of the Writing Test ................................................................................. 41
3.6.1 Referee validity of the Test ............................................................................ 41
3.6.2 Internal Consistency Validity .......................................................................... 41
3.7 Reliability of the Test ........................................................................................... 42
3.8 The Suggested Program ....................................................................................... 42
3.8.1 Aims of the Suggested Program ...................................................................... 42
3.8.2 Principles of the Suggested Program .............................................................. 43
3.8.3 Stages of Constructing the Instructional Program ............................................ 44
3.8.4 The Program Contents ................................................................................... 46
3.8.5 Validity of Program ....................................................................................... 48
3.9 Procedures of Study ............................................................................................. 49
3.10 Problems and Challenges ................................................................................... 49
3.11 Statistical Styles ................................................................................................. 50
3.12 Summary .......................................................................................................... 50
Chapter Four .......................................................................................................................... 52
Data Analysis & Findings ...................................................................................................... 52
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 52
4.2 Statistical Analysis .............................................................................................. 52
XI
4.3 The Results of the First Question ........................................................................... 52
4.4 The Results of the Second Question ....................................................................... 55
4.5 The Results of the Third Question ......................................................................... 56
4.4 The Results of the Fourth Question ........................................................................ 59
4.5 Summary of the Chapter ....................................................................................... 60
Chapter Five ........................................................................................................................... 62
Discussion & and Recommendations ..................................................................................... 62
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 62
5.2 Summery ............................................................................................................ 62
5.3 Discussion of the Study Findings ........................................................................... 64
5.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 68
5.5 Recommendations ............................................................................................... 69
References .............................................................................................................................. 70
Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 77
Appendix (1) ............................................................................................................. 78
The Referees' Committee ........................................................................................... 78
Appendix (2) ............................................................................................................. 80
The Writing Achievement Test ................................................................................... 80
Appendix (3) ............................................................................................................. 84
The Suggested Program.............................................................................................. 84
Appendix (4) ........................................................................................................... 110
Permission to Apply the Suggested Program .............................................................. 110
Appendix (5) ........................................................................................................... 111
Pictures ................................................................................................................... 111
XII
List of Tables
Table (3. 1): Distribution of the study sample. ................................................................. 38
Table (3. 2): The distribution of the writing achievement test............................................ 39
Table (3. 3): The correlation coefficients between the exam questions and the overall score
of the exam. .................................................................................................................. 41
Table (3. 4): The test reliability using method of test-retest. .............................................. 42
Table (3. 5): Program time plan. ..................................................................................... 48
Table (4. 1): Frequencies, Percentages, Ranks of Tense Errors in the students' Writing
Diagnostic Exam. .......................................................................................................... 53
Table (4. 2): Descriptive Statistics and Value of "T" and its Statistical Significance between
the Mean Scores of the Research Group in the Pretest and Posttest administrations. ........... 57
Table (4. 3): Shows the results effect size of the Suggested program. ................................ 58
Table (4. 4): shows the results of the modified Blake's Gain Ratio to the suggested program. ........ 59
XIII
List of Figures
Figure (2. 1): The writing process. .................................................................................. 14
XIV
List of Abbreviations
EA Error Analysis EFL English as a foreign language
INSET In-Service Education and Training
L2 Second Language.
SPSS Statistical Package For Social Sciences
SVA Subject-Verb Agreement
TKT Teaching Knowledge Test.
TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language.
1
Chapter One
Introduction
2
Chapter One
Introduction
This chapter presents the background of the study and sheds lights on the
introduction, the need for study, the statement of the problem, the research questions
and hypotheses, the purpose of the study, the significance of the study, the
limitations of the study and the definitions of terms.
1.1 Background of the Study
English has become the language of international business, professions and
diplomacy, as well as the most dominate language in the world. By the course of
time, more people are learning English. Nowadays, the whole world seems to speak
English. As David (2009) asserts, it is the language of travel, tourism, science and
technology. It has become the main route to get a job and to be an outstanding among
people. Moreover, it is a universal language that has covered all aspects of life,
where people of different nationalities use it to communicate with each other. It has
also become the language of science, technology, economy, politics and education.
This universal acknowledgment of English as the language of today and the need for
good English language skills have created a huge demand for teaching English
around the world. Therefore, we have to teach our students well and take care of their
needs so that they can have a great deal of mastering English.
The nature of learners is that they sometimes make mistakes when they listen,
speak, read or when they write. We, as researchers or teachers, have to shed strong
lights on these skills, especially the writing skill as long as it is the most important
skill.
Writing, the most frequently used skill in English language, plays a significant
role in daily educational process. Bjork and Raisanen (1997) stated: 'We highlight
the importance of writing in all university curricula not only because of its immediate
practical application, i.e. as an isolated skill or ability, but because we believe that,
seen from a broader perspective, writing is a thinking tool. It is a tool for language
development, for critical thinking and, extension, for learning in all disciplines' (p.8).
3
In other words, writing is an important part of life, whether in the workplace or
school, as a hobby or in personal communication. This skill helps the writer express
feelings and thoughts to other people in a relatively permanent form. Personal
writing builds a connection between the writer and reader in a different way from
oral communication, and it helps people to organize their thoughts when seeing them
on paper or on a screen.
Professional writing and writing for school have a different role than personal
writing. Formal writing encourages critical thinking in essays, research papers and
articles, which helps the writer learn how to interpret the world around him in a
meaningful manner. Writing about a topic improves the writer's understanding of the
topic, and papers with a slant help the writer understand how to successfully
construct professional arguments and debates about a topic. Learning how to
structure arguments and articulate opinions in writing translates well to the spoken
word, helping people to be better at presenting facts and opinions in a calm, rational
way. This is a line of thought that we shall develop.
Writing is a difficult process even in the first language. It is even more
complicated to write in a foreign language because it is a productive skill. As
Richards & Renandya (2002) claimed, “There is no doubt that writing is the most
difficult skill for L2 learners to master. The difficulty lies not only in generating and
organizing ideas, but also in translating these notions into legible text” (p. 303). In
spite of its importance, writing skill development has received only slight care in
language teaching. It is not to be doubted that various studies have been conducted
to shed lights on tense errors, syntactic, and how to differentiate among the concrete
situations and actions such as, Radwan's (1988) as long as he investigated tense
errors and tackled them. Since English language has two tenses with different
aspects that have different usages, it is very important to go through them.
Specifying the time of an action is the main core to understand whether it happens
in the past, now, or in the future. Therefore, it is essential to have this dexterity in
order to overcome confusions and misunderstandings by EFL students or even those
one talks to.
4
Many studies, like Dessouky (1990), proved that the use of the wrong verb tense, at
best, is irritating to master and it also reflects poorly on the student's writing skills. At
worst, the reader can be confused as to what facts are already known and what was
newly discovered in the actual study that is the subject of the paper. So, effective
communication skills of English language are important for the general population of
all callings. The idea of English verb tenses is imperative in setting up compelling
correspondence. Subsequently, in the event that you need to keep up both methods for
correspondence better, that is, talking and composing. Mastering English tenses
enables the speaker to communicate fluently in different situations. The meaning of a
message can be conveyed correctly by using the accurate verb tense.
From the researchers' experience, as he was a student at Al-Aqsa University, most
Al-Aqsa University English lecturers say that the majority of English majors lack the
skill of writing correctly and they misuse the tenses while they are composing, let alone
their low marks in most writing courses . Even most English graduates cannot
differentiate among tenses in writing, and they write incorrectly as they lack tense
rules.
It is of a great importance to shed light on writing skill. Because according to the
researcher's experience as he was an EFL student and now as an English language
trainer at many universities in a partnership with Al-Salam Training Group, not only
has it been neglected as an area of instruction, but it has also been unattended as an
area of research.
So, researchers should consider this skill and put it under the spot light. Hence, they
can ameliorate students' writing skills.
Therefore, the most practical way to reveal this is to construct a program to assist
English majors at Al-aqsa University to avoid such a problem throughout intensive
classes, some computerized techniques and power point shows providing the
information necessary for suitable solutions.
5
1.2 The Context of the Problem
As a trainer of English at Al-Salam Training Group and some universities, the
researcher observed weaknesses and problematic points students have while they are
learning the language of English. The researcher noticed that there is an absence of
the studies that treat tense errors in Palestinian universities. Consequently, English
majors should be trained to use the proper tense that matches their intention.
Most of the studies like Abu-Jarad (1986), Farahat (1994), and Hourani (2008),
which circumscribed tense errors, were made by Arab students and focused
commonly on grammatical errors made when Arab students write in English. These
studies did not investigate why and how Arab learners make tense errors in their
writing. Furthermore, these studies did not investigate whether Arab learners were
aware of the types of tense errors. And there are some studies, like Chen (1998),
which described tense errors with no treatment as they recommended high attention
on constructing suggested programs to tackle this problem. Therefore, this study is
driven by the need to identify the types of tense errors made by Palestinian learners
when they write statements and structures at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza.
Finally, the above narration indicated that Palestinian EFL learners (OR senior
students) need to be aware of the accurate writing using the correct tense because
each one has its own function and lack of such an awareness is a source of difficulty.
And the types of errors they make affect the quality of writing, cause ambiguity, and
misunderstanding. This study is an attempt to clarify this important topic
linguistically and methodologically.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
A great number of English majoring students face difficulties in using English
tenses correctly in writing. Thus, the present study advocates the use of a suggested
program to tackle tense errors in the students' writing.
The problem of the study is stated in the following main question:
What is the effectiveness of the suggested program for tackling tense errors in
writing among female EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa University?
6
1.4 Questions of the Study
To answer the above-mentioned question, the researcher tackled the following
questions:
1. What are the tense errors in students’ writing among female EFL senior
students at Al-Aqsa University?
2. What is the suggested program for tackling tense errors in writing among
female EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa University?
3. Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≥ 0.05) between the mean
scores the treatment group get on the writing pre-test and the mean scores
they get on the writing post-test?
4. What is the statistically significant effect of the suggested program for
tackling tense errors among female EFL senior students?
1.5 Research Hypotheses
1. There are statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) between the mean
scores the treatment group get on the writing pretest and the mean scores they
get on the writing posttest?
2. The suggested program for tackling tense errors among female EFL senior
students is expected to have a large effect size.
1.6 Purpose of the Study
This study aims at achieving the following objectives:
1. Identifying English majoring students' tense errors in writing made by the
Palestinian EFL learners among the senior level students of Al-Aqsa
University of Gaza.
2. Investigating the effectiveness of the suggested program in tackling tense
errors in writing upon the Palestinian EFL learners at the senior level of Al-
Aqsa University.
3. Providing some recommendations, suggestions and pedagogical implications
for both teachers and learners which help tackling English learners' tense
errors in writing.
7
1.7 Significance of the Study
This study is significant as it:
1. Provides a suggested program that can be used to tackle English learners'
tense errors in writing.
2. Attracts English instructors' attention about the learners' tense errors in
writing.
3. Widens the understanding of instructors and researchers about writing and
assessing its skills.
1.7 Limitations of the Study
This study was applied only on the senior (female) English majoring students
who were enrolled in writing II course during the first semester of the academic year
2017-2018 at Al-Aqsa University in Gaza. And it was concerned with their tense
errors in writing. The study was concerned with the tense errors made by Al-Aqsa
University senior students in their writing.
1.8 Definition of Terms
A program is a group of concepts, activities, and various experiences, which are
presented by an institution for learners in order to interact with it, the aim of
modifying their behaviors (Good, 1998, p. 323).
A suggested program
Here are some definitions of the suggested program:
In accordance with Al-Jamal & Al-Laqqani (1999, p. 75) the suggested
program is a curricular program connected to the learners' study at university.
It aims to attain the curriculum objectives and it is constructed by experts,
professors, and some specialists in the subject. It ameliorates the experiences,
decided by university.
Some other researchers like AL-Farra (1988, p. 175) connected the
instructional program concept to the trend of teacher's competencies. They
define it as the well-designed experiences for the teaching and training
8
purpose by the merit of the certain performance level. It depends on units that
are arranged well including the basic elements: importance, objectives,
content, timing, learning activities, instructions, and evaluation means.
Good (1998, p. 613) mentioned that the suggested program is a collection of
well-organized activities that aim at developing the students' attitudes,
performances, and skills. In addition, it boosts work competences and
experiences of the learners, especially when it guides them the way of how to
think.
Slavin (1989, p. 758) stated that the pendulum must be stopped in some way
by educators through devoting their efforts to enrich education on effective
programs, rather than on those which are only modern and seem good.
Afana (2000, p. 75) described the program as a well-organized unit that has
instructions, activities, aids, set of experiences, techniques, and the needed
evaluation means for the goal of developing the targeted skills.
In the light of the above-mentioned definitions of the suggested program, the
researcher defines the suggested program as a set of well-planned and constructed
activities aiming at ameliorating the trainees' knowledge, experiences, attitudes, ways
of how to think, and skills by well-selected and designed content, instructions, aids,
and means of evaluation.
Error is a systematic deviation by learners who have not yet mastered the rules.
Errors are usually more difficult to correct than a mistake.
The researcher defines tense error as a systematic deviation by learners who have
recognized the usage of tenses yet.
Writing is a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a
systematic way, with the purpose of recording messages, which can be retrieved by
everyone who knows the language in question and the rules by virtue of which its
units are encoded in the writing system (Blackwell, 1999 P.560).
9
1.9 Summary
The researcher attempted to pave the way for those who are interested in this scope
through the first chapter that included an introduction, need of the study, purpose of
the study, significance of the study, statement of the study problem, major question,
three sub-questions, limitations of the study, and definition of terms.
10
Chapter Two
Literature Review
11
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This chapter highlights the background of the variables of the study and aims at
reviewing them. In other words, this chapter is divided into two parts, the first part
focuses on the theoretical framework of this study, and it generally illustrates writing
skill and tense errors. The second part reviews the previous.
2.2 English Writing
Writing is an important skill that enables people to communicate their thoughts and
feelings by using group of symbols to constitute the speech sounds.
Regarding the encyclopedia of Omniglot, '' writing is a way of constituting
language in a tactile or a visual form. It uses group of symbols to constitute the
speech sounds, and symbols could be used for such things as numerals and
punctuation too.'' Millrood (2001) argues, '' writing is a skill for communication. We
use it to transmit, store and restore messages with a hand of the symbols, which are
written." (p.1). Harmer (2004) writes his definition about writing that it is a discovery
and productivity process, it contrasts the oral-aural skills, the chance to work at the
pace of students can be provided throughout writing (p.15). however Blackwell
(1999) defines writing as a collection of visible or tactile signs that are usually used to
constitute units of language in a systematic way, with the purpose of storing messages
which can be restored by everyone who understands the language in question and the
corpus by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing corpus (p.560).
Eventually, from the definitions mentioned above, the researcher adopts
Blackwell's definition and adds one point that writing is the most difficult productive
skill.
2.2.1 Characteristics of Effective Writing
As mentioned in guidance on the teaching of writing skills: Welsh Assembly
Government, INSET Opportunities for Teachers of all Subjects Across the
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Curriculum at Key Stages 2 and 3 (2010), learners have to make sure that when
writing, they should have the ability to:
1. Make their writing suitable for the audience and adapt it to be appropriate to
the point of writing.
2. Attract their readers.
3. Utilize an extent of good sentence structures.
4. Utilize good features that are stylistic and grammatically written to
emphasize the obviousness and achieve a specific effect.
5. Select suitable vocabulary and use them well.
6. Make their writing a well-organized one and consider both coherence and
cohesion.
7. Utilize an extent of ways to help them spell right.
8. Consider punctuation marks and use them well to make the meaning more
obvious.
9. Write suitably by the information technology of communication or even by
hand.
2.2.2 Importance of Writing
Majority of people do not know how difficult and complex the writing skill is.
Actually, like all the academic activities, writing depends on some basic skills more
than the other ones. It is of great importance to mention the significance of learning
the writing product at elementary schools, so it is not an easy job for teachers to
emphasize this skill as long as they deal with elementary students. Howsoever, as
they treat older schoolchildren, they highly consider the use of the right vocabulary
rather than the important parts of the writing process. And succinctly,
1. Through writing, you can express who you are as a human being.
2. Writing is the basic skill that judges your intellect, learning, job, and
mentality.
3. Through writing, your thinking can be visible.
4. Writing is an everlasting product and portable.
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5. Writing gives you a hand to go through opinions, interferences, and facts
easily without confusing the reader or even yourself.
6. Your ability to question worthily can be promoted through writing.
7. Your ability to discuss a complex situation to those who are going to read
your piece or to yourself can be fostered through writing.
8. Through writing, you can give feedback on other people's writings.
9. Writing enables you to refine thoughts and intellect, especially when you give
feedback.
10. When you write down your ideas, you preserve them, and then you can
comment on them later.
11. When you write out your thoughts, it helps you recognize how adequate you
were in your argument.
12. Writing is a vital skill for getting a job.
13. Writing is a good tool to manage you to understand how they establish the
truth in any given discipline.
14. Writing provides you with the right thinking skills and the communication
ones so that you can participate powerfully and freely.
15. Writing strengthens you to expand your thoughts, motivates you to extend
your ideas, and not to stop at your first impressions.
2.2.3 The Writing Process
The process of writing is the one in which authors and writers start writing down
their thoughts and ideas, so that their piece of writing would be an irreplaceable aid
for the process of learning.
According to Capretz, Ricker and Sasak (2003), writing process consists of a
variety of stage: students pre-write, draft, revise, edit, publish and share.
The researcher emphasizes the importance of the steps used by learners that
enrich the skill of organizing specific information connected to an identified topic in
order to deliver the message to the audience. These steps must be considered to
motivate the learners and help them brain storm, classify, decide the topic, and
construct topic statements under the umbrella of the unity, cohesion, and coherence
rules.
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The University of Capella (n,d) reports that writing process consists of four steps
to be followed by whoever is going to write. The four-step writing process is as
follows:
o Prewriting: In the first stage, the writer should consider the audience needs,
determine his purpose of writing, and specify the field of what he is going to
shed lights upon, brainstorm his ideas regarding the intended topic.
o Drafting: In the second stage, the writer should make a case and structure his
evidence for that case. In other words, he should write the first rough version
of his work.
o Revising: In the third stage, the writer should put himself in the reader's
shoes, rethink about the coherence and the cohesion and make sure of them,
reconsider his way of writing, and make the needed changes, which can
enhance his work.
o Publishing: in the last stage, the writer should edit and proofread to knock
out the mistakes, to improve both coherence and cohesion, and to better the
reliability of his work. The following Figure (1) shows the writing process.
Figure (2. 1): The writing process.
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2.2.4 The role of Teachers in the Writing classes
Harmer (200l:p.261-262) states that there are so many roles that must be
considered and carried out by teachers in the classroom so that students will better
and develop themselves in writing. They are as follows:
Motivator:
Teachers should motivate students to write throughout creating a suitable
atmosphere for generating thoughts; convincing them of how efficacious the task is,
encouraging them to do their best to get benefits as much as they can. It actually
requires exerting hard efforts for longer sequences of the writing process.
Resource:
Teachers should be as a resource of knowledge for their students so they must
consider readiness to provide students with the needed information, particularly
when the extended tasks of writing are taking place. Teachers should inform their
students that they are ready all the time to give pieces of advices, to follow their
works, to offer the needed suggestions, and to guide them the way they can write
powerfully and with rich pieces of information. When students' compositions are
ready, teachers should allocate time in order to make discussions individually, in
pairs, or in groups.
Feedback provider:
Special attention is needed when giving feedback on the tasks of writing.
Teachers should comply positively and encourage students for what they have done.
When correcting students' mistakes, teachers should take into consideration what
exactly to correct and how much to concentrate on what the level of students
requires.
2.2.5 Reasons for Learning Writing
Many reasons and aims stand behind teaching writing. In conformity with
Spelkova and Hurst (n,d), there are many important reasons why students are in need
for learning writing:
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1. Writing is a crucial way to communicate, and a significant skill to be
mastered.
2. Writing buttresses the other language learning linguistic rules (semantics,
syntax).
3. Writing is an unsophisticated way of using language and rehearsing it outside
the school.
4. Learning writing can achieve needs for business, especially when learners
have to write emails, reports, or even formal letters in English.
5. Many exams require the skill of writing.
6. The change of pace in any lesson can be provided by the writing stage.
2.2.6 How to Teach Writing for EFL Learners
It is very rare to shed light upon the skill of writing. Teachers offer students one
or two topics to write about, and then students start writing and construct their texts.
Then, teachers correct and evaluate the grammar, spelling mistakes and vocabulary
in their compositions. Then, writing becomes a pure examining tool. That is why
they say writing is difficult and hardly ever do they get high marks in such questions,
so this skill got bad reputation.
Here are some tips to change this reputation into a good one:
According to the IATEFL journal (2000), the precepts to enhance teaching
writing for EFL learners are as follows:
You should provide opportunities for students in order to make
brainstorming, planning, drafting, and revising throughout paying attention to
their products of writing. You, as a teacher, should remember that young
students might not use these techniques even in their mother tongue language.
Many of these activities may group ones that help writing process be less
lonely.
You should choose relevant topics so that learners can write about from their
own experiences, such as, a holiday they spent on the beach.
You should give your students something visible to write about so they can
write easily. Pictures and silent videos are so much encouraging aids for
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learners because they are just like texts when students are going to provide
their words. Thus, the process of writing becomes easier.
You can motivate your students' creativity throughout giving them two
familiar things in a way that is unfamiliar to them such as forest and fish.
Then, they are going to describe a scene about fish in a forest.
You should be attentive about your students' vocabulary, structure, and
suitable expressions at the pre-writing phase, i.e. be sure that learners have
the ability to write using the language they do have.
If time is not enough, you can ask your students to do the writing task home,
but you should leave some time to prepare some work in the class.
It is a good idea for teachers to get their students involved with their work.
For example, you should give them the many opportunities to choose a
character's role in the story or in the narrating.
You should be a well-prepared teacher for the high-achievement level
students. You can prepare some extra exercises for those who finish early.
You should motivate your students to decorate their work, for example, by
pictures. You should praise the well- written tasks, especially those who took
pride in their presentations.
Audience has to be considered by your students, especially, when they are
writing postcards. You should invite them to imagine to whom they should
write, a friend, a brother, a sister or a parent.
You should be a positive audience, not only to respond to the language, but
also to respond to the ideas of the students' writing.
You should not only mark the writing accuracy, but also consider the content.
It is recommended to shed lights on some appropriate parts of the content as
long as you are assessing and commenting on them.
You should consider the good use of the language and mark in a positive
way. Do not only judge mistakes. You must tell you students what they are
writing well and show them the strengths of their work. It would be an
encouraging way to improve a positive attitude toward writing since they are
young.
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You should let your students be involved in their improvement. It is well
worth considering motivating learners to read their work again trying to make
the essential correction. It is a motivational idea to tell learners in advance
what aspects and parts that are going to be assessed when marking. This will
grant them the enough ability and the clear criteria to assess their work and
enhance it before they hand it in. It is preferable to invite learners to enlist
their feelings and grades about every writing piece such as drawing a sad face
if they are unhappy with their work and vice versa. Thus, they become more
involved in their writing, especially when they outline their progress.
It is worth mentioning that looking for ways to utilize students' completed
writings would encourage them to appreciate other's writings. For example,
you can ask learners to work in pairs questioning and answering about the
theme, the plot, the characters, or even any piece of information.
To ameliorate the learners' confidence, you should find a way of how you
could publish your students' work. You can show it to the other classes, hang
it on the class wall, invite them to make a magazine in order to publish their
work on it, or on any social media program.
2.2.7 Approaches of Writing
It is worthwhile to discuss briefly the approaches of writing. According to
Bachani (n, d, p.3), there are many approaches to teaching this skill:
1. The Controlled to Free Approach
In early 1950s and 1960s, the audio- lingual method had the lion share of
second language learning, which assured writing and speech by perfecting syntactic
and grammatical forms.
In this approach, teachers give learners sentence exercises, then small passages
to copy, to change their grammar or to paraphrase. After that, teachers follow these
controlled writings by correction of errors. Hence, it leads to the free composition.
Generally, this approach concentrates on accuracy rather than fluency.
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2. The Free Writing Approach
This approach emphasizes the quantity of writing rather than its quality. This
stresses fluency rather than accuracy. Actually, this approach is built on a principle
that if there are ideas, there is organization.
3. The Paragraph Pattern Approach
The organization is highly stressed in this approach through copying the
passages or emulating well-organized paragraphs. The principle in this approach is
that whenever there are different situations or cultures, communication can be
organized and constructed by people to debate with each other in various ways.
4. The Grammar-Syntax Organization Approach
This approach focuses on how to work simultaneously on more than one feature
of writing. And writing here is a process that consists of intertwined skills which
cannot be separate, but learned sequentially. Thus, learners should be aware of the
organization while working on the essential syntax and grammar.
5. Communicative Approach
Raimes (1993) emphasized another way to be followed in teaching writing,
which is The Communicative Approach. In accordance with it, audience and the
purpose of a piece of writing are taken into accounts. It motivates learners to behave
and act like real writers while writing. Teachers are not the only reader, other pupils
are also considered as readers. They can respond, summarize or rewrite their
colleagues' writing, but not correcting it.
In the classroom:
Classroom activities guided by the communicative approach are characterized
by trying to produce meaningful and real communication, at all levels. As a result
there may be more emphasis on skills than systems, lessons are more learner-
centered, and there may be use of authentic materials.
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We, as researchers, need to work hard on developing ways of responding to
the content of what our learners write - the message - and not just the level of
language. If we can do this effectively, then our learners will make more effort to
communicate when they write for us. This can support an emphasis on the
importance of writing for a real audience, but we do also need to find real audiences
for learner writing.
So, the main concern of this approach is the writing purpose and its audience.
They are given the chance to behave like writers and do some tasks. Hence, they can
learn through doing it.
- Why am I composing this?
- Who is going to read it?
Therefore, the nature of this approach is to be used functionally especially
when it provides the real experience to the students.
6. The Process Approach
Leki (1991) defines the process writing approach as a way to teach writing
which concentrates basically on the writing process itself than on the final product.
This approach focuses on what students firstly write on a paper not importantly
perfect. Giving learners the opportunity to try out the process to write and receiving
teacher or peer-feedback . Absolutely this makes the students find out new items to
modify on their first draft.
Brookes and Grundy (1990) believed that sometimes there can't be a cut-line
when differentiating between process and product approach since there might be
alternative final product for various relationships.
Here in this approach, it has to be shown that there is a shift from product to
process that explicates:
How could it be written? (How to write).
How could I begin writing? (How to start).
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We should train learners to produce ideas for writing, to decide an object, to
think of audience, and to choose the suitable ways of communication. Actually, an
evolutionary process starts when the students create ideas, develop them, express
them, draft them, redraft them, organize them and so forth. This writing process has
three phases: The first one is to pre-write, then learner moves to write, and the last
phase is to post-write.
2.2.8 Phases of the Writing Process
The study of Seow (1995, p.316-319) showed that the process of writing in the
classroom is an instruction program that includes a collection of well-organized
learning expertise for learners to support them in understanding the writing nature at
each phase. Writing process as an activity of classroom comprises four primary
phases of writing. At first, a student plans then drafts, after that revises, and finally
edits. In addition, teacher externally requires three other phases from his students.
For instance, a student can respond, evaluate, and post-write too. Writing calls for
organized teaching of the skills of process, so it is greatly well planned. Thence,
teachers regulate convenient classroom activities, which consolidate learning
particular skills of writing at every phase.
The phases of the process of writing are as follows:
2.2.8.1 Pre-writing (planning)
This stage of writing is an activity, which heartens learners to generate ideas
for writing. Here are different activities that can be used at this phase:
Group brainstorming: learners, in groups, try to brainstorm as much as
possible thinking about the subject and creating good ideas.
Clustering technique: It refers to a number of similar things, so learners
compose words according to the stimulus that the teacher provides. Then they
circle the words and link them using lines to make clusters visible. This
activity is usually done in groups.
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Prompt-free writing: Learners, in an individual form, start writing down
single words and sentences regarding the subject rapidly and freely, but in an
allocated time of 3miutes or less.
When the time is limited, students are obliged to think and work swiftly.
Wh-questions: learners create wh-questions, namely, using what, when, why,
how, where, and who to question about the subject, so that they can have a lot
of information about any subject.
Clustering technique can be implemented not only throughout asking students
to think and create words, but also sub-titles. Then circle them and write a
paragraph about each of them.
2.2.8.2 Drafting
At this phase, learners have to be attentive enough to the writing fluency not to
concentrate on the accuracy of grammar and on how neat the draft is. We, as
teachers, have to motivate students to write for different public as counterparts, other
colleges, pen pals and members of family. If learners are aware of whom they are
writing to, they will have the ability to choose and adopt a suitable style for their
audience. On top of that, they have to take into consideration that they are going to
communicate with the audiences with a view to give instructions to their written
language.
2.2.8.3 Responding
The stage of responding usually takes place between the drafting stage and the
revising one. Here in this phase, teachers respond rapidly to the learners' drafts. They
should respond either orally or by writing after the first draft has been written and
quite before they commence revising. What will help learners ease and smooth the
revision of rudimentary drafts and rediscover purport are certain responses under the
umbrella of useful proposals and questions instead of comments, which are officially
approved by the teacher. Such kind of responses could be important either between
sentence lines or at the end of pupils' writings. Sometimes these responses can be
furnished in the margin. Furthermore, fellow responding could be efficiently
implemented throughout asking pupils to respond to the texts of each other in
couples or groups by the checklist of peer responding.
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2.2.8.4 Editing
At the phase of editing, pupils should edit their fellow's writings considering
spelling, grammar, writing style, diction, sentence construction and accuracy of
supplementary textual materials as examples and questions. Teachers should give
students a checklist on some common mistakes that are discovered in the pupils'
works. This phase is a significant one because it is as a substantial part of the writing
process, especially when editing makes communications explicit and clear to the
readers.
2.2.8.5 Revising
Pupils start revising their drafts in light of the given feedback with a view to
see how efficaciously they communicated their meaning to the audience.
There are different activities at this phase, and they are as follows:
It is of great importance to gather and keep the pupils' drafts and ask them to
re-draft their works.
We, as teachers, can ask our pupils to individually tape-record their writings.
Such activities are substantial, particularly when a pupil gets the chance to hear
her/his work. Thence, she/he will be percipient of thinking again of what she/he
wrote. After all, unclear meaning becomes clear enough as she/he listens to her/his
text that is read by them.
2.2.8.6 Evaluation
The pupils writing score can be either comprehensive (depends on a holistic
interpretation of the writing efficacy) or analytical (focuses on certain points of the
ability of writing). We should inform students of the evaluation criteria and make
them clear in advance. These criteria should involve full commentary on the task,
views of readers, organization and improvement of the ideas, design or the shape,
structure and grammar, suitability of words, punctuation and spelling, how relevant
the work is, and how clear the communication is. Pupils also have to be heartened to
assess their writing and to comment on each other's works as teachers have already
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taught them how to do it. Thus, students have become more capable and responsible
for their texts and writings.
2.2.8.7 Post-Writing
Here is the last stage, the writer is going to publish, share, read aloud,
transform texts for the phase of performances, or simply display their works on
boards or any noticeable mean. It is commonly utilized as a stimulus for writing and
preventing students from giving excuses for not writing down.
So, the writer should follow the above-narrated phases carefully to ease the
process of writing and construct a well-designed piece of writing. He has to consider
each stage in the correct order to avoid writing problems.
2.3 Error Analysis
Error analysis is the most substantial theory of second language acquisition. It
is an analysis, description, categorizing, and interpretation of the errors made by
second language learners through comparing the norms acquired by learners and the
norms of the target language (James, 1988).
Crystal (1999, p. 108) asserted that EA is the study of the inadmissible and
inappropriate forms formed by a language learner (particularly, a foreign language)
in the field of language teaching and learning.
In accordance with James (2001, p. 62), error analysis directs attention to the
study of linguistic neglect, the examination of where participants find difficulties and
how they try to overcome their problems and ignorance.
According to Jeremy Harmer (2001, p.99), Mistakes are divided into three
broad categories:
1. Slips are mistakes which can be corrected by students when they have been
pointed out to them.
2. Errors: They are mistakes when students cannot correct themselves and need
explanation.
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3. Attempts: They happen when a student tries to say something, but doesn’t
know the correct way yet.
2.4 Error Correction Techniques in Writing
Error Analysis is a linguistic study approach focusing on the errors that
learners make and helping educators understand the process of language learning.
Since many errors are noted, researchers come to find suitable techniques that can
make the teaching and learning a powerful process. Hence, it is simple to evaluate
the competency of language, ability to remember, and ability to think through writing
(Javed et al., 2013).
Corder (1967, p. 19-27) presented a different perspective through mentioning
that those errors are significant in themselves. Based on his idea, orderly error
analysis helps teachers identify the type of encouragement that is needed in the
process of teaching and learning. In respect of what is mentioned, the present study
stressed how learners can absorb and take in the language. Teachers can benefit from
EA as it furnishes them with the needed information about the weakness points of the
students and the common problems in language learning. Error analysis helps
teachers determine the effective and powerful materials, too.
2.5 The Classification of Errors
It is clear that errors classification into separated categories relies widely on
the way we formulate the incorrect strings. There are various errors that seems to be
classified into more than one category. For example, ''business letter deals with
business affairs''.
The above sentence is wrong and could be reformed in three ways. They are as
follows:
A business letter deals with business affairs.
The business letter deals with business affairs.
Business letters deal with business affairs.
In the first reformulation, we categorize the error under the classification of
indefinite article deletion. In the second reformulation, we categorize the error under
26
the classification of definite article deletion. In the last one, we classify the error
under the classification of subject- verb agreement.
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2.6 Previous Studies
Previous studies are classified, in this research, into two parts. The first focuses
on previous studies concerning tense errors and errors of writing. The second sheds
light on studies in accordance with developing the skills of writing.
2.6.1 Previous studies in relation to tense errors and errors of writing.
Abu-Jarad (1986)
Abu-Jarad (1986) investigated English interlanguage of Palestinian University
students in Gaza strip. He attempted to analyze relative clauses and verb tenses. The
sample of his study was 32 participants aged between 19 and 20 who were first-year
students at the colleges of Islamic University in Gaza. The researcher use three
paragraphs of free writing to collect the data. He found out that Palestinians
University students lack the skill of using English language tenses correctly in writing
because they switch the tense when they write. And it was because of using English
tense morphology as a means for the expression of an aspectual system.
Obeidat, (1986)
Obeidat (1986) checked the semantic and syntactic errors in the compositions of
Arab EFL students. It was noticeable that learners made inter-lingual errors in the use
of prepositions and determiners, subject-verb agreement, misuse in relative clauses,
order of word, copula, omitting subjects, conjugations and preposition idioms. And it
was found that students made inter-lingual errors in idioms, proverbs, prefabricated
expressions, and address forms. The researcher affirms that some error like copula and
the omitting of singular (–s) are proof of universal grammar.
Radwan (1988)
Radwan (1988) carried out a linguistic analysis of the grammatical and lexical
errors in the nominal group that is found in the written English of Syrian University
students. He examined the different kinds of lexical and grammatical errors in the
nominal group. He aimed to give a clear descriptive account of the nominal group in
Arabic and English. The researcher wanted to specify the areas of difficulty
especially with reference to premodifiers and postmodifiers. He gathered the data
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from 175 English language students at Aleppo University who were asked to do the
writing test. The findings of the study showed that the percentages of article errors to
the overall number of grammatical errors that were made by the candidates were:
52%, 50%, 54%, and 50%. These error percentages were correspondingly made by
first, second, third, and fourth year students.
Farahat (1994)
Farahat (1994) investigated an error analysis study of the written performance of
the university of Khartoum Freshmen. He attempted to locate and analyze the most
common and recurrent grammatical errors students commit and explain the reasons
behind their appearance in order to detect the areas which obstruct the correct and
proper use of English grammar. His sample consisted of 300 Sudanese students in
their first year in the faculty of Arts. They were 180 female students and 120 male
students aged between 19 to 20 years. The findings of the study showed that the
students committed different types of errors with different percentages as shown in
the following:
35.9% of articles errors.
30.9% of tenses errors.
24% of grammatical concord errors.
5.1% pronominal errors.
1.5% copula omission errors.
1.1% adverb positioning errors.
0.6% adjective positioning errors.
The researcher recommends more emphasis on the following:
Usage of English article system.
English tense system especially the perfect tense.
Third person singular marker (s) and plural morpheme (s)
The difference between attributive and predicative pronouns and their
classifications into subject and object.
English adverbs and adjectives positions.
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Belhaaj (1997)
Belhaaj (1997) examined the errors that his students committed in their writing.
The researcher attempted to identify bi-directional translation problems through a
description, classification, and interpretation of the students' errors and to check the
inclusion of students' errors for their competence in English language as a target one.
This study investigated a comprehensive frame of texts that were translated by senior
students majoring English at Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah Al-Mukarramah.
After the researcher had analyzed the collected data, he found out that there were
many grammatical errors made by the participants. These errors are as follows:
Conjugations and tense errors were 82 with a percentage of 9.88%.
Relative clauses errors were 46 with a percentage of 5.54%.
Adjective errors were 40 with a percentage of 4.82%.
Preposition errors were 38 with a percentage of 4.58%.
Noun errors were 32 with a percentage of 3.61%.
Article errors were 27 with a percentage of 3.25%.
Various errors were 25 with a percentage of 3.01%.
Chen (1998)
Chen (1998) found that the majority of Taiwanese students had problems in the
usage of English tenses because they misuse conjugations in Mandarin as it's not an
inflected language. And also in Fang's study (1999), it was found out that teaching
verb forms, in English language, to help Taiwanese EFL learners use tenses of
English right is attributed to the difference of linguistic. And the absence of English
Articles is another error that is commonly found in the grammar of the Taiwanese
EFL students' writing. So, the researcher recommended high attention on constructing
suggested programs to tackle this problem through focusing on teaching tenses as a
vehicle to perfect writing.
Kao (1999)
Kao (1999) investigated 169 compositions written by 53 Taiwanese students who
were English majors in a college. From Soochow University were 22 students and the
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rest were from the College of Fu Hsing Kang. It was found 928 errors, the highest
frequency was grammatical errors, (66%), then semantic ones, (18%), and the least rate
was lexical errors, (16%).
Khuwaileh and Al Shoumali (2000)
Khuwaileh and Al Shoumali (2000) applied a study to check the writing errors of
the Jordanian students and they found that tense errors were the most common ones
made by Arab learners. And they said that these errors were attributable to the Arabic
language as it has only three tenses. Data were gathered from 150 students (chosen
randomly) who wrote about the same topic in English and Arabic. The test was
assessed respectively by ELT specialists. The study proves that tense errors in English
writing correlates with similar weaknesses in the mother tongue.
Lin (2002)
Lin (2002) investigated the writing of 26 Taiwanese EFL students throughout their
essays. It was found that The highest error rates were sentence structures (30.43%),
wrong conjugations (21.01%), sentence fragments (15.94%), and word-wrong use
(15.94%). The researcher recommended more emphasis on structure, tense, and verb
forms through holding some extra classes to explain how to write correctly. He also
recommended new techniques for explaining grammar.
Hourani (2008)
Hourani (2008) applied his study in five leading schools on the UAE Eastern Coast.
The most common and salient tense errors which were made by the students, who wrote
essays, included: passivization, verb tense and form, subject-verb agreement,
prepositions, word order, plurality, articles and auxiliaries. These errors were
categorized and tabled regarding their number of frequency in the students' essays. 105
students and 20 teachers shared in completing two seceded questionnaires reflecting
their opinion and attitude towards the English writing skill. The researcher
recommended more focus on teaching tenses and grammar so that the students can
avoid any kind of mistakes such as, subject-verb agreement and verb tense. He also
recommended that teachers and lecturers should adopt new methods for teaching
31
tenses.
2.6.2 Previous studies related to the skills of writing.
Naeem (2007)
The researcher investigated the effectiveness of a suggested CALL program on
developing EFL learners' mechanics of writing in English. An impartial random
sample of eighty fourth-year pupils (2006 / 2007) of the English Department at the
Education Faculty in Kafr El-Sheikh was selected to implement the experiment.
Forty pupils were assigned to the experimental group to study writing throughout the
program of CALL. Same number of pupils was selected to the control group to go
through the same content as is customary. The researcher designed Material and tools
that were used either to collect data or to implement the experiment of the research. The
experiment was carried out in ten weeks including the pre-test and post-test running.
Thereafter, the researcher used the One- Way ANOVA and the t-test in order to analyze
the gathered data statistically.
The researcher found out that the suggested CALL program developed spelling,
punctuation marks, and capitalization for the students of EFL college.
Lundstorm, & Bakers (2009)
The researcher tried to improve the students' writing through transferring abilities
that they learn when reviewing peer texts. This study was conducted on 91 students
enrolled in 9 divisions of writing classes at the English language center at Brigham
Young University participated in the study. The findings says that the participants who
were taught to give peer feedback wrote more correctly than those who were taught to
use peer feedback. The researcher concluded that learning by reviewing others' writing
develops the learners' abilities because learners can learn from these activities to self
evaluate critically so that they can make the appropriate revisions. The researcher
advised teachers to adopt this technique in order to improve students' writing.
Salah (2010)
The researcher investigated the impact of a suggested program for developing
32
teaching the skills of writing among secondary school teachers. Two tools were used:
the suggested program that treated all the points that teachers require in teaching the
skills of writing and an observation card. The suggested program was conducted
throughout ten training lectures for teaching writing. It encompassed a collection of
activities, teaching aids, techniques that should be employed in teaching writing. The
findings of this study detected substantial differences in the performances of teachers
who work in a secondary school `before and after carrying out the program.
Afterwards, the level of teachers reached 87%. In view of the above findings, the
researcher recommended that teaching the skills of writing calls for a writing process so
as to improve the abilities of teachers who work in secondary schools.
El-Shami (2011)
This study aimed at examining the effectiveness of using interactive writing on
improving the techniques of writing of eighth graders in Gaza private schools. The
researcher selected Ebad Elrahman Private School where he worked as an English
language teacher. A purposeful sample was selected. The Sample was composed of
37 male pupils of eighth graders. It was distributed into 2 groups; an experimental
including 18 students and a control group consisting of 19 students. Two tools were
used, pre-posttest and a portfolio. The researcher carried out the pre-test before the
experiment started. The findings indicated that the two sets were equivalent in their
background and general achievement. The findings were statistically analyzed using
(SPSS). The study revealed that there were statistically significant differences
between the mean scores gained by the experimental group and that gained by the
control one in favor of the experimental group due to the method of interactive
writing.
Armana (2011)
Armana explored the effectiveness of a reconditioned Program on Writing Skills
of the Seventh Graders, especially Low Achievers at UNRWA Schools in Rafah. The
researcher tested the effect of the mentioned reconditioned program. Two
experimental groups; the male group was composed of (31) pupils and the female
33
one was composed of (37) pupils. The other two groups are control ones, the male
group was composed of (25) pupils and the female one was composed of (34)
students. The researcher used (SPSS) to analyze the collected data and to prove the
reliability and the validity of the test. Besides, he used Mann Whitney, t. test paired
and independent sample to assess the statistical differences in the mean scores
between the experimental groups due to the use of the reconditioned program. The
study pointed out that there were statistically significant differences at the level (α =
0.05) in English writing skills of the low achievers in favor of the experimental
groups. It implied that the use of the program treated and tackled the weakness points
of the writing skills of the low-achievement level students. According to the above-
mentioned findings, the researcher highly recommended the significance of carrying
out the remedial programs for the low achievers to fulfill better results in writing
skills of students. He suggested that researchers should conduct related studies to the
other writing skills.
Junaidi, Alfan and Anjar (2013)
This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies
On the achievement of students' writing and awareness of using metacognitive
writing strategies. The quasi-experimental approach was adopted by the researcher.
The analysis of this study revealed no significant differences in students' skill of
writing among those who used the strategies and those who did use strategies. In
spite of that, the analysis of the t-test results pointed out that the participants'
awareness with strategy training was better than the participants' awareness with
strategy use.
El-Salahat (2014)
This study aimed at investigating the effect of using interactive writing strategy on
improving the skills of writing among seventh graders and their attitudes towards
writing. It sought to detect how much the use of interactive writing strategy, based on
groups and pair activities and other missions, improves the skills of writing for
Palestinian seventh graders and their attitudes towards writing. To achieve this goal,
34
the researcher used the experimental approach. Two tools were used to collect data.
The first one is the pre-posttest and the other one is the questionnaire. A purposive
sample of (76) female seventh graders was selected from Ian Goliath (B) in the East
Directorate of Gaza in the year of (2012-2013) and equally divided into an
experimental group and a control one. The researcher conducted the achievement
pre-posttest and the questionnaire to collect the needed data. The findings of the
study found out that there were statistically significant differences in the writing
achievement between the mean scores gained by the experimental group and the
control one in favor of the experimental group.
Javid And Umer (2014)
This study investigated the important writing tasks and the basic problems in the
academic writing. The study sample consisted of 194 Saudi English as a foreign
language learners who were 108 male students and 86 female ones. The researcher
discovered special writing difficulties which EFL Saudi learners faced in their
academic writing. The recommendation of this study was to carry out a stricter
admission policy, provide opportunities to practice academic writing, make language
courses more, and improve activities.
Cole and Feng (2015)
This study aimed at investigating the difficulties that encounter English language
students specially in the field of writing. And it also attempted to examine the
effectiveness of the techniques the researcher based his research upon in developing
the writing skills of 184 ESL students. The findings recommended the use of
technology in teaching writing and other language skills.
2.6.3 Commentary on the Previous Studies
Having reviewed the previous studies, the researcher could conclude that
reasonable attention was devoted to tense errors in both Arabic and English regarding
the writing skill. One could also notice that most error analysis studies focused on
prepositional and grammatical mistakes in writing, whereas a few studies
concentrated on tense errors in writing in one or both directions.
35
It can be summed up, in this part, that there is a vital interest in solving the
problems of writing, especially tense errors, as they are the main core of constructing
English. Avoiding tense errors grant you the opportunity to write correctly. It was
found out that there is a primary issue of tense errors for English language learners as
they cannot write accurately even in advanced stages.
Over and above, the researcher believes that there is a concrete need to work on
tackling tense errors in writing, particularly as this skill is sensitive and important as
a productive one.
The above-mentioned studies showed the importance of tackling writing errors, as
it has become the main concern that most researchers shed light on. And through the
above studies, it was shown that handling this problem will lead English language
learners to better their English so that they can master the language as researchers
consider tense rules the core brick for mastering any language.
After I had come through the previous studies, I became aware of the intricate
cases regarding the writing skill, especially the tense problems.
The selected previous studies were conducted and worked out by several researchers in
different universities, schools, colleges, and places around the world. All of them
debated the skill of writing, specifically problems related to the tense. There were slight
differences and some propinquity among these previous studies and the present one.
Many researchers like Hourani's (2008), Abu-Jarad (1986), Radwan (1988), Farahat
(1994), Belhaaj (1997), Khuwaileh and Shoumali's (2000), Kao's (1999), and Chen's
(1998) discussed and tackled tense errors in the students' writing. Then, they confirmed
the importance of handling tense errors to use English language properly. And in the
studies of Obeidat, (1986) and Mukattash, (1981), they showed the problems that make
EFL learners write erroneously such as syntactic errors, subject-verb agreement,
conjugation, and copula. In other words, they investigated tense errors and found out
that there were different kinds of tense inaccuracy as I mentioned above. Thus, they
theoretically referred to some common mistakes that Arab students often make when
they write in English. And it is worth mentioning that Fang (1999) asserted that
teaching tenses is a pivotal issue for researchers, teachers, and those who are
responsible for the development of EFL students in this regard. Therefore, our EFL
students must have an ample chance to study tenses well in order to be capable enough
36
in writing. Researchers like Naeem (2007), Salah (2010), and Armana (2011)
constructed various programs for developing students' writing skill especially, low-
achievement level ones. Afterwards they applied their programs stressing the
researchers' role to help English language majors recognize writing errors. El-Salahat
(2014) and El-Shami (2011) affirmed that interactive writing strategies could improve
the writing skill of the EFL learners. Consequently, they need opportunities to study the
writing skill through these strategies so that they can get good writing techniques.
The current study provides suggested program to tackle the common tense errors
students at Al-Aqsa University commit. This study presents a well-designed program
which is made basically in light of the EFL students' mistakes.
37
Chapter Three
Research Methodology
38
Chapter Three
Methodology
3.1 Introduction
In this study, the researcher concentrates on research design, study sample,
variables of the study, instrumentation, and the suggested program. In addition, this
chapter presents the obstacles and challenges that face the researcher while
implementing this study. This chapter also includes the procedures of the study.
3.2 Research Design
The researcher adopted two approaches: (1) the quasi-experimental approach,
and (2) the descriptive analytical approach. The descriptive analytical approach was
used to conduct a diagnostic test to investigate the tense errors made by EFL senior
students at Al-Aqsa University in their writing, while the quasi-experimental
approach was used to investigate the effectiveness of the suggested program in
tackling the tense errors which English majors at Al-Aqsa university encounter in
their writing. The researcher conducted a pre-post writing test on a one group
sample design.
3.3 Study Sample
A sample of (31) female students was purposively chosen from the EFL senior
students at Al-Aqsa University in Gaza. This sample percentage was 16.4% from the
whole population of the study which included (189). Table (3.1) shows the
distribution of the sample and the population of the study.
Table (3. 1): Distribution of the study sample.
Group Population Sample
Female 189 31
39
3.4 Variables of the Study
The study included two variables:
1. The independent variable was the suggested program.
2. The dependent variable was tense errors in writing among EFL senior students.
3.5 Instrumentation
The instrument required for the study was a pre-post writing achievement test. so
the researcher used it to fulfill the purpose of the study. The researcher depended
upon his literature review to build the tool of the study which is a writing test. this
test includes three parts: The first question was a free writing one to check the
present perfect since it is used to write about general experiences happened in the
past at the beginning of writing. And to examine past simple, past continuous and
past perfect as narrative tenses in the students' writings. Ten marks were given to this
question. The second one was writing some suggested actions occurring according to
a given table containing some specified periods covering the targeted tenses. Ten
marks were given to this question. The last question was MCQ (Multiple-Choice
Question).It included ten items and half a mark was given to each one. This question
covered the specified eight tenses and evaluated the students' ability to choose the
right answer. For more details about this test, See appendix (2).
Table (3. 2): The distribution of the writing achievement test.
No. of
Questions
Question
type
Tested tenses Items
Number
marks
Question
No. 1
Essay
question
Present perfect, past
simple, past continuous,
and past perfect
1 10
Question
No. 2
Essay
question
The targeted tenses
(Eight Tenses)
1 10
Question
No. 3
MCQ The targeted tenses
(Eight Tenses)
10 5
40
The aim of the test is to check if the students face difficulties in their writing
regarding the tense, and to examine the impact of the suggested program refereed by
some specialists and experts. The pretest was to diagnose the problematic areas of
English language tenses. The test was based on the general tense rules, so the
researcher depended on the standard tense usages that are in Longman book for the
TOEFL test, Al-Quds Open University books of grammar and structure, TKT book,
and English Grammar In Use book; the third edition of a self- study reference and
practice book for intermediate learners of English language. Over and above, he
depended on his experience as a certified trainer of IELTS and TOEFL at Alslam
Training Group. Furthermore, the researcher consulted some colleagues, teachers,
doctors, and some supervisors.
The researcher introduced the test to the referee committee to consider their
opinions for changing, adding, or omitting, and then he considered all their
suggestions. The instructions of the test were given to the students through attaching
them to the test. The researcher told the students about the aim of the test
emphasizing that the results of the test are not related to the University writing
course. The questions of the test were read and clarified well for the students so that
the researcher made sure of their understanding.
To decide the time for the test, the researcher wrote down the time the first and
the last student finished the diagnostic test; it helped him estimate the time needed
for answering the questions of the writing achievement test. The researcher could get
the suitable time for the test through the following equation:
Time of the first student + time of the last student =
2
20 + 30 ÷ 2 = 25
So the time for the writing achievement test was 25 minutes.
41
3.6 Validity of the Writing Test
Al-Agha (2004, p.104) states that a valid test is the test that measures what it is
designed to measure. The study used the referee validity and the internal consistency
validity.
3.6.1 Referee validity of the Test
The researcher constructed a covering letter accompanied by the test to referee.
Then, the first version of the test was distributed to a panel of professors, specialists,
colleagues, and supervisors from Palestinian Universities in Gaza, see appendix (1).
Those experts kindly reviewed it and their tips were considered accordingly.
3.6.2 Internal Consistency Validity
Internal Consistency Validity as consistency in individual's performance from a
part to another which mean that all the parts of the referendum (list) share measuring
a characteristics in an individual" (Abu Libda 1982, p.72).
The researcher used Pearson Correlation Coefficient to calculate the internal
consistency of the test items. To measure the validity, Pearson Correlation computed
the correlation of the following: The correlation between the exam questions and the
overall score of the exam. Table (3.3) illustrates the internal consistency of the test.
Table (3. 3): The correlation coefficients between the exam questions and the overall
score of the exam.
The above table shows that there is a correlation between the exam questions
and the overall score of the exam (30 marks). This also indicates that the exam
measures what it designed to measure.
Sig Correlation Question
0.01 136.0 Q1
0.01 136.0 Q2
0.01 136.. Q3
42
3.7 Reliability of the Test
What is meant by reliability is that " measurement accuracy or giving nearly the
same results in each time is applied on the members in the same group" (Abu libda,
1982, p. 261)
The reliability of the test was measured through the method of test-retest
reliability. The exam reliability was measured through applying the test on a sample
study of (20) EFL senior students at Al Aqsa University of Gaza. The exam was
given to them two times. There were (20) days between the first time and the second
time of the exam. Then, the researcher calculated the two marks of the first and the
second exam and calculated the correlation coefficient. Table (3.4) shows the
reliability of the test.
Table (3. 4): The test reliability using method of test-retest.
Person
Correlation St. Deviation Mean Number of students Application
0.766**
03.11 6.850
20 First
03.62 6.839 Second
Table (3.4) shows that Pearson correlation coefficient between the first and second
application of the test was (0.766). This value is educationally and statistically
acceptable. It also indicates the reliability of the test.
3.8 The Suggested Program
The researcher exposed the suggested program to the students for teaching the
specified eight tenses through some strategies, techniques, activities, and some
recommended videos. The researcher introduced the needed details and descriptions
including the objectives, teaching aids, content, the evaluation part, and the timing.
The basis that the program was built on is presented in this chapter, too.
3.8.1 Aims of the Suggested Program
The main reason that led to constructing the suggested program sprang from the
great need for ameliorating tense errors in writing among EFL Senior Students at Al-
Aqsa University. The program was designed taking into consideration that it fits the
43
students’ levels and needs, the language employed suits their understanding and
abilities, the clear presentation of the material of the program, and eventually the
educational atmosphere where the program is going to take place. A group of
education specialists refereed the suggested program and experts edited, modified,
revised, and organized the content of the former program. In other words, The main
objective of the suggested program is to enhance the students’ writing through
tackling tense errors. It is by the guidance of the professors, specialists, and some
educators and considering the results of the diagnostic test, the objectives were
specified. At the end of the program, the students are expected to able to:
a. Recognize the tense classifications based on timeframe.
b. Recognize the tense classifications based on aspect.
c. Differentiate between the use & the usage.
d. Recognize the difference between present participle and the past participle.
e. Use the present participle and the past participle correctly.
f. Realize the right usage of English language tenses.
g. Avoid the errors of subject-verb agreement.
H. Be able to write freely without any kind of tense errors.
3.8.2 Principles of the Suggested Program
The researcher took into consideration the following principles while constructing
the suggested program:
1. Tense errors in writing are common among students, so they need to be
focused on.
2. The suggested program considers the individual differences among students
through using a variety of questions and activities.
3. The researcher used two kinds of evaluation (the formative and the
summative).
4. The program aims at helping students distinguish among tenses and avoid
tense errors in their writings.
44
5. Most students lack the ability to use tenses correctly in their writings due to
the lack of exposure to the authentic language and ignoring teaching this skill
at schools.
6. The learning activities should suit the learners’ interests.
7. The suggested program should include several teaching means.
8. It is crucial that the suggested program suits participants' preferences and
interests.
9. The allocated time in the suggested program is important.
10. In the world of technology, the teacher’s role has become a guide, a promoter,
a developer, and a trainer not only a giver of information.
3.8.3 Stages of Constructing the Instructional Program
According to Canale & Swain (1998, p. 33), there are five steps that can make a
model of a suitable instructional program. The description of these steps and the
explanation of how the researcher considered every step in constructing the
suggested program is as follows:
o Diagnosis
Diagnosis is the primary assessment and evaluation of the teaching learning
process. Here in this phase, teachers try to identify the learners' state of knowledge,
competencies, skills, and the needs as a basic stage to shed light on what is missing
and trying to tackle it. The background of the researcher (as a certified trainer who
trains at universities in a partnership with Al Slam Training Group) about the low-
performing students in the writing skill was a substantial step and also form his past
experience when he was a university student as he faced the problem of tense errors
in writing. The writing diagnostic test is the basic pillar for identifying the aims of
the program.
o Preparation
In this stage, teachers attempt to decide the instruction. The researcher must
define the purpose of the program, and the setting must be managed and well
45
organized so that the learners can be highly motivated. The researcher took into
accounts the results of the diagnostic test to determine the goals of the program. Then
the content was collected and organized and after that, some strategies, techniques
and aids to apply in lectures were identified.
It is of great importance to emphasize the readiness of the students since the
program is a computerized one so they have to attend the whole program from the
first lecture to the last one in order not to miss any of spoken or written instructions
that are given and clarified by the researcher.
o Learning Guidance
In order to give the students the chance to improve the way they use the
investigated tenses, the researcher provided them with a variety of activities and
techniques. In this stage, the teacher presents some instructions that cover the skills
and information that help the students to be more motivated, energetic, and
encourage them to respond to the learning situations, and finally make sure that the
students are participating in the different presented activities.
o Evaluation
Evaluation is used to ascertain the degree of achievement or to gain insight into
the progress of both parties of the educational process: the teacher and the students.
The suggested program contained on-going evaluation (formative and summative)
during all the stages.
o Follow – Up
In this phase, the researcher comes to reorganize the learning knowledge and
experiences with the program goal. Follow-up stage is the final one in which the
researcher selects activities that grant the students many opportunities and helps them
manage to apply learnt knowledge and experience. The given activities are possible
to be applied not only inside the class, but also outside the class. The researcher
considered the suggested programs carried out by previous researchers in the same
field. Some main principles suggested by the researcher should be taken into
46
accounts to plan the program such as specifying the vital objectives behind it,
selecting the appropriate content that suits the students' ability and the objectives,
arranging the topic and deciding how much stress is placed on each topic,
determining the suitable time for each class, identifying the right techniques,
activities and strategies, deciding some procedures to assess and evaluating the
participants' achievement of the goals.
3.8.4 The Program Contents
The researcher selected the content of the program carefully to make the process
of training easier for the participants and to better their writing skills through
learning the concrete usage of each tense. The content of the instructional program is
the main core of teaching. The facts, attitudes, skills, and concepts are the
components of it as aforementioned.
Canale & Swain (1998, p. 34) emphasized that if students are not taught how to
express their points of view freely and clearly, they will not be able to explain their
ideas and use the language functionally. The content of the present program is
deemed as recurrent models for the learners so that they can be taught and trained to
avoid the tense errors in their writing.
The researcher used many resources such as Al-Quds Open University structure
books, which provide the self-study system so that students can refer to the suggested
program when needed. Also, he made use of the TOFEL book whose content suits
the determined objectives of the program and students' needs and abilities in addition
to the TKT book (Teaching Knowledge Test) which is a test developed by
Cambridge University. The researcher utilized some activities, techniques, and steps
of presenting the material of the program. Moreover, English Grammar in Use book
was highly considered as it is taught at Al-Aqsa University. Over and above,
Headway series (The third Edition) and variety of websites were used by the
researcher to extract some information and suitable questions to be included in the
program. Here are some used websites:
www.differencebetween.com.
https://www.youtube.com.
47
www.cmu.edu/teaching.
The researcher chose the content of the suggested program in conformity with its
main aims. The content considers the following:
Appropriate subjects
Suitable time
A variety of teaching aids
Several resources
Standard language
Clear instructions
Students' levels
Students' needs
Students' abilities
Students' interests
The suggested program covers the eight tenses and consists of fifteen lessons. It
is implemented in fifteen classes (a lesson a class) so each session is an hour. See
Appendix (3).
The researcher put the suggested program into practice in fifteen classes
covering fifteen lessons. Each class is an hour. The whole program was carried out in
five-hour classes weekly so it took three weeks.
Note: The lessons are originally fourteen, but there is an additional class given at the
beginning of the program as an introductory one.
48
Table (3. 5): Program time plan.
Week Lesson Class No. Time
The first
1 Introductory class 1 An hour
2 - 3 2 - 3 Two hours
4 - 5 4 - 5 Two hour
The second
6 - 7 6 - 7 Two hour
8 - 9 8 - 9 Two hour
10 - 11 8 - 9 Two hour
The third
12 - 13 12 - 13 Two hour
14 14 An hour
15 practice and evaluation 15 An hour
The researcher used two types of evaluation, which are the formative, and the
summative evaluation. The former is an ongoing evaluation that consists of some
related tasks given to the students to do at home or at the beginning of each class.
Their answers were followed then by an immediate feedback. The latter took the
form of a ten-question test at the end of the program to check how far aims were
achieved.
The nature of the program required a language lab that is equipped with the
necessary materials and equipment such as computers, LCD, internet connection in
addition to a white board and colored board markers.
3.8.5 Validity of Program
To ensure the program validity, the researcher invited many specialists, lecturers,
supervisors, and doctors in different academic institutions to review the first version
of the program. All of them emphasized the clarity of the objectives, the variety of
techniques and activities, and the good design of the program. They highly
appreciated the work since it fitted the students' ability and level.
49
According to what was mentioned by the jury of referees, the program is valid to be
carried out.
3.9 Procedures of Study
The researcher followed many steps, which are organized well, to fulfill the
present the study's purpose. They are as follows:
1) The researcher administered the pretest on the female students enrolled in the
writing course in the first semester of the academic year 2017-2018.
2) The researcher designed a suggested program in the light of the most frequent
tense errors in the participants' writing, which were investigated by the
diagnostic test.
3) After the suggested program had been refereed, a trial implementation of the
program was given.
4) The activities of the suggested program were conducted and they lasted for
about three weeks.
5) At the end of the semester, the post test was administered to the same group
of the students who were enrolled in the writing course and who attended the
whole sessions of the program.
6) The researcher used the SPSS Program to analyze the collected data.
7) Eventually, the researcher presented some suggestions and recommendations
to the lecturers and the future studies.
3.10 Problems and Challenges
Every successful work may face obstacles and challenges. In this study, the
researcher faced some obstacles and difficulties. At the beginning, collecting
grammar books was not an easy job as long as he had to visit majority of Gaza
universities. Then, the researcher faced difficulties when he obtained the permission
50
to inter Al-Aqsa University for getting the sample of this study. Furthermore, it was a
bit difficult when the researcher got the sample and found spare time to give his
program with the help of some doctors. Over and above, he struggled when he
achieved the statistics. At the end, the researcher got the hang of all the challenges he
faced.
3.11 Statistical Styles
Percentages.
Frequencies.
T-test for one sample.
Eta square (Effect Size).
3.12 Summary
In this chapter, the researcher illustrated the methodology and the research design.
At first, he presented the distribution of the population and the study sample
according to the variables of the study. Hence, the validity and reliability of the study
tools were ensured. Finally, the researcher explained the procedures that he followed
in detail.
51
Chapter Four
Data Analysis & Findings
52
Chapter Four
Data Analysis & Findings
4.1 Introduction
Chapter four presents the study results. In this chapter, the researcher writes
about the statistical analysis then he goes through the study four questions. In
addition, the researcher analyzes the results of the four questions.
4.2 Statistical Analysis
In the present study, the researcher used different statistical techniques to answer
the questions of the study and fulfill the purpose of it. The researcher used
percentages and frequencies. Therefore, he used Paired Sample T-Test to verify the
accuracy of the first hypothesis. Then he used the ETA2 equation to test the validity
of hypothesis. Thus, the researcher used two ways to find out the effectiveness of the
suggested program: the ETA2 equation as explained above, and the other one was
the modified Blake's Gain Ratio to test the validity of the second research hypothesis
4.3 The Results of the First Question
The first question is stated as “What are the tense errors in students’ writing
among EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa University?”
In order to answer the question, the researcher made a diagnostic test based on
specific number of tenses and was given to EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa
University of Gaza to answer. After collecting the papers of exam, the researcher
analyzed the tense errors in the writing exam that was purposively constructed to
investigate the students’ employability and their errors in dealing with eight tenses;
present continuous, present perfect, present perfect continuous, past continuous, past
perfect, past simple, future continuous, and future perfect. After analyzing the
students’ writing and defining the nature of errors, the researcher came up with a
number of errors committed by EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza in
writing diagnostic exam. Table (4.1) shows these errors.
53
Based on the analysis to EFL senior students' errors in writing diagnostic exam,
the researcher constructed the suggested program for tackling tense errors in writing
among EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza. Thus, the nature and
number of errors in each tense helped the researcher to properly construct an
appropriate suggested program.
Table (4. 1): Frequencies, Percentages, Ranks of Tense Errors in the students'
Writing Diagnostic Exam.
No. Tense Frequency Percentag
e %
Rank Number of
classes for each
tense
1. Present Continuous 0 0 0 0
2. Present Perfect 49 34.27 1 4
3. Present Perfect
Continuous
01 6.99 6 1
4. Past Continuous 22 15.38 3 2
5. Past Perfect 20 14.69 4 2
6. Past Simple 10 6.99 5 1
7. Future Continuous 1 3.50 7 1
8. Future Perfect 26 18.18 2 3
Total 143 100 14 classes
The above table shows the frequency, percentages, rank and number of classes
specified by the researcher in the suggested program for tacking tense errors in
writing in each given tense. As shown, the total frequency of tense errors among EFL
senior students at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza is (143). In addition, the total number
of classes for tenses is (14) and the total number of the program classes is (15)
including the evaluation and practice lecture which is the last one.
The table tells that EFL senior students did not make any mistakes in the present
continuous tense. The students answered the questions of the present continuous
54
tense properly and that illustrate that Al-Aqsa English majors don’t face any trouble
in using this tense.
As illustrated in table (4.1), present perfect tense is the tense, which got the largest
frequency and percentage of Al-Aqsa University /English majors' errors. The total
frequency of the errors in present perfect tense made by EFL senior students at Al-
Aqsa University of Gaza was (.9). This frequency percentage was (34.27%). Present
perfect tense is the first rank of tense errors in writing. Nearly half of the mistakes
made by the students were in present perfect tense. Therefore, the researcher focused
on this tense in his program for tackling tense errors in writing. The researcher
specified (4) classes to tackle present perfect tense errors. Accordingly, students’
major difficulties were in present perfect tense.
Table (4.1) shows that the frequency of errors in present perfect continuous is
(10) representing (6.99%)3 This was a low percentage compared with the present
perfect tense. It was apparent that students faced some minor difficulties in present
perfect continuous. This made the researcher to allocate just (1) class for tacking
present perfect continuous tense errors in writing. Present perfect continuous
occupied the sixth rank of tense errors in writing in the writing exam.
Table (4.1) also shows that past continuous tense had a considerable frequency
of the errors and got a high percentage. The frequency of errors in this tense is (22).
According to the study results, (15.38%) of EFL senior students’ errors in the writing
exam are in past continuous tense. Therefore, this tense needed tackling in the
suggested program. The researcher specified (2) classes for developing this tense.
Past continuous tense ranked third of tense errors in writing in the writing exam.
Past perfect tense also had a similar frequency to past continuous tense. The
frequency of errors in Past perfect tense reached (21) representing (14.69%). This
tense needed to be developed among the students. Therefore, the researcher specified
(2) classes for developing this tense among the EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa
University of Gaza. Past perfect tense ranked fourth in tense errors in writing in the
writing exam.
55
Past simple tense was found a little bit difficult among the EFL senior students
at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza. The frequency of errors in the writing exam was (10).
This frequency constituted (6.99%). The percentage showed, to some extent, that
there was a difficulty in mastering past simple tense. The tense was addressed by the
researcher to be developed by specifying (1) class in the program that was
constructed. Past simple tense ranked fifth rank in tense errors in writing in the
writing exam.
Table (4.1) shows that future continuous tense was found to have a small
number of frequency of errors. The total number of errors of future continuous tense
was (5). This was a very small number that represented (3.50%). As this tense did
not constitute a major difficulty among the EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa
University of Gaza, the researcher just assigned (1) class for developing their
understanding to future continuous tense. Future continuous tense ranked seventh
among the students’ errors in writing.
Future perfect tense ranked second in the errors made by the EFL senior students
at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza in the writing exam. The total frequency of the errors
in this tense was (26). This frequency represented (18.18%). Based on this
percentage, the researcher
-specified (3) classes for the EFL senior students to be taught future perfect tense
during giving the classes of the suggested program for tackling tense errors in writing
among EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza.
4.4 The Results of the Second Question
The second question reads, “What is the suggested program for tackling tense
errors in writing among EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa University”
Reviewing the literature helped the researcher construct the activities of the
suggested program. This program aims at tackling tense errors in writing among EFL
senior students at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza was constructed in (14) classes to
address the errors made in each tense. The researcher built the suggested program in
the shape of separate classes that dealt with the tenses. Each tense was given a
56
different number of classes. The researcher varied the classes to suit the degree and
level of errors in each tense. For example, present perfect tense percentage was
(34.27 %) and as a result, the researcher specified (3) classes to it in the suggested
program to tackle the students’ errors. For more details about the suggested program,
please see appendix (3) as you will find full information regarding the suggested
program.
4.5 The Results of the Third Question
The third question says “Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05)
between the mean scores the treatment group get on the writing pretest and the mean
scores they get on the writing posttest?” To answer the question, the researcher
formulated the following non-directional hypothesis “There are statistically
significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) between the mean scores the treatment group get
on the writing pretest and the mean scores they get on the writing posttest?”
The researcher utilized Paired Sample T-Test to verify the accuracy of the above
hypothesis. Table (4.2) shows the results of this test.
57
Table (4. 2): Paired Sample T-Test Comparing the pre post writing test results.
Question Application The descriptive Statistics T-Test
N. of
Group
Overall
Degree
Mean St.
Deviation
df T.
Calculated
Sig
V.
sig
1st Q Pre .0 01 3.81 1.167
30 203728 0.00
Sig
Post .0 01 8.90 0.791
2nd
Q Pre .0 01 3.39 1.476
30 0.301. 0.00
Sig
Post .0 01 8.42 1.026
3rd
Q Pre .0 01 1.06 1.365
30 0830.0 0.00
Sig
Post .0 01 8.90 0.981
All
Degree
Pre .0 .1 11.26 2.16
30 2731.2 0.00
Sig
Post .0 .1 26.23 1.783
The above table shows that the value of "T" calculated in the test and its questions
is greater than its Tabled (T) which is (2.750) at the degree of freedom (30) at the
level of significance (0.000). It is less than (0.01). This means that there is a real
difference between the scores of the research group in the pretest and posttest
applications in favor of the bigger mean. The overall mean of post application of the
test is (26.33) compared to (11.26) for pretest application. This means that there is a
significant improvement in the total score of the achievement test in the research
group.
Thus, the researcher accepts the non-directional hypothesis. Then, We can conclude
that there were statistically significant differences at (α = 0.01) between the mean
scores the treatment group get on the writing pretest and the mean scores they get on
the writing posttest in favor of the posttest. This means that the suggested program
for tackling tense errors in writing among EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa University
of Gaza is effective and fruitful for the students.
58
To calculate the practical significance, the researcher calculated the effect size
as follows:
Calculation of the effect size of the Suggested program
The outcomes of the statistical test "T" showed a statistically significant difference
in favor of the posttest application in the achievement test. The researcher calculated
the practical significance by calculating the size of the effect of the suggested
program in tackling tense errors among EFL senior students at Al Aqsa University of
Gaza. The researcher used the ETA2 equation to test the validity of hypothesis
“There are statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) between the mean scores
the treatment group get on the writing pretest and the mean scores they get on the
writing posttest”.
Table (4. 3): Shows the results effect size of the Suggested program.
Effect Size
Level eta2 t-value Df Question
High 130.0
203728 .1 Q1
High 13766
0.301. .1 Q2
High 13018
0830.0 .1 Q3
High 1306.
2731.2 .1 Overall
It is clear from the above table that the value of the practical significance of the
achievement test as a whole is (0.963), while the three dimensions ranged from
(0.866 - 0.941). All values are greater than the upper limit of the effect size,
according to the reference of frame size (0.14). This means that the suggested
program had a significant impact on the development of the research group. Thus,
their tense errors were tackled.
59
4.4 The Results of the Fourth Question
The calculation of the effectiveness of the suggested program
The fourth question is stated as “What is the statistically significant effect of the
suggested program for tackling tense errors among EFL senior students?”
The suggested program for tackling errors among EFL senior students has a large
effectiveness in achievement not less than 1.2 as measured with respect to the
modified Black’s Gain Ratio.
To find out the effectiveness of the suggested program in tackling tense errors
among the research group, the researcher used two ways: the first one was the ETA2
equation as shown above, and the other one was the modified Blake's Gain Ratio to
test the validity of the research hypothesis. ''The suggested program for tackling
tense errors among EFL senior students is expected to have a large effect size''. The
researcher found out that the suggested program achieved effectiveness in tackling
the tense errors among EFL senior students more than (1.2) according to modified
Blake's Gain Ratio.
Table (4. 4): shows the results of the modified Blake's Gain Ratio to the suggested
program.
The Gain Ratio The ultimate
mark
The mean of
the posttest
The
mean of
pretest
Questions
1.331 01 730 .370 Q1
1.264 01 8.42 .3.0 Q2
1.299 01 8.9 .316 Q3
1.298 .1 2632. 00326 Overall
The above table showed that modified Blake's Gain Ratio for the test as a whole
reached (1.298) and for the test questions reached (1.331, 1.264, 1.299) respectively.
All of these percentages are above the percentage that was determined by Blake,
which is (1.2). Therefore, the suggested program is highly effective in tackling tense
errors among the EFL senior students.
60
4.5 Summary of the Chapter
In this chapter, the researcher went through the four questions of the study and
answered them. He analyzed the results using the SPSS program and stated the data
for each question. In the first question, the researcher stated the tense errors in
students' writing. In the second question, the researcher wrote about the classes of the
suggested program. In the third question, the researcher used Paired Sample T-Test
to verify the hypothesis. In the last question, the researcher checked the effectiveness
of the suggested program.
61
Chapter Five
Discussion
&
Recommendations
62
Chapter Five
Discussion & and Recommendations
5.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 deals with the study main findings, discussion, conclusions, and
recommendations of the study.
5.2 Summery
The main aim of the study was to tackle tense errors among female EFL senior
students' writing at Al-Aqsa University.
The researcher adopted two approaches. The first one is the descriptive
analytical approach and the second one is the quasi-experimental approach. An
experiment was conducted on a purposive sample of English senior majors who were
enrolled in writing II course at Al-Aqsa University during the first semester of the
academic year 2017-2018. The participants of the study consisted of (31) female
students grouped as a one-group design.
The researcher started this work since he worked in some universities, and was a
teacher of English. He noticed the most frequent errors in the students' writing were
tense ones. He started to shed lights on this field, so he decided to get the hang of this
problem through constructing a program to tackle this obstacle. He moved to IUG to
take a permission in order to conduct his work at Al-Aqsa University. The researcher
focused on the senior students as long as they are about to graduate and took writing-
one course. He found only one group who were enrolled in writing course (Female
students), then he took them as a sample and gave them a diagnostic test so that he
can recognize the real problem. After that, he corrected the test and uncovered that
the most frequent errors in the students' writing were in seven tenses that are
mentioned in the suggested program. Thereafter, the researcher constructed a
suggested program in the light of the diagnostic test results. See appendix (3). The
researcher considered the diagnostic test as a pre one then he conducted the program.
In the end, a posttest was given and the results were analyzed using (SPSS).
This study consists of five chapters. The first chapter starts with an introduction,
proceeds the state of problem, the context of the study, the research questions and
63
hypothesis. After that it deals with the objectives of the study, limitations of the
study, significance of the study, and finally the definition of terms.
The second chapter includes a review of relevant literature and previous studies
related to the current study. First, Part one is organized in the form of subtitles each
of which tackles a certain area such as : writing as a skill, definitions of writing,
characteristics of effective writing, importance of writing, the writing process, the
role of the teacher in the writing class, reasons for learning writing, how to teach
writing for EFL learners, approaches of writing, approaches of writing process,
writing stages, purposes of teaching writing, approaches of writing, and strategies of
teaching writing, error analysis, error correction techniques in writing, the
classification of errors. Secondly, part two, In this part, the researcher sheds light on
the previous studies related to the current study. It includes two sections of previous
studies. The first section deals with previous studies in relation to tense errors and
errors of writing and the second section deals with the studies related to writing
skills. Finally comments on the previous studies.
In chapter three, the researcher introduces the procedures followed throughout
the study. It includes a description of the methodology of the study, the population,
the sample, the variables, the tools. It also presents the research design in addition to
the statistical treatment for the study findings.
Chapter four presents the results of the study that have been reached with the use
of the statistical program (SPSS) for data processing. The researcher found out that
the program was very effective and fruitful for the students as long as their marks in
the post test were higher than their marks in the pre test.
In chapter five, the researcher came up with some recommendations and
suggestions for the universities, the future studies, English majoring students, and
even teacher at schools.
64
5.3 Discussion of the Study Findings
The study revealed the following findings:
1. The tense errors the students face were in the following (7) tenses: Present
perfect, present perfect continuous, past continuous, past perfect, past simple,
future continuous, and future perfect.
2. There are statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) in the mean scores
between the pre-test and the post-test in favor of the posttest. This means that
the students found the suggested program to tackle tense errors effective and
thus, their marks were higher in the posttest.
3. The study found that the suggested program for tackling tense errors among
EFL senior students is effective. See the suggested program in appendix (3).
4. The suggested program for tackling tense errors among EFL senior students
had a large effectiveness in achievement more than 1.2 as measured with
respect to the modified Black’s Gain Ratio.
The researcher discussed the questions as follows: The first question is stated as
“What are the tense errors in students’ writing among female EFL senior students at
Al-Aqsa University?”.
It was found that English majors at Al-Aqsa University face serious difficulties
in using the following tenses: present perfect, present perfect continuous, pas
continuous, past perfect, past simple, future continuous, and future perfect. The
researcher reached specific information regarding the tense errors as stated in table
(4.1). Then he attributed these difficulties to the lack of exercises students required in
such a topic, to the methods which are usually used, and to the switch that students
make when they write. This was also indicated by Abu-Jarad (1986), Farahat (1994),
Belhaaj (1997), and Khuwaileh and Al Shoumali (2000) who stated that the most
common errors in the students' writing were in tenses and these errors were
committed because of the lack of exercises learners required and the switch students
make when they write.
The majority of errors are found in present perfect as student’s errors reached
(34, 27%). This percentage is high when it is compared with other percentages to
65
tense errors. Present perfect tense is a difficult tense among EFL senior students at
Al-Aqsa University of Gaza as they did not know how to use this tense. It is a tense
that talks about past actions ended and affect the present. Thus, the students
mistakenly use the past simple tense to talk about unspecified actions that happened
in the past and also they use past simple to write about actions happened in the past
up to the present . This confusion between past simple tense and present perfect tense
is largely used in the exam papers. It seems that students need the right use of some
keywords to use this tense. For example, the word ‘already’ leads students to use
present perfect tense to express actions that happened sooner than expected, not past
simple tense. The problem in present perfect tense is in the employability of the
tense.
Present perfect did not constitute a big source of difficulty. It just counted for
(6.99%). This little number of errors is normal. As the researcher was one of the EFL
students at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza, he understands that it is easy for students to
deal with tenses if there are keywords. Therefore, the questions that test present
perfect continuous have some specific keywords for this tense. Consequently, few
numbers of students made errors in this tense, as it is very easy for students to know
the tense from its keywords.
Past continuous tense was found to have a big percentage of errors. The errors
constituted (15.38%). The researcher attributes this large percentage of errors in past
continuous tense as this tense was tested through ‘free writing’ question. The
students made many errors in using the tense properly. In the same issue, past perfect
was mainly tested in the same kind of question. The percentage of errors in past
perfect was (14.69). This is also a big percentage. The students’ main errors were in
free writing question. Most of them answered the present perfect question in ‘choose
from the following’ correctly. In the same spot, past simple was of small percentage.
It was just (6.99%). From the researcher’s experience in the field to teaching, he can
say that past simple tense is an easy tense for students. They do not normally make
errors in it. The tense was also checked by ‘free writing’ question. To conclude, past
tenses were of a major difficulty to students, except past simple tense.
66
Future continuous tense was not a tense of major errors. The percentage of the
tense errors is (3.50%). This small percentage could be referred to the keywords that
are mentioned to students to indicate future continuous tense. The majority of the
students answered the questions of this tense properly. On the other hand, future
perfect tense was found to have great number of errors. The percentage of errors
reached (18.18%). From the researcher’s experience, future perfect tense is a difficult
tense for students and students rarely use it. Thus, they commit mistakes in it despite
mentioning the keywords for this tense.
The results of this question are partly in conformity with Hourani (2008), Farhat
(1994), Belhaaj (1997), Radwan (1988), Khuwaileh, and Al Shoumali (2000). These
studies focused on investigating the tense errors among students. The results of this
question and its nature are inconsistent with the following studies: Armana (2011), El
Shami (2011), Cole and Feg (2015), and Salah (2010) as these studies are to be used
for commenting on the second question of this study.
The second question was stated as “What is the suggested program for tackling
tense errors in writing among EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa University” This
question was the main aim of the study. The researcher systematically built the
program for tackling the students’ errors in tenses. In order to build a reliable
program to deal with tense errors, the researcher has to check students’ errors first in
order to know where the tense is mostly difficult to students to be addressed. Then,
after checking the tense errors of students in the exam papers, the researcher reached
the results in table (4.1). Based on these results, the researcher constructed his
program to deal with the students’ tense errors’. The researcher considered while
applying the program the number of classes for each tense. This also depended on the
number of errors in each tense as presented in table (4.1). The researcher did his best
to define the errors first. Thus, to succeed in treating the students’ weakness in
tenses, you have first to know their weakness points and address them.
The suggested program of this study is like a doctors’ prescription to deal with
patients’ illness. Therefore, good checking means good dealing. This was the right
procedure of the suggested program. Please, for more details, see appendix (3)
67
The third question is stated as “Are there statistically significant differences at (α
≤ 0.05) between the mean scores the treatment group get on the writing pretest and
the mean scores they get on the writing posttest?”
To answer the question, the researcher formulated the following non-directional
hypothesis “There are statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) between the
mean scores the treatment group get on the writing pretest and the mean scores they
get on the writing posttest”. After the statistical treatment for the results of the pretest
and the posttest, and after comparing the two results, the researcher found that the
marks of the posttest are more than the marks of the pretest as it is listed in table
(4.3). The students got more marks after they were treated during the suggested
program to master tenses and avoid tense errors. This means that the suggested
program is effective for tackling errors among EFL senior students at Al-Aqsa
University of Gaza.
The researcher conducted an interview with the participants of the study asking
about their attitudes towards the program. 87% of them mentioned that they admired
most of the program activities as the activities are varied and suit them perfectly.
Moreover, the group work technique which has been adopted in teaching the
activities of the program motivated students to participate, compete, create, and
cooperate with each other to produce a well- written texts.
The success of the suggested program was based on the success of defining the
tense errors among the students. The researcher expected the students’ marks in the
posttest as he was noticing a transparent development among the students during the
program. The other reason that made the program effective is the reasonable
distribution of classes for each tense. This allowed the students to overcome the
difficulties. The results of this study are in conformity with the following studies: El-
Salahat (2014), and El Shami (2011) as these two studies found that the posttest had
better marks among the students than the pretest.
What is the statistically significant effect of the suggested program for tackling
tense errors among female EFL senior students?
68
After implementing the suggested program, it was come up that there is high
effectiveness in the participants' achievement, which was more than 1.2 in respect of
the modified Black's Gain Ratio as it is shown in table (4.4). And this was attributed
to the perfect design, construction, organization, arrangement, activities, and the
suitable techniques that were taken into consideration by the researcher when
designing the program.
5.4 Conclusion
The study concluded that:
1. The suggested program for tackling tense errors among EFL senior students
at Al Aqsa University of Gaza was effective.
2. Present continuous tense was not found difficult among the EFL senior
students at Al Aqsa University of Gaza and thus it was excluded from the
suggested program.
3. The most difficult tense among the students was present perfect tense. The
students did not know what the uses of the tense are. They have confusion
between past simple and present perfect.
4. The least difficult tenses among the students were present perfect, past
simple, and future perfect.
5. Although the students knew the formation of tenses, they make errors in
using them.
6. The students get lost regarding what tense to use if the keywords of tenses are
missed.
7. The majority of the tense errors made by the students were in the questions of
‘free writing’. The majority of students had difficulties in writing freely.
8. The students, to some extent, were very good in answering ‘multiple choices’
questions since most of the questions have keywords that indicate the tense
directly. However, in free writing there are no keywords, to some extent, for
specific tenses specially when students use the narrative tenses. They should
depend on logic, concrete situations to link actions. over and above, they
should consider cohesion, too.
69
5.5 Recommendations
Based on the results, the study suggests the following recommendations:
1. University lecturers ought to pay attention to the necessity of adopting new
ways and strategies to teaching tenses, especially the problematic ones the
researcher mentioned in this work.
2. Stressing the practical side rather than the theoretical one.
3. University lecturers ought to teach students the concrete usage for each tense
so that they can understand and connect each tense to the real life.
4. Lecturers ought to give students more time for practice. It is noticed that
despite the students’ understanding of the tenses, they still make errors while
they write.
5. Holding extra sessions and training courses about tenses for English majoring
students.
6. A study should be conducted to check the tense errors among EFL students in
other universities.
7. A study should be conducted to investigate writing errors among university
students in Gaza.
8. A study should be conducted to collect students’ responses regarding their
difficulties in tenses.
9. Supervisors should conduct workshops that aim at familiarizing teachers with
Students' problems regarding tenses.
10. English language teachers should benefit from the suggested program of the
researcher which should be distributed to them.
70
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71
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Appendices
78
Appendix (1)
The Referees' Committee
Islamic University of Gaza
Faculty of Education
Curricula And English Methodology Department
Master Program
An Invitation to Referee a Writing Skills Checklist
The researcher is conducting a study in partial fulfillment of Master Degree in
Curricula and Teaching Methods. The study title is:
A Suggested Program for Tackling Tense Errors in Writing Among EFL Senior
Students at Al-Aqsa University of Gaza
This study aims to tackle tense errors in writing to develop and improve writing
skills of English major students at Al-Aqsa university.
The gathered information will be used for research purposes aiming to investigate
the effectiveness of the suggested program to enhance and ameliorate some writing
skills of English majors at Al-Aqsa University and to come up with concrete
conclusions and recommendations to enrich writing courses at the university.
This test is going to be applied on a focus group of English Department Students
at Al-Aqsa University to check the main tense errors in writing.
Experts, lecturers, and professors of EL are kindly invited to comment, modify,
change or omit any irrelevant items.
Thanks in Advance
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List of referees
Institution Doctor's Name
Islamic University . 1. Awad Suliman Kishta
Al-Aqsa University. 2. Ra'afat Abu Ghali
Islamic University . 3. Mosheer Amer
Al-Aqsa University. 4. Mustafa Abu Taha
Islamic University. 5. Mohammed Al-Haj Ahmed
Al-Aqsa University. 6. Adham Abu Hatab
Al-Quds Open University. 7. Ryad Suliman Alfarra
Al-Aqsa University. 8. Ala'a Aldin Al-seqaly
Researcher
Arafat Ibrahim Al-Farra.
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Appendix (2)
The Writing Achievement Test
Student's name: --------------------------------.
Student's level: ( ).
Allocated time: 25 Minutes
PART ONE: Writing: (10 points /10 minutes)
" Imagine you have been to Egypt."
Write a topic about your journey there.
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PART TWO: Write some suggested actions that occur according to the table. (10
points. 10 minutes).
Simon is a student at Cambridge Uni. He is ambitious and usually makes use of his
time for study in order to make his dream come true.
Tomorrow Today Yesterday
Will finish tomorrow
within a period of time or
by a particular time
Right now From 8:00 to 11:00 am
Will be in progress
tomorrow at 1pm. (Use
this time tomorrow).
Finished now An action at 1pm before
An action at 4pm
Still happening until now
in a specific period of
time.
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PART THREE: Select the right answer . (10 points. 1 m/q, 5 minutes)
1. I …………… to Italy three times ever in my life, they were fascinating
experiences.
(went– have been –have gone – had been)
2. How long ………………. English? For 4 years.
( have you been learning – did you learn – have you learnt – are you learning ).
3. Dad ………………. Our washing machine when the power went off.
( fixes – had fixed – was fixing – has been fixing ).
4. After I ………………… the exam I went to do the oral test in Rafah.
( constructed –had constructed – have constructed – have been constructing ).
5. My father asked me to clean his car, after awhile I told him ( I have …………
cleaned it.)
( just – already – been – still).
6. I think, he ……………. Pass the exam.
(is going to – is passing – will).
7. The teacher asked us to do a homework, but I raised my hand and said,( I
have ……….. done).
(just – already – been – still).
8. I ………………. Late tonight
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(am going to work – will work – am working – am going to working ).
9. I predict, nobody ………………….. the course.
(is going to pass – will pass– is passing).
10. In 5 years time I ………………… university and I’ll be able to earn some
money at last
(will finish – will have finished – will be finishing).
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Appendix (3)
The Suggested Program
CONTENTS
Objectives.
Class (1) Introduction: block diagram of Tenses, list of Rules, classification
based on Time Frame, and classification based on Aspect.
Class (2) present perfect (1) and the difference between the word USE and
the word USAGE.
Class (3) present perfect (2) and the difference between present participle
and past participle.
Class (4) present perfect (3).
Class (5) present prefect (4) and quiz (1).
Class (6) present perfect continuous and quiz (2).
Class (7) past simple and quiz (3).
Class (8) past continuous (1).
Class (9) past continuous (2) and quiz (4).
Class (10) past perfect (1).
Class (11) past perfect (2) and quiz (5).
Class (12) future continuous and quiz (6).
Class (13) future perfect (1).
Class (14) Future perfect (2).
Class (15) future perfect (3), quiz, and practice.
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Objectives
Students are expected to:
• Recognize the tense classifications based on time frame.
• Recognize the tense classifications based on aspect.
• Differentiate between the word use & usage.
• Recognize the difference between present participle and the past participle and
• Use present participle and the past participle correctly.
• Realize the right usage of English language tenses.
• Avoid the errors of subject-verb agreement.
• Be able to write freely without any kind of tense errors.
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Lesson (1)
Introduction
The word Tense is derived from Latin word “tempus” which means time. A verb
indicates the time of an action, event or condition by changing its form.
a. Based on Time frame
The verb tenses may be categorized according to the time frame:
• Present Tense
• Past Tense
• Future Tense
Present Tense: Present tense expresses an unchanging, repeated, or reoccurring
action or situation that exists only now. It can also represent a widespread truth.
Past Tense :- Past tense expresses an action or situation that occurred in the past.
Future Tense :- Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the
future
b. Based on Aspect
Verb tenses may also be categorized according to aspect. Aspect refers to the nature
of the action described by the verb.
There are four aspects:
• Indefinite or Simple
• Continuous or Progressive
• Perfect or Complete
• Perfect Continuous
1. Indefinite Tense: The three indefinite tenses, or simple tenses, describe an action
but do not state whether the action is finished.
2. Continuous Tense: The three continuous tenses, incomplete tenses, or progressive
tenses, describe an unfinished action.
3. Perfect Tense: The three complete tenses, or perfect tenses, describe a finished
action.
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4. Perfect Continuous Tense To combine the complete tenses and the incomplete
tenses, to describe an action which was in progress and then finished.
There are twelve possible tenses in English language, they are shown in the table
below:
Here is a list of the twelve tense rules:
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Lesson (2)
Presents perfect (Part One)
At the beginning, students have to know the answer of the following question: What is
the difference between Use and Usage?
• The word use is used in the sense of EMPLOY.
• The word use is used as a verb as well as a noun.
• The word use is also used in the sense APPLY.
• On the other hand, the word usage is used in the sense of PRACTICE, CONVETION
or the act of using something.
• The word usage is frequently used in English grammar..
• Usage in terms of grammar is used in concrete situations.
• Usage is how something is used.
Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense is used to describe action that began in the past and
continues into the present or has just been completed. In other words, it indicates a
period of time that stretches into an earlier time but related to a present moment in
one way or another.
For Example:
I have played.
He / She has played.
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Study the following usages of present perfect:
a. It is of great importance to mention some adverbs that have different usages in
this tense.
Already: used to talk about actions that happened sooner than expected.
Just: used to talk about actions that happened in the expected time.
For: used with a period of time.
Since: used with a point in time.
Yet: used in questions and negatives.
Ever: used to question about experiences if you ever have in your life until
the moment of speaking.
Never: used to negate an experience at any time of your life or not on any
occasion.
See these examples:
I have already finished. (I finished before you expect me to finish).
I have just finished. (I finished in the expected time).
I have never eaten pizza. (at all in my life up to now).
Have you ever tried hamburger. (did you try it before in your life?).
She has not eaten pizza yet. (she ate pizza before).
I have planted 10 trees since morning. (unspecified period of time)
We have known each other for five years.
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Lesson (3)
Present perfect (Part Two)
Be attentive when dealing with past participle & present participle
1. Present participle
The present participle is often used when we want to express an active action. In
English we add -ing to the base form of the verb.
Progressive: The donkey is braying.
Gerung: Reading books is fun.
Adjective: Look at the reading boy.
2. Past participle
The past participle is the 3rd conjugation of the verb.
It has three types:
Perfect tenses: She has accomplished the mission.
Passive voice: The mission has been accomplished.
Adjective: look at the washed car
b. Note the difference between (been to) and (gone to):
Carlos is on holyday. He has gone to Paris.
(He is there now or in his way to Paris).
Carlos is back home now. He has been to Paris.
(He has come back so he may be in Britain).
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Lesson (4)
Present perfect (Part Three)
c. Sometimes we use present perfect to express something has happened, this is
usually new information.
Oops! I have broken the vase.
The road is closed. There has been an accident.
The police have arrested three men in a connection with the robbery.
d. In the following examples too, present perfect is used:
Have you heard from Jane recently?
I have met new friend in the last few days.
I haven’t had anything since morning. I am famished.
I haven’t seen you for a long time, do you fancy visiting me?
We haven’t come through any problems so far. Everything is going well.
The mentioned examples refer to a period that continues until now (past up to
present).
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Lesson (5)
Present perfect (Part Four)
e. Present perfect is also used to describe actions which occurred in an
unspecified (indefinite) past time with some connection to the current situation.
study the following examples:
Someone has taken my phone.
I have been mugged up. (passive voice)
Dave has been to Egypt four times.
I have read Harry Potter three times.
All of the mentioned examples were in an unspecified time.
At the end of this lesson, you are supposed to answer the following questions:
1. The teacher asked me to answer the question am I immediately said,
"I have ------------ answered it".
a. Just b. already c. recently
2. Oh! My meal is eaten, someone ----------------- it.
a. Has aten b. has eaten c. ate it
3. I am thirsty. I haven’t drunk ------------------.
a. Four hours b. since 4:00 c. for four hours
4. I ------------------ Fast and Furious five times.
a. Watched b. have been watched c. have watched
5. She has ------------- to Australia. She is there now.
a. Gone b. been c. been going
6. I --------------- the novel of Little Princess.
a. Have red b. read c. have read
7. He finished the painting of the room. Look he is full of paint, he ------------- the
room.
a. Has painted b. painted c. is painting.
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Lesson (6)
Present perfect continuous
The present perfect continuous is used to describe an action, event, or condition that
began in the past and is continuing now for a specific period of time.
For Example:
I / You have been playing for 3 hours.
He / She has been playing since 8:00 am.
Present prefect continuous expresses:
a. An activity that began in the past and is continuing now and in a specific period
of time.
See these examples:
I have been studying English for four years.
How long have you been working here?
I have been waiting for you since morning.
b. Past activity that has caused a present result.
See these examples:
Bill has been cutting the grass. (I can smell it)
My phone’s battery is about to die. Someone has been using my phone.
Have you been crying? (your eyes are red).
Look out of the window! It has been snowing!
c. Recognize the difference between present perfect and present perfect
continuous.
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Study the following examples:
I’ve played piano since I was young.
I’ve been playing piano since I was young.
So, present perfect, in the first example, expresses a permanent state while the
present perfect continuous example expresses a temporary activity.
Remember: State verbs are rarely used in the continuous.
After you have come through present perfect continuous, you are supposed to
answer the following questions:
1. She --------------- English for four years.
a. Has been studied b. has studied c. has been studying
2. I -------------- for you for two hours.
a. Have waited b. have been waiting c. waited
3. You look exhausted, ----------- you --------------- hard?
a. Have/been working b. have/worked c. did/work
4. How long -------------------- this story.
a. Have you read b. have you been reading c. did you read
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Lesson (7)
Past simple
We can form past simple using the second conjugation.
Examples:
Regular verbs
I played…
I studied…
Or irregular verbs
I saw…
I drove…
remember to study and memorize them.
Past simple is used to express:
a. A finished action in the past.
See the following examples:
I met Jane in 2003. (started and finished in the past).
I went to Paris last week. (started and finished in the past).
I left three minutes ago. (started and finished in the past).
I didn’t see you in the park last night.
b. Actions that follow each other.
Study the situation below:
Elissa walked into the room and stopped. She listened carefully. She heard
a noise coming behind the curtain. She saw a cat…
c. A past situation or a past habit.
Study the following situation:
When I was a child, we lived in a small house by the sea. Every day I
walked for miles on the beach with my dog.
This usage is usually expressed by used to.
See the examples below:
I used to walk with my dog.
I used to drink milk when I was a child.
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Note: Past simple often comes with continuous to be the short event.
See the examples:
When I opened the door, Dad was watching TV.
(opining the door was the short action, but watching TV was the long one).
I was reading when the power went off. (See the next lesson).
Note that we don’t use did in negatives and questions with was/were.
See this example:
I was tired. (negative = I wasn’t tired).
You are supposed to answer the following questions after you've studied
this lesson:
1. She ----------- here three hours ago.
a. Was b. has been c. was been
2. It was cold, so I ----------- the door
a. Shut b. have shut c. chutted
3. They --------------- invite me yesterday.
a. Did not b. was c. haven’t invited me
4. Negate this sentence. She was hungry.
a. Didn’t b. didn’t was c. wasn’t
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Lesson (8)
Past continuous (Part One)
We use was/were + V + ing to form this tense.
The past continuous tense is used to describe ongoing actions in a certain time in
the past or an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event or action.
For Example:
I was having a beautiful dream when the alarm clock rang."
I was playing.
He / She was playing yesterday at 5:00 pm.
You / they were playing.
Tom wasn’t studying when I got into the room.
a. we often use the past simple tense and past continuous together to say that
something happened in the middle of something else.
See the following examples:
Matt phoned while we were having dinner.
It was raining when I got up.
I saw you in the park yesterday while you were reading a book.
I hurt my back while I was working in the garden.
b. Compare:
I was walking home when I met Dave.
(meeting Dave was in the middle of the action of walking).
or
I walked home after the party last night.
(the action is completed).
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Lesson (9)
Past continuous (Part Two)
c. Compare:
when Lubna arrived, we were having dinner.
(we had already started before she arrived)
or
when Lubna arrived, we had dinner.
(Lubna arrived, and then we had dinner).
d. Past continuous is usually used for descriptions.
Study these situations:
Jane looked pretty, she was wearing a green cotton dress. Her eyes were
shining in the light of the candles that were burning nearby.
Did you see my girl friend? She the one who was wearing blue jeans and
red shirt.
The mentioned examples shed lights on past continuous as it is used for
descriptions.
e. We also use past continuous to express activities in progress before, and
probably after, a particular time in the past.
see this situation:
at seven o’clock this morning I was having my breakfast.
you made a lot of noise last night, what were you doing?
f. Past continuous is used to express an incomplete activities in the past.
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Compare:
I was reading a book during the flight. (Incomplete action).
I watched a movie during the flight. (complete action).
g. Compare between past simple and continuous:
Past simple focuses on complete actions, but past continuous stresses the
duration of past activities.
Compare the following examples:
A: I did not see you at the party last night.
B: No. I stayed at home and watched the football.
A: I did not see you at the party last night.
B: No. I was watching the football at home.
h. Questions in the past simple and past continuous refer to different periods of
time:
the past continuous asks about activities before; the past simple asks about
what happened after.
Study the following situations:
A: What were you doing when the accident happened?
B: I was shopping.
A: What did you do when you saw the accident?
B: I phoned the police.
After you have studied this lesson, you are supposed to answer the following
question:
1. At 8:00 am yesterday evening, I ----------------- a dinner
a. Had b. was having c. have had
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2. Matt phoned while I --------------------.
a. Was slept b. was sleeping c. slept
3. The television was on, but nobody ------------------.
a. Were watching b. watched c. was watching
4. I saw Jao last week, but he didn’t see me. He ------------------ the other way.
a. Looked b. was looking c. has looked
5. I didn’t see you at school yesterday at this time. What -----------------.
a. Were you been b. did you do c. were you doing
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Lesson (9)
Past perfect (Part One)
We use had + the third conjugation to form past perfect.
The past perfect tense is used to refer to action that took place and was
completed in the past before another action.
For Example:
I had played before I went to bed.
He / She had played.
a. Both past simple and past perfect tell stories. Past simple tells a story in
chronological order, but past perfect tells a story in a different order
See the difference between the following situations:
Sue met Peter at university. They were together for six years. They divorced
last month.
Sue and Peter divorced last month. They had met at university, and had
been together for six years.
The difference in the above-mentioned examples is clear.
So, in past perfect there is no chronological order when a narrative story is
taking place.
See the difference in the following examples:
When I got to the party, Peter went home.
When I got to the party, Peter had gone home.
In the first example, I arrived and then Peter left.
In the second example, Peter left then I arrived.
102
Lesson (10)
Past perfect (Part Two)
Compare the present perfect (I have seen) and past perfect (I had seen).
(Have seen) is past up to know while (had seen) is past up to past.
See the examples of (have seen):
Who is that man? I have never seen him before.
We are not hungry. We have just had lunch.
The house is dirty. They haven’t cleaned it for weeks.
All of the mentioned examples are past up to present.
See the examples of (had seen):
I didn’t know who she was. I had never seen her before. (Past up to past).
We weren’t hungry. We had just had lunch.
The house was dirty. They hadn’t cleaned it for weeks.
Now the difference is clear, and you can recognize it through the structure of
both situations.
After you have studied this lesson, you are supposed to answer the following
questions:
1. I felt tired when I got home, so I --------------- straight to bed.
a. Went b. had gone c. have gone
2. The house was very quiet when I got home. everybody ----------------
to bed
a. Went b. have gone c. had gone
3. Was Paul at the party when you arrived? No, he --------------------
home.
a. Went b. had gone c. have been
4. We went to Sue's house, but he wasn’t there. She -------------- out.
a. Went b. had gone c. have gone.
5. It was his first flight. He ------------------- before.
a. Has never flown b. has not flown c. had never flown.
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Lesson (11)
Future continuous
We use will + be + v + ing to form future continuous.
The future continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action in the future or
to refer to a continuing action that will be occurring in the future.
For Example:
This time next week I will be sun-bathing on the beach
He / She will be playing tomorrow at 4:00 pm .
a. We use future continuous to talk about actions that you will be in the
middle of doing it.
See the following examples:
This time next week, I will be lying on the beach.
Half an hour from now, the cinema will be full. Everyone will be
watching the movie.
b. Recognize the difference between will be (doing) and will (do).
Note the examples below:
Don’t phone between 5 to 7, I will be studying for the exam.
Let's wait for Chris to arrive and then we will have lunch.
c. We also use future continuous to express complete actions in the future.
Note the following examples:
The government will be making a statement about the crisis later
today.
Will you be going away this summer?
Our best player is injured, and won't be playing in the game on
Sunday.
Note that future continuous talks about actions that will be in progress
around a specific time in the future, but past continuous talks about the
same but in the past.
See the difference:
104
I was studying yesterday at 5 am.
tomorrow at 5 am, I will be studying.
After you have studied this lesson, you are supposed to answer the following
questions:
1. yesterday at 8 pm, I -------------------- the room.
a. Will be painting b. was painting c. painted
2. Don’t call me tomorrow at 8 am, I ---------------------- my breakfast.
a. Will have b. will be having c. will be had
3. Later in the program, I --------------------- to the minister.
a. Will be taking b. talk c. have talked
4. Can we meet tomorrow? Yes, but not in the afternoon I ------------------.
a. Will work b. am working c. will be working.
5. Will you be free at 5:30 tomorrow? No, I ---------------------- football.
a. Will play b. will be playing c. play
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Lesson (12)
Future Perfect (Part one)
we use will + have + third conjugation to form future perfect sentences.
The future perfect is used to refer to an action that will be completed sometime
in the future before another action takes place.
For Example:
I shall have played.
He / She will have played
a. The future perfect expresses an action that will be completed before a
definite time in the future.
See the following examples:
Most of the leaves will have fallen by the end of November.
Sally always leaves for work at 7:30 in the morning. She won't be at home
at 8 o'clock. She will have gone to work.
By the time he graduates, he will have completed five years of study.
The snow will have stopped by April.
We will have returned home by five o'clock.
The above-mentioned examples shows that future perfect is used to say that
something will already be complete before a time in the future.
.
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Lesson (13)
Future Perfect (Part Two)
b. The Future Perfect tense is use also to express an action that will be
completed before another action in the future.
Study the following examples:
By tomorrow, their life will have changed completely.
We are on vacation. So by the time we get back, we will have
rested and relaxed.
Her heel will have fully healed by the summer.
By next month, you will have received your promotion.
By the time he wakes up, we will have prepared lunch for everyone.
Recognize the difference among future perfect, present perfect, and past perfect.
Study the following examples:
Diana and Hady have been married for 20 years.
Next year, they will have been married for 21 years.
When their son was born, they had been married for three years.
In the first example, the action started in the past and continues to present
(past up to present). So, this is present perfect.
In the second example, the action will complete before a definite time in
the future. So, this is future perfect.
In the third sentence, the action happened before an action in the past (past
up to past). So, this is past perfect.
Remember: When we use this tense we are projecting ourselves forward
into the future and looking back at an action that will be completed
sometime later than now. It is most often used with a time expression.
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Lesson (14)
Future Perfect (Part Three)
a. A state that will continue to sometime in the future (Note: This is a border
usage of this tense . it is usually used with states, not actions).
Look at the examples below:
Next Monday we will have been married for ten years.
Tomorrow Justin will have been single for a whole week.
In September I will have lived here for eight years.
Luke will have been sick for two weeks tomorrow.
Next week you will have had this car for twenty five years!
Note that there are many expressions that are used in future perfect and
indicate the presence of it. They are as follows:
o By the end of this year.
o By the end of tomorrow.
o By the end of this week.
o By the end of this month.
o In two years time.
o In another five years / months / days / weeks.
o By this time tomorrow / week / month / year.
o In July next year.
After you have studied this lesson, you are supposed to do the following activity:
Write some suggested situations using future perfect.
1. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Lesson (15)
Practice
1. Write about an unforgettable experience happened with you. (At least 6
lines)
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2. Choose the correct answer and why:
1. My grandfather died 10 years before I was born, so I was not meeting him. I -
------------------ my father.
a. Meet not b. didn’t meet c. have not met d. was not meeting
Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
2. By next month, you ------------------- your promotion.
a. Will received b. will receive c. will have received d. have received
Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
3. John phoned while I --------------------.
a. Was play b. played c. was playing d. have played
Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
4. Dad asked me to make him breakfast. After half an hour l said, "I -----------
the breakfast".
a. Have just b. have already c. already finished d. finished
Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
5. I ------------------- Chris 3 days ago.
a. Meet b. was meeting c. met d. have met
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Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
6. Israeli bulldozers -------------------- over 70000 olive trees since 2000.
a. Uprooted b. have uprooted c. had uprooted d. have been uprooted
Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
7. Oh look! There is so much traffic. There -------------------- an accident.
a. Was b. had been c. has been d. is
Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
8. Joe doesn't live here. He will travel home after a specific time. He ----------
here for 3 years.
a. lived b. has lived c. has been living d. had lived
Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
9. When we got home last night, we found that somebody -------------------- into
our flat.
a. broke b. has broken d. had broken d. has been breaking
Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
10. Don't visit me at 10 pm. I --------------------.
a. will sleep b. will have slept c. will be sleeping d. have slept.
Why? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
110
Appendix (4)
Permission to Apply the Suggested Program
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Appendix (5)
Pictures
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