title: ASocietytoMatchtheScenery:PersonalVisionsoftheFutureoftheAmericanWest

author: Holthaus,GaryH.publisher: UniversityPressofColorado

isbn10|asin: 0870813005printisbn13: 9780870813009ebookisbn13: 9780585023823

language: English

subject West(U.S.)--Descriptionandtravel,West(U.S.)--Civilization--20thcentury.

publicationdate: 1991lcc: F595.3.S631991ebddc: 978/.033

subject: West(U.S.)--Descriptionandtravel,West(U.S.)--Civilization--20thcentury.

ASOCIETYTOMATCHTHESCENERYPersonalVisionsoftheFutureoftheAmericanWest

GaryHolthaus,PatriciaNelsonLimerick,CharlesF.Wilkinson,andEveStrykerMunson,

editors

AprojectoftheCenteroftheAmericanWest,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder

UNIVERSITYPRESSOFCOLORADO

Copyright©1991bytheUniversityPressofColoradoP.O.Box849Niwot,Colorado80544

Allrightreserved.

1098765432

TheUniversityPressofColoradoisacooperativepublishingenterprisesupported,inpart,byAdamsStateCollege,ColoradoStateUniversity,FortLewisCollege,MesaStateCollege,MetropolitanStateCollegeofDenver,UniversityofColorado,UniversityofNorthernColorado,UniversityofSouthernColorado,andWesternStateCollege.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

ASocietytomatchthescenery:personalvisionsofthefutureoftheAmericanWest/GaryHolthaus[et.al.].p.cm."AprojectoftheCenteroftheAmericanWest,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder."Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN0-87081-241-6;ISBN0-87081-300-5(pbk.)1.West(U.S.)Descriptionandtravel19812.West(U.S.)Civilization20thcentury.I.Holthaus,GaryH.,1932II.UniversityofColorado,Boulder.CenteroftheAmericanWest.F595.3.S631991

978'.033dc20 91-24957

CIP

ThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirementsoftheAmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciencesPermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials.ANSIZ39.481984

¥

ADVISORYBOARDMEMBERS

Co-Chairs

PatriciaNelsonLimerick,Professor,DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder

CharlesR.Wilkinson,MosesLaskyProfessorofLaw,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder

SusanClarke,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofPoliticalScience,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder

PeterDecker,President,DeckerandAssociates

RogerEcho-Hawk,PawneeTribalHistorian

CharlesForaman,Professor,DepartmentofFineArts,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder

EleanorGehres,Manager,WesternHistoryDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary

BillHornby,SeniorEditor,TheDenverPost

EdMarston,Publisher,HighCountryNews

CharlesMiddleton,Dean,CollegeofArtsandSciences,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder

DuaneSmith,Professor,DepartmentofHistory,FortLewisCollege,Durango,Colorado

BarbaraSudler,President,ColoradoHistoricalFoundation

WilliamWei,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder

Forfurtherinformationcontact,GaryH.Holthaus,DirectorUniversityofColorado

CampusBox401Boulder,CO80309(303)492-1876

Pagev

CONTENTSListofIllustrations ix

Preface xi

PARTONE:Introduction

SpeakingoftheWest 3

GaryHolthaus,PatriciaNelsonLimerick,andCharlesF.Wilkinson

ThoughtsofMyDesertHome 11

CordeliaCandelaria

SummerRaininAspen 12

CordeliaCandelaria

RoughPassageonI-80 13

EdwardDorn

PARTTWO:Mr.Jeffersonin1803

TheAmericanWest:APersonalDreamFromtheVantagePointofMonticelloin1803

21

ThomasJefferson/ClayStrausJenkinson

PARTTHREE:ThePeople

TheBowl 31

TerryTempestWilliams

ThePoetLetsHisTongueHangDown 34

EdwardDorn

PlainsongatCrowheartButte 37

PeterF.Michelson

MotelSuperbo 42

EdwardDorn

ProgressorDecline?JudgingtheHistoryofWesternExpansion

43

PatriciaNelsonLimerick

Pagevi

ASoftWindBlowingThroughtheAmericanWest 51

TerryTempestWilliams

HealthyEnvironment,HealthyEconomy:AmericanIndianLessons

61

WalterEcho-Hawk

Land,Community,andSurvival:LessonsfortheWestFromAmericanIndians

65

DavidH.Getches

TheAmericanWestFromtheEastandtheSouth 69

EvelynHu-Dehart

DrawingStrengthFromtheDiversityoftheWest 71

RaymondDeanJones

DevelopmentandCulturalSurvival 73

EstevanT.Flores

TheHumanElementintheWest:Contradictions,Contradictions,Contradictions

75

AdrianIlerminioBustamante

NewSettlersintheRuralWest 78

BetsyMarston

TheElusiveQualityoftheWest 81

CharlesR.Middleton

TheLastBestPlace:HowHardshipandLimitsBuildCommunity

83

DanielKemmis

PARTFOUR:TheLimits

WhenDidWeKnow 93

CordeliaCandelaria

TheHistoryofFutures 95

EdwardDorn

FreeMarketChinoiserie 97

EdwardDorn

Agriculture 98

WilliamKittredge

Pagevii

HowWillOurGrandchildrenJudgeUs? 114

BarbaraSudler

DefiningtheCarryingCapacityoftheWest 116

JoClark

RecognizingtheWestasanUrbanPlace 120

WilliamII.Hornby

TheDisposableWest 124

ThomasJ.Noel

MythsofViolenceinOwningItAll 126

DavídL.Carrasco

TheCollisionofWildernessandCulture 131

JamesA.Carrier

ExceedingtheCarryingCapacityoftheWest:AnArtist'sPerspective

135

RichardMisrach

ThePressintheWest:Co-optedIntoaCelebrationofTechnology

153

MarkTrahant

PARTFIVE:TheFuture

Kokopelli'sReturn 159

TerryTempestWilliams

SomethingStartingOver 161

ThomasHornsbyFerril

PublicUseandtheFutureoftheFederalLands 163

BruceBabbitt

Eco-PoliticsandEconomicDevelopment:Wealth,Hope,andChoice

171

PhilipM.Burgess

TheAmericanWest:WhatIdeasShouldDetermineItsFuture? 180

EdwinH.Marston

RegionalismandtheWesternUniversity 190

JamesN.Corbridge,Jr.

FreedomComesFromPeople,NotPlace 194

CamilleGuerin-Gonzalez

Pageviii

TheLands,NaturalResources,andEconomyoftheWest 196

SallyK.Fairfax

AnEthicofPlace:TheIssueattheHeartofAllElse 206

JohnE.Echohawk

PARTSIX:CreatingaGeographyofHope

CentenarySequencefortheDreamers(selectedpassages) 211

PeterF.Michelson

AGeographyofHope 218

WallaceStegner

HomeontheRange 230

CordeliaCandelaria

PARTSEVEN:Mr.Jeffersonin1990

TheAmericanWest:TheDreamFromtheVantagePointofColoradoin1990

235

ThomasJefferson/ClayStrausJenkinson

Contributors 247

Notes 251

Bibliography 255

Index 257

Pageix

LISTOFILLUSTRATIONSDownedSaguaro,Arizona,1983 137

CampersandRestrainingFence,EdwardsAirForceBase,California,1983

139

FloodedMarina(gaspumps),SaltonSea,California,1983 141

DesertFire#17,1983 143

SnowCanyonStatePark,Utah,1987 145

UnexplodedBomb,Bravo20BombingRange,Nevada,1986 147

BoardwalkoftheBombs,illustrationbyRicoSolinas 149

DeadAnimals#86,Nevada,1986 151

Pagexi

PREFACEThisbookisthefirstpublicationoftheCenteroftheAmericanWest,establishedinJanuary1990bytheUniversityofColoradoasaprojectoftheCollegeofArtsandSciences.ThestudyoftheAmericanWestisafascinatingfieldblessedwitharichhistory,avigorousbodyofliterature,andextraordinarilydiversehumanandnaturalresources.Theworkingpremisesofthecenterincludetheideasthateventsintheregionarebestunderstoodasbeingacontinuumofpast,present,andfuture,andthatunderstandingisbestachievedbymeshingobjectivedata,theperspectivesofferedbytheartsandsciences,androbustpolicyanalysisanddebate.Theessayspresentedinthisvolumegrewoutofpresentationsmadeattwomajorsymposiainwhichweattemptedtoapplytheideasjustsummarized.Thesymposia"ASocietytoMatchtheScenery:ShapingtheFutureoftheAmericanWest"(October1988)and"InhabitingtheLastBestPlace:Limits,Opportunities,andtheFutureoftheAmericanWest"(March1990)werebothwellreceived,withatotalofnearlyfifteenhundredpeopleinattendance.Asthetableofcontentstothisvolumeamplydemonstrates,theparticipantsincludedmanyofthemostknowledgeableandcreativemindsintheregion.

Wehavemanythankstooffertothosepeoplewhohelpedbringthisprojecttofruition.Firstandforemost,wewishtoextendourappreciationtoEveMunson.Eveservedastheeditorforthisvolumeandcarriedtheprimaryresponsibilitybothforthegeneralorganizationandforeditingthemanuscripts.Wealsoextendourgratitudetoourauthors,whoundertookthetaskofrewritingtheirsymposiaspeechesintotheseprintedessaysandwhorespondedtoourvariousrequestswithspeedandgoodspirits.AnnFitzSimmons,DodieUdall,andMarieWilwerdingallperformedvaluablestaffwork

onthisbookandonthesymposia.

TheUniversityofColoradoatBoulderhasbeenexceedinglysupportive,bothwiththeCenteroftheAmericanWestingeneralandwiththisbookinparticular.JamesN.Corbridge,chancellor,CharlesR.Middleton,deanoftheCollegeofArtsandSciences,andBruceEkstrand,vicechancellorforacademicaffairs,havebeenmostgenerouswiththeirtime,suggestions,andfinancialcontributions.Thesymposia,andthisvolume,wouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouttwosubstantialgrantsfromtheColoradoEndowmentfortheHumanities.WealsoappreciatethefineworkingrelationshipthatwehavehadwiththeUniversityPressofColoradoanditsdirector,LutherWilson.Last,we

Pagexii

wouldliketoextendourheartfeltthankstoRichardHartandAlvinJosephy.Theyweretheheartandsoulofthewonderfulconferencessponsoredeverysummerfromthemid-1970sthroughthemid-1980sinSunValley,Idaho,bytheInstituteoftheAmericanWest.ThosedynamicinterdisciplinarygatheringsweretheinspirationfortheCenteroftheAmericanWestandforthecollectionofpersonalvisionspresentedhere.

GARYHOLTHAUS,DIRECTORCENTEROFTHEAMERICANWEST

PATRICIANELSONLIMERICK,BOARDCO-CHAIRCENTEROFTHEAMERICANWESTASSOCIATEPROFESSOROFHISTORY

CHARLESF.WILKINSON,BOARDCO-CHAIRCENTEROFTHEAMERICANWESTMOSESLASKYPROFESSOROFLAW

PARTONEIntroduction

Page3

SPEAKINGOFTHEWESTGaryHolthaus,PatriciaNelsonLimerick,CharlesF.WilkinsonBoulder,ColoradoFebruary1991

In1929atagethirty-six,JosephWoodKrutchpublishedhisdespairingbook,TheModernTemper.AlthoughhewouldlatermovetoArizona,wherethedesertwouldleadhimtoanewkindofhope,Krutchin1929feltsurethathumanityhadlandeditselfinabigmess.Scienceandrationalityhaderodedfaithinthemodernworld;thoughtfulpeoplehadtolearntolivewithakindofemotionalmalnutrition,gettingbyonskepticismandalienation.

Onalecturetourtopublicizehisgloomybook,KrutchwenttoDetroit,wherehewasmetbythepresidentofawomen'sclub.''Sheapproachedme,"Krutchremembered,"onlyaftereveryotherdescendingpassengerhadlefttheplatform.'AreyouMr.Krutch?''Iam.'Herfacefell.'Butyoudonotlookas,asdepressedasIexpected.'"1

HadshebeenabletoattendtheCenteroftheAmericanWest'ssymposiaattheUniversityofColoradointhe1980s,thepresidentoftheDetroitwomen'sclubwouldhavehadasimilarresponse.InOctoberof1988,atthesymposium"ASocietytoMatchtheScenery:ShapingtheFutureoftheAmericanWest,"andinMarchof1990,atthesymposium"InhabitingtheLastBestPlace:Limits,Opportunities,andtheFutureoftheAmericanWest,"speakerssquarelyconfrontedtheproblemsoftheAmericanWest.Andyetthespiritoftheexchangewasbynomeansoneofdespairanddepression.FortheWesternersassembledinBoulderonthosetwooccasions,theexplorationofcommongroundandcommonconcernsprovidedconsiderable

pleasure.Whiletheideasandconvictionsexpressedatthemicrophone,andnowprintedhere,werefrequentlystimulating,theenergyoftheconversationstakingplaceallaroundthehallwasequallyimpressive.Inbreaksbetweensessions,asparticipantsclusteredforanimateddiscussions,thoseexchangesdemonstratedtheremarkableprocessunderwayinthelatetwentieth-centuryWest:quiteliterally,thereexplorationoftheregionandthereconsiderationofthehabitsandcustomsofWesterners.This

Page4

is,inthebestsense,amatterofsecondthoughts,areconsiderationofwhathumans,inthelastfourcenturies,havedonetothisplaceandtoeachother,andaweighingofchoicesforthecenturiesahead.

TheWest,manyofthespeakersagreed,hasatroublingrecordinresourceuse.Toooften,Westernershaveapproachedtheirremarkableregionwith,asPhilipBurgessputit,anattitudeof"rape,scrape,andrun."Actinginhaste,Westernershaveusedresourcesrecklesslyandapportionedthemunfairly,andthat,despitetheshiftinattitudeembodiedintheconservationmovement,isapatternoffollythatpersistsintoourtimes.

Wecannot,moreover,reversethatpatternwithasuddenandsimplechangeofourintentionsandgoals.Choosingtopreservearesourcebynomeansleadstoaclearpathofaction.JimCarriermakesthispointinhisdiscussionofthefiresatYellowstone.Effortstopreservesceneryandwildlifeoftencollidewiththeneedsofpeopletryingtomakealiving.

Humanrelationswithnatureare,afterall,onlyhalfoftheriddleofWesternAmericanlife;theother,necessaryhalfoftheriddleconcernsrelationsamonghumans.Astheparticipantsofthesesymposiapointedoutrepeatedly,oneoftheWest'smostvaluableresourcesisitspeople,withtheirwonderfuldiversity.Byonehabitofthoughtwithadeephistoricalrootsystem,thatdiversityisseenasaproblemwhichindeeditsometimeshasbeen.ButakeypartofthereexplorationoftheAmericanWestistherepicturingofthatdiversityasanopportunity,achancetomakeeverydaylifeanintellectualadventure,anoccasionforthemostdown-to-earthanddirecteducation.

Whilefallingshortofunanimity,thespeakersconvergedonashareddefinitionoftheWest:Itisaplacedistinctiveforitsaridity,itsopenspaces,itsrichnaturalresources,anditsinstructivemixofcultures,humanskills,andperspectives.Thisregiondoesnotgooutofitsway

tomakethedefiner'sjobeasy.ThenorthernpartsofthePacificCoasthave,attimes,abundantrainfall;citiesareassignificantapartoftheWesternlandscapeaswide,openruralspaces;naturalresourcesare,tosaytheleast,randomintheirdistribution;and,despitethehistoricalfactofhumandiversityandcomplexity,itisperfectlypossibletofindpocketsandenclavesofWesternerslivingsolelywith"theirownkind,"indifferenttothefateofthe"others"withwhomtheysharethisregion.Still,manyplacesandpartsoftheWestshareenoughinthewayofcommoncharacteristicstomakeregionalthinkingpossibleandproductive,evennecessary.

Inthiscollection,SallyFairfaxisaloneindiscountingthedistinctivenessoftheregion,arguingthatallpartsofthecountryhave

Page5

beautifulsceneryofwhichtheinhabitantsareproud.ButintheWest,acombinationofaridityandremotenesshasforcedhumanstoleavegreaterchunksofthesceneryalone;suburbsandcitiescanindeedseemdwarfedbyalandscapewherethehumanimprint,whilesubstantialandsignificant,stillremainssubtle.Thescenerymaynotbe"better"intheWest(dependinguponone'spenchantforgreenvistas,manicuredlandscapes,oroceanviews),butitismoreinsistent.

Despiteabundantopportunitiesforvisualpleasure,theWest,asmostofthesymposiaparticipantsagree,isaregionofsternlimits.Vastexpansesofitremainwithouthumanhabitation.Thislandscape,harshandaridasitis,iswhatmanylovemostdearlyabouttheWest.AsJimCarrierputit,"IstillfeelanexhilarationwhenIgetintothejeepanddriveoutofDenverintothelandscapethat,forme,continuestoholdthemagicandmeaningoftheWest."

Magicnotwithstanding,thislandscapehasgivencertainAmericanambitionsandhabitsaroughride.Reachingthehundredthmeridian,thelinewhererainfalldropsbelowtwentyinchesperyear,thehomesteadidealcollidedwithreality.AsBruceBabbittpointsout,theresultswereofbroadnationalsignificanceasWesternhomesteaders"expectedtoplowthesoilintoacheckerboardextensionoftheMiddleWest.Butforthemostpartitwouldnothappen."Fromthisfailurecame"twoopposingconceptsoflandtenure."Thefirstheldthatpubliclandwastobegivenawayorsoldtopromotedevelopment.Thesecond,Babbittargues,was"anewconcept,thatpubliclandsshouldberetainedinpermanentownershipandmanagedforpublicpurposes."

Theparticipantsinthesesymposiaare,however,farfromagreementonthepropositionthatpublicownershipoflandhasservedapublicgood.Babbittisnotthefirsttopointoutthatineptandevencorruptmanagementhassometimesreduced"thepublicgood"toaveil

concealingflawedpractices.Still,heargues,ifwetake"thenextstepintheevolutionofpublicland-usepolicy,"replacingtheconceptofmultiple-usemanagementwithoneof"dominantpublicuse,"wecanhavecarefulmanagementoflimitedresources.DanielKemmis,however,makesacounterargument:becausesomuchofWesternlandiscontrolledbyWashington,D.C.,weintheWesthaveshruggedoffresponsibilityforit.''TheWestwillnotbereadyforitsownpolitics,"heasserts,"untilitisreadytoclaimitsownland."ButKemmis'spropositiondoesnotquietthefearsofthosewhoseealong-termassociationof"localdecisionmaking"withthepracticeofshort-termextraction.

Theissueofresourcelimitsandpublicpolicydominatesthesymposiadiscussions,asitdoespublicexchangethroughouttheWest.AdrianBustamanteusesthecontroversyoverthefederalgovernment'sWaste

Page6

IsolationPilotProject(WIPP)inNewMexicoasanexampleofthehardchoicestheWestfacesandthebittersocialdivisionsforcedonusbylimits.InNewMexico,henotes,peopleinSantaFeandAlbuquerquehavevoicedstrongoppositiontotheplantostorelow-levelnuclearwasteinthesouthernpartofthestate.Trucksloadedwithdeadlycargoeswilltravelthroughdenselypopulatedurbanareas,andthisprospectunderstandablyalarmscitydwellers.Ontheotherhand,"peopleinCarlsbadwantitbecausethepotashminesgaveoutandnowtheyneedjobs."Withitsappearanceofhavingunused"waste"spaces,theAmericanWestwillalwaysbetheleadingcandidateforwastedisposal;theconflictswirlingaroundWIPPandothernuclear-wastesiteswillremainapartofthepoliticalandsociallandscapefordecadestocome.

EdMarston,inhisdiscussionoflifeinasmalltownonColorado'sWesternSlope,makesacomparablepointonthedifficultyofreconcilingtheneedforjobswiththeneedforasafeenvironment.Residentsofhishometown,Paonia,andtownslikeit,donotdaretolooktoohardattheenvironmentaleffectsofmining,becauseamineoffersthemostlucrativejobsintheregion.Withoutmining,alotofworkerswouldconfronthardtimesindeed,timeshardenoughtoprovokeamoveelsewhere.Similarly,WesternSloperesidentsareambivalentabouteffortstoimproveeducationintheregion;giventheeducationalopportunities,abettereducationfortheirchildrentoooftenleadstothechildrenmovingawayinordertoputthateducationtouse.

JoClarkgivesseveralpoignantexamplesofhardpoliticalchoicesforcedbythelimitsintheWest.Forexample,shespeaksabouttheanguishofGeorgeSinner,whoasgovernorofNorthDakotawasaskedtosignacertificateofneedforahomefortheelderlyfortheTurtleMountainChippewa,agroupthatdoesnotpaystatetaxes.Therequestarrivedonthegovernor'sdeskrightafterstateresidents,

beleagueredbyaneconomicdepressioncausedbyanationalbustinenergyandagriculture(thetwobiggestsourcesofrevenueinthestate),hadvotedtorollbackstatetaxes.AsClarktellsit,Sinnerremarked,"Ican'tapproveanewobligationwhenI'mhavingtocutsomanyprograms,buthowcanIdenyapopulationwhichIknowisprobablytheneediestinthestate?"Ineconomicallydepressedareas,Clarkargues,doingtherightthingapproachesimpossibility.

ThomasNoelplacesthisideaoflimitsintothecontextofanationalconsumerculturebasedonwastefulnesswhathecallsthedisposablesociety.HesuggeststhatthisisparticularlyinappropriateintheWestandmakesaspecificpleaforhistoricpreservationas"partofalarger

Page7

ethic,anideaofpreserving,ofsaving,offixingthingsupratherthanhavingdisposablecities,disposableofficebuildings,disposableshoppingcenters,andadisposablepast."Regrettableinenvironmentalterms,wasteisonecomponentofsocialinjustice.CallingAmericanIndians"thepoorestofthepoor,livingintherichestcountryontheplanet,"WalterEcho-Hawkputsthespotlightonthewaysinwhichsocialinjusticeandenvironmentalinjusticerunonparalleltracks.

Aconfrontationwithlimitsisnot,however,necessarilyaconfrontationwithgloom.DanielKemmis,quotingWendellBerry,suggeststhattheWest's"hardshipisitspossibility.""Hardcountry,"Kemmisargues,"breedscapablepeoplecapable,amongotherthings,ofgenuinedemocracy."Itishere,Kemmissays,that"theWesthasthecapacitytocontributesomethingdeepandimportantandlastingtothehistoryofpoliticsandcivilization.Simplybecausewehaveforsomanygenerationsworkedontheprojectoflivingtogetherinhardcountry,wehave,althoughwedon'trecognizeit,developedamongourselvescertainpatternsofbehavior,whichamounttosharedvalues."

HardyfolklivinginhardcountrytheimagecertainlydoescharacterizesomepartsoftheWest,butitsapplicationtoDenverorAlbuquerqueismorequestionable.AsBillHornby,thesonofaU.S.ForestServicesuperintendent,pointsout,inspiteofourenchantmentwiththebeautyoftheoutdoors,mostofusintheWestliveincities.Hepointstohimselfasanexample.HegrewupinMontana,wenttoStanford,andspenttimeinWyomingandNewMexicobeforesettlinginDenver.Eventhoughhespent"sometimeinthewoods,"learnedtofish,andhas"beenoutinawheatfield,"hehasspentmostofhislifeintownsandcities.Andyet,hesays,thecity"istheplacemostWesternhistoriansdon'twanttothinkabout."Preoccupiedwiththemountains,theresources,thewater,"wereallycan'tworkinthecitieswhenwe're

talkingabouttheWest."IfmostofthepeopleintheWestliveincities,thentokeeptheWestliveable,wehavetoseethatcitiesareliveable.TheurbanWestandtheruralWestmayseemtobeseparateplaces,buttheirdestiniesaretightlyinterwoven.

"Wehavebeenunwillingtoimaginethepossibilityofagoodcity,"Kemmisargues,andtherefore"webelievedwestillbelievethatwecansomehowescapeourselvesbyslippingintothemountains,avoidingthehardtaskoffacinguptoourselvesincities."UsingtheClassicMayacultureasanexample,DavidCarrascoechoesthispoint,arguingthatifasocietyfailstorecognizeanddealwiththeproblemsofcities,theentirelandscapeandculturecancollapse.Ashesays,"citiesarethegreatestforcesofecologicaltransformation...thestylecentersofthe

Page8

world,controllinglifeinthecountryside....EventhoughpeopleintheWestthinktheyliveinruralAmerica,ontheedgeofthewilderness...theyactuallyliveinaworlddeterminedmoreandmorebycities."

ReckonwiththesignificanceofWesterncitiesandyoureckonaswellwithwhatmaybethemostimportantresourceintheWestitsmanypeopleanditsminglingofmanycultures.Thisisnoeasyreckoning,tobesure.ManyofthesymposiaparticipantswriteaboutthehistoricalinjuriesandinjusticesthatcomeinapackagewiththeWest'sculturaldiversity.WalterEcho-Hawksumsupalong,painfullegacywhenhenotes:"Historically,asweallknow,thewhitemanhastakenthingsthatbelongedtotheIndianinaone-waypatternthatmustnowbereversed,iffornootherreasonthanthattheIndiannolongerhasmuchlefttogive."

WithanunflinchinglookatinjusticeintheWesternpast,CamilleGuerin-GonzalezwritesofaWest"wherelargegroupsofpeoplehavebeenandcontinuetobedisenfranchisedonthebasisoftheirrace,theirgender,andtheirlanguage."Anoveremphasisontheappealandmystiqueofnature,shefeels,canprovideindirectsupporttothatinjustice,leavinghumansdwarfedbythepowerofthelandscape.SheagreeswithKemmisthat

theworldspiritisaliveinWesternvalleys,butitisaliveinpeople,andnotaplace;inthewhitesettlers,women,men,children,whocreatedalifeforthemselveswithhardwork;inMexicanomigrantfarm-workersinthebeetfieldsofColorado;inHispanoandEasternEuropeanminers;inCentralAmericansintheLosAngelesgarmentdistrict;inIndianpeoplesthroughouttheirland,strugglingtosurviveEuropeanconceptsofdemocracyandfreedom;inSoutheastAsianimmigrantsandinAfrican-SpanishandAfrican-Americansettlers.Ifhardshipispossibility,thenitisinthesepeopleandtheircontinuinghardship,asHerbertMarcusearguedthirtyyearsago,wherethosepowerfulconceptsoffreedomand

democracymightfinallyberealized.

Eventoday,asJudgeRaymondJonespointsout,manywhohavesettledintheWest"speakofitasfrontier,asthoughitwereempty,asthoughitwerenoone'shome."IfwearetobeseriousabouttheWest,heargues,"Oneofthefactorsthatmustbeconsideredistheextenttowhichwewillincludeallofthepeople."Withdeepaffectionforbothplaceandpeople,Jonesrecountsthehistoryofhisfamilyintheregion."Blacks,"heinsists,"haveaplaceinthisplace."TheveryfactthatheneedstomakethisassertionisapoignantreminderthatAfrican-

Page9

AmericanpeoplehavebeenmuchoverlookedinpopularthinkingabouttheWest.

ThepeopleoftheWestareanenormousresource,apointmanysymposiaspeakersmake.InspiteofongoinglegaltensionsbetweenwhitesandIndiansoverland,water,andfishingrights,observesDavidGetches,"MostWesternerswouldconsideritatragedyifIndianswereswirledintothemeltingpotofAmericansociety";theirdisappearanceintotheAmericanmainstreamwouldrobusallof"thelessonsdrawnfromtheirsuccessfulsurvivalinthisrugged,butfragile,mostlydryplace."AfterlistingdozensofgroupsthatcalltheWesthome,TerryTempestWilliamswrites,"IfthereisamiracleintheWest,itisinthefabricthesesubculturescreate."

ThehumandiversityoftheWestremains,however,aconversationwaitingtohappen.Wehave,heavenknows,enoughtotalkabout;whateverourethnicbackgrounds,weshareasetofenvironmentaldilemmas,economicfrustrations,andsocialtensions.Justasimportant,wehaveatreasuretroveofcompellingstoriestotelleachother,poolingthepiecesandpartsofapowerfulregionalhistory.Wehave,aswell,asharedfuturetoenvisionafutureinwhichbothcollaborationandconflictarelikelyprospects,dependingonthechoiceswemaketogether.

TheparticipantsinthesymposiaofferalotofquestionsthatWesternersneedtodiscussfrankly,directly,andopenly.Howdowelivewiththephysicallimitsoftheland?Whatkindofstewardsofthelandwillwebe?IlowdowedealwiththenuclearwastethatheadsWestasifdrawnbyamagnet?HowcanweliveinharmonywiththelandinawaythatwillallowruralWesternerstosurviveeconomically?lowdowepreservethecharacterofcommunitiesastheyvieforbadlyneeded"developmentbucks"?How,inthefaceofmovementslikethecallforEnglishastheofficiallanguage,dowe

makeapersuasivecaseforthepositivevalueoftheregion'sethnicdiversity?Whatmistakes,intheveryusefulquestionBarbaraSudlerraises,arewemakingthatourgrandchildrenwilljudgeusfor,inthesamewaythatwearejudgingourgrandparents?Canwe,inthelatetwentiethcentury,becomegenuinesettlers,andnotunsettlers,ofthisregion?

MarkTrahantsaysweneedtolearntoaskevenharderquestions.liespeaksasajournalistconcernedthattoomanyofhisprofessionalcolleagueshavebeenco-optedintocelebrating,ratherthancarefullyexamining,whatwecallprogress.Hesuggeststhatwedistanceourselvesfromtheprocesssothatwecancastanappropriatelycriticaleyeuponit.BabbittandHornbysuggestthatweneednewlawsinordertomakepublicservantsmoreaccountableandtomoveourselvesawayfromtheunworkablenotionof"firstcome,firstserved."

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EdMarstoncallsuponuniversitiesintheregiontodevelopexpertiseinregionalissues,givingWesternersaplacetoturnforhelpingatheringandinterpretingdataontheregion'sproblems.UniversityofColoradoChancellorJamesCorbridgejoinsMarstoninthishope:"OurWesternsocietycallsoutforacelebrationofitsdistinctivecontributiontoAmericanculture.Byresponding,theWesternuniversitywillnot,assomefear,diminishitself.Rather,theuniversitycommunitywillseizethemostpromisingchanceofreachingitsfullpotential."

Inavarietyofprojects,theCenteroftheAmericanWestaimstoplayitspartinthereexplorationoftheAmericanWest,underwayattheendofthesecondmillenniumandthebeginningofthethird.ThetoneandspiritofthatreexplorationareprobablybestcapturedintheessaysherebyWilliamKittredgeandWallaceStegner:aclear-eyedassessmentoftheachievements,losses,gains,errors,benefits,andinjuriesoftheWesternpast,andanequallyclear-eyedassessmentoftheprospectsforthefuture.Composedbymasterwriters,thosetwoessaysmakeitclearthattheWestisstillaplaceofpoetryanddrama,akindofpoetryanddramaagreatdealricherthanthetinnystoriesofthestereotyped"OldWest."TheoldstyleofWesternadventurethepursuitofshort-termprofitsinextractiveindustrieshasrunitscourse.Inthemostcrucialpassageinthisentirecollection,WallaceStegnerinvitesWesternerstotaketheopportunitypresentedbythismomentinhistory:theopportunityto"dreamotherdreams,andbetter."

AsStegner'sinvitationremindsus,Westernershavenotrunoutofopportunitiesforcourageandheroism.If,likeJosephWoodKrutch,theparticipantsatthesymposiainBoulderdidnotseemas"depressed"asonemighthaveexpected,thenthissurelyisthereason.ClosingthedoorononevarietyofWesternenterprise,areckoningwiththeregion'slimitsopensthedoortoanew,andbetter,Westernadventure.

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THOUGHTSOFMYDESERTHOMEforyou

IwouldwalkbesideyouonwarmNewMexicodirtsometimesredpackedclaysometimessilkwavesofsand

wherenomossorwillowsbrazenaboutinmoistexcess.

Justwetwoinsunwheredesert'sdryandclearbutfertile.

Overwindshapedmonumentsofstoneacloudmightexplodeandsurpriseustohangfreeininfinitiesofblue.

Noshockinsagebrushinsistent,deeprootedandlingeringlikethelovelywalkremembered.

CordeliaCandelaria

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SUMMERRAININASPENUnexpectedthisdrysummeritsoundslikethedismalroarofanidlingengine

justanotherversionoftherushoftheRoaringForkcuttingthroughtheurgentRockies.

AndjustasthatshowerofmeltedsnowdrownsitselfinwhitewatertherainattacksitsownpuddlesindinningtorrentsthisdustyAugust.

Andjustasyoustarttolisteninsurprise

therainslowstoastunningsilence

Welcomewetnessgreeningthedrought.

CordeliaCandelaria

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ROUGHPASSAGEONI-80Wearetravellingthroughthecountry

where"ThankyouOhLordforthedealI'mabouttoreceive"ischiselledintotheblacktoplikeacrow'sincantation.

It'sminus3degreesontheCountFahrenheitscale.ItwouldbeBoraxocountryexceptthereain'tnoBoraxo.Andnomuleteams.Herethemulesdrive.Thoserollinghillsouttherearefullofcoalandoelandmolyalotamoly,that'slybdenumthekindofdenumthecowboysaroundherewear.Aroundhereeverybody'sacowboywithnocowsandeverycowiswithoutboys.TheboyshaveallgonetoRockSpringstodrillandtogetshot.

LowtrailershunkeredintheWinde,thebigsnau-blower.Scraprock,likedeinosaurfinsstrungalongthesaurianfreeway.Ah,toendeavortogainwhatanotherendeavorstogainatthesametimecompetition!eightbarrelled,sharpclawed!

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Thegraftislongbedstyle,ShottheSherifffurshure,plussomeshottheD.A.types,they'reallhere.TractorhatStranglers,Drive-upDrinkers,MobileSnorters,PassontheRightSidersmegarednek,andforgoodreasonthey'velynchedalltheLavenderNeks.MoredangerousthanBeirut.Theydon'ttakehostages,theydon'ttakeanythingalive.

Whiterocklaces,Four-Wheelers,BigDealers,SlimJimPeelers,TeasedHairSquealers!Yaalloo!bellertheYahoos,it'swheretheymakethespringsrocktheydon'tcallitRockSpringsfornothin'.

RADIO:WhiteChristmasscrap,DerBinglebaritoneinmotheatennight-cap.Weseethroughthelandscape:blackrubbermaidcrowssailpastaturquoisetrailer,coldaluminumhunchedunderthegunsofthewinde.InsidethesleepingresidentturnsonacouchofBudweisercanslipsfrozenturquoise,wrenched,limbsonthepiketogangrene.

RADIOMUSAK:GordonLightleg!dulcimerland,vestsonpennywhistles,Folkak,Blusak,RucksakRock.

OntoRollinsandRiggins.

Steelmosquitoesprobeanoelpoule.Deinosaurblood,blackandcrude,theawful,deviousoleo-olfactorydeathodour,atomicweight32,lowandvolatile,drivenbythepistonsofhell,thetransfusionoftheredroadmap,wherethosestumpingbagsoftheautoperiodwereoncegiventoroam.Outthewindow

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theProntosaurisOilCompanysitsnexttotheHorny-toedBootFactory,OverthrustBeltgettinglooserandloosernowafterthegasthese''BigBoyswithpopcornteeth"suckedoutofthemantle.

Ontheasphaltcinch,rollingalong,kidneybeltstightened,theKenworthTractorsaurusstampedeintoWamsutter,Lusk,Dittleboneandothersuchturquoise-eye-shadowtowns.

TheWamsutterHotelistotallyelectric.Gas,permanentvacancy,Conoco,Amoco,nowheretogo.ThatBigTraileroverthereiswheretheMayorlives,polelightonallnight,prowlingdogs,cringeandslobberforanankletocrushnotthefriendofEveryman.Allthiswouldbeonahillbutthereain'tnone.

GayJohnsoninstallationsonbothsidesoftheStrip.TheHowardJohnsonoftheHighWest.AwomanbuiltlikeastackoftiresfillsuphercoupéSIGN"GayJohnsons,BusesInvited,Tobacco."Onsecondthought,HowardJohnsondoesn'tdeservetobetheGayJohnsonofWyoming.

Roadkillscatteredlikethrowrugsonblacktop.Allthegroundrunnersareeithersmart(locatedelsewhere)

ordeadatthewheelsoftheheavyhitters.

Speedyschoolsofpickuptrucksscatteraheadofhunterpacksoftractorsaurus,Terribledactylbirds,ghostsofoldclavichordplayersswoopwithheavygrecianwingstosnatchupflatrabbitfleeces

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fromthealtarofthetar,Wyomingcrêpesdredgedinpeagravelcrude.

RADIO:GovernorofWyomingSafetyBulletin:Recommendsstrappingskisbottomuponroof-rackincaseofflip-over.WomanheldintracthousebyunidentifiedGilletteKrakDealeracrosstownsixonlookerskilledwhenpolicecheckoutfalsereportandmanrainsleadontheunpavedavenue.

StateTrooperaheadbetweenthestrips,coffeethermosinofficer'sfist.HispoliceshielddoublesasRedBadgeofCourage.Snowfences,likearthritictwigsofprotozoavanishintothevaleofsnowtheworldisgettingcolderasthetransmittedpropagandasaysitisgettingwarmer.

TRANSMISSIONFROMGILLETTE:TheRazorCity.Seriousroadkillthistimethey'rediggingwithbackhoesandthrowingthevictimsin.Gillette:peoplehavebeenknowntogotherejusttohavetheirthroatscutAD:"Trucker'sMistress,"atruckstopitemhookedtocigarettelighterwithconcertinawirestretchingtovitalsforover-the-roadMechanicalHeadavailableintruckstopgiltshopswithChainWalletsandTurquoiseBuckles"Arealherpiesaver."

Laramieexitsflashbylikemarkedcards.UniversityofWyo.Whatdotheyteachemthere?Nothin'workswithranchin'anyhaythesedays.

Theretheygo,canterin'tothesubcafeteriainsearchofteflonheffers.Say!WhatdoyoudowhenaWyomingCowboythrowsyouapin?RunlikeHell!becausethegrenadeinhismouthisabouttogooff!

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Willie'sonagain...allthetruckertopsandlesserheavyhitterssingingalongunderparts-shop,feedstorewebhats,thehouseflieswashedoutinthestrenuousamphetewake."OntheRodeAgain..."ThreeHundredpoundChoirBoyswitheyeslikestrawberry-coconutdonuts.

CrawlingtoLittleAmericainCheyenne.Twenty-sixdegreesbelowCountFahrenheit.ThetransmissionfromGillettefallensilent.Cutoffbytheauthoritiesnodoubt.Somebodyaskshowinterestingcanatownaffordtobe?Thesoft,reasonabletalkofDenversupplantstheairwaves,thejitterycompromiseofthecitycrowdsoutthespontaneousstix.

AyellowivoryballofpollutionhangsaboveCheyenne'sfibreglassair.TheSantaClaus-brightGettysaurusReksRefineryisstrewnalongourapproach,blowingnotsosymbolicmushrooms,MXMissileBurgers,thebiggestmeatinStripTown.

Martyrsareadimeadozenaroundhere.Thebestoneshavebeendeadalongtime.

EdwardDorn

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PARTTWOMr.Jeffersonin1803

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THEAMERICANWEST:APERSONALDREAMFROMTHEVANTAGEPOINTOFMONTICELLOIN1803ClayStrausJenkinson

CitizensoftheTerritoryofLouisiana:ItiswithpleasureandsometrepidationthatIappearbeforeyouthismorning.Trepidation,becauseinmyownlifetimeInevercameWest,althoughIwastheforemostarchitectofourwestwardvisionandthepurchaserin1803oftheTerritoryofLouisiana.Iwasneverablesufficientlytodisengagemyselffromthedisagreeableburdensofpoliticstoexplorethisvastterritorymyself.AlthoughIdreamedofcomingheretoconductaninventoryofacontinentonbehalfoftheEnlightenment,IspentmywholelifehuddledontheEasternseaboardandwaslimitedtoavicariousenjoymentoftheachievementsofmyyoungfriendMr.Lewis.Hisgreatachievementis,Ithink,incapableofhyperbole.Hissuicidein1809wasalosstoscience,tohisfamilyandfriends,andinparticulartome.

IalsocomewithtrepidationbecauseIamunusedtopublicspeaking.IamnotanoratorlikethatevilgenieofAmericanpoliticallife,Mr.Hamilton,orPatrickHenry,whoIsaidspokeasHomermusthavewritten.InmyownlifetimeIgavevirtuallynopublicaddresses.WhenIreluctantlypermittedmyfriendstoforwardmycandidacyforthepresidencyintheyear1800,Imadenospeeches,Isubmittedtonointerviewswiththepress,Ipublishednothing,andofcoursetherewasnophysicallikenessofmeavailabletotheAmericanvoters.Intheyear1880theAmericancitizensvotedfortheirpresidentonthebasisof

ThomasJeffersonwasportrayedduringthesymposium"Inhabitingthe

LastBestPlace"byClayJenkinson.JenkinsonhasgivenhisscholarlyInterpretationsofJeffersontomembersofCongressandfourteenstatelegislatures,tojudicialconferences,toacademicaudiences,includinglawschools,andathundredsofcommunityauditoriumsinaboutfortystates.Jenkinsonspeaksspontaneously,withoutscriptornotes.ThequotationsfromJeffersonaresometimes,therefore,approximate.

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politicalprinciple.Accordingly,Iwasablenarrowlytodefeatmygoodfriendandpredecessor,JohnAdams.Iwasthereforecalledupontomakeaninauguraladdress.Iprepareditcarefully.OnthemorningofMarch4,1801,virtuallyalone,andunembarrassedbyamilitaryescort,IwalkedfromtheboardinghouseinwhichIwasstayingtotheunfinishedcapitolbuildinginourunfinishednationalcapitalonthePotomac.ThereItookoutfrommypocketapaperonwhichIhadarticulatedmyvisionofAmericaandreadtoahushedgatheringofwell-wishersandlegislatorsmyinauguraladdress.UnfortunatelyImumbled,andwassolittleaudiblethatnooneinthatchamberheardmyvisionofAmericaexceptmyVirginiacousin,JohnMarshall,theSupremeCourtchiefjustice,andhedidnotlikewhatheheard.Earlierinthedayhehadwrittenoneofhisarch-federalistfriendsaboutthechangeinpoliticalorderthatIlikedtocalltheSecondAmericanRevolution.liesaid,"Mr.Jefferson'sRepublicanscanbedividedintotwogroups:theoreticalvisionariesandabsoluteterrorists.Amongthelatter,"hesaid,"IamnotdisposedtoclassifyMr.Jefferson."1TherestofthosewhohadgatheredintheSenatechamber,havingheardnothingofmyvision,wereforcedtorushoutafterwardsandconsultprintedcopiesinthestreet.Moreover,asthethirdPresidenttotheUnitedStates,IbrokewiththeemergingtraditionofmypredecessorsandsentmyannualmessagesbycouriertoCongress.Itseemedtobemonarchicalandalsoaninefficientuseoftimetogooverinasplendidhorse-drawncarriagetodeliveranannualaddressinpersonlikesomepotentatefromtheOldWorld.Inviewofsomeofyourmorerecentannualaddresses,perhapsyouwouldliketoreinstatethisadmirableandrestrainedinstitutioninyourtime.

IfurtherfeeltrepidationbecauseIamwarnedongoodauthoritythatmanyofyouarelawyers.Lateinlife,ayoungman,amemberofCongressfromthecommonwealthofVirginia,wrotetomeatMonticelloandsaid,"Whyisit,Mr.Jefferson,thatnothinggetsdone

inCongress?"Isaid,"Sir,wheneveryougatheronehundredfiftylawyersintooneroomatonetime,nothinggoodcancomeofit.Theseare,afterall,menwhoarepaidtotalkbythehour,toyieldnothing,andtoargueabouteverything.Nosir,toexpectgoodsenseandgoodgovernmentfromabodyoflawyersistoexpectsomethingthatneverhasbeenandnevercanbeinthehistoryoftheworld."

Iconsidermyselfprimarilyascientist,anaturalphilosopher,secondlyafarmer,andapoliticianonlyreluctantly.Isaidonce,"Wheneveramancastshiseyelonginglyonpublicoffice,acertainrottennessofcharacterissuretocreepin."2Iwrote,"Mywholelifehasbeenawaragainstmynaturalinclinations.Thecreatorfittedmetobeascientistby

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renderingthatmysupremedelight."3SoitiswithpleasurethatIturnfrompoliticalissuestotheWest.

IsawtheWestastheguarantorofAmericanliberties,abufferofsecurityforafledglingrepublic,agrowingspaceforournationalexpansiontothethousandthgeneration,andazoneforthemaintenanceofahealthypoliticaleconomyintheUnitedStates.WhatIwanttotalkaboutbrieflytodayarethreeissues:Indians,revolution,andagriculture.WhenIpurchasedLouisianasomewhatreluctantlyin1803,Isawitasameansofkeepingatarm'slengthallpotentialenemiestheSpanish,theBritish,andtheFrench.TheWestwouldbeabufferforthisfraillittleexperimentinself-government.Ialsosawitasavirtuallyinfinitelandintowhichwecouldexpandinsimpleagriculture.IsaidtoMr.MadisoninaletterfromParisthataslongastherewasfreelandintheWest,thisexperimentinapproximatedemocracywouldprevail,fortheneverymanwhowishedlandonwhichtosubsistcouldhaveit.ButoncewefilledtheWestIthoughtitwouldtakemanyhundredsofyearsthenwewouldneedtobeginreluctantlytoredistributethewealthofthecountryfromtimetotime.AslongastherewasfreelandintheWest,Isaid,wewouldnotcrowdintocities,whicharesomanyopensoresonthefaceofthelandscape.TheacquisitionofLouisianameantwewouldnotneedtosubmittoHamiltonianempireandindustry.Empireiseasy,republicamoralstruggle.InmyAmerica,mostable-bodiedmenandwomenwouldlivequietlyonland,closetotheircreator,intunewithnature,andthisexperimentinlibertywouldtriumph.

That,inessence,wasmyvisionoftheWest.

BeforeIgoon,however,ImustsaythattheBritishwererightinonerespectaboutthedifficultiesofmovingwestward.Theywerewellawarethattherewerealreadysovereigninhabitantsofthiscontinent:theIndians,theso-calledsavagesoftheWest.Itseemedtomeallof

mylifethatifwecreatedourownutopiaintheWestbysystematicallyviolatingtherightsoftheaboriginalinhabitantsofthecontinent,thenwewouldhavefailedtoliveaccordingtotheprinciplesofjusticeandrespectandfairplaywithoutwhichAmericaisameaninglessconcept.Inmysecondinauguraladdress,Idevotedalongparagraphtoouraboriginalneighbors.Isaid,thesepeopledeservedourcommiseration;theyonlywantedtobeleftundisturbed.MyownpolicywithrespecttoIndianswassimple.Itseemedtomethat,intheshortterm,theyoughtvoluntarilytoyieldtheirlandsintheOhioValleyandmoveoutintothisinfinitudeofLouisiana.Thiswouldgivethembreathingspace,foritwasmyobservationthateverytimewhitepioneersencounteredasovereignIndianvillage,theydestroyedit,sometimespurposefully,moreoftennot,withdiseaseandalcoholandothersystematicexploitations.Most

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tribeswhohadthemisfortunetostandinthewayofwhitepioneerswereextinguishedordiminished.Stone-ageculturesdidnotapparentlymixwellwiththeland-hungryscionsofEurope.Somyhopewasthat,ratherthanremovingthesepeopleentirelyfromtherollsofexistence,wecouldencouragetheminsteadtoremovethemselvesvoluntarilytotheWest,wheretherewouldbetimeforthemtodevelopattheirownpace,unembarrassedbywhitefrontiersmen.Theywould,ofcourse,benefitfromcertainEuropeantechnologiesthewheel,thealphabet,phosphorescentmatches,theplowbuttheywouldbeabletoincorporatetheseblessingsofcultureintotheiradmirablyanarchictribesatapacemorenearlytheirown.Ifsovereignpeoplesdidnotchoosetoyieldtheireasternterritories,wewouldnotforcethemtoremove.

Second,Ihopedthattheywouldputdownthewarhatchetandthehuntandtakeuptheplowlikewhitefarmers.Agricultureisthemostsacredapproachtoeconomiclife.Thoseforwhomthehuntandwarfarearethecoreofexistencewillalwaysremainprimitive.Noraretheytrulycivilized.MyhopewasthatIndianswouldintheshorttermwithdrawandbegintolearnthesuperiorityofsedentaryagriculture,andwhenatlastourwhitecitizensreachedtheMississippiRiver,ournativebrotherswouldbewaitingwiththeirownenlightenedcommunities,asitwere,withtheirownParthenonsandtheirowndistinguishedliterature.ThenwewouldintermingleandintermarrytoproduceanamalgamatedAmericanrace,fullofalustydesirefornaturalrights,andyetwiththosetrappingsofEuropeancivilizationthatwereinkeepingwiththesimplicitiesofourrepublicanvision.Icouldnotconceiveofexpandingacrossthecontinentattheexpenseofournativebrethren.IadmitthatthisprovedtobemoredifficulttoavoidinpracticethanintherationalvisionofMonticello.

Agriculture,itseemstome,istheonlytrulynaturalapproachtolife.I

wroteonlyonebookinmylifetime,NotesonVirginia,asetofresponsestoaseriesofqueriesputtomebythesecretaryoftheFrenchlegationatPhiladelphia.InitIsaid,"ThosewholaborintheeartharethechosenpeopleofGod,ifGodeverhadachosenpeople,whosebreastshehasmadehispeculiardepositforgenuineandsubstantialvirtue."4FarmersarethechosenpeopleofGodfortworeasons.Firstofall,asthephysiocratsteachus,farmersproducethebasicwealthofthenation.Theycooperatewithcreationandbringforthbountyandgiveitfreelytothelargergoodoftheircommunity.Theyaloneproducerealwealth.Mr.Hamilton'sminions,hiscapitalists,hisbankers,hiscreditors,hismanufacturers,andhistradesmendonotproducerealwealth.Theyonlyspintheirownfortunesfromthewealthofthefarmer.Second,farmersarethechosenpeopleofGodbecausetheyarecloserto

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naturethantherestofus.Theyhavetheirhandsinthesoil,theycooperatewithcreation.Theylookuptothesky,totherealmofmeteorology,withdeeprespect,theynurturefrailanimalsandfrailplants,theirhandsaredirtyfromthehumilityofagriculture.Theclassoffarmersgenerally,IsaidtoMr.Madison,haveneverbeencorruptinanysocietywhatsoever.Afarmerismorefree,moreindependent,andmoretrulyhappythananyothercitizen.Andeverystepyoutakeawayfromyourgardenoryourfarmintoabstractionorprofessionalismisastepawayfromgoodsenseintodependency,lossofvirtue,andcertainlyalossofhappiness.

IenvisionedtheAmericanWestasprimarilyaparadiseforsimplefarmers.Myideaofafarmerisofonewhosubsists,whofeedsandclotheshimselfandhisfamily,whoistrulyindependentofMr.Hamilton'smercantilistgrid.If,attheendoftheyear,thisVirginianpastoralistenjoysatinysurplus,itisremovedtothenearestvillageandbarteredifpossibleforsomethingthatthefarmercannotproduceforhimselfaviolin,booksandpaper,apairofshoes.Andthen,havingbeenengagedaslittleaspossibleinthemoneyeconomy,theAmericanAdamreturnstohisfarmandlivesfreeforanotheryear.Duringhisleisurehoursatnight,hereadsHomerintheoriginalGreek.

IsawtheWestalsoasapossiblesolutiontotheuglyproblemofslavery.ItwasclearthatslaverywastheplagueoftheAmericanexperiment,ataintinournationalcrusadeofinnocence.UnfortunatelywewereunableinmylifetimetoemancipateourNegrobrethren.ButifwecouldatleastkeepslaveryoutoftheWest,Ibelieved,thenationwouldeventuallybecomeaslavelesssociety,ifonlybecausetheWesternstatesweredestinedtogrowmorepowerfulinthepoliticalarenathantheoriginalfederation.Tobaccoculturewascorrupt,economicallyinefficient.Itexploitedlandanditexploitedpeople.Itseemedtomeonlyamatteroftimebeforeitsusefulness

wasentirelylost.SoifwecouldkeepslaveryhuddledontheAtlanticsideoftheAppalachianmountains,theoutrageofNegroservitudewouldnotplagueusintothefuture.ThiswasthepointofmyPlanfortheGovernmentoftheWesternTerritories(1784),which,haditpassed,wouldhaveprohibitedslaveryfromcrossingtheAppalachianmountainsanywhereintheUnitedStates.When,attheendofmylife,IsawslaverycrosstheAppalachiansinapurelysectionalfashion,Iwroteindespairthatthissurelywasthedeathknellofthenation.

IsawtheWestasasolutiontotheclassconflictsthathadriddledtheOldWorldforcenturies.SamuelJohnson,thegreatBritishlexographer,saidthatsubordinationandhierarchyinsocietyarenotonlyinevitablebutessentialtoorderandhappiness.Idisagreed.Ifelt

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wemustmoveasquicklyaspossibletoaclasslesssociety.AndaslongastherewasfreelandintheWest,therewouldbenobasisforthosesubordinationsthatcitiesrepresentandpromote.Tome,theWestofferedalmostinfinitepossibilitiesforindividualstopursuetheirownhappiness,unencumberedbygovernmentortaxationorthesortofirreasonthatisinherentincitylife.TheWestpromisedanegalitarianopportunityfortheUnitedStates.IalsothoughtthatouradministrationoftheWestwouldshowtoaskepticalworldthatcolonizationisnottheinevitablepatternofhumanexpansion.IconsideredtheWestnotanempireforHamiltonianeconomics,notaNapoleonicempireforpersonalpowerandthegloriesofwar,butratheran"empireforlibertysuchastheworldhasneverpreviouslyseen."AnditseemedtomethattheWestwouldshowtheworldthatitwaspossibletoexpandwithoutsubjugatingourfrontierneighbors.IwastheprincipleauthorofthePlanfortheGovernmentoftheWesternTerritoriesof1784.Thatbillenvisionedtheincorporationofnewterritoriesonanequalbasiswithexistingstates.Assoonasanewterritorycontainedaminimumnumberofcitizens,itbegantogovernitselfandtakepartinournationalcouncils.MywholelifewasdevotedtothenotionthatourWesternbrethrenmustnotbedependentonNewYork,orBoston,orWashington,butmustpursuetheirowndestiniesinrangeafterrangeofdecentralizedrepublics.Localcontrol,states'rights,anddecentralizationwerethethemesofmypoliticallife.ItseemedtomethatwemustevencheerfullyanticipatethetimewhenWesternstateswouldsecedeandformrivalrepublicsdedicatedtotheirownconceptionsofhappinessandtheirownneeds.Finally,IthoughtoftheWestasa"tabularasa,"inJohnLocke'sterms,ablankslate,onwhichwecouldinscribeutopia.AnditisonthisthemethatIwishtoclose.

IntheOldWorld,inFranceinparticular,thephilosophersbegantheirlivesasreformersbutalmostimmediatelywerefrustratedbytheroot-

boundculturesinwhichtheygrew.Theythereforedescendedintoliteratureandsatire,andtheirreformistmovementswerestillborn.ButintheNewWorld,menofletterscouldbeutopiansandhavesomereasontobelievethattheirutopianvisionswouldbeinscribedonanactuallandscape.IwastheprincipalauthorofthenotionthatournationalcapitalshouldnotbeinBostonorPhiladelphiaorNewYork,butinthewilderness.IfwemaintainedthecapitalinPhiladelphia,ournationalcenterofpowerwouldforeverbearthefragranceofitscolonialpastandofEuropeantyranny.Butifwecarvedoutacapitalinthewilderness,itwouldsymbolizeanewnationdedicatedtoarepudiationofthefailuresoftheOldWorld.TheEasternseaboard,interestinganduniqueasitwas,stillmaintainedtheambienceofpoliticalandcultural

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dependencyonEurope,particularlyBritain.ButtheWestwasunencumberedbythepast.IsawtheWestasablankslate,onwhichforthefirsttimeinhumanhistoryarepublicofreasonandgoodsenseandjusticecouldbeetchedwithoutthebloodyrevolutionsthatattendreformmovementsintheOldWorld.ThomasPainesaidinhisbookCommonSense,''Wehaveitinourpowertobegintheworldoveragain."5Igavemylife(reluctantly)topoliticalstatesmanship,notbecauseIsoughtpowerbutbecauseitseemedtomethatIlivedinauniquetimeinhistorywhenathoughtfulstatesmantrulycouldhelptoshapeanationinawilderness.Thatnation,inmyview,shouldbepeaceful,isolationist,andpastoral,shouldsupplementitsagriculturewiththesmallestpossiblemanufacturingapparatus,shouldpermitlittleornopermanentmilitaryestablishment,shouldeschewthepoliticalstrugglesoftheOldWorld,andshouldexportnothingbutagriculturalproduceandtheideaofAmerica.Ourcitizensshouldsupportthemselvesasmuchaspossibleonagriculture,livequietlyaccordingtothedictatesofreasonandnature,seekharmonywiththeirIndianbrethren,andpreferEnlightenmenttowealthandpower.Eachcitizenshouldparticipateinself-governmentandhastenthetimewhennogovernmentwillberequiredwhatsoever.Myagrarianstatewouldrevolutionizeitselfeverytwentyyears,eitherthroughpeacefulconstitutionalrevisionorarmedrebellion."Ilikealittlerebellionnowandthen,"Iwrote."Itisasimportantinthepoliticalworldasthunderstormsinthenaturalworld."6

Letmesay,finally,thatmymostimportantdoctrinewaswritteninalettertoMr.MadisonfromParisinduringmyfiveyearsastheAmericanministerthere.Tomyclosestfriendandpoliticallieutenant,Iwrote,"Theearthbelongsinusufructtoliving,notthedead."7Thedeadhavenorighttoimposetheirvisiononthefuture.TheUnitedStateswillbeagreatrevolutionarynation,insofarasitbreaksfromtimetotimewiththemisguidedhabitsofthepast,includingitsown

habits.Wemustmakeitpossibleforourchildrentobegintheworldoveragainaccordingtotheirdreamsandneeds.Wefoughtourrevolutionfortherightofconsent.Weinsistedthatweconsenttoanyformofgovernmentthatcoordinatedouractivitiesandtaxedourlabor.Eachgeneration,likeeachnation,hasanaturalrighttogovernitselfaccordingtoitswill.Anythingelseistyranny.IsuggestedtoJimmyMadison,therefore,thatwetearuptheconstitutioneverynineteenyears.IsettledonatermofnineteenyearsastheeffectivelifeofagenerationafterconsultingtheComtedeBuffon'smortalitytables.Ifin1990youimposeuponthefutureyourconstitution,yourpositivelaw,andespeciallyyournationaldebt,youwillbeasguiltyasGeorgeIIIoftyranny,

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andmuchmoreclever.Theworldbelongsinusufructtotheliving.Usufructisafeudallegaltermmeaningthattheoccupantofanestatehasarighttothefruitsofthatestate,buthemustnotdegradethecarryingcapacityofthelandthathasbeenentrustedtohim.Hemustpasshissliveroftheearthwithallofitsfruitfulnesstohischildren.

Ileaveyouwithaquestion:Doyouin1990enjoyLouisianainusufruct,orareyouinfactdegradingitslong-termcarryingcapacityandthereforetyrannizingyourchildrenwithouttheirconsent?Ifyouaredoingthelatter,Isuggestrevolution.

PARTTHREEThePeople

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THEBOWLTerryTempestWilliams

Therewasawomanwholeftthecity,leftherhusband,andherchildren,lefteverythingbehindtoretrievehersoul.Shecametothedesertafterseeinghergauntfaceinthemirror,thepallorthatcomeswheneverythingisgoingoutandnothingiscomingin.Shehadnoticedforthefirsttimethefurrowsunderhereyesthathadbeenerodedbytears.Shedidnotknowthewomaninthemirror.Shetookoffherapron,foldeditneatlyinthedrawer,leftanoteforherfamily,andclosedthedoorbehindher.Sheknewthatherlifeandthelivesofthosesheloveddependedonit.

Thewomanreturnedtotheplaceofherchildhood,whereshelastrememberedhertruenature.Shereturnedtotheintimacyofasmallcanyonthatforyearshadloomedlargeinherimagination,andthereshesetupcamp.Thewallswereasshehadrecalledthem,tallandstreakedfromrimtofloor.Therockappearedasdrapedfabricassheplacedherhandflatagainstitsface.Thewallwascold;thesunhadnotyetreachedthewash.Shebeganwadingtheshallowstreamthatrandownthecenterofthecanyon,andchosenottobeencumberedbyanything.Sheshedherclothing,tookoutherhairpins,andsqueezedthelastlemonshehadoverherbody.Runningherhandsoverherbreastsandthroatandbehindherneck,thewomanshiveredatherownbravery.Thisishowitshouldbe,shethought.Shewasfreeandfrightenedandbeautiful.

Fordays,thewomanwanderedinandoutoftheslickrockmaze.Shedrankfromspringsandatethepurplefruitofpricklypears.Herneedsweremetsimply.Becauseshecouldnotseeherself,shewasunawareofthechangeshowherskinbecametautandtan,thewayinwhichher

hairrelaxedandcurleditself.Sheevenseemedtowalkdifferentlyashertoesspreadandgrippedthesand.

Allalongthewash,clayballshadbeenthrownbyaragingriver.Thewomanpickedoneup,pulledoffthepebblesuntilshehadamound

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ofsuppleclay.Shekneadeditasshewalked,rubbedtheclaybetweenthepalmsofherhands,andwatcheditlengthen.Shefinallysatdownonthemoistsandand,withherfingers,continuedmovingupthestringofclay.Andthenshebegantocoilit,aroundandaround,pinchingshuteachrotation.Shecreatedabowl.

Thewomanfoundotherclayballsandputtheminsidethebowl.Shehadanideaofmakingdollsforherchildren,smallclayfigurinesthatshewouldletdryinthesun.Onceagain,shestoppedwalkingandsatinthesandtowork.Shespliteachclayballintwo,whichmeantshehadsixsmallpiecestomoldoutofthreeballsshehadfound.Onebyone,tinyshapestookform.Agirlwithopenarmsaboveherhead;threeboysonestanding,onesitting,andonelyingdown(hewasgrowing,shemused);andthenamanandawomanfacingeachother.Shehadre-createdherfamily.Withthefewscrapsleftovershemadedesertanimals:alizard,asmallbird,andaminiaturecoyotesittingonhishaunches.Thewomansmiledasshelookedoverhermenagerie.Sheclappedherhandstoremovethedriedclayandhalfexpectedtoseethemdance.Instead,itbegantorain.

Withinminutes,thewashbegantoswell.Thewomanputtheclaycreaturesintothebowlandsoughthighergroundupasidecanyon,whereshefoundshelterunderalargeoverhang.Shewaspreparedtowatchifaflashfloodcame.Anditdid.Theclearwaterturnedmuddyasitbegantorise,carryingwithittheforceofwildhorsesrunningwithathunderstormbehindthem.Thesmallstream,nowariver,rosehigherstill,gougingintothesandybanks,hurlingrocks,roots,andtreesdownstream.Thewomanwonderedabouttheanimalsassheheardstirringsinthegrassesandsurmisedtheymustbeseekingrefugeinthesidecanyonsasshewaswatchingasshewas.Shepulledherlegsinandwrappedherarmsaroundhershins,restinghercheekbonesagainstherknees.Sheclosedhereyesandconcentratedonthesoundofwaterburstingthroughthesilenceofthecanyon.

Theroarofthefloodgraduallysofteneduntilitwasreplacedbybirdsong.Swiftsandswallowspluckedthewaterforinsectsasfrogsannouncedtheirreturn.Thewomanraisedherhead.Withthebowlinbothhands,shetriedtogetup,butslippeddownthehillside,scrapingthebacksofherthighsonrabbitbrushandsage.Shefinallyreachedthewashwiththebowlanditscontentsintact.Andthenshefoundherselfwithanotherproblem:Shesankuptoherkneesinthewet,redclay,onlytofindthatthemoreshetriedtopullherfootfree,thedeepershesankwiththeother.Finally,lettinggoofherstruggle,sheputthebowlandherfamilyaside,andwallowedinit.Shefellsidewaysandrolledontoherstomach,thenoverontoherback.Shewascoveredinslimy,

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wetclay,anditwasdelicious.Shestretchedherhandsaboveherhead,flexedhercalves,andpointedhertoes.Thewomanlaughedhystericallyuntilshebecameawareofherownecho.

Herbodycontracted.

Shemustgetcontrolofherself,shethought;whatwouldherhusbandthink?Whatkindofexamplewasshesettingforherchildren?Andthensherememberedshewasalone.Shesatupandstaredatthecoiledbowlfullofclaypeople.Thewomantookoutthefigurinesandplantedtheminthewash.Sheplacedtheanimalsaroundthem.

"They'reontheirown,"shesaidoutloud.Andshewalkedbacktothespringwhereshehaddrunk,filledupherbowlwithwater,andbathed.

Thenextmorning,whenthewomanawoke,shenoticedthatthecottonwoodbranchesswayingaboveherheadhadsproutedleaves.

Shecouldgohomenow.

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THEPOETLETSHISTONGUEHANGDOWNAone-questioninterviewfromBeanNews

IwouldenquireofyouTheSlingerleaningforwardasktOneofthe4GreatQuestionsLeasttroublingmymindsincemyarrival:

WHOARETHEBARBARIANS?

AsifinaspaceelapsedbetweenoursightingthenhearingajetThePoetgrewpaleandhisblaringtransistorfellfromhisIvoryFingers

fourofwhomjumpedoffattheknucklesandranoffwithallhisringsandstraightwaysentnotestothesixwhostayedexpressingcontemptanddismay

AndthetemperaturefellinhisveinsandhismouthweakenedandgrewslackandhislefteyeleftthetrackandwanderedaboutthelandscapeunlocusedandhistonguefelloutoverhischinandhisnosemigratedevenasGondwanatoogorged

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ontheimmensitiesoftimetobeobservedsothatitsmovementisprovenbythestriationsofitsslippageastheyarethescarsoftheEarthAndhisearsfloatedupwardasifHeliumwasalltheyheardandhisfeetcameoffandspedoverthehorizonleavingeventhewingsofhisankles

andhisshoesfilledwithdustaninstantghosttowncompletewithbangingshuttersandpeelingpostersofthoseofuswanted,deadoralive

Thenhishairflewawayinadustbowlcondition

likeintheGrapesofWrathandthingswhattheywereallthepeopleofhisbarrenscalppackedupandfoundtheirwaytoCaliforniaaroundthecratersofthisoncerichterrain,

Andhisbrainsnappedshutlikeagreasyspoonwhenthelastcustomerhasethischops

thengoneoutthedoorwipinghischinwithonehandwhiletheotherbuys"TheTimes"whichhereadsstandingonthecornertoothpickinhismouth"RamsclobberLions"inhiseyeandturnsthepagestothecomicswhereRexMorganisperformingandcan'tbereachedashishandcomesupfromscratchinghisasstocatchthepagesintheMichiganWinde

Butthepoet'sHeadwasduringthislapsebusywithalterationsandwhenthejobwasdone

thebangofhammersthewhineofbandsawsgoneAndallthebafflingpulledoffhisHeadwasapyramidtheminimumsolid

Andoneofhiseyescamehometryingtolooklikethetriphadbeenabore

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whensignstothecontrarywerealloverthefloorandhesmiledButtheEyeontopofhispyramidwouldsaynomore

EdwardDorn

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PLAINSONGATCROWHEARTBUTTE1

Nearthisplacetheyfought,ShoshoniandBannockagainsttheCrow...thisriver

basinharboredbuffalo...todayblondboysgallopinthespringride

hereonherefordsbeneaththismorning'ssunpalemeninStetsonspeddlehardwarein

DuboisConocoandExxonpromiseantlersforatankfulofsupreme...nearthisplacetheyfought..ShoshoniandBannock

againsttheCrow...thisriverbasinharboredbuffalo.

Andnearthisplacethestrutmacabre...thussupposeamoon...supposeitfullexquisite

absolute...itslight...thecorpses...ShoshoniBannockCrow...WashakieconqueringShoshonichiefcuts

theheartfromonedeadCrowandjabsitonhislance...supposehisrushthethrill

thekiller'sthrilloflifethetastethesaltytasteofsweatlikeblooddampuponhisliphis

eyeshiseyeshisownheartpumpingbreathintothenighthisveins

soflushedthattheydistend...supposebeneaththemoonheraisestoitslighttheskeweredheartandchants,hislucid

songsuffusingnightlikemoonlight...faroffperhapstheCrowaswellbeneathindifferent

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phasesofthefullindifferentmoon,benignandabsolute,perhapstheCrow,faroff,hearingknow...amongsometribesthecustom

istoeattheheartorliverofaworthyfoe...theCrow,faroff,hearperhapsandknow...Washakiehiseyesandbloodaflame,chants

holdinghighhisbloodylanceandleadstheancientdancebeneaththemoonfullandabsolute...therearethoseperhapswho,faroff,hearingknow...thisplacethe

strutmacabre...theycallitCrowheartButte...hereShoshoniandBannockfoughttheCrow

thisriverbasinharboredbuffalo

2

AndnearthisplacewhileWashakie''displayed"adeadCrowheartanddancedJakeAstor'sboyspassedthroughunperturbed...John

JacobAstorneversawAstoriastillwemustsupposehewasamused...atWashakiehisbleedingheartandstrutbeneaththemoon...

Tellmymanhe'snumberoneAstorwinkingtoldhiscrewkeepasharpeyeoutforbeaver

andtheswiveloiledyourgatlinggunwillgetyouthrough...OhyesAstorsaidcrossingsilkenlegsand

savoringanelegantcigarWearemuchamused...spreadtheword...todaythisroadsidepointofinterestself-interestedly

proclaims"Washakieamightywarrior...awisechieffriendlytothewhites..."invitingtouriststo

returnwithustoYesteryearandhisfaithfulIndiancompanionmakinghighwaystothesea

forinthischief'steepeewearetoldhungnowhiteman'sscalp...JakeAstornever

sawAstoriabuttheledgershowshewasastute...thismonument

waseasy...thesignsaysCrowheartButte.

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AndWashakiewemustsupposewasmuchobligedatsomethingsograndioseas"history"

treatinghimsofine...howcouldheknowhegrinnedaStepnfetchitgrinand

dancedasoftshoeshufflesportingthatawesomeheartuponhiseaglefeatheredlanceand

singingbravelyashedanced,IfeedyourhearttodogsCrowthey

shituponyourgrave.Astorplacedhisfinecigarbetweenhisteethandsmiledasheapplauded.Thatboy's

goodIthinkhecanbeused...and"inconsiderationofthelocalchief"wise

andmightychiefsupremearbiterofthisbasin'sbuffaloalmightyshakerofadeadCrow

heartuponastickinconsiderationastheysayofthelocalchieftheycallthisfort

FortWashakie...todaywithAstor'sblessingIpassblandlythroughthislandthatthat

Crow'sheartlikeWashakie'sbeattohave...andunderAstor'smoonamoonsobig

itbathesacontinentinexquisitesilverlightlastnightItookaleakanddumped

wherewillowsmarkboththeirgraves...downtheroadthereisthisplacewhereWashakiewassillywhileAstorwasastute...thismonumentwaseasy...theycallitCrowheartButte.

3

MoonsetflightoftheowlsunrisecicadassingWindRiverinthespring

Ibatheablutioninthehighspringrun

horsesgrazingablutioninthecoldfastwatersthankyouBannockandShoshonithankyouforthisplace

inthemorning'sgoldensunFortWashakiespelledoutinstoneswhitewashedonthehillFort

WashakiesanctuarytowhitemenfugitivefromSiouxwhitemenSacacaweaFort

WashakiehergraveSacajeweahergravethisgrove

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defiledmycleanwhitebodydefilesthisblestindifferentgrovebecauseSacajeweaSacacaweaSacajeweaSacacaweabecause

SealthSeattleSealthbecauseJosephHinmatonYahlatlatJosephbecauseCrazyHorseCrazy

Horsesaidyestheinterpretersaidnobecausethebayonetthecorporal'sbayonetinhis

sidebecauseNapoleonwasacorporalbecauseHitlerwasacorporalbecauseOld

HickorywasacorporalbecausethisgroveisrealestatebecauseSacacaweaJosephSeattle

CaptainJackCrazyHorseWoundedKneeSandCreekSaigonFortWashakiebecausewecouldn'tgetthelingoorwouldn'tevenE.P.thickskinnedandboldlet

notthedaughternonoranyofusburnishwhatistarnishthesinstoo

willteachusbecauseE.P.thedazzleofsweatandcoinfixedrightlyinhisthirdeyewho

learnedninelanguagesancientandmoderneastandwestandknewKingJames

preciselyforwhatitwascollaborationhegemonyoftherichandrighteousbecauseE.P.lamenting

thishalfsavagecountrycouldn'tgetthelingonorthefathersofourcountrynot

JeffersonhisdictionaryawashinChesapeakeBaynotJacksonwhoputtheCreeksintheirgravesand

soldtheplotsinPhiladelphiabecausenotanyofuscouldgetthelingoorwouldbecauseShakespeare

makerofbeautiesevenontheedgesofcivilizationbedazzledusandJohnWilkesBoothwithblankverseand

CiceroinhismouthbedazzledusbecausespelledsixteendifferentwaysShakspeerShakespereShakespeare

ShakespearheWashakieinwhosetipihungnowhiteman'sscalpheWashakie

shookhisspearjabbedonitthefreshheartofadeadCrowhisenemytheCrowanddancedbecauseincelebration

heWashakieenemyofSiouxandCrowandNezPercesuccor(sic)ofwhitemenbecausekillerofnoneheWashakie

namesakeandheroofthisgrovedefiledwiseandmightychiefheWashakielearnedourlingocarved

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theheartofonegoodCrowbecausebecausethankyouBannockandShoshonithankyou

ablutionsinthismorning'sgoldensunthankyouhighspringwatersthankyoucicadasthankyousunrisethankyouflightoftheowlthankyoumoonsetmoonsetmoonsetbecause

PeterF.Michelson

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MOTELSUPERBOAsleepwalkerfromContinentIprintsoutthecontractandhandsmeakeyattachedtoalegiron.Thedrapes,heavywithfireretarder,won'tquiteshut.Theaircondishiscloggedwithbreathofdeadcarpet.KimBasingeriscrazyforsexonHBO,gimmemosaySteamboatSprings.DodgeRamschargeandbuttalongthemaindrag.Theblas6trafficlightscontrolwithcoldindifferencethesnarling,bigpipepacks,sendsthemalongandthenpinsthemtothetarwheretheywhineandgnashattheelectronictether,sendingticsthroughtheignorantsleepers.

EdwardDorn

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PROGRESSORDECLINE?JUDGINGTHEHISTORYOFWESTERNEXPANSIONPatriciaNelsonLimerick

OnaflightfromCody,Wyoming,ImetthepersonforwhomWesternhistoryworkedoutperfectly.Sittingnexttomeontheplanewasaverytannedfellowwithaverynicefringedleatherjacketandahandsomeblackcowboyhat.Whiteonespickupdirttoofast,hetoldme,whichseemstomeheavilysymbolicofsomething.

Thisfellow,theownerofaprosperousrealestatecompanyinFlorida,hadrecentlydecidednottogoalloutintheMiamirealestategame,buttopullbackonhiswaytothetopandinsteadbuyaduderanchonthewaytoYellowstone.SonowhespendshalftheyearoutsideCodyandhalftheyearinMiami.HewasalsoverytakenunderstandablywiththeareaaroundCarmel,andhewasveryclosetobuyingpropertythereandbringingduderanchingtoMontereyBay(which,underthepowerofaconsiderableurgeforaFreudianslip,Iinitiallytypedintothistextas"MonetaryBay").

Ihaveacoupleofreasonsforbringingthisfellowtoyourattention.ThefirstreasonhitmeashewastalkingofhispleasureinridinghorsesthroughthehillsoutsideCarmelandinthemountainsoutsideCody.ThiscarriedechoesofRichardHenryDanaonhorsebackduringshoreleaveinCalifornia,andechoesofTeddyRooseveltrecoveringonhorsebackintheDakotasfromthelossofhismotherandhiswife.AnditsuddenlyseemedtomethatsittingnexttomeontheplanewastheprimarybeneficiaryofthewholeprocessofAnglo-AmericanWesternexpansion.Partlytotestthetheory,andpartlytotesthisego,Isaid,"Youareit,aren'tyou?Theculminationofthe

wholebusiness?JedediahSmith,NarcissaWhitman,JohnC.Fremont,GeorgeArmstrongCustertheymadeyoupossible.You'retheoneitallworkedoutfor."And,withblackhatfirmlyinplace(theetiquetteofwhethercowboysshould

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removetheirhatswhileridingtheopenrangesoftheairhasapparentlynotbeensettled),mytravelingcompanionfullyandheartilyagreedthathewastheculmination,theconsummationoftheWesternenterprise.Itseemsacuriousoutcomeforacauseinwhichsomanyhavedied.

AndthatisthefirstreasonIwantedtodescribethisfellowtoday:becausetherearemomentswhenallofthestrugglesandsorrowsofWesternexpansionseemtohavebornetheirprincipalfruitinthecreationofaneconomicstructurethatgivesmorepackagesofpleasureandprivilegetopeoplewhoarealreadyovertheirheadsinpleasureandprivilege.

Whilenoonechosethedateofthisconference,October19,forstrategic,symbolicpurposes,itistheanniversaryofthe1987stockmarketcrash.Ithinkthatisallforthebest;thereissimplynoreasontomeetalldayinordertobePollyannas,inordertodevoteourselvesto"feelinggood"abouttheAmericanWestanditspastandpresentandfuture.Thisisaprettyfinegroupofpeopleassembledtodaytheaudienceasmuchasthespeakersandtheriskofhavingsuchapleasantgroupassembledisthatitcouldmakeusgiddy,sweptawaybyourowncollectivegoodnatureintounreasonableoptimism.Sothefactthatthenewspapersarefilledtodaywithone-year-after-the-crashstoriesseemstomeallforthebest.Anyonewhobeginstogetgiddyandhopefulcansimplyleavetheroom,getanewspaper,andcomebacktoreality.Or,tostaywithintheairplaneframeofreference,thosewhobegintogetgiddywithhopecanthinkbacktotheirdeparturesfromtheairportsofmostmajorWesterncitiesthinkbacktotheimprobablygrandphysicalsettingforthosecities,thinkbacktothepainful,brownishaerialscumthatblanketsthem,thinkbacktothespreadofsuburbsthatcan,ifyouareinthewrongmood,maketheearthlookexactlyasifithascomedownwithabadskindiseasewithanundiscoveredcure.AyearagoIflewoutofLosAngeles,south,

downthecoast,andlookedatthatstunningsetofbeaches,thatgrandmeetingofcontinentwithPacific,coatedwithwarehousesandoiltanksandmotelsandoveralldensesmog,untilIwasutterlyconvincedthatWesternhistorywastragic,aterribletwistonthemythofEden.InsteadofgettingthrownoutofEden,AdamandEveinthisversionstayed,andruinedparadise.AndwhenGodcamebacktocheckonthem,Hecouldbarelyrecognizetheplace,withabandonedcarsandpilesoftiresonfireandcoal-firedelectricalgeneratingplantsonthesitewherethetreeoftheknowledgeofgoodandeviloncestood,andwithAdamandEvesittingaroundlookingquiteproudofthemselves.

ThatbringsmetothesecondreasonIhavebegunwithmyCody,Wyoming,airplanecompanion.IdothinkthatinmanywaysWestern

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Americanhistoryisthestoryofagroupofpeoplegoingtohellinahandbasket,butoverandoveragain.TheconversationfromCodytoDenverwassimplyanotherreminderofthis:Onehasfrequentoccasionstothinkthatthecompany,inthisill-destinedhandbasket,isgreat.Therearemoments,livingandtravelingintheWesttoday,whenonesimplythinks,"Weare,fromallimpressions,inamess,butonecouldnotaskforbettercompanions."

Regrettably,embarrassingly,IlikedmyCodyairplanecompanionhewas,nodoubt,aninvaderandintruderfromFlorida,buthisbrieftourofdutyintheWesthadchangedhimandgivenhimsomecharacteristicsandcertainlysomeclothesthatarenoteverydaysightsinMiami.Moreimportant,hewasagoodsportinanargument,andhissenseofhumor,puttothetestbyourargument,wasinfineshape.Onecanonlyhope,onbehalfoftheAdamandEveoftheoriginalstory,thatduringtheirtransportationoutofparadisetheywereabletoenjoysuchapleasantandstimulatingconversation;onecanonlyhope,onbehalfoftheancients,thatduringthedeclineandfalloftheRomanEmpire,theartofconversationwasaswelldevelopedandasmuchenjoyedasitwasonthetripfromCody.Thismayseemtosomeofyouasuperficialpointthatinthemidstofatroubledtime,opponentscanstillsitnexttoeachotherfortwohoursandenjoyeachother'scompanyandconversation,buttomethisistheonlybasisforhopewehave.

PeterHassrick,theexpertonWesternart,showsanddescribesapaintingbyFrederickRemingtoncalled"InSearchofGeronimo."Itshowstroopersandtheirhorsesonanarrow,desertmountainpath."ArtistinSearchofGeronimo,"Hassrickmuses,andgoesontonotethatRemingtonhimself,inthewritingthataccompaniedthepainting,remarkedofthesearchforGeronimo,"Thankheavens,wehaven'tfoundeachotheryet."TheelitewhiteEasternpainter,andtheresistantanddeterminedApachewarrioritisprobablyjustaswellthat

theydidnotfindeachotherinthenineteenthcentury,becausetheconditionsforconversationwerenotgoodinthosetimes.Butnow,whetherornotwewantitthatway,wehaveallfoundeachother;Remington'skinhavemetGeronimo'skin,andeveniftheconditionsforcross-culturalconversationarestillnotideal,theyareimmeasurablybetterthantheywereinthenineteenthcentury.

Eachincident,then,inwhichWesternersofthesevariousbackgroundsandconvictionsdefytheoddsandchoosenottoattackeachother,nortoevadeeachother,buttoconverseeachoftheseincidentsseemstomepowerfullyfreightedwithhope.Butthosemomentsofhopestillmustbesetagainstthosemomentsofdespair,whenpartsofWesternAmerica,fromtheair,seemtosay,clearlyanddirectly,thathumanity

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isaninfectionoftheearth,andthisregionhascomedownwithabadcaseofit.

AstothisgloomypictureIampresenting,letmemakealongstoryshort,astoryprobablyfamiliartomanyofyouhere,andsay,thatinterpretationsofWesternAmericanhistoryhavegonethrougharecentrevolution.WesternAmericanhistoryusedtobewhatIwillcall,notaltogetherkindly,HappyFaceHistory,HaveaNiceDayHistory,becauseitwassofirmlycenteredonAnglo-Americans,andbecauseitseemedtoendsowell,withwhitepeopleinchargeofthecontinentandwithalotofnaturalresourcesconvertedintocashinwhitepeople'spockets.ThatisnottheversionofWesternAmericanhistoryweteachnow.TherecognitionoftheimportanceofIndianpeople,ofHispanicpeople,ofAsianpeople,ofblackpeople,andofwhitepeoplewhodidnotnecessarilysucceedintheirenterpriseshasendedthat"triumphofcivilization"schoolofhistoryforalltime.Andjustasimportant,environmentalhistoryhasknockedoverthe"triumphantmasteryofthewilderness"schoolofWesternhistorybyshowingthecomplexandcomplicatedwaysthatwhitepioneers,sometimesoutofinnocentmotives,launchedalandslideofunfortunatephysicalevents:soilerosion,thedepletionofminerals,thepollutionofstreamsandrivers,thescarringoflandscapes,thedestructionofwildlife,thedevastationofforests.IcanconveythisreorientingofWesternAmericanhistory,awayfromhappyendingsandtowardtragedy,mostvividlybyquotingfromafriend,theWesternhistorianDonaldWorster,authorofDustBowlandRiversofEmpire(whois,inthisquotationjusttodemonstratethehappyandproductivelevelofscholarlyexchangeinWesternhistoryactuallydescribingmyownbook,LegacyofConquest,butputtingtheideamorevividlythanIbelieveIdidmyself):"[T]hedreamofconquestitselfhasbeguntogosouramongthewhiteconquerors.Theyarelosingtheverypropertytheywontotheforcesofenvironmental

deterioration,andtheyarelosingtheirculturaldominancetoaresurgenceofminorityself-confidenceandinfluence.TheWestthusbecomestheregionwherethewhitemandestroyshisownworldattheverymomentofvictory."l

Nowthatisratherforcefullyput,moreforcefullythanIputitmyselfinLegacy,butitdoesindicatehowfarWesternhistoryhastraveledfromtheoldcelebrationoftheAnglo-Americantriumphoverthecontinent.Whatisbeyonddisputenowisthis:thatwestward-movingAnglo-Americans,whiletheythoughttheyweremakingprogress,werealsomakingamess:amessintheirrelationswithnature;amessintheirrelationswithnativeIndianpeople,withbothnativeand,later,immigrantHispanicpeople,withimmigrantAsianpeople;and,fromtimeto

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time,inconflictsovertheallocationofresourcesandtheallocationofprofitsfromthoseresources,amessintheirrelationswitheachother,betweengroupsandindividualswetoooftenlumpintothatmonolithiccategory,"whitepeople."

Wecanchoose,sofar,betweentwoclearresponsestothefactthatprogressanddeclinecameinamixedpackage.Oneresponserestsonthispremise:Despiteafewunfortunatesideeffects,thepioneersthoughttheyweremakingprogress,andindeedtheywere,becausethebedrockdefinitionofprogressmeansthegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber.ThismayatfirstseemlikearesurgenceofHappyFaceHistory,butIthinkitismorethanthat.ThereissimplynodenyingthefactthattheWesthasmeantandmeansopportunityforanenormousnumberofpeoplenotonlyforemigrantsfromtheeasternUnitedStatesandEuropeanimmigrants,butalsoforAsianandMexicanimmigrantsdowntothisday.Mexicanimmigrants,afterall,haveareasonfortakingontheriskandsacrificeofcrossingintotheAmericanWest.Eventhoughtheconditionstheyfindarefarfromideal,AmericanwagesareindeedfarbetterthanMexicanwages.The"progressasthegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber"argumentisnot,then,necessarilyethnocentric,butitisnecessarilyreductivedismissingthehardshipsandinequitiesthatcameinthesamepackagewiththeopportunities,anddismissingtheenvironmentalpricespaidtoprovidethem.

Ifonerejectsthisfirstresponse,then,tothereinterpretationofWesternhistory,thepatternhasbeenthatoneisthencatapultedtoanoppositeresponse,aresponsewheretheoperatingpremiseisthis:ThepioneerswereruthlessexploitersandextractorswhoseJudeo-Christianheritagesupportedthemintheirbeliefintherightnessoftheirownpowerandprivilege,andwhosetabouttearingupnatureandruiningthenativeswithsomethingclosetopurposeandintention.

ThereisnoquestionthatWesternhistoryprovidessomecandidatesforthisticket.Insomeruthlessepisodesofwar,inminingcampswherenaturehadonlytheroleofthepackageinwhichtreasurecame(apackagetobediscardedlikeChristmaswrappingswhenthetreasurewasremoved),intheexploitationoftimberwhereloggersrippedthroughforestsasifforestswereindeedthehomeofSatan,responsenumbertwoseemsliketheaccurateone.TherewereindeedparticipantsinWesternexpansionwholookasiftheytooktheirtrainingcoursesinpioneeringfromurbanstreetgangs,fromthieves,fromarsonists,fromcriminalswhospecializedinthemaliciousdestructionofproperty.

Butthatisnotthewholestory.Neithertheforgiving"greatestgoodforthegreatestnumber"responsenorthecondemning"greedheadsoutonaroundofdestruction"responsecomesanywhereneartogivinga

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fullportraitofthecomplexityofthenineteenth-centuryparticipantsinWesternexpansion.Bothresponses,infact,shareonepremiseincommon:thatinAmerica,moneytalks.Responsenumberone:moneytalks,butinhumanhands,thatmoreorlessworksoutforthebest,andthemajorityofpeopleintheWestendupokay.Responsenumbertwo:moneytalks,andthisviciousforcedrivesanengineofenvironmentalandculturaldestruction.

Well,certainlymoneymatters,andnointerpretationoftheWestcangoanywherewithoutthatrecognition.Butotherthingsmattertoo,andmatteredinthenineteenthcenturyaswell.WhiteAmericanswhoenteredtheWestthenandsetthemselvestoworkdevelopingtheresourceshadaclearideathattheywereagentsofprogress.Ofcourse,thehopeforfinancialgainplayeditsroleinthis,buttherewasalsoastrongcomponentofthemind,aconsiderablefaithinthewordtheyusedfrequently,theword''improvement."Puttingresourcestousewascertainlyaroutetofinancialprofit,butitwasalso,intheirminds,"improvement"andlivingunderthepowerofthatideawasonewayofwearingblinders.Thereareunfortunateconsequences,outcomes,resultsoftheiractionsthatareglaringandvisibletous,butthepoweroftheideaof"improvement"takingwasteplacesandputtingthemtohumanusewassostrongthatthosesideeffectscouldhardlybeseen.Ithink,then,thatmanyofthewhitesettlers(orinvadersorconquerors,accordingtoyourpointofview)wouldhavebeenastonishedbyresponsenumbertwo,thedamningofthepioneersfortheirclear,consciousviolenceanddestruction."Us,destroyers?"theywouldthink."Thisisn'tdestruction,thisisimprovement."

Recognizingthisblindnesstoconsequencedoesnotmeanthatwehavetoadoptblindnessourselves.Recognizingtheirviewpointis,ofcourse,onlyfair,onlyjusticetothedignityofhumansinourpast.ButIshouldsaythatthisisthepartwheresomeoftheWesternhistoriansIrespectmostsaythatIampullingmypunches,turningsoftand

mushy-minded,lettingthesettlers(orinvadersorconquerors)offthehook.

ButthereisanotherpointonwhichIwouldnotbudgethe"improvement"schoolofWesternexpansionwasbynomeansuniversalinthenineteenthcentury.ClearlythisfaithwasnotwinningalotoffansamongIndiansorHispanics,butitwasfarfromuniversalevenamongAnglo-Americans.InabookcalledWitnessestoaVanishingAmerica,LeeMitchellhastracedahistoryofregretofsomewhiteAmericanswhonotedandlamentedthe"priceofprogress"asearlyasthe1830s.Infact,onecangobackbeforethat,backtotheerabeforeAnglo-AmericansreachedtheTrans-MississippiWest,andseesomeofthesamething

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inPuritanleaderslamentingtheinjurytocommunitythatcamefromthegeographicalspreadofcolonistslookingformoreland,inBritishcolonialgovernorswringingtheirhandsoverthedamagedonetoIndianrelationsbyirresponsiblecolonialland-hunters.ContrarytosimplemindedimagesofAmericanhistory,therewasneveruniversalnationalgleeoverWesternexpansiontheeraoftheMexican-AmericanWar,forinstance,hadafullshareofanxious,worriedAmericansconcernedaboutthemoralityoftheconquestofthepresent-daySouthwestandconcernedaboutitseffectonthetroublingquestionofslaveryanditsexpansion.Therewas,inotherwords,alwaysagrouporseveralgroupsinclinedtoseeWesternexpansionmoreasamatterofdeclinethanofprogress,andwearenotimposinglatetwentieth-centuryhindsightinraisingthequestiontoday.

Foranyonewhoistodaya"regretter,"whohasmomentsofthinking,"Whatacontinentitoncewas,"momentsofwonderingwhethertheadditionoftoxicwaste,pesticides,enginesdependentonfossilfuel,andnuclearwastehasbeenaltogetheranimprovement,thenthegoodnewsisthatyouhaveadistinguishedpioneerheritageaswell.Youtoohavealineagereachingbackthroughthedecadesandevencenturies,alineageof''regretters."

Therewas,moreover,somethingaboutWesternexpansionthatmadeitthemostfertilepossiblegroundforregret.Therapid,irreversiblechangeofterritorialexpansionandresourcedevelopmentcarriedapredictablesideeffectinnostalgia;suchaheadlongpaceofchangemadeitinevitablethatbefore-and-aftercontrastswouldhauntpeople'smemories,andalargenumberofpeoplewouldthusfindthemselvesyearningforwhatwas,yearningforwhathadbeen,andoutofthatyearningwouldcomeanalmostirresistibleurgetoromanticizethepast,toimaginelostandimpossiblegoldenagesofharmonyorbraveryornobilityoropportunity.Westernersdevelopedthehabitofplungingforwardintothefuturewiththeireyescastbackward,over

theirshoulders,intoavanishedEden,lostbeforeiteverfullyexisted.

Thereis,inaddition,apatternofthoughtthathasbeengrowinginpoweroverthetwentiethcentury,thepatternofthoughtbywhichonelooksattheFlatironsborderingBoulderandthenlooksattheroadsandthecarsandtheshoppingmalls,andthinks,"Ohdear,thishasn'tworkedoutwellatall."

ThatistheperspectiveimpliedinthetitleofthisbookASocietytoMatchtheScenery,withtheapparentassumptionbeingthat,uptothispoint,thesceneryhasconsiderablyoutscoredthesociety.Thescenery,byandlarge,looksbetterthanthesociety.Butweareonlyabletomakethatobservationweareonlyabletofindthesocietywanting

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becausethewholeeconomicandpoliticalstructurethatWesternexpansionbuiltallowsustobeheretojudgeitsoharshly.Wecanraisethequestionofwhatsortofsocietywould,actually,suitthescenery,becauseweliveinasocietythatasksthosequestions.ItisalmostasiftheparticipantsinWesternexpansionstruggledandworkedandfoughtandextractedandexploited,allsothatwecouldcomealongin1988andpickonthemandpointouttheirflawsandtheirsinsandthemultiplewaysinwhichtheythoughttheyweremakingprogress,butwereinfactmakingamess.

BillHornbyfromTheDenverPostwroteacolumnaboutthisconference,andinthecolumnheexpressedthehopethatwewouldnotenditindespair,thatwewouldinsteadfindgroundsforcontinuingtothinkoftheWestas,inWallaceStegner'sphrase,thegeographyofhope.I'mnotsureifthisisexactlywhathehadinmind,orifhewillsettleforthis,butIwillreturntomyearliernotion,thatwemaybegoingtohellinahandbasket,butthecompanyandtheopportunityforconversationarebothexcellentinthatjourney.And(hereiswherethehopecomesin)itstillseemstomethatifwemakethatconversationfrankanddirectandopen,andifwefaceupfullytothedeclineaswellastheprogressrecordedinWesternhistory,wemaybeabletochangethedirectionofourcollectivevehicle,oratleasttoslowitdownandgiveourselvesmoretimetotalk.

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ASOFTWINDBLOWINGTHROUGHTHEAMERICANWESTTerryTempestWilliams

Pima.Papago.Apache.Navajo.Hopi.Zuni.Cochiti.Zia.SantaDomingo.SanCarlos.Jicarilla.Mescalero.Jemez.Acoma.Comanche.Crow.Blackfoot.Bannock.Sioux.Dakota.Oglala.Teton.Osage.Assinowan.Shoshoni.Ute.Goshute.Paiute.Arapaho.Cheyenne.Shawnee.Pawnee.Kiowa.GrosVentre.NezPerce.Pomo.Klamath.Miwok.Mono.Yakima.Tewa.Tegwa.Mojave.Shivwits.Walapi.Havasupi.Hispanic.Asian.Black.Slavic.Scandinavian.Irish.Italian.Greek.Basque.Mennonite.AndMormon.

Achantofregionaldiversitythatcallsthesepeopleintobeing.AmantraofjustsomeofthesubculturesoftheAmericanWest.

Andwhatisthevalueofsuchdisparatevoices?Imaintainitisinthestorieswetell;thestoriesthatbindustotheland.

IrecallhikingintheJedediahSmithWilderness,onthewesternslopeoftheTetons.Amanjoinedmeonthetrail.WestruckupaconversationandIaskedhimwherehewasfrom.Helookedatmewithatwinkleinhiseyeandbeganwhistlinglikethewind.Ididn'tknowwhattosay.Puzzled,Ishruggedmyshoulders.Hesmiled.

"Laramie,"hesaid.

Thismanknowshisplaceandthewindthatblowsthroughhiscountry.Andhehasastory.

Astorykeepsthingsknown.Itistheumbilicalcordthatconnectsustothepast,present,andfuture.Astoryallowsustoenvisionthepossibilityofthings.Itdrawsonthepowersofmemoryand

imagination.Itawakensustooursurroundings.Itremindsuswhoweareandwherethesourceofourpowerlies.

Nativepeopleshavealwaysknownthisthattheearthisastoriedlandscape.

LutherStandingBear,aLakota,recalls:

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Lakotachildren,likeallothers,askedquestionsandwereansweredtothebestabilityofourelders.Wewonderedasdoallyoung,inquisitiveminds,aboutthestars,moon,sky,rainbows,darkness,andallotherphenomenaofnature.Icanrecalllyingontheearthandwonderingwhatitwasallabout.Thestarswereabeautifulmysteryandsowastheplacewheretheeaglewentwhenhesoaredoutofsight.Manyofthesequestionswereansweredinstoryformbytheolderpeople.Howwegotourpipestone,wherecorncamefrom,andwhylightningflashedintheskywereallansweredinstories.2

MariaChona,aPapagowoman,explainshowachildlearnedamongherpeople:"Myfatherwentontalkingtomeinaverylowvoice.Thisishowourpeoplealwaystalktotheirchildren,solowandquiet,thechildthinksheisdreaming.Butheneverforgets."3

AndthenIrememberaskingRennyShortbull,aSiouxboyoftwelve,wherehewouldtakemeinhiscountry.

"IwouldtakeyoutotheSt.FrancisMissionbecausethatiswherethestorytellersare.Theyknowthewaysofourpeople.Iwouldtakeyoutherefirst."

RennyShortbullknowsthatstoriesgrowoutofcommunity,thattheydefine,elucidate,andinformourworld.Theyteachuswhatispossible,whatwecancounton,whatwecanholdontointhemidstofchange.

Storymaintainsastabilitywithinthatcommunity,providingcommonknowledgeastohowthingsare;howthingsshouldbe.Knowledgebasedinexperience.Astoryhasacompositepersonalitythatbecomestheconscienceofthegroup.Itbelongstoeveryone.

Breathedeeply.ItisthesmellofsageweshareintheWest,themutualityofstoriesthattelluswhoweare.

TheKalahariBushmenhavesaid,"Astoryislikethewind.Itcomes

fromafar-offplaceandwefeelit."

ItwasgoingtobealongridehomeforfifteenNavajochildren.Droppingkidsofffive,ten,andtwentymilesapartisnosmalltask.Wewerecommittedforthenight.ThesunhadjustvanishedbehindGiant'sKnuckles,causingthoseinthebackofthepickuptohuddleclose.

"Itgetscoldinthedesert,"Isaid.

"It'swinter,"oneofthechildrenreplied.Theycoveredtheirmouthswiththeirhands,giggling,aswecontinuedtobumpalongthedirtroadssurroundingMontezumaCreek.WhatdidthedriverandIknow?WewereAnglos.

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Wehadbeendownbytheriverfortheafternoon.Athinveneeroficehadcoalescedalongitsedge.Thechildren,bendingdown,wouldbreakoffpiecesandholdthembetweentheirthumbsandforefingers.Beforetheicewouldmelt,somebroughtthethinsheetstotheireyesasalens,whileothersplacedthemintheirmouthsandsuckedontheriver.Stillotherswingedtheicesheetsacrossthecobbles,watching,listeningtothemshatterlikeglass.

Lifeontheriver'sedgewasseeninwhirligigbeetles,waterskaters,andcaddisflylarvaeunderstones.Canadageeseflewabovethechannel,landingforbriefintervals,thencontinuingontheirway.Thechildrenfollowedtracks,expectingtomeetapackofstraydogshidinginthetamarisks.Ourshadowsgrewlongerwiththelastlightofdayreflectingonriverrapidsandwillows.

Thehoursbytheriverwerewellspent.Now,inthebackofthepickup,thechildrentoldtalesofdayswhenahorsecouldenterahoganandleaveasaman;ofskinwalkersdisguisedascoyoteswhostalkthereservationwithbonesintheirhands,scratchingwhitecrossesonthedoorsofill-fatedhouseholds.Theyspokeofwhiteowls,ghostlyflashesoflightthatcanturnthebloodofmiceintomilk.

Justthen,myfriendhitthebrakes.Thoseinthebackfellforward.

"Didyouseethat?"

"What?"weallasked.

"Amountainlion!Itstreakedacrosstheroad.I'llswearitwasalltail!"

Thechildrenwhisperedamongthemselves,"MountainLion..."

Wefiledoutofthetruck.MyfriendandIwalkedafewfeetahead.Wefoundthetracks.Arosette.Five-toedpads,clawless,imprintedonthesand,inspiteofthecold.

"Noquestion,"Isaid."Lion.Iwonderwheresheisnow?"

Lookingintothedarkness,Icouldonlyimaginethedesertcatstaringbackatus.Ilookedoveratthechildren.Mostofthemwereleaningagainstthetruckasheadlightsapproached.

"What'sgoingon?"alocalNavajomanaskedasherolleddownthewindowofhispickupwithhismotoridling.

Myfriendrecognizedhimastheuncleofoneofthechildren."Wethinkwesawamountainlion,"hesaid.

"Where?Howlongago?"

Theothermaninthecabofthetruckaskedifweweresure.

"Prettysure,"Isaid."Lookatthesetracks."

Themengotoutoftheirvehicleandshinedtheirflashlightsonthegrounduntiltheypickeduptheprints.Oneofthemenkneltdownandtouchedthem.

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"Thisisnotgood,"theNavajounclesaid."Theykilloursheep."

Helookedintothenightandthenbackatus."Whatcolorofeyesdidithave?"

MyfriendandIlookedateachother.TheNavajoelderbeganrecitingthecolorofanimals'eyesatnight.

"Deer'seyesareblue.Coyote'seyesarered."Hisnephewinterruptedhim."Greenthelion'seyesweregreen."

Thetwomensaidtheywouldbebackwiththeirgunsandsonstomorrow.

Wereturnedtothetruck,myfrienddrivingwithahandfulofkidsupfrontandtherestinthebackaroundmeaswenestledtogetherunderblankets.Thechildrenbecameunusuallyquiet,speakinginlow,seriousvoicesaboutwhymountainlionsareconsidereddangerous.

"It'smorethanjustkillingsheep,"onechildexplained."MountainLionisagod,oneofthesupernaturalsthathaspoweroverus."

Eachchildgaveawaylittlebitsofknowledgeconcerningthelion:thatitchirpslikeabirdtofoolyou;thatpartsofitsbodyareusedformedicine;thatintheolddays,huntersusedthesinewoflionfortheirbows.Thechildrengrewmoreandmoreanxiousasfearseizedtheirthroats.Theywerehushed.

Wetraveledthroughthestarlitdesertinsilence,exceptforthehumofthemotorandfourwheelsflyingoverthewashboard.

Intime,fromtherearofthepickup,cameaslow,deliberatechant.Navajowordsgentle,deepmeanderingsofmusicbornoutofhealing.Icouldnottellwhohadinitiatedthesong,butonebyoneeachchildenteredthemelody.Overandovertheysangthesamemonotonousnotes,dreamlikeatfirst,untilgraduallythecadencequickened.The

children'smoodbegantolighten,andtheyswayedbackandforth.Whathadbegunasacautious,fearfultoneemergedasajoyousone.Theireldershadtaughtthemwell.Theyhadsungthemselvesbacktohozho,theplacewithinwheretheworldisbalancedandwhole.

Afterthelastchildhadbeentakenhome,myfriendandIwereleftwitheachother,buttheechoofthechildren'schantremained.Withmanymilestogo,werolleddownthewindowsinthecabofthetruck,lettingthechilledairblowthrough.

MountainLion,whoseeyesIdidnotsee,layonthemesa,herwhiskersretrievingeachnotecarriedbythewind.

Wehavemuchtolearn.Andthereareotherstories.

In1910TsuruandKinjiKurumadaleftJapanandimmigratedtoRichfield,Utah.KinjiKurumadawasafarmer.HelovedtheUtahsoil,

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whichyieldedrobustharvestsofpotatoes,tomatoes,melons,andcorn.Dayafterdayheworkedtheland.ButperhapsMr.Kurumadawasbestknownforhiscanyonlettuceandforhowhesuppliedneighboringcountieseachyearwithhisgreens.Therewerefamilypriorities.Eachspringthelettucewasplantedwayintothenight,asithadtobeharvestedbeforetheFourthofJuly.Themoonwouldshine.Theseedswouldbefoldedintotheearth.Andasritualwouldhaveitformorethanthirtyyears,thecanyonlettucegrewandwasharvestedearly,justasthecommunityhadcometoexpectyearafteryear.

Mr.Kurumadaalsohadanuncannygiftforrecognizingsoils.Itgrewoutofhisintimacywiththeland.Itwasagamewithresidents,bringingtheoldmansamples.Theywouldholdouttheirhands,dirtinbothpalms,andask,"Wherearethesefrom?"

Hewouldlookatthem,mullthemoverinhisownfingers,andthenreply,"ThisisfromMonroeMountainandthissoilbelongstoCapitolReef."

Andthenotherlocalswouldcomeforthwithtwomorehandfuls.Theoldmanwouldmakeaclodfromtheloosedirt."Glacialtill.Draper,Utah.AndthislookslikeBigCottonwoodCanyon."

Hewasusuallyright.KinjiKurumadaknewhisground,establishingafirmsenseofplaceforhimselfandhisfamily.

InthespringMarch15,1942,tobeexactJuneKurumada,sonofKinjiKurumada,wasonabusforCalifornia.HewastravelingwithmembersoftheJapanese-AmericanCitizen'sLeague.Thebuswasstopped.Junewaspulledoff,arrested,andjailed.ItwasthebeginningoftheinternmentcampsforJapanese-Americans.HadKinjiKurumadabeenaroundtocheckthesoils,hewouldhavefoundtwohandfuls;onefromTopaz,Utah;theotherfromHeartMountain,Wyoming.

ThereareproblemsintheAmericanWest.Ithasneverbeeneasy.

IrecalltravelingtonorthernNewMexico,takingthehighroadsfromSantaFetoTaos.IstoppedintheSpanishvillageofChimayoandenteredthesantuario.Backhome,mygrandmotherwasveryill.Isatonthewoodenpewscarvedbyavillagerandprayed.Anelderlywomansittingnexttometookmyhandandsaid,"Vente;come."

Ifollowedherdownthecenteraislepastthealtarofcandlesintoasmallroom.Therewasaholeinthefloorwheretheearthwasexposed.Shekneltbesidethered,sandysoilandtooksomeinhand.Iwatchedhergentlyrubherpalmstogetherwiththeblessedearthandthencrossherself.Shelookedupatme,placedherhandonmyshoulder,rose,andleft.

Alone,Ikneltdownasshehad,tooksomeoftheredearthasshehad,andrubbeditbetweenmyhandswithmygrandmotherinmind.I

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markedmyforeheadandprayedinthemannerIwasaccustomedto.

Outinthecourtyard,theHispanicwomanwaited.

"Latierracura,"shewhispered."TheMotherEarthheals."

"Gracias,"Ireplied,andwepartedways.

Latierracura.Theearthheals.

AwomanfromChimayoknows.Navajochildrenwhosingthemselvesbacktohealthknow.SodoesthesonofaJapanesefarmerwhohasinhistokunoma(thegallerywherebeautyisdisplayed)riverstonesandsoilsamplesfromthecanyonwherehisfatherharvestedlettuce.

Stories.Morestories.Werememberwherethesourceofourpowerlies.

Coulditbe,asFrederickTurnersuggestsinBeyondGeography,thatthetruestoryoftheWesternsettlementisaspiritualone?

Fivegenerationsback,whenMormoncolonizerBrighamYoungstoodonthethresholdoftheSaltLakevalleyandsaid,"Thisistheplace,"myancestorsunderstoodthattheirlivesdependedonthegraceoftheGreatBasintofeedtheirsoulsaswellastheirbodies.

Isharetheirsentiments,andafter141yearsofcontinualsettlement;aresidencyofDixons,Blacketts,Romneys,andTempests,thisismyhome.Ichoosetodigin,knowingeventuallymyboneswilllienexttotheirs.

Iamtalkingaboutaspiritofplace,andthehumannecessitytorealizeitselfthroughcommunity,whichisindirectcorrespondencetotheland.ThesubculturesoftheWesthaveeitheradaptedtoahomelandorareintheprocessofadoptingone,anditisthisrelationshipbetweenlandscapeandcommunitythatisbestarticulatedthrough

story.

ItisamatterofbecomingnativenotNavajo,Hopi,orSioux,butratherrecognizingwithinwhateversubculturewebelongtothatthereisasenseofplace.Wecanarticulateourrelationshiptotheland,honoringourownnaturalautobiographies,realizingwildriversrunthroughourveins.

D.H.Lawrencespeaksofthe"futureprimitive,"themanandwomancourageousenoughtoseeinthelandtheirdestinyandbraveenoughtoengageinit.Hesays:

Theywentlikebirdsdownthegreatelectricdirectionofthewest,liftedlikemigratingbirdsonamagneticcurrent.Theywentinsubtlevibrationofresponsetothenewearth,asanimalstravelfardistancesvibratingtothesalt-licks.

Theywalkedanewearth,wereseizedbyanewelectricity,andlaidinlinedifferently.Theirbones,theirnerves,theirsinewstookonanewmoleculardispositioninthenewvibration.

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Theybreathedasavageairandtheirbloodwassuffusedandburnt.Anewfiercesaltoftheearth,intheirmouthspenetratedandalteredthesubstanceoftheirbones.Meatofwildcreatures,cornoftheaboriginalearth,filledandimpregnatedthemwiththeunknownAmerica.

Inmanyways,theunknownAmerica,thisunknownAmerica,stillexists.AsHermanMelvilletellsus,"Itisnotdowninanymap;trueplacesneverare."5Andso,asLawrencegoesontosay,"nowwewaitforthefulfillmentforthelawinthewest,theinceptionofaneweraofliving....Wewaitforthemiracle,forthenewsoftwind."6

Disparatevoices,speakingonbehalfofthelandweholdthissprigofsageandremember.

IfthereisamiracleintheWest,itisinthefabricthesesubculturescreate;thetensionandstrengthwoventogetherthroughregionaldiversity;thewarpdressedbyindividualcommunitiesandtheweftcreatedbythelandscapethatbindsus.

Itisherewemustidentifyourclout,ourregionality,asaphilosophicalandpoliticalentity.Notoutofprovincialism,butoutoftheJeffersonianmodelthat"unitedwestand,dividedwefall."MonocultureintheWestisaby-productoflazinessandgrief,alackofpassionwithnohomelandtolove.

Latierracura.Theearthheals.

Wespeakofthesethings,tothemutualityofourstoriesandstandourground.

PeterSchragg,inaneditorialfortheOregonian,June7,1988,writes,"ItistimefortheWesttostopplayingtotheEast,justastheEast,stopplayingtoEurope.TheAmericanorientationfromthefifteenthcentury,wellbeforetherewasanAmerica,alwayshasbeenthatofEastfacingWest.Inasense,theEastimaginedtheWestintobeingasmuchasWesternrealityshapedtheEast'simagination.TheEaststill

lookstotheWest,primarilyforcuriositiesandaberrations,ratherthanforcomprehensionandperspective.Unfortunately,theWesthasbeentooreadytooblige."7

Standingground.TheWesthasitsissues:environmental,economic,social,andcultural.Theyarecompoundedbythesubculturesmoreoftenthantheyarereformed.Weneedtofindcommonground,waysofexpressingourselvesandofarticulatingnationalinterestsinourownterms.Weneedageopoliticsofthisregion,anditsseedsmaybefoundinstory.

In1950governmentagentsproposedtogetridofprairiedogsonsomepartsoftheNavajoreservationinordertoprotecttherootsofthe

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sparsedesertgrassandtherebymaintainsomemarginalgrazingforsheep.TheNavajoobjected,insisting,"Ifyoukilloffalltheprairiedogs,therewillbenoonetocryfortherain."TheamusedgovernmentofficialsassuredtheNavajothattherewasnocorrelationbetweenrainandprairiedogs,andtheycarriedouttheirexperiment.

Theoutcomewassurprisingonlytothegovernmentofficials.Today,theareanearChilchinbito,Arizona,hasbecomevirtuallyawastelandwithverylittlegrass.Withouttheground-turningprocessoftheburrowinganimals,thesoilhasbecomesolidlypacked,unabletoacceptrain.Theresult:fiercerunoffwheneveritrains.Whatsparsevegetationwasoncetherehasbeencarriedawaybyfloodingwaters.

"Ifyoutakeawaytheprairiedogs,therewillbenoonetocryfortherain."Earthwisdominherentinstories.

RalphWaldoEmerson115yearsagosaid,"WehavelistenedtothecourtlymusesofEurope.Wedeclaredanintentiontowalkonourownfeet,workwithourownhandsandspeakwithourownmind."8

IfthereisamindoftheWest,perhapsitisthemindoftheland,asdiverseandrichasthecommunitiesthatinhabitit.IfweloseourspiritualtietotheWestor,insomecases,neverfindit,webecomethetumbleweedthatblowsacrosstheinterstate.Nosenseofplace.Nostoriestoevokewhoweareandallweareconnectedto.Nocommunitiestokeepuswhole.Culturaldiversityislostandthelandisgivenaway.Storiesgiveusresidency.Wearejustnowintheprocessofdiggingin,andIbelievewehaveitinustobecomenative.

Afewdaysago,IwasatthePackCreekRanchinMoab,Utah.Afriendofminehadcomewesttoseethecanyoncountry.WehadspentthedayhikingCourthouseWashinArchesNationalParkandwerehavingarelaxeddinner.Utahisasmallplace,especiallyinthedesert.Everyoneknowseveryoneelse.Andso,onebyone,friendsstarted

poppingin.Iintroducedthemtomyfriend,andwebegantalking,tellingstoriesofwherewehadbeenandwherewewantedtogo.Finallymycompanionsaid,"Stop,waitaminute.Doyouhearyourselves?Youpeopleoutheretalkaboutthelandasthoughitwasaperson.Youtalkaboutthelandasthoughithadcharacter."

MayIsuggestthatweareinvolvedinarenaissanceofthoughtandaction,thatweareintheprocessofcreatinganewsubcultureinalandscapeofmany.AndinthelandscapethatIamapartof,wherecanyonwallsriseupwardlikeprayinghands,acountryofredrocksandravens,wehaveamodel:Coyoté.

WhentheNavajosspeakofCoyotétheydosohesitantly,lookingovertheirshoulders,checkingthetimeofyear,sotheywon'tbeheard.Theyknowhisstoriesaretoldonlyafterthefirstfrostandneverafter

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thelastthaw.TheirculturehasbeenformedbyCoyoté.Heisprofaneandheissacred.Abumblerandahero.Hestraddlesthecanyonwallswithwildoatsinhisbelly.Andtheyknowhimbyname,''Ma'ii,"theonenevertobetakenforgranted.Theyunderstandhisficklenature,howheseducesfoolsintobelievingtheirownmythsthattheymattertothelifeofthedesert.

Coyotéknowswedonotmatter.Heknowsrockscarenothingforthosewhowanderthroughthem;andyethealsoknowsthatthosesameindividualswhocarefortherockswillfindopenings,largeopenings,thatbecomepassagewaysintotheunseenworld,wheremusicisseenthroughdove'swingsandwisdomisgleanedfromthetailsoflizards.Coyotéisalwaysnearbybutremainshidden.Heisanallybecausehecaresenoughtostaywary.Heteachesushowtosurvive.

ItisCoyotéwhowandersnakedinthedesertandleaveshisskinonthehighway,allowingustobelieveheisdead.Heknowssunburnedfleshisbetterthanatannedhide,thatdaysspentinthedesertaredayssoakingupstrength.Hecanretrievehiscoatandfluffuphisfurafteradayinthewildernessandmeetanyman,woman,orchildonthestreetsofMoabandseducethemfordinner.Coyotéknowsitistheproportionofdaysspentinwildnessthatcountsinurbanesavvy.

Coyoté'showlabovethecanyonsaysthedesertmaynotdependonhislife,buthislifedependsonthedesert.

Wewoulddowelltolisten.

ThecanyonsofsouthernUtahandelsewherearegivingbirthtoaCoyotéClanhundreds,maybeeventhousandsofindividualswhoarequietlysubversiveonbehalfoftheland.Andtheyareinfiltratingourneighborhoodsinthemostrespectableways,withtheirlong,bushytailstuckeddiscreetlyinsidetheirpantsorbeneaththeirskirts.

Membersoftheclanarenoteasilyidentified,butthereareclues.Youcanseeitintheireyes.Theyarejoyfulandtheyarefierce.Theycancrylouderandlaughharderthananyoneontheplanet.Andtheyhaveenormousrange.TheCoyotéClanisaraucousbunch:Theyhavedrunkfromdesertpotholesandbelchedforthtoads.Theytellstorieswithsuchvirtuositythatyou'llswearyouhavebeeninthepresenceofpreachers.TheCoyotéClanisalsoserene.Itsmemberscanfloatontheirbacksdownthelengthofanyriverorloseentireafternoonsinthecontemplationofstone.Membersoftheclancourtriskandwilldanceonslickrockasflashfloodserodethegroundbeneaththeirfeet.Itdoesn'tmatter.Theyunderstandtheearthrecreatesitselfdayafterday.

Sametribe.TheCoyotéClanharborsmyriadsofstoriesthatevokeasenseofplace,asenseofbelongingtosomethingmuchlargerthanourselves.

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Latierracura.Theearthheals.

Thevalueofregionaldiversityliesinthemutualityofourtales.Disparatevoicesarticulatingtheland,remembering,discoveringwherethesourceofourpowerlies.

AnewsoftwindblowingthroughtheAmericanWestispavingthewayforthe"futureprimitive."Itisaspotentandirresistibleastheritualofburningsage.

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HEALTHYENVIRONMENT,HEALTHYECONOMY:AMERICANINDIANLESSONSWalterEcho-Hawk

IhaveabasicpremisethattherecanbenohealthyeconomyintheAmericanWestwithoutahealthyenvironment.ItisapremisebasedontheexperienceoftheWest'soldestresidentstheAmericanIndians.WhenonecontemplatestheAmericanWest,whetheritbeofthepast,thepresent,orthefuture,itisimpossibletoroundoutthepicturewithouttakingintoaccounttheIndiantribes.WhenwelookintothemoreremotebackyardsofeachoftheWesternstates,wefindalargenumberofself-governingIndiantribesthatarealiveandwell,thatenjoyuniqueculturesfoundnowhereelseintheworld,andthatareinpossessionoflargetractsoflandcalledIndianreservations.Andthoughthetribesarestrickenwithchronicpoverty,theseIndianreservationsholdvastnaturalresources,andthereforeAmericanIndianshavearoletoplayintheAmericaneconomy.

UnderthestewardshipoftheIndiantribes,muchoftheselandsremainsinapristine,undevelopedcondition.Assuch,theseIndianlandsareamongthelastvestigesofthetrueAmericanWestinitsnaturalstate.WethereforebelievethatthetribestrulyinhabitthelastbestplaceinAmerica.

ButwhatdoesthefutureholdforAmericanIndianstheirculture,theirlandsasweadvanceintothenextcentury?WillwecontinuetoexistintheAmericanWestonehundredyearsfromnow,aswedotoday?Thisisaquestionthatisonourminds.

In1492ChristopherColumbusfirstcametotheseshores.

IthasbeenalmostfivehundredyearssincethefirstEuro-Americans

arrived.Maybeitistimetotakestockofwhereweareatthispointinhistory.Inthatrelativelyshorttimespan,ManifestDestinyhasrunitscourse.Thatistosay,youguysnowowneverythingherefromcoasttocoast.Thewhitemanhassubduedthetribes,hastamedthewilderness,hasalteredtheenvironmenttosuithispreferences,andnow

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exercisescompleteandabsolutedominionoverthebeastsandbirdsthatinhabittheAmericanWest.Whatnowislefttobedone,andwhatkindofstewardshipoverthelandwillnowoccur?Theseareissuesthatvitallyconcernallofus,includingtheAmericanIndian.Aswebegintoenterthenextcenturytogether,afterfivehundredyearsofoccupationof,andpresumablyadaptationto,thisland,canwenowhopeforamaturingsocietyandamaturingeconomy?Canwenowhope,forexample,forakinder,gentlereconomicsystemthatislessharshontheenvironment?OnepartofthatmaturingprocessistheneedforsocietytocometotermswiththeAmericanIndian.

Contrarytopopularbelief,the"vanishingredman"theoryofthelastcenturywaserroneous.Weneverdidvanish.ThetribesarestillhereandhavenointentionofleavingtheAmericanWest.Infact,mosttraditionalIndianbeliefsarethatwewillbeherelongafterthewhitemanhasgone.Nevertheless,theredmancontinuestoremainavirtualmysterytohisnon-Indianneighbors.Ourreligion,ourculture,ourhopesandexpectationsallremainamystery.AndwhatwillbetheplaceandtheroleoftheAmericanIndianinourever-maturingsocietyaswegosidebysideintothenextcentury?Certainlyourrolesandourrelationshipsmustchangeinfundamentalways.Historically,asweallknow,thewhitemanhastakenthingsthatbelongedtotheIndianinaone-waypatternthatmustnowbereversed,iffornootherreasonthanthattheIndiannolongerhasmuchlefttogive.TheAmericanIndiancontributiontothisrelationship,asweknow,hasincludedthegivingofIndianlandsandnaturalresources.Evenourreligionsandcultureshavebeendeemedexpendable.EvenourdeadhavebeentakenfromusandtreatedasAmerica'sarchaeologicalresources.Thispatternofexploitationmustceaseasweapproachourfive-hundred-yearanniversary,andanewracialrelationship,apatternofcoexistence,mustbefounded.

Whyisthisso?Foronething,itissimplynotgoodforoneraceto

sociallyoreconomicallyexploitanother.TheAmericanIndianisaminer'scanarywhenitcomestoAmericanliberties,justliketheAmericaneagleistheminer'scanarywhenitcomestotheenvironmentalhealthoftheland.AsFelixS.Cohen,thefatheroffederalIndianlaw,oncewrote,"TheIndianplaysmuchthesameroleinourAmericansocietythattheJewsplayedinGermany.Liketheminer'scanary,theIndianmarkstheshiftsfromfreshairtopoisongasinourpoliticalatmosphere;andourtreatmentofIndians,evenmorethanourtreatmentofotherminorities,reflectstheriseandfallinourdemocraticfaith."9Bearingthatinmind,itismyhopethatthefreedomofAmericanIndianstobethemselvesandtoenjoytheirownreligionand

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culturewillbeprotectedandrespectedthroughouttheAmericanWest,atleasttothesameextentthatthefederallawsprotecttheendangeredsnaildarterortheAmericaneagle,sothatourtribalpeoplesandourirreplaceablewaysoflifewillnotperish.Itisonlythroughagenuineunderstandingandmutualrespectthatourdifferentpeoplescancoexist.

Butwhatdothesethingshavetodowitheconomicdevelopmentin

theAmericanWest?Perhapsnothingatall,for,asImentionedearlier,wearethepoorestofthepoor,livingintherichestcountryontheplanet.Wearestrangerstoeconomicdevelopment.Butperhapsthereissomerelationship,atleastinsofarasahealthyenvironmentandahealthyeconomyareconnectedwithoneanother.ItisherethatAmericanIndians,iftheyareallowedtoexist,canofferatleastsomesmallspiritualguidance.Whetherwelikeitornot,Westernersmustacknowledgethelong-standingspiritualrelationshipoftheAmericanIndiantotheland.AndmaybeinthatregardwehavesomethingtooffertothedominantelementofAmericansociety,which,maybe,hasnotquiteyetadaptedtothelandaswellasitmustifwearetosurviveandflourish.

SiouxChiefLutherStandingBear,notingtherecentarrivalofthewhitemanandtheneedforadaptation,oncesaid:

Thewhiteman...doesnotunderstandAmerica.Heistoofarremovedfromitsformativeprocesses....ThemanfromEuropeisstillaforeignerandanalien.Andhestillhatesthemanwhoquestionedhispathacrossthecontinent.

ButintheIndianthespiritofthelandisstillvested;itwillbeuntilothermenareabletodivineandmeetitsrhythm.Menmustbebornandreborntobelong.Theirbodiesmustbeformedofthedustoftheirforefathers'bones.10

LetmeclosebycitinganexcerptofaspeechofChiefSeattle.Thesecommentsweremademorethanonehundredyearsago,in1854,toAmericangovernmentnegotiatorswhowereaskingtobuyChiefSeattle'slandnearthepresent-daycityofSeattle.

Everypartofthissoilissacredintheestimationofmypeople.Everyhillside,everyvalley,everyplainandgrove,hasbeenhallowedbysomesadorhappyeventindayslongvanished.Eventherocks,whichseemtobedumbanddeadastheyswelterinthesunalongthesilentshore,thrillwithmemoriesofstirringeventsconnectedwiththelivesofmypeople,andtheverydustuponwhichyounowstandrespondsmorelovinglytotheirfootstepsthantoyours,becauseitisrichwiththebloodofourancestorsandourbarefeetareconsciousofthesympathetictouch.Ourdepartedbraves,fondmothers,glad,

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happy-heartedmaidens,andevenourlittlechildrenwholivedhereandrejoicedhereforabriefseason,willlovethesesombersolitudesandateventidetheygreetshadowyreturningspirits.AndwhenthelastRedManshallhaveperished,andthememoryofmytribeshallhavebecomeamythamongtheWhiteMen,theseshoreswillswarmwiththeinvisibledeadofmytribe,andwhenyourchildren'schildrenthinkthemselvesaloneinthefield,thestore,theshop,uponthehighway,orinthesilenceofthepathlesswoods,theywillnotbealone.Inalltheearththereisnoplacededicatedtosolitude.Atnightwhenthestreetsofyourcitiesandvillagesaresilentandyouthinkthemdeserted,theywillthrongwiththereturninghoststhatoncefilledthemandstilllovethisbeautifulland.TheWhiteManwillneverbealone.11

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LAND,COMMUNITY,ANDSURVIVAL:LESSONSFORTHEWESTFROMAMERICANINDIANSDavidH.Getches

WeshouldbegladthatthelawrecognizesspecialrightsforAmericanIndians.IndianlawthatbodyoftreatiesandstatutesdefiningthelegalstatusofNativeAmericansisatoolthathashelpedIndiansholdfasttoatleastsomeoftheirland.BecauselandandresourcesarethefoundationofIndianculture,savingsomevestigesoftheirformerhomelandalsokeptaliveculturesandtraditionsthatdefineIndianness.Weallshouldrejoiceinthat.ThemostbasicIndiantraditionaphilosophyofpermanencecaninspirethesuccessofourownsociety.Letmeexplain.

WesternerssufferakindofschizophreniaaboutIndians.ThereisconsiderablehostilitytowardthepreservationofspecialIndianlegalrights.Non-Indianswhoseimmediateself-interestispinchedresenttheIndians'legalentitlementstowater,ortofish,ortolandcovetedresourcesintheWest.Theseextraordinaryrightsareoftencondemnedas"un-American."OnecourtinWashingtonlikenedthemto"titlesofnobility"thatarecontrarytotheUnitedStatesConstitution.

TheothersideoftheWesternpersonality,however,isgladthattherearestillIndianshere,aromanticreminderofpeoplelivingclosetotheearth,acolorfulculturewithenviabletraditions.MostWesternerswouldconsideritatragedyifIndianswereswirledintothemeltingpotofAmericansociety.

OnlybecauseIndianshavebeenabletoclingtotheirlandsandresourceshavetheyhadtheequipmentneededtosurvive.Withoutthe

shieldofsometimes-resentedlegalrights,thatwouldhavebeenimpossible.

UnderstandingtheroleoflandandresourcesincementingtogetherIndianculturesandcommunities,andinensuringthematerial,cultural,andspiritualsurvivalofIndians,isimportanttoourownsurvivalasa

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societyinthenewWest.TheselessonsarethegreatestgiftsthatIndianshavetoofferus,thelessonsdrawnfromtheirsuccessfulsurvivalinthisrugged,butfragile,mostlydryplace.WecanborrowfromtheexperienceofIndiansocietiestofindwaystogivepermanenceandqualitytoourownexistenceintheWest.

Cultureanditsaccoutrementsgivesocietiestheiridentityandtheircontinuity.Cultureembodiesthewisdomofancestorstellingushowtheylearnedtosurviveandhowtoenjoylife.ManyofushaverootssetshallowintheWest,andperhapsthecontinent,aheritageoflessthantwogenerationsforamajorityofWesterners.ManyofourparentsleftbehindadeeperheritageinEurope.Ourancestors'experiencethereandintheindustrializedEastusedculturalequipmentthatwasnotfullyadequateforlifeintheWest.

AmericanIndiansocietiescanhelpusfindanddefineourcultureintheWest.Theirexperienceteachesushowtounderstandouradoptedhomeandhowtofindpermanencehere,ifwewilllistentotheirstory.Weshouldthinkofthemassurrogateancestors,heretoimpartculturalunderstandingtousimmigrants,wewholackacompletecultureofourown,searchingforidentity,community,andsurvival.

TheculturalcontributionsofIndiansareoftenmentionedbuttheirrealvalueisrarelyunderstood.AschoolchildcantellyouthattheIndiansgaveuscornandtobacco(giftsthatmaycanceloutintheirrespectivevaluestosociety).Indianculturalcontributionsarenotlimitedtothesecommodities.TheyextendtonamesArapahoeRoad,atowncalledNiwot(afterthegreatchiefwhofrequentedthisarea).Indian-stylearchitectureaboundsintheSouthwest,liketheUniversityofNewMexicoSchoolofLaw'skivadesign.AndtheartandjewelryanddressoftheregionaretraceabletoNativeAmericans.JackWeatherford'snewbook,IndianGivers,goesfarther,documentingAmericanIndianbreakthroughsinagriculture,medicine,foodand

fiber,andgovernmentthathavebeenvitallyimportanttotheNewWorldandEurope.

MorevaluablethananyoftheotherculturalgiftsIndiansoffer,though,istheirbasicphilosophy.Thatphilosophyenabledthemtosurviveinanaridenvironment,aplacewhereislandsofrichresourceswereseparatedbylongdistances.WeneedtounderstandtheIndians'philosophyofpermanenceandhowitguidedtheirrelationswithoneanotherandwiththeenvironment.TheWest'sfuturemaydependonhowwellwelearntheselessons.

Indiansforgedtheirgroupstightlyaroundtiesoffamilyandcommunity.Individuallyandintheircommunitiestheyadaptedtheirexistence,theireconomies,andtheirlifestylestothewaysofthelandratherthantryingtotametheland.Westernersneedtoaskwhetherwe

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valueourindependenceandself-sufficiencytoomuch.EveryoneofuswhohaslivedthroughatoughwinterstormintheRockiesorhadacarbreakdownonsomebackroadinthemiddleoftheplainshaslearnedthefrailtyoftheindividualitythatopenspacesmakepossible,haslearnedtheimportanceofbeingabletodependonothersforhelpandsupport.

IndiantribesandsomeHispaniccommunitiesintheSouthwestsuccessfullyirrigatedahostilelandusingcollectivesystems.Theearlysettlersignoredtheirexampleandtriedtoirrigatetheirlandsbygoingitalone.Theyfailedatfirst,withtheexceptionoftheMormonpioneers,whowerededicatedtoworkingtogether.Irrigationfinallysucceededwhensettlersjoinedtheirefforts.

TheWest'sIndiansknew,too,thattheymustlearntolivewithnature'swhims.Thisisaplacealwaysinflux,alwayssubjecttonaturaldisasters,todroughts,tofloods,toearthquakes.Survivalrequiresknowingtheplaceandadaptingtoit.Instead,wenewcomerscompoundednaturalriskswithourowndisastersandboom-and-busteconomies.Ambitiousschemesexploitednaturalresources:Mining,damming,draining,andclear-cuttingchangedthefaceoftheWestinonewayoranother.MuchoftheoldWestislost.Old-growthtimberstandsaremuseumpieces;heapsofminetailingsmarthelandscape;canyonshavebecomelakebottoms;wholespecieshavedisappeared.

Wedidnothavetoindulgetheseexcesses;wecouldhavelistenedtotheIndians.Theyhadtheirownexcesses,too,generationsago.TheAnasazifoundthelimitsofartificialirrigationandtheirsocietydied.Theylearnedthehardway.ManyexperienceslikethesewerelongagoembeddedintheNativeAmericanculturalmessage,theiridealofapermanentrelationshipwiththeland.Whyshouldwerepeatmistakesthatimperiledancientpeoples?Needwereprovethetruthstheyteachabouttheland?

ThetwomostvexingissuesintheWesttoday,survivalofcommunitiesandstewardshipofresources,aretiedtogether.Failureononeissueisfailureonboth.Indianculturesofferwisdomonaddressingboth.

First,peopleintheWestneedtofindtheircommunity,theirtiesoftraditionandceremonyandvalues.Theycanusetheircommunitiestosupportoneanotherand,attimes,toallowoneanotherpreciousindividuality.

Second,Westernersneedtokeepaneyeonthelandscape,thesurroundingsthatbindthemtogetherascommunitiesandcangivethemspiritualandmaterialsustenance.Survivaldependsonunderstandingtheland.Weneedacollectiveunderstandingandanimplicitagreementnottooverexploitanddestroytheresourcesthatsustainuslandand

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water.Thoseresourcesareatrisk.Iftheyareexhausted,ordamaged,orspreadamongtoomanypeople,theWestlosessustenanceandtheculturalnexusforitscommunities.

TodaypeoplethroughouttheWestarecomingtogetheranddefiningtheircommunitiesaroundtheresourcesthatareimportanttothemandthatcangivethempermanencehere.FolksonColorado'sWesternSlopefarmers,skiinstructors,ranchers,andstorekeepersrallytogethertoresistabigcity'sschemetode-watertheirhomeland.AsimilarstoryisunfoldingintheSanLuisValley.

Peoplearebeginningtosensethenaturallimitsoftheregion'secology.Wehavemadesomeprogressasaregionandasanationinsecuringapermanentplacewherewecanliveharmoniouslywithoursurroundingsandourneighbors.

TheinterrelatednessofeverythinginourenvironmentisatruthstrangetoEuropeanculture.ButwearegropingtowardanunderstandingofitandreflectingitinlawsliketheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActthatinsistonlookingatthebigpicturebeforeunleashingdevelopment.Wehavehadthewilltosetasidesomelandsforeveraswilderness,someriversaswild,placesthatonlyhalfacenturyagoweresymbolsofhostilityandenmity.Wearegettingseriousaboutstemmingthelossofanymorespecies,bringingbackotterandbuffaloandmaybeevenwolves.Wehaveasensethatdoingthesethingsisessentialtoourpermanentsurvivalinthisregion.Theessenceofthisplaceisatriskifwedonotdothem.Indiansknewthisallalong.

Fortunatelyfortunatelyforusthelawgavetribessomesecurityforsomeoftheirhomelands,enoughtokeepaliveacultureshapedtotheland.Ifwehopetoliveoutourdayshereandconsideritaplaceforourgrandchildren,too,weshouldlistentoandlearnandteachthewisdomonwhichIndiansocietieswerelongagobuilt.

ThesurvivalofWesternculturemaydependuponadaptingourselvesandadoptingsomeofthelessonsofoursurrogateancestors.TheiradaptabilityandsuccessinsurvivingwithdignityisamodelfortheWest.JustasweacceptandinternalizeandactonthelessonsofourGerman,English,Irish,Scandinavianandotherancestors,weoughttogainstrengthandknowledgefromthelessonsofoursurrogateIndianancestors.Listentotheirdrum,too.Ourstrengthtoembracethefutureandtoseekpermanenceforasocietyinthesepartsdependsonintegratingalltheselessons.

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THEAMERICANWESTFROMTHEEASTANDTHESOUTHEvelynHu-Dehart

Bythetitleoftheseremarks,Idon'tmeantheEastandtheSouththewaysomeofyoumaythinkofit.AsaChinesepersongrowingupinChina,IhadvividimagesoftheAmericanWest.Muchofthatcamefromthemovieswewereallowedtosee.Myparentsallowedustoseeonemovieayear.ThatwasourNewYear'streat,andweinevitablylookedformoviesthatfeaturedcowboysandIndians.So,unfortunately,wewerepartofthatlegacyoftheWest,theWestofcowboysandIndians,andIdon'tthinkIhavetoexplaintoyouwhowerealwaysthegoodguysandthebadguysinthosemovies.

ButtherewasalsoanotherAmericanWestthatwassomuchapartofus.We'dallheardoforhadfamilyandfriendswhowenttotheUnitedStatestowork,andparticularlytoaplacecalledTheGoldenMountain,whichwas,ofcourse,SanFrancisco.ThatwastheotherAmericanWestthatallofushadinthebackofourminds.SowhenmyparentstookustoCaliforniaasimmigrantsand,mindyou,myparentswereextremelywell-educatedChinesetheimagethattheygaveusandtherationalethattheyofferedusforwhyweshouldgotoCaliforniawasthatthestreetsofCaliforniawerepavedwithgold.TheyselectedatowncalledPaloAltobecauseofthegoodpublicschoolsandbecause,theytoldus,weallweregoingtogotoStanfordUniversity.Stanford,ofcourse,wasbuiltwithmoneymadebyLelandStanfordmoneymadefromtherailroadsandfromtheexploitationofChineselabor.SothatwasmyviewoftheAmericanWestasachild.

ThenthereistheviewoftheAmericanWestfromMexico.ThereisasayingthatcapturestherelationshipbetweenMexico(particularly

northernMexico)andtheUnitedStates(particularlythewesternandsouthwesternpartsoftheUnitedStates):''PoorMexico,sofarfromGodandsoclosetotheUnitedStates."Whatthey'rethinkingofisthisambiguous,ambivalent,bittersweetrelationshipthatMexicohasalways

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hadwiththeUnitedStates,especiallythewesternandsouthwesternUnitedStates.Forinstance,itwasonlyveryreluctantlyinthelatenineteenthcenturythattheUnitedStatesallowedtherailroadtycoonstoextendtherailroadfromtheAmericanWestintoMexico.

InmystudiesoftheIndiansofthenorthernpartofMexico,theYaqui,IdiscoveredthatpartofwhatwecalltheAmericanWest,theMexicansthoughtofastheirnorthandtheirnorthwest.SothisideacalledtheAmericanWestisnotsomethingthattheyshareinMexico.TheyviewtheAmericanWestaspartoftheirnationalterritory.Theyhaveextended,ortriedtoextend,MexicointotheAmericanWest.Theyhavelostalotofthatterritory.IfyougototheAmericanWest,therearepeoplesfrombothsidesoftheborderwhosharedacommonheritage,butwithverydifferentperspectives.

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DRAWINGSTRENGTHFROMTHEDIVERSITYOFTHEWESTRaymondDeanJones

IamasonoftheWest.Mygrandfather,theReverendMatthewShadrackJones,who,withhisbride,AmericaJones,cametowesternKansasinacoveredwagoninthenineteenthcentury,homesteaded140acresoutsideofFriend,KansasafarmthatwestillhaveandbegantopreachintheBaptistchurchesuptheArkansasRivervalley,upasfarasColoradoSprings.Evennow,fortyyearsafterhisdeath,inplacessuchasManzaneras,andLaJunta,andTrinidad,andWalsenburg,peoplewhoarenowoldstillspeakinreverenttermsoftheReverendShadrackJonesandoftheblackBaptistchurcheshefoundedthatstillthrivetothisday.Myfather,bornin1903,himselfbecameamanofthisplace,workingontherailroadbetweenChicagoandAlbuquerqueuntil,onastopinPueblo,Colorado,heencounteredthistall,foxywomanfromKentuckywhohadcometoPueblo.Shehadcometotakecareofhergreat-aunt,mygreat-great-aunt,AuntSusie,whohadcometoPuebloafterthedaysofslaverytomakeherway.Findingthiswoman,sothestoryistold,myfathergotofftherailroadandsettledinPuebloandfoundhisplace.

Alotofdifferentthingscanhelpyoufindyourplace.Blacks,too,haveaplaceinthisplace.Itwouldbewellforallofus,asweconsidertheAmericanWest,toreflectonthewayinwhichithasbeenshaped,andthewayithasbeenexclusiveinthepast.Oneofthefactorsthatmustbeconsideredistheextenttowhichwewillincludeallofthepeopleinthisplace.Wehavenotbeengoodatthat.Weare100or150yearstoolateindiscussingthis.Notthatwearetoolateintheabsolutesensenotthatweoughtnottobediscussingthisbutthere

weredulyconstitutedsocietiespresentinthisplace,societiesthathadworkedthroughtherigorsofthisplaceandwerelivinginbalancewithit,peoplewhoknewhowtoliveoffthelandandknewhowtomakethelandprosperwhiletheythemselvesprospered.Yetwhenourforbearerssaw

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thisplace,theysawfrontier.Eventodaywespeakofitasfrontier,asthoughitwereempty,asthoughitwerenoone'shome.Theysawsomething,andstilltodayweseesomethingthatwecallthefrontier,whichisthereforthetaking.Certainlyitwastreatedthatwayassomethingthereforthetakingandsomethingtobegiveninreward.Wedidn'tseeotherpeoples'homes,wedidn'tseeotherpeoples'sacredplaces,wedidn'tseeanimalhabitatsinecologicalbalancewiththewhole.Wedidn'tseeanimalsatallanimalsthatlivedandthrivedandenabledhumaninhabitantsthemselvestothrive.

Wemusttakearegionalviewofthisplace.Wearelong,longtoolateinapproachingtheWestasaregionthatmustbeseenasawholesociallyandeconomically.Certainlywehavebeenbeatenandbludgeonedintolookingatourwaterinthoseterms.Butwedevastatedthelandinmanyotherwaysbeforewehadtheforesighttolookuponitasaninterrelatedregion.Aswelookatthedemocratizationoftheworld,atperestroikaandwhatishappeninginEasternEuropeandChinaandsoontobehappeninginSouthAfrica,itisimportantforustobringthatimperativehometotheWest,toundertakeakindofdemocratizationofthisregionanddevelopasensethatitispopulatedbypeoplewhoareofthisplace,whoknowthisplace,whoarecomfortableandinbalancewiththisplace,andwhohavebeenshapedbythisplace.Itisimportantthatwerecognizethemistakesthatwemadeinnotincludingthosewhosehomeitwasbefore.Itisimportantthatwhenwetalkofsharedvalues,weareverycarefultoincludeallofthosewhohavemadeacontributioninthisplace.

Wehavemademistakes.Wearenowtalkingaboutconceptsthatwemighthaveprofitedfromtalkingabout150yearsago.Letusnow,atthislatedate,actontheseconceptsandactontheseideas.Letususethestrengththatthisplacehasputinusandtrulymakethisplace,thisregion,thisAmericanWest,agreatthingofbeauty.

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DEVELOPMENTANDCULTURALSURVIVALEstevanT.Flores

RecentlythemovieTheMilagroBeanfieldWarmadeitsdebut.Ifyouhaven'tseenit,Isuggestthatyoudo.Evenifyoudon'tseeit,pleasereadthebook.It'sricher,it'sdeeperthanthemovie.Theideaconveyedinthebookisthat"development"meansatleasttwodifferentthings.Itmeans,tocertaingroupsofpeople,power,socialenhancement,profit,success.Toothergroupsofpeople,however,itmeanssomethingtotallydifferent.Itmeansachallengetotheireconomicandculturalsurvival.Andthatiswherewearetoday.We'recaughtinthisconflictbetweendevelopmentand,inmanycases,economic,political,andculturalsurvivalofdifferentgroups.

Thequestiontousis,howdowerespondtothischangingcomplexionoftheWestandSouthwest?DowerespondasCaliforniaandTexasdidinthemid-1970s,when,becauseofthefearofthenewimmigrants,theyenactedlawsthatwouldbarundocumentedtheycalledthemillegalschoolchildrenfromenteringpublicschools?Dowerespondthroughwhathasbeenamovementofthe1980sthatisdirectlylinkedtothatanti-immigranthysteria,withanEnglish-languageamendment,ashasbeendoneinvariousstatesacrosstheSouthwestandWest?

LindaChavez,one-timepresidentofthegroupU.S.English,resignedfromthatgroup'sgoverningboard.Whenyoureadthememothatpromptedherresignation,youunderstandwhy.Inthatmemo,theauthor,JohnTanton,raisedthequestionofwhetherHispanicsareaseducableasAsians.AndheworriedthatthehighbirthrateamongHispanicswouldmakethis"thefirstinstanceinwhichthosewiththeirpantsuparegoingtogetcaughtbythosewiththeirpantsdown!"12

There'sabiasthere,clearly.ButthesearenotbiasesthataresharedsolelybygroupssuchasU.S.EnglishwithitsdriveforanEnglish-languageamendment.

Howdowerespondtosuchmovements?Thisisthe"fourthwave"ofimmigrantstoarriveatourshores,theAsiansandLatinos.Buthow

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dowerespond?IhadtheopportunitytobeonacommitteeinDallas,theGreaterDallasCommunityRelationsCommission,amultiracial,multiethnicgroupofabouttwentyindividuals.OurprimaryobjectivewastheresolutionofconflictbetweenracialandethnicgroupsinDallas.Thisisoneeffortthatwaspositive,aneffortthatlookedtheproblemsquarelyintheface.

Racismisatopicwedon'tliketoaddressbecauseitmakesmanypeoplefeeluncomfortable.IknowthisbecauseIteachacoursecalled"RaceandEthnicRelationsintheUnitedStates"attheUniversityofColorado.OnthefirstdayofclassIaskmystudents,"Doyoufeelthatyouarecompletelynonracist,somewhatnonracist,color-blind,somewhatracist,ortotallyracist?"Only20percentsaidthattheyconsiderthemselvestobesomewhatracist.Idon'tknowwhetherthatisgoodorbad.Abouthalfconsiderthemselvestobecolor-blind.Duringthecoursetheybegintolookwithinthemselves,toexaminetheirownbiases,toexaminehowtheyrelatetootherpeople,toexaminehowtheyrelatetoissuesofpublicpolicy.Cantheymakethoseconnections?

InCalifornia,becauseoftheoverwhelmingchangeindemographicsthatistakingplacenow,thereisaneworganizationcalledCaliforniaTomorrow,justinstituted,thatwillexamineracialandethnicquestions,thechangingcharactersoftheschools,andsolutionstoproblemsthroughoutthestate.Thesearestepsthatareseriousandthatpointusinadirectionofpositivechange.Theseareonlyfirststeps.Again,wecannotchangeunlessweexamineourownbiases,ourownmisgivings,ourownpreconceptions.It'sadifficultthingtodo,butnecessary.

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THEHUMANELEMENTINTHEWEST:CONTRADICTIONS,CONTRADICTIONS,CONTRADICTIONSAdrianHerminioBustamante

Sometimesweforgetpeopleintryingtoprotecttheenvironment.Icomefromaculturethatwastherewhen"there"wasn'teven"theWest"itwasnorthwesternMexico.AndIadmitthattheculturewasmishandlingtheenvironment.Itwasaverypoorsocietyandtheonlywaytheycouldaccruewealth,theonlywaytheycouldmakealivinginmostofthataridland,wastobringinsheep.Ofcourse,therangebecameoverloadedwithsheep.I'llbethefirstonetoadmitthis.Buttherewasaneedthere.Therewasaneed.

I'mgladnowthatdemandsontheenvironmenthavebeenbalancedoff,toadegree.ButwhenIgosometimestolookatsomeofmycousin'scattleupinthemountainmeadows,IgoonhorsebackbecauseI'mapoorhiker.I'vegotabadknee.Igetthesedirtylooksfrompeoplewhoarehikingalongthetrail.I'mintruding.Myhorseisintrudingbydefecatingonthetrail.Ifeelsorryforthembecause,ifIwereahiker,I'dhatetogetoutofthewayforahorse,soIgivethemameeklittlesmile.We'realwaysgoingtohavetheseproblems.Weallhaveouragendas.Everygrouphasitsagenda.Wecanhopethatwewillcontinuedialoguesandtrytomakesomethingoutofthemesswe'rein,becauseweareinamess.

SantaFehasbeenpointedoutasaplacethathasmaintaineditsvaluesinspiteofitsbeingarecreationtown.Ireallyhavetodiffer.SantaFeisoneofthetownsintheWestwhosecentershavedied.Theplaza,forexample.(AndIwavetheflagforthechamberofcommerce.Folks,we'repoorinNewMexico.Weneedyourmoney.Comeand

vacationinNewMexico.)Theproblemisthattheplazaisdeadbecause,asourex-statehistorianputitrecently,"It'sbeenartsy-craftedtodeath."Itisnowfullofgalleries,onegalleryafteranother.Myfavorite

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drinkingplaceisgone.TheoldPlazaBarwhereIusedtogoandshootpoolwithsomeoftheold-timersisnotthereanymore.Theoldguyintheredbaseballcapwhotaughtmehowtoplaynine-ballwithaplombisgone.Idon'tknowwherehedrinksnow.Ihaven'tfoundhim,andSantaFe'sasmalltown.

Thepeoplehavebeenfleeingthecenteroftownbecauseoftourism.ThelocalpeopleareexcludedfromwhatusedtobethecenteroflifeinSantaFe,whichistheplaza.Ifindthesamethinginmany,manyothertowns.YougotoDurango,Colorado,andotherplaces,andyougettheimpressionthatthey'retryingtocreateanartificialenvironmentsothatotherpeoplecanenjoyit.Theattemptistobringbackthatnostalgicera,thateraofthewayitprobablywas.Thatliesheavilyonmany,manylocalpeople.

Thiswasbroughthometomebyafriendofmine,IvanIllich,whowroteDeschoolingSociety.IwasshowinghimaroundSantaFe.IwasshowinghimourfamousCanyonRoadandheaskedme,"Adrian,isitreal?"

"Whatdoyoumean,isitreal?"

"Isyourtownreal?"

Ithitmelikeatonofbricks.WehadcreatedanartificialSantaFetomaintainwhatsomepeoplethoughtSantaFeshouldbe.

We'redoingthisallovertheWest.Why?Commercialism.Weneedthetouristdollars.Buthowdowesolvethisproblem?Idon'thaveanyanswers.I'mtryingnoteventolookintothefuture,becauseI'mahistorian.SoI'mcoppingout.Buthowdowesolvetheseproblems?They'reverybasicproblems.

Onesavinggraceisthatthelittletowns,thevillagesthatweresupposedlydeadinthe1950sinnorthernNewMexico,arestillalive.

Theyarestillaliveandfunctioningwell.IrememberindrivingbetweenLasVegas,NewMexico,andSantaFe,I'dseeoneortwoorthreelightsinatownBernal,forexample.Today,whenIdrivethroughthere,therearemaybefiftylightsinthattown.Thattownhasgrownsincethetimewhentheyhadalreadygiventheeulogyforit.Itbouncedback.

TheproblemisthatmostofthosepeoplearedependingonthenuclearresearchgoingoninLosAlamosforjobs.Soyouseethecontradictionthere.Wehavepeoplemakingaliving.Howaretheymakingaliving?Theyarecarpentersandweldersandeverythingelse,helpingscientistswhoaredoingnuclearresearch.Nuclearresearchneedstobelookedat.WIPPtheWasteIsolationPilotProjectisabigprobleminNewMexico.Alotofpeopledon'twantthegarbagefromLosAlamosandotherareasputintheCarlsbadarea,whichhassomesaltbedsthatsupposedlywouldcontaintheradioactivityofthewaste.

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ThepeopleinCarlsbadwantitbecauseitwillprovidejobs.ThepeopleinSantaFeandAlbuquerquedon'twantitbecausetruckscarryingthatwastehavetopassthroughtheirtowns,andsupposeanaccidentoccurred?PeopleinCarlsbadwantitbecausethepotashminesgaveoutandnowtheyneedjobs.Contradiction,contradiction,contradiction.

SodoesanythingreallychangeintheWest?Idon'tknow.Wehavegottoseewhatwecanreclaimandhowwecanreclaimit,andreclaimitrationally.Notwithsomuchpassionthatwetearthingsupwemustplanrationally.Howdoweplan,howdowedoit?Idon'tknow.I'lltrytorecorditaspastifI'mstillaroundinthefuture.Meanwhile,I'mveryconcerned.

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NEWSETTLERSINTHERURALWESTBetsyMarston

Ibringtoyouanon-the-groundreportfromtheruralWestonegrassroot.

Aradiotalk-showhostfromDenvercalledearlyonemorningtowishHighCountryNewsahappytwentiethbirthday.Iwastoldtostandby,onlytohear:"NowweleavetheglamourandglitzofAspenforhumblePaonia..."

Well,itisn'thardtobehumbleinmytown.

It'sasmalltown,just1,400souls,withtwentychurches.It'sahopefulplacethesedays.EventhelocalRotaryClubisgrowing.Ithasawomanmember.It'sthekindoflaid-backRotarywheremembersaskthegrouptosingtocelebratesomeevent.OnemembernamedWally,whoisclosetoeighty,recentlyaskedtheRotarianstosing"HappyBirthday"tohismother.LookingatWally,whotottersaboutoncowboyboots,afellowRotarianaskedhowoldhismotherwas.She'dbe104,cametheanswer,ifshewerealive.

Idon'tthinkHighCountryNewscouldbebettersituatedthaninthisworkingtownclosetotheWestElkWilderness.Youcanseetheeconomicandculturalflip-flopsupclose.Paoniahaslostsome850miningjobsinthelastdecade,freezeshaveshutoutthepeachcropmoreoftenthannot,andranchershavesoldout.Yet,aftertwoorthreeyearsofholdingon,thetownrenewsitselfandturnsoveritsbusinesses.Greaterfools,perhaps,marchinwithlargefortunesandproceedtospendmostofthemfixinguparanchorhomeandtryingtoestablishabeachhead.

Futurologistsliketotalkaboutparadigms,thoseusefulmodelsfor

perceivinglife.Intheearly1980s,themodelforwesternColoradoandotherenergy-boomareasintheWestwasgrowth.Itwas:"Youluckyrusticpeople!Exxonandothercompaniesarecomingtoyourtown.Thenationneedsenergyandit'spatriotictoripintoyourhillstogetit."Growthmeantjobs,morepeople,abiggertaxbase,asurethingfor

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youngpeople,whowouldnotbeexportedinsuchlargequantities.In1980,inoneofitsscenarios,ExxonpromisedanewtownoffiftythousandintinyParachute.Whocanforgetthatin1982oneSunday,Exxonsummarilyfiredtwenty-onehundredpeopleandshutdownitsoil-shaleworksforever?

FormostoftheWest,asourfreelancersintenWesternstatestellus,thedefinitionofrealityisnolongerthatofacargocult.Nolargeindustrydropsfromtheskyandputspeopletowork.InsmalltownsintheruralWest,wearetoldnowtobeentrepreneurial,serviceoriented.Thesedaysthatmeansflexibleandpoor.Theproblemisthatworkissomewhereelseformanypeoplewithhighschoolskills.WeexportmaidstoSnowmassandAspen,coalminerstoCarbondale.PeopleinCarbondale,inturn,movetoPaoniawheretheycanaffordahouse.What'sinthemiddleisMcClurePass,notafunplaceinawhiteout.

ButbatteredasPaoniaandothersmallWesterntownshavebeen,thenewworldwe'rein,andpresumablythefuture,feelsverydifferentfrom1974,whenmyhusband,Ed,andIarrivedinPaoniawithourtwoyoungchildren.WeweretobedropoutsfromNewYorkforayear.Thosetwelvemonthslastedfifteenyears.Paonia,likemanysmallWesterntownsthen,washostiletonewcomers,labeledthemashippiesandfearedthembecausetheyweretaintedbyurbanvalues.Worse,theyweren'tbornthere.Why,theirparentsweren'tevenbornthere!Theyweren'tlocal.Theywerealien.

Fifteenyearslater,throughboom,bust,andwhatHighCountryNewshascalledareopenedWesternfrontier,hostilityandsuspicionhavebeenreplacedin1990bythewelcomemat.New,schmoo.''Wewantyou"isthemotto.Smalltownsneedkidsinthetoo-largeschools,theywantfamiliesinvacanthomesandbusinessesdowntown.Cottageindustriesareidentifiedandwelcomed.Thechamberofcommerce

canseethatpeoplearegoingwheretheywanttheirjobtobe,notnecessarilywheretheirjobsare.Thereseemstobeanunderstanding,oramovementtowardunderstanding,inplaceslikeMoab,Utah,andthePaoniasoftheWest,thattheenvironmentistheeconomy.ThegreeningoftheWestistheneweconomicdevelopmentengine.

Theoldwaysstillhangon,though,witharushtodamthefewplacesleftintheWesttodam,therushtocuttreesininappropriateplaces.ItseemsHighCountryNewsfreelancersarealwaysreportingonyetanotherlast-ditcheffortbyasmallunderfundedgroupthatsaysonebig-buckeconomicactivityoranotherwantstodestroytheircommunity.AndPaonia,atownthatseesintheswingtowardtourismandrecreationthemajoringredientsofitsfuture,probablystillhasayenforagreatbigcompany.

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Oldparadigmsdiehard,justlikeashot-upbadguyinabarwhoturnsthreetimes,thentwitchesonthefloorintheoldWesternmovies.liejustwon'tliedownanddie.Theyearningforafatcorporatepayrollisn'tsurprising.Forthenewworldthatiscomingintofocusoffersagenerousamountofuncertaintyalongwithhope.Anentrepreneurusuallymeanssomeoneusingfaxmachines,modems,FedEx,doingsomethingforsomeoneinsomecitysomewhere.It'sasketchypresentandasketchyfuture,notfilledinyet.ButifyoucareabouttheWestthatmighthaveluredyoutoturnoneyearhereintofifteen,itisthefuturetoworkforandtobelievein.

Journalistsarenotoriousfordependingonhunches,turningthreestoriesonasubjectintoatrend,andleaningonintuitionratherthanstatistics.ButIseededicatedenvironmentalistswhoseranksaregrowing,andtheyaregettingtougher.TheyarewillingtofightforaWestthatexistsnotjustforhumans,butforitsancientinhabitants:bears,aspen,wildrivers,tundra,hummingbirds,sandstonecliffsyoufillintheblankforthat"bestplace."

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THEELUSIVEQUALITYOFTHEWESTCharlesR.Middleton

MyowninitialcontactwiththeWestcamewhenIwasinaseventh-gradeU.S.historyclassin,ofallplaces,Miami,Florida,aboutthirtyyearsago.IfoundatthattimethattheWestwasreallyastrangeplace,aremoteplace.Westudieditinthecontextofregionalism,becauseweSouthernersthoughtthatWesternershadsomethingakintoourowninterestatthattime,andatothertimesinthepast.

TheWestwaspresentedasaplacethatwaspeopledbyindividualswholivedinabarrenandaridclimate,peoplewhomostlyspenttheirtimeeithershootingateachotherorridingaroundthecountrysidelookingforpeopletoshootat.Itwaspresentedasaplacewhereonecouldlookasfarastheeyecouldseeandnotseeanythingexceptastraycactusandthehappycloudsinthesky.ItsremotenessisthelargestmemorythatIhavefromthatfirstintroduction.Irememberthinking,mygoodness,whatanisolatedplace.Theimagewewerethenreceivingintheschoolswasofwhitecowboys,veryfewIndians,fewerwomen,noblacks,noHispanics.Theimagewasofaplacethatwasrural,whichIknewabout,butaruralplacewithouttreesandwherethelargestcitywasDodge.Inshort,fromthatadolescentperspective,itwasnotaplaceonewouldliketogo,muchlesstolive.

ThemostpowerfulaspectofthatrecollectionwasthattheWestwasaplacethathadbeen,thatitwasn'taplacethatreallywasanymore,thatbythe1950sithadessentiallydisappeared,orwhatweFloridiansreallyknew,ithadturnedintoCalifornia.Myownexperienceremindsme,andIhopeyou,ofthepoweroftheTurnerthesisabouttheAmericanfrontier,atleastaswewerethentaughtaboutit.AlthoughwehavecometounderstandatleastIhaveafterreadingPatty

Limerick'sbookLegacyofConquestthatthisisreallyamisinterpretationandamisunderstandingoftheTurnerthesis,thepowerofthatmisinterpretationstretcheddownevenintotheseventhgradeandevenasfarawayfromtheAmericanWestasMiami.

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Thirtyyearslater,inthefallof1987,IfoundthatIwasaprofessorofhistoryattheprincipaluniversityinthatregion.IwassituatedexactlyinthemidstoftheplacethatIhadthoughtwasbeyondthepale.I'maBritishhistorian,andthirtyyearslaterIalsofoundthatIwaspresidentoftheWesternConferenceonBritishStudies.ThatremindsmeoftheviewoftheWest,orofWestness,thatweBritishhistorianshold.OurWestbeginssometimearoundtheNormanConquest.Ourfirstoutpost,asBritishhistorians,isthecityofWestminster,whichhasagreatabbeychurch,andinthatabbeychurchisburiedthepenultimateSaxonkingandthelastroyalsainttositonthethroneofEngland.

Bethatasitmay,thepresidentoftheWesternConferenceonBritishStudieshastheobligationtonominatehisorhersuccessorandtoselectthesiteofthenextmeeting.Andso,beingawickedpersonlivingintheWest,IdecidedtomakeastatementaboutWestness,andwenominatedandselectedasmysuccessoraspresidentoftheWesternConferenceonBritishStudiesaprofessoratGeorgiaSouthernCollege,whichisaboutthirty-fivemilesinlandfromtheAtlanticOcean.ThisiswestonlyifyouliveinSavannah.UnderhisleadershipweweretomeetinNewOrleans,whichatleasthasthemeritofbeingwestoftheAppalachianwatershed,beyondwhichGeorgeGrenvilletriedtostopthecolonistsfromgoingin1763withoutsuccessthesamelackofsuccessasothergovernmentshavehadintryingtostopwestwardexpansionbothphysicalandintellectualinotherplacesatothertimes.

MypointisthattheconceptoftheWestseemstobeaconstantinEuropeanhistory,andcertainlyintheAnglo-Americanexperience.Butit'sanelusiveone,inthatatvarioustimestheconceptcanbefoundtoapplytodifferentplaces.Bythat,ImeanitcouldbethattheWestisSpringfield,Massachusetts,orSpringfield,Illinois,orDenver,Colorado.Itmayturnoutthatwhereyoustandonwherethe

AmericanWestisasageographicalconcept,dependslargely,ifnotexclusively,uponwhereyousit.

Infact,weallknowthatit'smorethanageographicalconcept.It'smorethanthat,muchmorethanthat.Atthissymposiumwe'regoingtothinkthroughavarietyofthemesandissues,whichwillonlywhetourappetitesformorestudyandinviteusinavarietyofdifferentcontextstofurtherconsiderationandreflectiononthesetopicsandrelatedconcernsthatwillgrowoutofthisconferenceintofutureconferencesintheyearsahead.

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THELASTBESTPLACE:HOWHARDSHIPANDLIMITSBUILDCOMMUNITYDanielKemmis

WhilethespiritofdemocracysweepseastwardacrossEurope,overtheUrals,whistlingthroughthecracksintheGreatWall,Americastandsbemused,withnohintofanyawareness,atleastinofficialpolicy,ofwhatallthismightmean.Schiller'swordsandBeethoven'smusicresoundinBerlinandwillagain,Ibelieve,inBeijing.ButinBostonorBoiseaself-satisfiedsmugnessresemblingahypnoticslumberholdstheworldspiritatbay.

Watchingallofthis,Ican'thelpbutrecallcertainwordsofHegel,whosearticulationoftheideaofaspiritofhistoryseemsindispensabletocapturingwhatishappeningtotheworld.In1820HegelsetouttowritehisPhilosophyofHistory,seekingtoidentifythoseforcesthathadmadeandwouldmakerealhumanhistory.Hegelpausedforamomentatthestartinggatetodisposeofonenaggingquestion,namelywhetherAmericahadanyprospectofcontributinganythingworthwhiletothehistoryofhumancivilization.Hisanswer,deliveredwithouthesitation,was"no."HisreasonspeaksstilltoAmerica,andespeciallytotheAmericanWest.

Inanutshell,HegelpredictedthatAmericawouldnotbegintocontributetocivilizationuntilithadconfronteditsownlimits.Specifically,hearguedthatthesafetyvalveofthefrontierhadpreventedandwouldcontinuetopreventthedevelopmentofatrulycivilsociety.Inmakinghiscase,HegeltookapositiondiametricallytheoppositeofJefferson's.Jeffersonhadarguedthatcivicculturewasessentiallyrootedinagricultureandthreatenedbythegrowthofcities.

HethereforeassignedtotheWesternfrontieracrucialandatthesametimeforedoomedrole,whichherepeatedoverandoverinastandardJeffersonianformulathatwentlikethis:Civicculturewouldremain

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stronginAmericaaslongasagricultureexpandedfasterthancitiesgrew,whichwouldhappenaslongastherewas"vacant"Westernlandintowhichagriculturecouldexpand.Thatthispatterncouldnotrecurindefinitelythattherehadtobeanend,sometime,tothefillinginofwhatwhiteAmericanscalledvacantlandwasarealitythatJeffersonchosetosuppress.Indoingso,hecontributedverysubstantiallytotheMythoftheWestspecifically,tothemyththatitwassomehowaplacewithoutlimits.

Hegel,asIhavesaid,arguedthatcivicculture,farfromdependingontheexistenceofthefrontier,couldonlybeachievedoncethefrontierwasclosed.Morespecifically,heturnedJeffersononhisheadbyassumingthatcivicculturewasanessentiallyurbanphenomenonsomethingthatreallyonlyoccurredwhensignificantnumbersofpeoplewereforcedtostopfarmingandtogatherincities.eagreedwithJeffersonthattheWesternfrontierallowedagriculturetooutpaceurbanization.HisconclusionwassimplytheexactoppositeofJefferson's;hewrotethatuntilAmericansbeganfacingeachotherincities,theywouldnotbecomeatrulycivilsocietyandwouldnotmakeasubstantialcontributiontothehistoryofcivilization.

Now,onehundredyearsafterthe1890census,whichledtheCensusBureauandthenFrederickJacksonTurnertodeclarethefrontierclosed,westand,hereintheWest,atacross-wiringofhistoricalcurrentsthatalmostforcesustoaskwhoweareandwherewearegoing.WemarkthecentennialoftheclosingofthefrontierjustasworldhistoryturnsKarlMarxonhishead,whichpresumablymightmeanthatHegelhasagainlandedonhisfeet.IfHegelwerehereatthisconference,alongwithThomasJefferson,whatwouldhesaynowabouttheWestandaboutthepossibilityofitscontributingtothehistoryofcivilization?

I'mgoingtousethechallengeofthisoccasiontoproposeananswerto

thatquestion.IbelievetheworldspiritisaliveinWesternvalleysandtotheleewardsideofWesterncutbankswherepeopleclaimedbythislandscapehavegatheredtocarryoutthebusinessoflivingwellinhardcountry.Ibelievethatthereis,nativetothissoil,apoliticsoftrulyhumanproportions.Itisapoliticsthatwehavenotyetbeenboldenoughtoproposetoourselves.Butthehourofitsbeingproposedisdrawingnear.WhenthatpropositionisarticulatedinagenuinelyWesternvoice,theWestwillrespond,anditsresponsewillmakeitsmarkonthecourseofhistory.

Now,predictionslikethesedeservetobesubjectedtoavarietyoftests,thechiefonebeing,ofcourse,thetestoftime.Beyondthat,anyonemakingsuchpredictionsmightbeaskedtowarrantinsomewayhisorherstandingtomakepredictions.InAmerica,wecanalways

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makethegrandclaimofcitizenship;wecanremindourlistenersthatitis,afterall,afreecountry,andIcanpredictanythingIwantto.SinceIhopetodealwithamoremeaningfulformofcitizenship,Ihadbetterpassupthatwayofbackingmyclaim.Otherscanwarrantpredictionsbytheirtraininginthedisciplineofhistory,butwhileIdeeplyadmirethediscipline,Iamcertainlynottrainedinit.Itis,rather,asapoliticianthatImakemypredictionsaboutthenearfutureoftheWest.AndIthinkthatisfittingenough,sincemypredictionsareaboutthepoliticalfutureoftheregion.

Ihavelongbelievedthatplacesselectpeople.Portlandselectspeoplewholikerain.HavinggrownupinMontanainapioneerfamilythatsettledfourgenerationsagoineasternMontana,Ihaveobservedovertheyearshowfrequentlyrecurringthepatternofmyownancestorswasinthesettlementofthehighplainsofthestate.Mygreat-grandparentstriedOregonintheearly1880s,buttherainandtheovercrowdingfinallydrovethemaway,andtheymovedeast,backacrosstheRockies,totheopencountrythatcouldbecursedinanalmostinfinitevarietyofwaysbutcouldneverbeaccusedofbeingtoowet.Overtime,theplaceofmyupbringingcametobepeopledbyfolkswhosewordswereassparseasrainandwhosehumorwasasdryasthehillsoutofwhichtheyekedaliving.

Theshapingofapeoplebythelandtheyinhabittakestime,andinAmericaithastakenlonger,simplybecausewehaveneverbeenquitesurethatwewereheretostay.WendellBerrybeginshisbookTheUnsettlingofAmericabyobservingthatAmericanshaveneverquiteintendedtobewheretheywerethattheyhavealwaysthoughtmoreintermsofwheretheywouldgo,ratherthanofwheretheyactuallywere.ButBerryalsoidentifiesasecondstraininthepatternofsettlementwhathecallsatendencytostayput,tosay,"Nofurtherthisistheplace."OnepeculiarityofthesettlementoftheWestisthatitattracteditselectedpeoplewhoweremoregiventhanotherstoescape

settlement.Onlytheywouldbewillingtoputupwiththeharshness,theinhospitalityoftheland,whichgrewmoreinhospitablethenearertheycametoinhabitingthelastofthefrontier.

SotheWestdrewtoitselfmorethanitsshareofunsettlers,ofpeoplewhoseessentialrelationtoplacewasthedenialofplace.Andyettheplacesthattheycameto,beingthelastplacetogo,finallytookholdofthem,drewthemdownintotheirflintysoils,rootedthem,claimedthem,shapedthemthewaytheyshapedsagebrush.Overthegenerations,thesepeopleincreasinglycametorecognizethemselvesandtorecognizetheirneighborsintheformsthelandproduced.Andtheselectionprocessdidnotstopatsomepoint;itgoesonstill.Peoplestill

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aredrawnherenotjustinspiteofbutbecauseofthehardnessoftheland.

Gradually,aculturegrewoutoftheland,agroupofstorytellersandimagemakerscapableofholdingthispeopleuptoitself.InMontanawereliedonpeoplelikeJosephKinseyHowardandK.RossTooletoshowuswhowewere,andineachlocalitythereweresimilarvoices.Buttherehavebeenregionalvoicesaswell,notleastthatofWallaceStegner,andnowanewgenerationincludingvoiceslikeBillKittredge's.BillandAnnickSmithhaveproven,dramatically,howdeepandpowerfulthecommoncultureofplaceisbyproducingforMontana'scentennialanexceptionalandexceptionallypopularcollectionofvoicesentitledTheLastBestPlace.

Letmetouchnowforjustamomentondemocracyaboutwhat,atleastfromtheperspectiveofapracticingpolitician,democracyisormightbe.Thereisanunsettlingpremonition,aswewatchEastBerlinerspouringthroughthebreachedwalltogoshoppinginWestBerlin,thatdemocracymayintheendnotreachveryfarbeyondsomenotionofequalaccesstoallgoodthings,especiallybluejeansandcheeseburgers.Asapolitician,Ihavehadmyfairshareofexposuretothebehavior,andthefundamentalinsatiability,ofthecitizenasconsumer.Iamconvincedthatdemocracyissteadilydiminished,justastheearth'scapitalissteadilydiminished,bythisversionofdemocracy.Itisademocracythatcannotendure,andalltruedemocratsmustwarnagainstitsdangers.

Intheageoffastfoodandpervasivefingertipconvenience,wehavecometobelievethatdemocracyisabirthrightthatisaseasytopracticeasaprecookedmicrowavedinneristoheatandserve.Butithasneverbeenso,anditwillnotbesoforthecominggenerationofworlddemocrats.Here,atleast,FrederickJacksonTurnerstillspeaksinavoiceofJeffersoniandemocracytowhichweneedtoattendifwe

aretounderstandwhatmakesdemocracypossible.Turnerspeaksofhowthefrontiercreateddemocrats;hewritesthattherigorsofthefrontierinstilled(andIwouldargueselectedfor)whatTurnercalleda"competency"acapacitytogetdonewhatneededdoingwhichtranslatedintoatrulydemocraticconfidence.Hardcountrybreedscapablepeoplecapable,amongotherthings,ofgenuinedemocracy.

Butlet'stakealittlecloserlookatthiscompetence.Itis,hasalwaysbeen,andmustnecessarilybethecompetence,notsimplyofindividuals,butofademos,ofapeople.Tohavethiskindofcompetence,apeoplemustbeboundtogetherinwaysthatenablethemtoworktogether.Whattheprojectofinhabitinghardcountrydoes,aboveall,istocreatethesebonds.AndwhenIspeakofbondshere,Idonotmeantoevokeanything

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particularlysoftormushy.Thesearepracticalbonds,althoughtheydooftenleadtoakindofaffectionamongthosesobonded.Buttheyareinthefirstinstancepractical.Theyarethekindsofbondsthatmadeofbarn-buildingandsimilaractsofcooperationsomethingthatmustbeunderstoodasaculture.Itisaculturebredofhardplaces,nurturedbythepracticeofinhabitingthoseplaces.

IwanttodrawattentiontotwowordsIhavejustused.Thefirstis"practice"(anditsderivative"practical").Thesecondis"inhabitation.''Thesewordsarerootedquiteliterallyrootedinthesamequiteliteralsoil.Inhabitationdependsuponhabits;toinhabitistodwellinaplaceinanhabituatedway.Todothisrequirespractice.Thispracticerevolvesaroundcertainpracticalnecessitiesoflivinginhardcountry,necessitieslikeagoodbarn.Buttosaya"goodbarn"isnottospeaklightly,fornotjustanybarnwilldo,andthisistrueofagreatrangeofsuchpracticalnecessities.Whatwasdonemustbedonewelloritwouldnotsurviveitwouldnotenablesurvival.Thus,thepracticesthatlieattherootofalltrueinhabitationespeciallyoftheinhabitationofhardcountryarealwayspracticesthatcarrywithinthemselvesdemandingstandardsofexcellence.

Itisthesestandardsofexcellence,arisingoutofthesoilitself,bodiedforthincertainhabituatedanddeeplysharedpatternsofbehavioritistheselivedstandardsofexcellencethatalonegivemeaningtotheconceptof"value."Overthepastdecadeorso,moreandmorepeoplehaveengagedinavaguerecognitionofthefactthat"values"aresomehowanimportantpoliticalfactor.Thishasbeenaratherastonishingrealizationforliberals,instructedasweallhavebeenintheliberaldogmathatvaluesareprivateconcerns,andnobusinessofthestate.Butaspoliticshasincreasinglybecomeagameof"values,values,who'sgotthevalues?",evenliberalshavehadtopaylipservicetothisnewpoliticalicon.

Butwehavenotyetunderstoodthatvaluesarenotsomethingthatsimplycomeoutofablackboxintheindividualsoul,astheliberaldogmawouldhaveit,orfromadeepvoiceonamountaintop,asthefundamentaliststhink.Whatmakesvaluessharedandwhatmakesthempoliticallypowerfulisthattheyariseoutofthechallengeoflivingwelltogetherinhardcountry.Whenpeopledothatlongenoughtodevelopapatternofsharedvalues,thosevaluesacquireapoliticalpotency.

ItisherethattheWesthasthecapacitytocontributesomethingdeepandimportantandlastingtothehistoryofpoliticsandcivilization.Simplybecausewehaveforsomanygenerationsworkedontheprojectoflivingtogetherinhardcountry,wehave,althoughwedon'trecognizeit,developedamongourselvescertainpatternsofbehavior,which

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amounttosharedvalues.ThequestioniswhetherwewillrecognizethisWesternfactoflife.Thequestioniswhetherthoseofuswhocallourselvesliberalsandthoseofuswhocallourselvesconservatives,allofwhomareinhabitantsoftheWest,canbegintoturntoeachotherandbegintorecognizewhatitiswehavebuilttogetherintermsofsharedpatternsofinhabitationandthereforeofsharedvalues.ThatisthechallengeoftheWest.Ifwecanbegintounderstandhowwehavebeenshapedbythiscountry,shapedinsimilarways,notsothatwethinkalikeallthetime,notsothatwebelievealike,butsothatweinfacthavedevelopedsomesharedvaluesthatgiveusthecapacitytododifficultandimportantworktogether,thenonthisbasiswecanbegintocontributetodemocracyandtothehistoryofcivilization.

Isaythisasapoliticianwhoiswillingtobethiscareeronthefactthatthisisapossibility.Iamabsolutelyconvincedthatpeoplewillrespondtobeingappealedtoasinhabitantsofacommonplace.Theyarewillingtorespondtoanyonewhowillspeaktotheirwearinesswiththekindofdeadlockthatourpoliticsalltoooftencreates.Theywillrespondtoapoliticsthatspeaksdirectlytotheirdeepdesiretoberespectedandtobetreatedaspeoplepeoplewhoarecapableoftreatingotherpeoplewithrespect.Theywillrespondtoapoliticsthatspeakstotheircommonlyshapedpatternsofdoinggoodwork,toapoliticsthatsaystopeopleontherightandontheleft,"Youareonepeople;youunderstandeachotherbetterthanyouthinkyoudoandyouarecapableoftreatingeachotherasifyoudounderstandeachother."Andfinally,theywillrespondtoapoliticsthataddressestheirsenseofwhatagoodcityoragoodcommunitymightbe,andhowwewouldhavetotreateachotherifweweregoingtogoaboutthetaskofcreatingit.

ItissaidofAthensthatinspiteofitsdeepsocialdivisions,itsustaineditsexperimentindemocracyanddevelopedanoutstandingculturebecause,intheend,eachofthecontestantsineachdivisive

issuecaredmoreaboutAthensthattheycaredaboutwinning.IamconvincedthatincommunitiesacrosstheWest,amajorityofthepeoplecaremoreabouttheircommunitiesthantheycareaboutwinning.Buttheyhavenotbeengivenapoliticsthatencouragesthemtobehaveinthatway.Theyhavebeengivenapoliticsthatonlyencouragesthemtocareaboutwinning.

ArewecapableofrealpoliticsintheWest?Ibelieveweareifwearewillingtofaceourselvesandourneighborsinawaythatwehaveneverdone.Weneedtobewillinginthefirstinstancetofacetheimplicationsofourhistoricalunwillingnesstofaceourselves.Jefferson,democratthathewas,believerthathewasintheideathatdemocracycouldonlyexistwhenitwaspracticedonasmallscale,wasyetwilling

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throughtheLouisianaPurchasetoengageinthebuildingofanempire.Hedidthatbecauseinthelongrunhebelievedthatdemocracycouldonlysurviveifitwasrootedonthefarmandthatitcouldberootedonthefarmonlyifagriculturecouldexpandendlessly.Soheboughtintoanempire,andourancestorsboughtintoanempire,andwe,byinheritance,boughtintoanempire.Partofthereasonforthisisbecausewe,likeJefferson,havebeenunwillingtoimagethepossibilityofagoodcity.Jeffersoncouldnotimageacitybeinggood.Alltoooften,Ithink,weareguiltyofthesamewayofthinking.RobinsonJeffers,inhispoem"ShinePerishingRepublic,"talksabouttherepublic"heavilythickeningintoempire,"andheendsthepoembywriting:

Butformychildren,Iwouldhavethemkeeptheirdistancefromthethickeningcenter;corruption

Neverhasbeencompulsory,whenthecitieslieatthemonster'sfeet,thereareleftthemountains.13

ThathasbeentoomuchtheWesternattitude.Webelievedwestillbelievethatwecansomehowescapeourselvesbyslippingintothemountains,avoidingthehardtaskoffacinguptoourselvesincities.Ourmistakehasalwaysbeenthatwehaveletempireshapeourcities,ratherthanlettingcitiesshapethemselvesand,aboveall,demandingofpeoplethattheyshapetheircities.

Butthecomplicitygoesbeyondthat.OnceThomasJeffersonboughttheLouisianaPurchase,wehadnochoicebuttobuyboththemilitaryandthebureaucraticsuperstructurethatwentwithit.WecantaketheattitudeofsayingallofthathasbeenforcedontheWest.Orwecansaythatwehavebeencomplicitinitandthatwehavethecapacitytodosomethingaboutit.Thewaywewilldosomethingaboutitistoclaimourhomelandtosaythisisourhome,andtobeabletosay"our"andmeanit,notonlyofthepeoplethatthinkanddressandbehave

likeus,butoftheotherinhabitantsoftheregionwhoareequallyrootedhere.WhentheWestisreadytodothat,thenitwillbereadyforarealpoliticsofinhabitation.

Iwillmakeonefinalprediction:thatwhenthattimecomes,wewillunderstandthat,likeeveryotherregionofthecountry,wearegoingtohavetobeincontrolofourhomeland.Thatmeansthat90percentofitcan'tbeownedsomeplaceelse.TheimperialpresencewouldhavetoberemovedfromtheownershipofWesternlands.TheWestwillnotbereadyforitsownpoliticsuntilitisreadytoclaimitsownland.TherealtestofthatwillbewhetherweeverunderstandthattheU.S.Senatewascreatedinorderthatland-dominatedregionsliketheWestmightassert

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theirownland-basedwaysoflife.Whenthetimecomes,whenwearereadytodevelopahistoryandpoliticsoftheWest,wewillbegintoelectacadreofU.S.senatorswhowillgotoWashingtontoassertsovereigntyoverthiscountrythatweinhabit.Willwedoit?Areweserious?Orarewejustplayinggames?

In1636JohnWinthrop,soontobecomegovernoroftheMassachusettsBayColony,sailedwithashiploadofPilgrimsfromEnglandtowardthelandtothewest.Astheysailed,hepreparedforhisshipmatesasermononhowtheyshouldexpecttogoaboutthetaskofinhabitingthefiercelyinhospitablelandthattheyhopedtomaketheirhome.Heknewhowharditwouldbe.Andheknewhow,outofthathardship,theymightcreatewhathecalled"thecityonahill."Thisiswhathesaidtothem:"Wemustdelightineachother.Wemustlabortogether,suffertogether,rejoiceandmourntogether,keepingalwaysbeforeoureyesourconditionasmembersofonebody."14

Inourtime,WendellBerry,inapoemcalled"WorkSong,"soughttocaptureonceagaintheessenceoftheenterpriseofwinningagoodlivingfromahardpieceofland."Thisisnoparadisaldream,"hewrote.Butinaland-rootedvoiceofhopethatisthetruevoiceoftheWest,heconcluded,"Itshardshipisitspossibility.''15

PARTFOURTheLimits

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WHENDIDWEKNOWWhendidweknowtherapistcuttingintothetenderfleshofhisshiveringvictimwasadraglineslashingintoElkMountain?

Whendidwe*thebloodychildlyinglimpinarottingheapinthedumpsterwasawastepitofpoisonchemicalsseepingintothewater in that glass?

Whendidthecrackshootingupthatruddynostrilcocainecrackridingintoyourchild'sroomonanArmy

chopperwasajetofnapalmcrashingintoafamilyworkingafieldofrice?

When*thatthe10poundsofcarbondioxideIaimatyour

lungeachdriveoftheweekisacannonofacidrainshotatthecedars

onWolfCreekPass?

thatthetonsofstyrofoamcloggingBigHoleRiverareabombofplutoniumslicingthesoilatRockyFlats?

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themultinationalbribesofrainforestkeepersthosemilitarythugswhobaskonyourtaxesarefederalcontractsforStarWarsresearchinthisstate?

WhendidIknowthatMYshortcuttramplingacrossthebuffalograss

isU.S./S.R.assaultsonthemoon,Mars,andcosmos?Whendidwe

WhendoI

dosomethingaboutit?

CordeliaCandelaria

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THEHISTORYOFFUTURES(formystudentsatKentState,Spring1973)

Thelonghornwasanautomotivepackageofhide&bones,afewhundredpoundsofdopewhichdelivereditselfentirelyfreeofmoralinconvenienceknownotherwiseasfatyetwithamemoryfreshenoughtomarket

TheBloodyRedMeatHabitdatesfromabout1870BeforethatwewereaSowbellyNationfeedingoffthewisestoftheomnivoresBeefistheearliestelementofthecrisis,atypicalTexasimbalance

Importations,trashbeeffromArgentinaaremeanttosatisfytheBloodyRedMeatHabitsofourbestfriends,andinfactaspetloverssecretlyunderstandyouCanfoolfido

WithFoodstampswehavepurescripttheagriculturalsubsidyfarmershaveenjoyedundereverynamebutsocialismosinceWorldWarII

WhichbringsustoatrulygiantdognamedRonaldthemostimmensefriendconceivable

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aFenrircreatedbybeefheatandthereyouhaveyourbullshitapocalysis

Onemorning,inhismythologicalgreedlieswallowstheSunne

EdwardDorn

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FREEMARKETCHINOISERIETherewillneverbeenoughBMWsforthestatedBillion,therewillneverevenbeenoughpapertowelsorgasbarbecuesoreverenoughribsorsauceforthoseshortribs.Therewillneverbeenoughcouponstocliporscissorstoclipthemwithandtherewillneverbeenoughaccountantstocountitallorpapertokeeptheaccountsonordiscstostoretheaccountsforwhichtherewillneverbeentriesenough.Someoneshouldtellthem.

EdwardDorn

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AGRICULTUREWilliamKittredge

1

Waterbirdswereametaphorforabundancebeyondmeasureinmychildhood.OnaNovemberafternoonmyfathersatonawoodencaseforshotgunshellsinthedeeptulesbyPelicanLakelikeacrownprinceofshotgunning,anddropped123ducksforanElksClubfeed.Thebirdswerecomingnorthtowaterfromthegrainfieldsandfightingastiffheadwind.Theyflaredandstartedtosettle,justoverhim,andtheywouldnotstopcomingintothelongredflamefromhisshotgunasdarknesscamedownfromtheeast.Thedeadbirdsfell,collapsedtothewater,andwashedbacktoshoreinthewind.Eventuallyitwastoodarktoshoot,andthedeadbirdswereheapedinthebackofhispickupandhehauledthemtotown;hedumpedthemofftothewomanhehadhiredtodothepickingandwentontoagoodclear-heartednightatthepokertable,havingdischargedacivicduty.

2

In1826aDr.WilliamKittredgetookhimselfandhisnewbridewestfromMassachusettstoMichigan,wherehepracticedmedicineinYpsilantiandGrandRapids.Mygreat-grandfather,BenjaminFranklinKittredge,wasbornin1828,theeldestofeightchildren.In1850,agedtwenty-two,BenjaminFranklintookhisyoungerbrotherHarrisonandheadedwestforthegoldfieldsofCalifornia.Youhavetowonderabouttheintensitythatdrovethoseboys,reallynotmuchmorethanchildren.Imaginethestoriestheyweretellingthemselves.

Somanytravelers,andnotjustyoungmenwithanitch,weredrivenbyasimpledesiretogoout,awaytotheworldwithhopeof

discoveringsomeinterestingfate.FamiliessoldgoodfarmsinOhioand

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rolledwestintheirwagons,andweresooftendestroyedbeforetheyweredone,driventoruinbythethrustofwhatcamedowntonothingmoreprofoundthanapureyearningforexcitement,athingsimpleasonechanceatalifethatwasnotboring,paradiseoverthemountains,somefineblendofallthat.

BenjaminFranklinwasasingleman.Itiseasytoimaginehisleave-takingmighthavebeensimple.Goodbyetoyoursweetheart,andfatherandmother,andakisstotheyoungerchildren.Youandyourbrothercanjustwalkaway.Whatwillyoube?

BenjaminFranklinandHarrisonmadetheirpassagedowntheMississippiandacrosstheGulfofMexicotothenarrowsatPanama,longbeforetherewasanycanal,wheretheysetoffandjustwalkedtothePacific.Thenanotherboatride,thistimetoSanFrancisco.Butgolddidn'tcomeeasy.Therewaswinter,mud,andsnowinthecamps.Harrisonwaskilledinadisputeoveraminingclaim.

Therearenodetails.Iimaginesomeshowdownoverahundredyardsofcreek-bedorashovel.BenFranklinwenthome.BackinMichigan,hemarried,andhecamewestagain,thistimeinawagon,withthegoodsofhismarriage,againtothegoldcamps,wherehehadnomoreluckthanbefore.

Afirstson,Herbert,wasborninasettlementknownasJackassFlatsoutsideRedding,California,onJune8,1863.AftersomeseasonsinthefoothillsaroundMountShasta,panninglittlestreamsfortrace,BenjaminFranklinmovedhisfamilynorth,alwaysmoving,asiftoexaminethepromiseofthings.HeownedacreagesintheWillametteValleyofOregon,literallysomeofthefinestClassAagriculturallandintheworld,butnothingworked(familylorehasoneofthosefarmsintheheartofwhatisnowdowntownPortland;thereisaKittredgeStreet).

Mygrandfatherandnamesake,WilliamKittredge,wasbornin1875(theseventhchildofnine)whileBenjaminFranklinwasschoolteacheratoldFortSimcoe,nearYakimainthestateofWashington.ThenBenjaminFranklinmovedsouthbeyondthegorgeoftheColumbiaRiver,toaranchinthehillslopecountrynearAntelopeinOregon(wheretheRajneeshsetuphisfreeloadingversionofparadiseintheearly1980s),andthentosomefringesofmostlysalt-grassmeadowlandinthefaroutbackaroundSilverLake,Oregon.Thereheendedhislifein1897,flatoutofpossibilities.

Mygrandfatherwastwenty-three,andpoor,andhisfatherwasdead.IwishIknewwhatmygrandfatherthoughtasheliftedhiseyestostudythescrub-brushflatsaroundSilverLake;IwishIknewhowresolvecametohim,andhowhenamedit;IwishIknewwhathesawas

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thegiftslifemightgivehim;IwishIknewwhathethoughttheywereworth.

3

ThenorthernquarteroftheGreatBasin,southeasternOregonandnorthernNevada,isagreatdriftofbarrensagebrushcountrythesizeofFrance.Thelandformsconfrontusincessantlywithnewsofgeologictimeandourownfragility.Therimswerebuiltovereons,wecanseethelayers,lavaflowonlavaflow.Theshadowsofcloudstravellikephantomsacrossthewhiteplayasofthealkalinewet-weatherlakes.

Thatlandlockedcountryisnotalldesert;therearegreatmountainswherethewintersnowsaccumulate:theWarnerRange,BidwellMountain,WinterRim,theOchocos,andfault-blockupliftingsthatrisefromthedistanceslikeislands:theten-thousand-footescarpment,whichisSteensMountain,HartMountain,theRubyMountainsofNevada.

Themostsignificantgeography,sofarassettlementisconcerned,liesbelowthosemountainsinthemeadowlandsofthewaterfowlvalleys,likeWarnerValley,wherewelived.Thesnowsmeltedandranoffingreatfloods,thelandlockedlakesfilledanddriedupandfilled,thesedgesandtulesgrewanddiedandgrewanddiedandrottedawayintopeatsoil.

Beforethewhitemencameinthelatterhalfofthenineteenthcentury,thatcountrywasinhabitedbyascatteringofNorthernPaiuteandtravelingbandsfromthetimberedcountrytothewest,KlamathsandModocswhocametotheswamplandsforthewater-birdhunting.

TheNorthernPaiutedidnothavemuchinthewayofwhatarecalled"culturalitems,"whichareeverythingfromspoonstoideasofmagic.Theylivedsparseandtraveledlight.Thecountrydidnotrewardthem

forowningthings.

TheclanthatlivedinmyhometerritoryaroundWarnerValleywasknownas"TheGroundhogEaters,"anamewonderfulinitsinelegance.Youwonderwhatitmeanttothemastheymanagedlivesthatnodoubtdidnotseemeithersplendidornumbingorevensimple.

Someofusenvywhatwethinkofastheirexistenceinacommunallifeastheymovedthroughtheirso-calledhuntingandgatheringinanendlessswayoftime,inwhichtheworldwasaliveandtheirtruecompanion.Butthecontentoftheirdaysisdifficultforustoimagine.

Itiscountrythatcanbeimaginedasakindofhideoutgeographicalenclave.Sensibleroutesoftravel,wagontrailsandrailroads,wentaroundtothenorth(theOregonTrail)ortothesouth(theCalifornia

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Trail).Settlementbywhitemenwithfamilies,whowereintentonsettingupranches,didnotbeginuntilthe1870s,andthathugedriftofcountry,LakeCountyandHarneyCountyandMalhuerCountyinOregon,WashoeCountyandHumboldtCountyinNevada,eachlargeassomestatesintheEast,isstillpopulatedbynomorethanafewthousandpeople.

AftertheMexican-AmericanWar,in1848,droversbegantrailingherdsfromMissouritothecentralvalleyofCalifornia.OneofthemenwhowasinonthosedrivesfromthebeginningwasDr.HughGlenn,ayoungVirginianwhoseambitionsinfluencedaconsiderablepartofhistoryinsoutheasternOregon.BeforeadecadehadpassedheownedoneofthegreatSpanishranchesintheSacramentoValley.

In1859theminersaroundVirginiaCityinNevadafoundthattheblackrocktheyhadbeendiscardingwassilver,andtheComstockboombegan.Theminersdidn'twantmuchbutaplacetodig;buttheyhadtoeat,andthepeoplewhofedthemfelttheyhadarighttorunlivestockanywherethatwashandy,includingthecreeksidemeadowlandswheretheTruckeeRiveremptiedintoPyramidLake.

TheIndianstraditionallycampedthereinearlyspring.Thebandscameforhundredsofmilestoworkthegreatcutthroattroutfishery.Winterwasover,therewasfoodforall;theleaderstalked;by1859theyweretiredofbeingdrivenfromtheirhuntinggrounds.

TwoPaiutegirlswerekidnappedandabusedbytwobrothersatWilliamsStation,awhiskeystopontheCarsonRiver.Apartyofwarriorskilledthebrothersandburnedthestation.TherebeganaseriesofbattlesacrossnorthernNevada,initiallycalledthePyramidLakeWar,whichneverreallyendeduntilthenativeswereeffectivelybrokenanddriventothereservations.

Sixyearslater,inMarchof1866,theHumboldtRegisterdescribeda

battle:

Athalfpastninetheorderwasgiventocharge.Rightmerrilythemenobeyed.TheIndiansstoodupbravely,fightingsullenlytothelastaskingnoquarter;butthechargewasirresistible.TheboysrodethroughtheIndianranks,scatteringandshootingdowneverythingthatworepaint....80warriors,35squaws.Thelatterweredressedthesameasthebucks,andwerefightingandhadtobekilledtoascertaintheirsex....1

TheU.S.Armywasseriouslyintosubduingthenativesandprotectingsettlers,andestablishingfortsandencampmentsasafoundationforgoverningthewilderness.Inthebestbookonthesubjectofprewhite

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storytellinginOregon,CoyoteWasGoingThere:IndianLiteratureoftheOregonCountry,JaroldRamseywrites:

Thewhiteresponse,organizedduringtheCivilWar,wasbrutallysimple:extermination.Theunpublished''FieldJournals"ofLt.WilliamMcKay(amedicaldoctorwhowashimselfpartIndian)makeitvividlyclearthatArmydetachmentslikeMcKay's,aidedbyIndianscoutsfromWarmSpringsandelsewhere,wentthroughtheupperreachesoftheGreatBasincountryhuntingPaiutesandotherShoshoneansdownlikedeer,killingforthesakeofwhatintheVietNamerabecameknownas"body-count."2

Bythesummerof1868theIndiansinnorthernNevadaandsoutheasternOregonwerebeingroundedontodesolatereservations.AneducatedPaiutewomannamedSaraWinnemucca,employedasaliaisonforthearmy,foundstarvingbandsofherpeoplecollectedatCampC.F.SmithinfarsoutheasternOregon.Shesentfifteenwagonsforthechildren,andsomeeighthundredPaiutesweremovedtotheReserveatFortMcDermit,ontheOregon-Nevadaborder,wheretheywereissueddailydole-foodrations.

SaraWinnemuccahelpedhandoutthefood,andhatedwhatshesaw.ShewrotetoMajorHenryDouglass,IndiansuperintendentofNevada:"IfthisisthekindofcivilizationawaitingusontheReserves,Godgrantthatwemayneverbecompelledtogoonone,asitismuchprefferrable[sic]toliveinthemountainsanddragoutanexistenceinournativemanner."3

TheopenrangewasprettymuchtakenupinCalifornia.StockgrowerswhowantedtoexpandweredrivingherdsovertheSierrasintotheGreatBasin.AmannamedJohnDevinebroughthisbloodedhorsestoCampSmith(alreadyabandonedbythearmy),builtaquarter-mileracetrack,andsettledalongsidetheall-seasoncreek.Devinesetaweathervanewithawhitehorseatopthecupolaonhisbarn,andnamedhisnewempireTheWhiteHorseRanch.

YouwonderwhatdroveJohnDevine.Theranchwasvastlyisolatedinthosedays;itstillis.FarouttothewestthereistheAlvordDesert,agreatplayaintherainshadowontheeasternsideofthelongridgethatisSteensMountain;thereisnotmuchelsetosee;nobodylivesnearby.ButmaybeJohnDevineknewwhathewasdoing;hebecameaprinceofthecountry;thehistoryofsettlementwasstartedinthatpartoftheworldwheremyimaginationstilllives.

In1872Dr.HughGlennputatwenty-three-year-oldmannamedPeterFrenchinchargeofdrivingtwelvehundredheadofhisSacramento

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ValleycowsnorthtothedesertsofOregon.FrenchfoundtheswamplandsintheBlitzenValleyandthehighsummerrangeonSteensMountain,andheclaimedthem,hauledsaw-lumberfiftymilesfromamillinthemountainstothenorth,builtawhitehouse,andbeganassemblingtheenormousPRanch,whichwasarguablythefinestnaturalsetoflivestockpropertiesintheAmericanWest.Simpleasthat:Thisismine.Soonthecountrywasfillingwithsettlers,whitemenandtheirfamilies.

LateinthesameyearthatFrenchdrovehiscowstotheBlitzenValley,1872,theModocWarbrokeoutsouthofTuleLakeontheOregon-Californiaborder.AnativemannamedCaptainJackandaround175ofhisModocfollowersholedupinalabyrinthinefortressofnaturaltunnelsthroughthelavabedsandfoughtofftheU.S.militaryuntilJune1of1873.Itwasalittlewar,butitwasanembarrassmenttothemilitary.CaptainJackwashangedatFortKlamath,andafterwardshisbodywasdugupandembalmedandshownincarnivalsallovertheEastCoast.

Intheearlypartof1873aLt.Col.FrankWheaton,commanderintheDistrictoftheLakesinsoutheasternOregon,reportedthatastockranchinWarnerLakesValleyownedbyD.R.Jones,eighteenmilesfromthepost,wasthenearestresidenceorsettlementtoCampWarner.WhichmakesD.R.JonesthefirstsettlerIknowaboutinthevalleywhereIgrewup.

SaraWinnemuccawasreportedtobelivingwithMisterJones.Connectionsbegintoaccumulate.

In1878variousnativegroupsacrossthenortherndesertcountrylefttheReservesandroseupinanoutbreakcalledtheBannockWar;theykilledCharlieOnLong,aChinesecookwhoworkedforPeterFrench,andafterthattheylostandlost.Bytheendof1878thewarwasover,andaconsiderablenumberofnativeshadbeenherdedtogetheratold

FortHarney,eastofBurns.SaraWinnemuccawasamongthem.

OnJanuary6,1879,thewomenandoldpeopleandchildrenwereloadedintosomefiftywagons,themenfollowingonhorseback,andescortednorththroughtheterriblecoldandthesnows.Awomangavebirthandthechilddied;thewomandiedadaylater.Theirbodieswereleftbythetrail.ThreechildrendiedofexposureastheytraveledovertwomountainrangesandtheColumbiaRivertoFortSimcoe,justsouthofYakimainthestateofWashington,wheremygreat-grandfather,BenjaminFranklinKittredge,wasaschoolteacher.

ItwasaTrailofTears,andyetIneverheardittalkedaboutinsoutheasternOregon;Ilearnedofitfrombooks.Itwasnotpartofour

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commonmythology.Inthatcountrywegrewupwithoutstories;weknewahistoryfilledwithomissions,whichcanbethoughtofaslies.

Iwonderifpeopleimaginedthosestoriesweretooshamefultobetold,oriftheyjustdidn'tcare,iftheywerenotveryinterested,andforgot.IwonderwhatBenjaminFranklinKittredgethoughtasthoseruinedIndianscametoFortSimcoe.Iwonderifhesawthem;Iwonderifthechildrenwhosurvivedeverenteredhisschoolroom;Iwonderwhathedidforthem.

SaraWinnemuccawastheforemostwomanofhertime,amongherpeople.In1880shewasinvitedtovisitSecretaryoftheInteriorCarlSchurtzinWashington,D.C.,andshewent.Sarawroteandpublishedabook,LifeAmongthePaiutes:TheirWrongsandClaims,andshelecturedinNewYorkandBostonandCambridgeandPhiladelphia,allonbehalfofhertribe,butnothingworked,thegovernmentwasfinallynotinterested.SoSarawenthome,andatleastinsomemetaphoricsenseshewentbacktosleepinginblanketsonthegroundwiththetraditionalpeople.InOctoberof1891sheateabigmeal,shetooktobed,shedied.Theofficialcausewastoomuchwine;nothingaboutheartbreak.

Dr.HughGlennranforgovernorofCaliforniaandwasdefeated,andthenhewasshottodeathbyadrunkenbookkeeper.PeterFrenchmarriedGlenn'sdaughter,Ella,whoneverlivedwithhim,accumulatedagreatempire,andwasshotdeadbyanester.GlennandFrenchandSaraWinnemuccawerepeopleofvastenergiesandvividintelligence;theydiedwiththeirpurposesindisarray;theywantedtomovetheworldbutitwouldnotgo.

Mygreat-grandfatherdiedthesameyearasPeterFrench,1897,impoverishedinSilverLake.

Therewasgoldbutheneverfoundit.Andanywaysuchricheswereto

havebeenonlythebeginning.Therealtreasureslaynodoubtinsomevisionofwholenessandeasyfieldsgreeningupinspring,croplandsflowingacrosstherollingplow-groundoutbackofthewhite-paintedhomeplace,andthegleefulcryingofgrandchildrenatplayonthelawnsslopingtothemossyspring-creeksomeparticularlyAmericanversionofperfectpromised-landsolace.Allthiswepromiseyou.

"Americans,"wroteD.H.Lawrence,

willnotstandforthepioneerstuff,exceptinsmall,sentimentalizeddoses.Theyknowtoowellthegrimnessofit,thesavagefightandthesavagefailurewhichbrokethebackofthecountrybutalsobrokesomethinginthehumansoul.Thespiritandthewillsurvived,butsomethinginthesoulperished:thesoftness,thefloweriness,the

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naturaltenderness.HowcoulditsurvivethesheerbrutalityofthefightwiththatAmericanwilderness,whichissobig,vast,andobdurate!

ThesavageAmericawasconqueredandsubduedattheexpenseoftheinstinctiveandintuitivesympathyofthehumansoul.Thefightwastoobrutal.4

Lawrencegoesontotalkof"aninwardindividualretraction,anisolation,anamorphousseparatenesslikegrainsofsand,eachgrainisolateduponitsownwill,"andhelaments"thebreakingoftheheart,thecollapseoftheflowofspontaneouswarmthbetweenamanandhisfellows..."5Hemighthavebeenwritingdirectlyaboutmypeople.

4

In1936mygrandfatherboughttheMCRanchinWarnerValley.Thedealrepresentedanenormouschangeinourfortunes.Hesignedthelegalpapersandtookpossessionofthosefieldsanddistancesashisownwithnomoneydownwhenhewassixty-twoyearsold.liepledgedeverythinghehadworkedforallhislife,unabletoresistsuchakingdom.

WarnerValley,whenIwasprimeinmyreadinesstowitnessparadise,wasinwhatIthinkofasitsprelapsarianstage;itwasclearmypeoplehadstumbledontoamostlyuntouchedplace,andraregoodfortune.

Mygrandparentswereimperiousandheedless;theycamefromhardpovertyonthosehighdesertsaroundSilverLake:Mygrandmotherdriedherwashonabarbed-wirefencearoundanunpaintedhouseuntilherchildrenweremostlygrown.Mygrandfatherhadbroughtthefamilyupfrompoverty.FordecadeshesummeredaloneintheemptycountryeastofSilverLake,isolatedandtendinghiscattle.Hisyearsweredevotedtoabrutalhorsebacknotionoflife;hefelthehadearnedwhathehad,andhewasright.Buttheearninghardenedhim;

hewasabsorbedwithambition.Runninghispropertiesonborrowedmoney,hewantedmore.

Itwashistheorythatwe,inourfamily,shouldputworkaheadofeveryotherthing,includingcompassion,forthecommongood,andforalongtimewetriedtolivebyhistheory.Ifyoupaidthebills,inthephilosophymygrandfathertaught,yougottocalltheshots.

Accumulationwasmygrandfather'sgame.Ifwetookenoughcare,inhisstory,andsacrificedenough(andherethestorygoessideways)we

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wouldeventuallygettoliveintownmostoftheyear,ashedid,inabigrock-walledhouse,withlinensandpaintedchinaandsilvertableware:Correctwaspartofsecure,andattheheartofactual.Itwasastoryhewantedtobelieve,astoryheusedtomanipulateeveryone,andhegotawaywithitformostofhislife.liewasnotsomuchcruelasindifferenttopurposesotherthanhisown,andmainlyinterestedinhiscattleandhowtheyweredoing,beefonthehoof,forsale.

Formygrandfather,inthatbeginning,Warnermusthavebeentheultimateanswertoalifetimeofyearning,thousandsofacresofmeadowonthehighsideofthevalley,cutwithsloughsandwillowsforshelter,wherehecouldwinterhisstockonnativehaystackedwiththebeaverslides.Nevermistakeit:TheMCwasagreatranch.

Thosepeople,solongastheyhadanychoice,werenevergoingbacktothehighdeserts.Theyclearlyknewthattheywerelivinginadreamthathadcometothematleastpartwaythroughluck:RightthentheywerehavinggoodluckintheGreatDepression(cheapland),andlaterontheywouldhavegoodluckduringtheGreatWar(terrificgrainprices).Buttheyalsounderstoodthatmostoftheirluckhadcomeasaresultoftheirowninventionandsharpdealing,andtheywereprettymuchjustifiedinthinkingtheyhadmadetheirownway.Mygrandfatherhadearlyoncometounderstandthatareputationforhardworkandakindofcalculatedrecklessness,alongwithanabsolutewillingnesstopursuelitigation,couldgetyoualongwaywithcertainbankers.

Solongasmypeopletrustedoneanotherinsidethefamily,whichwasn'tevenacoupleofdecades,theirluckrantoacesforallofus.Anancientworldwaschanging,andmypeoplewereontheleadingedgeoftheconversion.Theyknewit;theygloriedinit.Theideathattheywereconnectedtogreatdoingsandimprovementsintheworldinhabitedthemanddrovethem.

Thirty-sixmilesofwashboard-gravelcountyroadtwistedovertheWarnerMountainstoendwithus;beyondtotheeasttherewerewagonroadstraceddownovertherimrocksandacrossthefringesofalkalineflats,butessentiallythewayintoourvalleywasthewayout.TherewasnoelectricitybutthatgeneratedforhouselightsbytheDelcopowerplantwithitsrowsofglassbatteries.Therewasnofunctioningtelephone,althoughtherehadbeensometimeinthepast;upintheAdelStoretherewasanoldhand-crankinstrumentonthewall,andtherewastelephonewirehangingloosefromalineofspindlyhome-cutjack-pinepolesalongtheroadtotown.

InFebruaryandearlyMarchthecreeksdrainingoutoftheWarnerMountainsDeepCreekandTwentyMileCreekwouldfloodandfillthevasttule-bedsuntilatsunsettheswampsonthefareast

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sideofthevalleywouldshimmerwithwaterlikealake.Theunbrokenpeatsoilunderthosemilesofswampwaseightfeetdeepinplaces;expertsestimatemorethanaquartermillionwaterbirdscamethroughthevalleyeachyear.

Thepointhereisabundanceandgreathunting,anoverwhelmingpropertythrongingwithnaturallife,andwhatmyfamilydidwithit.Attheendwehadovertwenty-onethousandirrigatedacresinWarnerValley,somethingbeyondamillionacresofleasedBLMrangeland.Weranmorethansixthousandmothercows.Itcouldhavebeenparadise;probablyitwas,maybeitstillis.

Mygrandfatherwonderedhowsuchaplacecouldbebestused.Myfathertriedtoshowhim.Myfathersawthatvalleyasagreatpossibility;myfatherhadbeentoschoolattheCollegeofAgricultureinCorvallis;hewasanengineer;OscarKittredgewasoneofthenewmen,avisionary.Heboughtacable-drumCaterpillarRD-6track-layerfittedoutwithadozerblade,whichheusedtostartbuildingaseventeen-milediversionleveetocarrythespringfloodwatersofTwentyMileCreeknorthalongtheeastsideofthevalleytodrainourswamplands.Seventeenmiles.Inthosetimessuchaprojectwasconsideredinsanelyambitious,literally.

Myfatherwasthejokeofthecountry,butnotforlong.Hejerry-riggedageneratorandbatterysystemtorunoffthedieselengineofthatRD-6,mounteditwithlights,andranitattheleveebuildingtwenty-fourhoursaday,summerandwinter,exceptforfuelstopsandmaintenance.ThenheboughtanRD-7andusedittobuildhisleveewhilehestartedplowingthetulebedswiththeRD-6,alsotwenty-fourhoursaday.

BytheendofWorldWarIImyfatherwasmakingalotofmoneyfarminggrainoffthoseplow-grounds.Andheproved,asmymothersaid,tobeaheadofhistimeinfindingwaystospendit,moneyhe

didn'thavetosplitwithmygrandfatheroranybody,afactthatcametocauseheavygriefinourfamily.

ForafewyearsduringWorldWarII,asthecatskinnersbroughtmoreandmoreoftheswamplandunderdrainageandtheplow,economicsinmyfamilyswungheavilyonthespectacularprofitsfrommyfather'sfarmingoperations.Andmyfatherwasrunningwithhisluck.Therewasanairplane,moviepeople,evenacoupleofracehorses.Butmostly,evenaheadofthegame,inmyfamily,weworked.

MyfatherboughttwomoreD-7Caterpillartractors;theseventeen-milediversioncanalwasfinished;heboughtfourJohnDeere36combineswithsixteen-footheaders;insidethediversioncanalhebuiltanenormousintricatenetworkofdrainageditchesandredwoodheadgates;

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theshallowlakeswerepumpeddry,hugefieldswereditchedoff,750acresinHustonSwamp,800acresinDodsonLake.Theheadgateswereopenedwhenthespringrunoffwaterscame.Thosefieldswereflooded,andpumpeddry.Wewerereinventingthelandandthewater-flowpatternsofthevalleyonamodelcopiedfromindustry,andirrevocablyalteringtheecologyofeverything,includingourownlives,movingintothatmoniedtechnology,whichisagribusiness.

Inthespringof1946,withthewarended,cameasimpleandenormouschange.Westartedputtinguptheloosehayonourfifteenthousandorsoacresofwildmeadowwithtractors.Ourworkteamsweresoldforchickenfeed.Agreatsplendorandattachmenttosevenoreightthousandyearsofhumanexperimentationandtraditionwentfromourliveswiththosehorses.IrecallthedustandtheslowdrumlikeclompingoftheirhoovesonthedrysodofthelateJulyfieldsastheysnortedandtrottedamiablytowardthehaycampcorralsbeforesunup;theirharnesshungonpegsinthebarnsandrotted.

Inthehayingwehadtraditionallyworkedcrewsofnearlyahundredmenthroughthemonthsofsummer,thirtymowingmachinesandtwentydumprakes,whichtranslatesintoalotmorethanfiftymen,someworking,somecoming,somegoing,andmaybetwohundredheadofworkhorses.Twostackingcrewsfollowedthemowingafteraweekorsooflettingthehaycure,aone-hundred-tonstackeveryhalfadaythroughJulyandsomeofAugustwhentheywereuptospeed.

Fromhaycamptohaycamp,thevalleywasaplacefilledwithhumanlife.YoucouldlookoutoverWarnervalleyinthemorningandseethestringsofdustrisingtocleanskyoverthosehaycamps'corrals,stirredupbythecirclinghorsesasthosecrewscaughttheirteams.Youcouldthinkthiswastherightdreamofourselvesasweweresupposedtobebeforeeverythingwenttotractors.

Wethoughtwewereworkingtowardaperfectionoffields,andfora

longtimeIlovedit.Wethoughtwedoingthegreatgoodwork,remakingtheworldonanimageborrowedfromefficiencyexperts.Wehadpavedroadsandelectricityandtelevision,andtheoldanimal-centeredagriculturalworldIhadgrownupinwasmostlygone,thatquickly.Icongratulatemyselfonhavinglivedinitforalittlewhile.Theranchwasbeingturnedintoamachineforfeedinglivestock.Theswampsweredrained,andthethrongingflocksofwaterbirdswerediminishing,clearly,yearbyyear;thehuntingwasstillfineifyouhadneverseenanythingelse,butweknew.

Ourirrigationsystemwasamasterpieceofcomplexitywithoverfivethousandwater-controldevices,headgates,valves,eighteen-inchpumps.Wecouldrunthewateraroundandaroundinadryyear,

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pumpingitbackuptoirrigatewithagainuntilitworeout,wasthejoke.Themainpartofmyworkinthespringoftheyearwasthatsystem,atwenty-four-hour-a-dayjobcalled"balancingwater."

Wehadleveledacoupleofthousandacresforalfalfa,andkeptlevelingmore.ForeightyearsafterthedeathofmygrandfatherIwasthefarmingbossattheMC,inmyfather'sfootsteps,runninganoperationwehadalways,sincemyfather'searlydays,called"TheGrainCamp."Thosecropsandthatirrigationsystemwerethefinestplaythingsofmylife.Weweremakingsomethingperfectasitcouldbeinournotionoftheworld,inscribingourvisionontheearthlikeartists,andthemakingwasanart.

Donotmistakeit,theimpulsethatdroveustoworkwasavisionofartistry.WeweredoingGod'swork,andthoughtweweremakingasacredplaceontheearth.

Butitdidn'twork.Wecutouralfalfaandtamehaywithswathers,followedbyfive-wirebalers,andHarrow-Bedstopickupthebalesfromthefieldandstackthemmechanically.Wesprayed2-4-DEthylandMalathion,andtheWorldWarIIGermannervegascalledParathion,forclovermiteinthebarley,andweshortenedourownlives.Webailedthecoyoteswith1080,andfieldmicedestroyedouralfalfa.Weirrigatedandreirrigated,pumpedanddrained,andourrichpeatsoilstartedtogosaline.

Wecouldn'thireanybodywhocaredenoughaboutourmechanicalworktodoitright.Theoldmenweredying,andnotmanyyoungmenwerecomingtotheworkwithmuchbeyonddisdain.Menwhohiredoutforranchworkinthe1960sweremissingtheboat,andtheyknewit.Theydespisedthemselvesforit.Andtheydespisedthework.

Uponthehillabovetheoldbuckaroocampwebuiltanindustrialplantcalled"TheFeedMill,"acollectionofsteelbuildingswith

rollersandgrindersandblowersandchaindrivesandaugersandhundred-horsepowerelectricmotors,ahugegrain-storagebunker,andanendlessnessoflotsforfatteningcattle.Bytheendwehadbuiltlotsenoughtoholdmostofourcowherd;everyyearweshippedtowardfivethousandfatanimalstoslaughter.

Themillwasdesignedtochophayandrollgrainsandmixinadditivesfrommolassestogrowth-inducingchemicalslikestilbestrol.Itwasahowling,stinkingplacewheretheworkproceededatthepaceofthemachinery.

Thosethousandsofanimals,pennedintothoselots,waitingforthefeedtruck,wereregardedastheultimatestepinamechanicalprogression.Weraisedbarley,wegrounditupandmixeditwithchemicals,theyateit,theyfattened,theywerebutchered,theywerefood.Inspring

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wecleanedthemanurefromthelotswithD-7Catsandscrapers.Ourdreamhadledustotheseprocesses.Theworkseemeddistancedandunnatural,andthusdemonicandhatefulaswedidit,andIthinkthathatefulnessfueledourinabilitytocherishourselvesandeachother;itfueledthefamilytroublethatwasalreadystarted,troubleIdidn'treallyunderstand.

IhadbeenbossattheGrainCampforfourorfiveyears,andIhadcometounderstandmyselfasayoungmandoinggoodwork.Wewerefarmingtwenty-fourhoursadaythroughearlyMaywhiletheCanadahonkershatchedtheirdownyyoungandthetulipspushedupthroughthecrustedflowerbedsandtheLombardypoplarbroketheirbudsandtheforsythiabloomedluridyellowagainstthecookhousewall.ButIdon'tthinkofsuchglorieswhenIrememberthosespringmornings.IremembertheodorofdankpeatturningupbehindthosediscCatsaswewentonfarmingtwenty-fourhoursaday,andhowmuchIlovedbreakingground.

BeforesunriseonthosemorningsIwouldcomeawakeandgopiss,thenstandinmyundershortsonthescreened-inverandaporchattachedtothehousewhereIlivedwithmywifeandyoungchildren.IwouldshiverwithchillandhappinessasIsmelledtheworldcomingawake.FaroutacrossourvalleythelightsonourD-7discCatswouldflickeraslightsdowhenseenthroughascreen,movingalmostimperceptibly.IwouldtakemybinocularsandopenthescreendoorandgazeouttothoselightsasifImightcatchoneofmynight-shiftcatskinnersatsomedog-fuckery,butreallyallIwantedtoseewasthemachinerymoving.Thosetrack-layerswouldclankalongallthroughthehoursofdarknessattwoorthreemilesanhour,turningathirty-six-footswath,ahundredacreseverynightandanotherhundredacresonthedayshift.Theupturnedsoilwouldmellowintheairforaday,andthenwewouldharrowandsealitwithdust,anddrillittobarley.Intendaysorsotheseedlingswouldbreakearth,andthoseorderly

drill-rowsundulatingoverthetilledgroundtowardthesundownlightweresoftlyyellow-greenandsomethingaliveIhadseentocompletion.

Itcametoacouplehundredacresofbarleyeverydayforfifteendays,threethousand-some-oddacresinall.BytheendofharvestinlateSeptember,atroughlyatonperacre,thatcametothreethousandtonsofbarleyat$50aton,or$150,000intheearly1960s.Whichwassomerealmoneyinourendoftheworld.

Wedrainedthewetlandsandthoughtthatmadethemours.Webelievedtheworldwasmadetobeuseful;weditchedandnamedtheintersectionsofourditches:FourCorners,theBigPump,Center

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Bridge,BeattyBridge.Wethoughtsuchnamingmadethevalleyours;wethoughtthemenwhoworkedforuswereours.

5

Everysooften,whenIwasachild,oneofthewomeninmyfamilywouldorganizeget-togethers,usuallyatoneofthecookhouses.Atpreciselysixo'clock,summerorwinter,thecookwouldclangthedinnerbellandwewouldtroopinandseatourselvesdownbothsidesofalongtablewiththeworkingmen.Mygrandfatherwasalwaysattheheadofthetable,withmygrandmotherbesidehim,unlesswewereattheGrainCamp,wheremyfatherwastheboss(wedidn'tgotherebutacoupleoftimes).Andtherewasmeandmymotherandmybrotherandmysister,andamixofauntsandunclesandcousins.

Itrytoimaginewhatwelookedlike,theownersofthepropertyandtheirwivesandchildren,thereinthelate1930s,attheheartoftheGreatDepression,laughingandconfidentaswepassedtheplattersofboiledbeefandthebowlsofmashedpotatoesandgraymilkgravy.

Someoftheworkingmenwouldbetooshytotalk,eyeingthewomenliketheywerecreatureswhohadjustcomefromanotherplanet.Iwonderhowmanyofthosemendespisedus,andiftheyunderstoodthattheydid,orwhy.Therewasakindofcomplaintyouwouldhearatthattableinthedaysafterwards,somethinglikethis:"Goddamnawoman.Allthatgoddamnedtalk.Yougottositthereandlisten.Youmightsayshitsoyoucan'tsayagoddamnedthing."

Blameitonwomen.Butitwasnotwomen,theyweren'ttherealcomplaint.Itwaswhatthosewomenrepresentedtothosemen,powerandcivilityandthepossibilityoflove,oratleastaffectionandfamily.Thosewerethethingsweweresupposedtobesharingwhenwewenttoeatinthecookhouses.

Someofthosemenmusthavesensedthatthosemealswereafraud.

Nobodywasactuallysharinganything.Timeswerepoor,themeninmyfamilywerecapableofsupportingwomenandchildren,theyownedagreatranch;thosewerethetrappingsofpower,andtheywereonexhibition.

Itmusthavebeenmygrandfather'sideathatweshouldsitdownwiththemenwhoworkedforus,andeatwhattheyate,offtinplates.Nodoubthepasseditoffasawayofstayingintouchwithourbeginnings,anotherwayoftakingcare.

JakeO'Rourkediedinthebunkhouse.Jakedidn'tshowfor

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breakfast,andIsentamantowakehim,butJakewasdeadinhisbed.IwanttosayhiseyeswerelikemirrorsinwhichIcouldseemyself.Itwasmyfirstconfrontationwiththenotionthatmajorpromiseswerebeingbroken.Jake'seyesweredryasriverstones.

VanceBeebecametocripplingemphysemafromalifetimeofsmokingandrunningthehaybalerinthedeepsummertimechaffanddust.Whenhecouldn'tworkinthefieldshewouldidleoffhistimedoingthingslikebuildingchairsforthebunkhousebullpenonadesignfromupstateNewYork-rich-manresorts.Vancetookhisemphysematotownanddiedaloneinamotel,andIthoughtmaybehehadkilledhimself.Istilldo.Vancebelievedstronglyindoingyourowndirtywork.

Inretrospectthosefamilymealsinthecookhouseslooklikeself-servingpoliticalbullshitdesignedtorevealmypeopleascommonanddecent,designedtobreedloyaltyamongtheworkingmen.Andtofeedthefamilyego:Wewerepoorpeoplewhohadrisen;wewerenamingourselves.

Itisanoldstory:Therulingclassobservescertaindecencies;iftheydo,everythingmightlastforever.Insomewaymypeoplemayhavebelievedsuchthings.Maybetheybelievedinmagic.Welivedinadreamofmachinelike,industrialperfectionwehadbeengiven,aCorpsofEngineers/AgSchoolmirageofremakingtheworldinourownimage,anditdidn'twork,notatall,forbothpracticalandspiritualreasons.

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Theecologyofourvalleywascomplexbeyondourunderstanding,anditbegantodieaswewentonmanipulatingitinevermorefranticways.Asitwentdeadandemptyoftheoldnaturallifeitbecameaplacewherenoonewantedtolive;wefoundourselvesdistancedfrom

everythingwemighthaveloved,likeeachother,andtheplacewherewelived.Nowondersomanyofus(likemyself)thoughtitwouldbeeasytoleave.Ifindmyselfscabbinghistoryoutofbooks,andtryingtofitittogetherinstringsthatreachfromgenerationtogeneration,tryingtoloopmyselfandthepeopleIcareforintolinesofsignificance.

Inafamilyasunchurchedasourstherewasonlyonesacredstory,andthatwastheoneaboutworkandpropertyandownership,whichissad.Itseemstomeanwehadlosttrackofstoriesliketheonethattellsustheworldistobecherishedasifitexistsinsideourownskin.Wewerenewpeopleinanewcountry;wecameandwentinacoupleofgenerations.BythetimeIwasgrownmyfatherhadstoppedspeakingtohisfather,andmymotherhadleftthembothbehind.

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ThepoetC.K.WilliamscametoMissoulaandtalkedabout''narrativedysfunction"asaprimepartofmentalillness.Manyofus,heseemedtobesaying,losetrackofthestoryofthemselves,thestoryofwhowearesupposedtobe,andhowwearesupposedtoact.Storiesareplacestolive,heseemedtobesaying.Insidetheimaginationweknowalotofthem,andwe'reinbigtroublewhenwedon'tknowwhichoneisours.

Wewanttheworldtobeasacredpartofthatlonginventionthatisthestoryofourlife,themostimportantcharacterafterourselves.Weyearntoliveinacoherentplacewecanname,wherewecanfeelsafeinsideourinvention,andwewantthatplacetoexistlikeafriend,somebodywecanknow.

Whatwemustunderstandisthatwealreadyinhabitsuchaplace;itisalive.Wemustunderstandthattheworldcannottakecareofitselfanymore.Thespecificdangerisus;thisearthisouronlyfriend,andwearedestroyingitincrementbyincrementatahorrificrate.

Weneedtodefineanewandliveablestory;itwillbeastoryaboutstayingputandtakingcareofwhatwe'vegot,inwhichourhomeisnamedassacred,astorythatencouragesustotakeseriouscare,astoryaboutmakinguseoftheplacewherewelivewithoutkillingit.

Itwillbeastoryinwhichwecometounderstandthatthecomplexityofthelivingworldcannotbereplicatednomatterhowmuchsciencefictionwehearaboutcitiesinspace.Wewillunderstandthattherewillneverbeanothersetupliketheonewehaveevolvedtolivein;ruinitandwewillhavelostourselves,whichiscraziness.

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HOWWILLOURGRANDCHILDRENJUDGEUS?BarbaraSudler

BillKittredgeandIhavesomethingincommon:Webothwereshapedbyourgrandfathers.

Irememberhow,asmygrandfather'soldestgrandchild,Iwastakeneverywherehewent.Mygrandfatherwas,forsometwentyyears,presidentandchairmanoftheboardoftheGreatWesternSugarCompany.

IgrewuptounderstandmoreaboutthesugarcompanyandsubsequentlycametoknowthatmygrandfatherIdidn'tjustlovehim,Iadoredhimwasoneoftheauthorsofthewetbacksystem.Iwasashamedandembarrassedforsoterriblylong.Then,withgreatermaturity,IgottoapointwhereIrealizedthatyouhavetotakeitincontext.Ourgrandparentsweredoingthebesttheyknewhow,andyouhavetorespectthat.TheyproducedBill,whocaresagreatdeal,andme.Icareagreatdeal.Theyhousedus,theyfedus,andtheyeducatedus,andthat'snotsuchabadjobtohavedone.Ihopethatwhenmygranddaughterssitaroundandtalkaboutwhatgrandmawaslike,theywon'tjudgemeforthethingsthatIdidn'tknowIshouldhavebeentryingtoconquer.

Ourfamiliesdiffered,Bill'sandmine;minecametothecity.MyPennsylvaniagrandfatherhadcomeoutheretotheUnionColonyandstartedinthefieldsinEaton,Colorado.ThenhemadeitbigandhecametoDenver,andasaresultIcomefromaveryurbanebackground.Iamverymuchacitifiedperson,andasstatehistoricpreservationofficer,Idealnotonlywiththeculturallandscape,whichisagreatdealofwhatBillhasbroughtus,butalsowiththecitylandscape.Talkaboutrapeandpillageinthenineteenthcenturywe

haveitrightnow.Notonlyourlandscapebutourcitiesarebeingrapedandpillaged,andthat

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isadamageaboutwhichourgrandchildrenaregoingtosay,"Whydidn'tgrandmadosomethingaboutthat?"

IntheWesternvernacular,itistimetosaytoourselves:Don'tlookforanothertree.Thisisnotthelastbestplace,thisistheonlyplace.

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DEFININGTHECARRYINGCAPACITYOFTHEWESTJoClark

Ifweask,"ArcweexceedingthecarryingcapacityoftheWest?"inphysicalterms,theanswer,withpossiblyoneortwoexceptions,isclearlyno.Butthephysicallimitsareonlyonemeasureoftheperceivedcarryingcapacityandprobablyaren'twhatwilldeterminewhenwefeelwe'vereachedthelimit.

ToillustratewhatI'mtalkingabout,letmeuseapersonalexample.Twenty-fiveyearsago,shortlyaftermyfamilyandIhadmovedtotheWest,wetookourfirstvacationinthenewlycreatedCanyonlandsNationalPark.Wespenttendayswithouteverseeinganyoneelseonlyoneortwosetsofdistantcarlightshighonthemesaacrosstheriver.Wefellinlovewiththecanyoncountryandwentbackeveryyearfortwentyyears.Wewentforavarietyofreasonsthefun,thebeauty,theadventure.Butmostlywewentforthesolitudeandforthespiritualrechargingwereceivedfromrealizingthatwewerenomoresignificantinthatcountrythanthelizards,orthedeerthatroamedthecanyons.Ifounditsomehowcomfortingtoknowthatifmankindeverblewit,thismagnificentcountrywouldcontinueitsevolution.

Twentyyearslaterweenteredthepark,stoppedalongsidetheroad,andhadarangerpullupnexttousandtellusthatwehadtoputourdogonaleash.Ifeltlikewehadseentheendofanera.Mysenseoflosswasacute.Atthatmoment,ifsomeonehadaskedmewhetherwehadexceededourcarryingcapacity,myanswerwouldhavebeenaresoundingyes.Theregulationsputinplacetoprotecttheparkforotherssymbolizedtheruinofitforme.Irecognizethatenvironmentallymydogdiddodamage.Asheranaround,hebroke

upfragilecryptogamicsoil.Whenheranontherocks,heknockedofflayersoflichen.AndI'msurethateverytimehetookaleapintoawaterhole,heshortenedthelivesofthestartledtoads.

IalsoknowthatsoutheasternUtahwasindeepeconomictrouble.

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Grazingwasprohibitedinthepark,theenergybusthit,andlocalpeoplewerehopingforalargeinfluxoftourists.WhatIwanttoshowbythisexampleisthatdecisionsregardingcarryingcapacityareverycomplexandusuallysubjectivecalls.Fordecisionmakers,thepressurescanbepainful.InBoulderwe'reasupposedlyenlightenedlotwhoputgrowthcontrolsinplaceyearsago.Wealsohaveawholeraftofregulationstoprotectqualityoflife.Butinlesseconomicallyfortunateareas,doingtherightthingmaybealmostimpossible.

LetmegiveyouacoupleofexamplesfromGeorgeSinner,thegovernorofNorthDakota.NorthDakota,since1980,hasexperiencedabustinbothenergyproductionandagriculture,itstwobiggestrevenuegenerators.Whenagpricesfinallystartedbackup,thestatehadback-to-backyearsofthemostseveredroughtinthenation.AsNorthDakota'srevenueswentdown,thebudgetwasslashedandtaxeswentup.In1989taxpayersrevoltedandinaDecemberreferendumdefeatedseveraltaxesthatprovidedabout10percentofthestate'salreadymeagergeneralfund.Thedayafterthereferendum,GovernorSinnertookpartinlightingthestateChristmastree.Hewasexhaustedfromcampaigningtosavethetaxesanddeeplydistressedatwhatheknewthedropinrevenueswouldmean.Hetellsaboutwatchingaclassofsecond-graderswearingmatchingblueT-shirtssingingChristmascarols,thinkinghowbeautifultheywere,andrealizingthatNorthDakotaprobablywouldhavetodroptolastinitssupportofpubliceducation.Heburstoutcrying,infrontofeveryone.

Aboutsixweekslaterhecalledagain,againinrealanguish.Hisdilemma:hehadreceivedacallfromthechairmanoftheTurtleMountainChippewasaskingthestatetosignacertificateofneedforahomefortheelderlyonthereservation.SigningthecertificatewouldobligatethestatetopaytheMedicareshareofthecostsforapopulationthatdoesn'tpaystatetaxes.NorthDakotahasadisproportionatelyelderlypopulationandalreadysupportsmany

nursing-homebeds.Hiscommenttome:"Ican'tapproveanewobligationwhenI'mhavingtocutsomanyprograms,buthowcanIdenyapopulationwhichIknowisprobablytheneediestinthestate?"Mostofficials,electedorappointed,whohavefoundthemselvesinthosepositionsarereluctanttotakeactionsthatcouldhamstringtheeconomy,lockupresources,orimposeunnecessaryregulatoryorfinancialburdens.

Discussionsaboutcarryingcapacityquicklybecomeaclashinvalueseconomicvalues,environmentalvalues,spiritualandemotionalvalues.It'salsoaboutgovernmentalvalues,oratleastaboutgovernmentalresponsestoconflictingvalues.Toreturntomydog-on-a-leashstory,thoseofyouwhohavehikedsandycanyonbottomsor

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clamberedoverslickrockformationsknowthattellingsomeonetheyhavetoattachthemselvestoaone-hundred-poundGermanshepherdonasix-footleashisbothridiculousanddangerous.Inthiscase,governmentactiondoesn'tappropriatelyprotectanyofthevaluesatissue,andbecauseitdoesn't,itinvitesscornforgovernmentalsolutions.

Andthat'sreallymypoint.Whetherwecanavoidexceedingthecarryingcapacitywhetherthatcapacityisrealoronlyperceiveddependsonhoweffectivelygovernmentandourpoliticalsystemcanaccommodatethevaluescomingintoplay.Physically,theWesthasagreatdealofland,butweneedtorespectitsintegrityavoidurbansprawl,desertification,exploitationwithoutreclamation,andpollution.Economically,thepotentialishereforalmostunendinggrowthifwewantit.Butweneedtoaskourselvesatwhatcost,andweneedtohelpensurethatit'sfair.Socially,wehaveclearchallengesbecauseofthewidevarietyofculturesintheWest.AsPatriciaLimericksaidearlier,weneedtolearnhowtotalktoeachotherbetter.Environmentally,we'repushingourluck.We'remakingprogress,butit'snotenoughandit'safterthefact.Technologically,wemaybeabletofindanswerstomostoftheproblems,butcanwedoitsoonenough?Canwelivewiththeresults?

Andthatbringsmetothespiritualcarryingcapacity.MostWesternersbelievetheyliveinaveryspecialplace.Wefeelnurturedbymanyfactorsthataremorethaneconomic.Ifpublic-andprivate-sectorpoliciesdisregardthem,wemayhitcapacitythresholdsbeforeweneedto,simplybecausecantankerousWesternersdigintheirheels.

Toreturntogovernmentalcarryingcapacities:HereI'mperhapsleastsanguine.Fragmentedentities,lackofvisionaryleadership,unendinglitigation,unresponsiveagencies,inflexibleregulations,outdatedlawswhatCharlesWilkinsoncallsthe"lordsofyesterday"allforcea

depressinganddebilitatinggridlock.Moregovernmentisnottheanswer.Bettergovernmentis.Thereareencouragingexperimentsgoingon.Hawaiihasalegislativemandatetodefineitscarryingcapacity.Theneedandthelimitsmaybeclearerinanislandeconomy,butmuchthatisrelevanttoothersshouldcomeout.Theconceptofsustainabledevelopmentshowspromiseofmovingfromanemotionallyusefulconcepttoanoperationallyusefulone.

Finally,moreandmoregovernmentagenciesarestartingtorealizethepotentialreturnfromdispute-resolutionandconsensus-buildingprocesses.Themorewecangetawayfromwinnersandlosers,adversarialprocesses,andcripplingprescriptiveregulations,thebetterourchancesofnotjustrealizing,butacting,asthoughwe'reinthistogetherandthatwhat'sgoodforonealsobenefitsothers.

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Weneedtodomore.StewartUdall,intheintroductorychaptertoBeyondtheMythicWest,abooktheWesternGovernors'Associationisproducingforitsannualmeeting,quotesgeographerDennisBrownridge,whopointsoutthatfewpartsoftheworldhaveexperiencedsuchexplosivegrowth.TheWesthasgrownfrom250,000peopleto50millionin150yearsor20,000percentgrowth.Iftherestoftheworldhaddonethesame,we'dhave200billionpeople.Udallgoesontostate,quotingformerEPAadministratorWilliamRuckelshaus:"Developingasustainableeconomywillbe'amodificationofsocietycomparableinscaletotheIndustrialRevolution.Theundertakingwillbeabsolutelyuniqueinhumanity'sstayonearth.'"6

Weneedtogetonwithit.

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RECOGNIZINGTHEWESTASANURBANPLACEWilliamH.Hornby

IwasborninKalispell,inthenorthwestcornerofMontana,in1923,toalumberfamily.Theywerenotthenknownasextractors.Justgoodcitizensandlumberpeople.However,myfatherwasthesuperintendentofthelocalnationalforest.SoIwasraisedamidconsiderableargumentbetweenthefederallandmanagersandtheprivate-enterpriseresourcedevelopers.

IwenttohighschoolintheMontanacollegetownofMissoula,andthentoStanford.Then,afterseveralnewspaperventuresonthePacificCoastandafewchaptersoutsideoftheWest,IwentbacktoMontana,whereIwasinthelumberbusinessmyselfinasmalltownforafewyears.AfterthatIworkedontheGreatFallspaper,andcametoTheDenverPostthirtyyearsago.Inthecourseofthis,inadditiontotheMontanamountains,IspenttimeonthePlains,upinWyoming,and,ofcourse,inColoradoandNewMexico.

SoIconsidermyselfaWesterner.Andyet,asIreflectonthatexperience,itwasallwhatIcallurban.Thisdoesn'tmeanthatIdidn'tlearnhowtofish.itdoesn'tmeanIdidn'tspendtimeinthewoodsformyfamily'slumbercompany.Itdoesn'tmeanthatIhaven'tbeenoutinawheatfield,orIhaven'tdoneanumberofotherthingsthatyoudoasyougrowupandspendyourbusinesslifeinthemountainWest.Butpracticallythewholelime,mynaturalhabitatwasintownsandcities;thatis,itwasurban.

MostWesternersareurbanpeople.AmuchhigherpercentageofourpopulationlivesinunitsthattheCensusBureaudescribesasurbanthananyotherregionoftheUnitedStates.Andyet,inourdiscussionsabouttheWest,sooftenourhistoricalapproachthewayweshapeour

ideasaboutthefutureistohandlethecityorthetownasifitweretheexception.ThecityistheplacemostWesternhistoriansdon't

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wanttothinkabout.Let'stalkaboutthemountains,theresources,thewater.Wereallycan'tworkinthecitieswhenwe'retalkingabouttheWest.YettheWesthastobeshaped,hastobepreserved,hastobeprotectedinsuchawaythatitservestheplacesmostofitspeoplelive,thetownsandcities,aswellasthebeautifulemptyplaceswheretheydon't.

ItisaconvenientwaytothinkaboutwhatwewanttodowiththeWesttopretendtoourselvesthatwehaveawayofmakingagreatnumberofpeoplegoaway.Inoticethatinhislatestwork,WallaceStegnerIreverenomanmorethatheconcludesthatoneofthegreathopesoftheWestisthatitsoverpopulationwillrecede.Icannotfindanywhereinanyseriousdiscussionofdemographyanybasisforthishope.PeoplewillkeepcomingtotheWest.Theywillcomeatvaryingrates.Theywillcomeinvaryingplacesanddifferenttimes.Buttheywillcome.OnefiguretheAmericanPlanningAssociationoffers,andIguessitisasgoodasanyother,isthatbytheyear2000thepopulationoftheWestwillhavegrown20percent.Youcangetanykindoffigure,butallthefiguresseemtoagreethatwearegoingtohavetothinkaboutmorepeople.

Whydopeoplecomewest?Peoplecomewestbecauseoftheirdreams.Theydreamthattheywilldobetterfinancially.Theydreamthattheycanfindmorespace.Theydreamthattheycanfindabetterqualityoflife.Andthefactofthematteristhatoneofthereasonstheycomewestisthatitisbetterthaneast:italwayshasbeen,intermsofpeopledreamingthatiftheywentwesttheycouldmakeanewstart.Thedreamisn'tjustofpeoplecomingwest.ThedreamisstillaliveforthepeopleinMexicowhoarecomingnorth.ThedreamisstillaliveforthepeoplealongthePacificRimwhoarecomingeast.TheydreamoftheAmericanWest,althoughtheircompassdirection,theirlabelofdirection,isdifferent.

Whenyoudreamaboutgoingsomewhere,byandlargeyoudon'tstoptoanalyzewhetherthereareenoughschoolsorenoughroadsorenoughwaterorwhattheeconomicsituationis.Peopledonotthinkaboutinfrastructurefirst.Theycomeon.That'sthelessonofhowpeoplehavecomeintotheAmericanWestinthepast.Theminersthatcameintheminingrushdidn'tstoptothinkaboutwhatwashere.Theyheardtherewasgoldandtheycame.Theimmigrantswhocameandfilleduptownsandcitiesaroundtheturnofthecenturydidn'tthinkaboutwhattheconditionswere.Whattheyweregoingtofind,theyfelt,couldbynostretchoftheimaginationbeworsethanwhattheywereleaving.Sotheycame.Theveteranswhofloodedinhereattheendof

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WorldWarIIcamebecausethey'dbeenouthereandtheylikedit.Theyfiguredthatthey'dtaketheirchancesontheschoolsandtheroads,andtheywouldbuildschoolsandroadsiftheyweren'there.Andtheycame.

Mypointisthatpeoplearegoingtocomewestregardlessofwhatwedo.Ifwearegoingtoprotectourwestifwearegoingtoprotectourlandscapeproperly,protectourcommunitieswehavetoseetoitthattheinvestmentismadeintheinfrastructureweneedtotakecareofthis.Ifwedon'tdothat,allofthesepeoplewillbecompetingfortoofewsupportfacilities.Thatcompetitioncanleadtogreatexpense,togreatinefficiency,andeventoviolence.

Oneoftheideasthathastoshapeourfutureisculturalpluralism.WemustfinallylearnhowtheracesandtheethnicgroupsandthesubgroupsoftheWestcanlivetogetherinpeace,harmony,andproductivity.Themeltingpotisadeadthought.ThatwillgivenocomforttothepeoplewhowanttomakeEnglishourofficiallanguage.(IhappentothinkthatEnglishwillalwaysbeourdominantlanguage,justasitisnowinworldcommerce.)Theideathatoneculture,onerace,onegroupintheWest,inthisnewerathatwe'reentering,isevergoingtobeabletolabelitselfas"superior"ispasse.

TheotherpointI'dliketoaddressisthissenseIhavethatwethinkthatifwecouldplanbetter,ifwecouldmanagebetter,somehowwecouldsolvealloftheseproblemsinaclean,efficientfashion.Idon'tthinkthatistrue.Weareapoliticallyfreeandmobilepeople.ThewholehistoryoftheWestgivesnocomforttothosewhobelievetheyaregoingtosolvetheproblemsoftheWestbysomesuperiorformofplanning.Ourproblemsinthepasthavebeensolvedbypoliticalactionthroughlegislationasadjudicatedbythecourts.Wearegoingtohavetocontinuetoworkoutproblemsthroughthatmechanism,becausethatmechanismisnotgoingtochange.

CharlesWilkinson,anexpertonlawintheWest,hasobservedthatalotofourproblemsofbalancingresourcesaresettledusingthebasisofnineteenth-centurylawsbasedontheprincipleoffirstcome,firstserved.Hearguesthatgradually,throughtheworkingsofourpoliticalprocessandthroughourcourts,we'regoingtodevelopanew"ethicofplace."Anethicofplacewouldholdthattheneedsofpeopleextractingresourcesaregoingtohavetobebalancedwiththeneedsofcommunity.AnethicofplacewouldsaythatPeoplearehereandhaverights,butPlacealsoishereandhasrights,andthelawmustbalancethetwo.

That,afterall,iswhatwe'retalkingaboutwhenwetalkaboutshapingthefutureoftheWest.Wearetalkingabouttryingtofindabettersenseofbalancebetweenpeopleandresources.Atthemoment

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ourlegalsystemisteetering.Ourpoliticalsystemisteetering.Butplace,andprotectionofresources,arecomingintofullerbalancewithpeople.

Thosewhoarearguingforprotectionofplacethesedaysarepolarizedtothepointwhere,ingeneral,theyareexcludingthepartoftheequationthatlooksoutforpeople.Butinourpoliticalsystem,youcannotexcludethemajorityofthepeopleinthelongrun.Itdoesnotwork.Youjustcan'tdrawlinesthatkeepthemout.Youcan'tdrawlinesthatkeepthemaway.Youhavetohopeyoucaninstillinthemajorityattitudesthatwillprotectplace.Thenthoseattitudeswillleadtoappropriatelaw.

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THEDISPOSABLEWESTThomasJ.Noel

Envisioning''ASocietytoMatchtheScenery,"oneissuewemightthinkaboutispreservation.WehavealongtraditionintheWestof"getandgetout,"ofdevastatingaplaceandthenmovingon,ofmovingawaywhentimesgettough.

ButIthinktherehasbeenaturnaroundinthelastdecade,exemplifiedbytherenewalofcorecities.ThePearlStreetMallinBoulderisanexample,asisthesixteenthStreetMallinDenverandMainStreetMallinDurango.Weareseeingatrendtowardhistoricpreservationandaninterestinnotjusttrashingaplaceandmovingonbutinreturningtothecitiesandbeautifyingthem.

Anotherkeyissueisaffluence.IfyouareinterestedineconomichistoryorMarxistinterpretationofWesternhistory,thisisgoingtobeakeyissue.TheUnitedStates,particularlytheWest,cannotcontinuetoproduceaverysmallfractionoftheworld'swealthwhileconsumingamuchgreaterfractionofthatwealth.Wearenotgoingtohavesingle-family,detachedhousestheranchhouseson1.2acresinthefuture.Thereisgoingtobeasevereeconomiccrisishererecyclingresourceswillbecomemuchmoreimportant.

Anotherkeyissuethat'ssoobviousthatwemayoverlookit,exceptwhenwe'reremindedbywonderfulbookssuchasBeyondtheHundredthMeridian,isthegeographyoftheWest,thearidity.Thishastremendousandverysubtleimplications,suchasColorado'sunbelievablylowtaxonfirewaters.Bothliquorcontainersandwaterarenowtreatedasdisposablesnotworthrecapturing.

TheghosttownsareagreatpopularphenomenoninWesternhistory,

andhereitseemstomeisaplaceforhistorianstodosomeseriouswork.ThereareplentyofhistoriesofplacessuchasAspenandTelluride.Onecomesouteveryyear.ButwhatabouttheLeadvillesandtheCrippleCreeksthereallytragicandsadanddyingtowns?ThefocusshouldnotbeontheHoraceTaborsandtheBabyDoesandthe

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millionairesbutonthetwentieth-centuryherosthepeoplewhohungoninthosetownsandcontinuedtopaytaxes,whotriedtokeepschoolsandlibrariesopen,thepeoplewhowaileduntilthe1950s,forinstance,toputsewersinLeadville,atownwheremillions'worthofmineralshadbeentakenoutandmovedontoNewYork(intheformofGuggenheim'sandothers'fortunes).Theextractedmillionsthatwerenotspent,obviously,inLeadville.

KennethJacksonofColumbiaUniversityspenttenyearsproducingabookthatIthinkiswonderfulforWesternhistorianscalledCrabgrassFrontier:TheSuburbanizationoftheUnitedStates.HeintroducesthatbookbysayingthatthegreatestsinglephysicalachievementoftheUnitedStatesinthetwentiethcenturyissuburbia.SuburbanizationisthefutureoftheWest.Weshouldn'tbetalkingaboutranches,butaboutranchhouses.Thesuburbisconsideredanenclave,anescapefromracialtension,fromcrime,fromproblemsthatmanypeopleprefertoleavebehindintheinnercity.

Anothernegativefactoriswastefulnesstheideaofadisposablesociety,thatwholetownsaredisposable,thatyougoinandmineatownandthenleaveit.InDenverevenabillion-dollarairportStapletonisdisposable.Youdon'tputanymoneyintopermanentimprovementsorupkeep.Youdon'tcareaboutthenextgeneration.HereI'dliketomakeaspecialpleaforhistoricpreservation,whichIthinkhistoriansoftenregardasanelitistmovementorsomethingthat'sjustcosmetic.ButIsubmittoyouthathistoricpreservationispartofalargerethic,anideaofpreserving,ofsaving,offixingthingsupratherthathavingdisposablecities,disposableofficebuildings,disposableshoppingcenters,andadisposablepast.

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MYTHSOFVIOLENCEINOWNINGITALLDavídL.Carrasco

InpreparationforworkingwithWilliamKittredgeinthissymposium,Ireadthechapter"OwningItAll"fromthebookbythesametitle,andselectionsinMontanaSpaces.Intheformerhewritesabouthavinghad"thelucktogrowupatthetailendofawayofexistinginwhichpeoplelivedineverydayproximitytoanimalsonterritorytheyknewmorepreciselythanthepatternsinthepalmsoftheirhands."7InMontanaSpaceshewritesaboutthestorytellingadventurerswhoweredrawntotheWest,peoplelikeOsbourneRussell,SamuelClemens,andespeciallyCharlieRussell,thecowboypainter"whogotitrightandtradedhisfamouspaintingsfordrinksandtolditlikeitwas."KittredgetellsaboutacelebrationinGreatFalls,Montana,whereboostercitizenswerecelebratingthemselvesuntilCharlieRussellspokeup.Hesaid:"Inmybookapioneerisamanwhoturnedallthegrassupsidedown,strungbob-wireoverthedustthatwasleft,poisonedthewaterandcutdownthetrees,killedtheIndianwhoownedtheland,andcalleditprogress.IfIhadmyway,thelandherewouldbeherelikeGodmadeit,andnoneofyousonsofbitcheswouldbehereatall.''8

IbeginwiththisstorytointroducetheideathatWilliamKittredgeisasdeeplyconcernedaboutstoriesandmythsasheisaboutliterature.Heisasconcernedaboutinhabitinganewstoryandanewmythasheisconcernedaboutinhabiting"thelastbestplace."Iwanttorespondtotwothemesinhiswritingsrelevanttothisconference:1)themythofownershipand2)theritualsofviolenceagainsttheland.

Kittredgegivesuscluesaboutwhatthe"mythofownership"meanswhenhewritesaboutthedreamofpowerovernatureorofmaking,in

hiswords,"aperfectagriculturalplace,"akindofsacredplaceforhumanstodwellin.Asyoureadoninhispowerfulprose,youseethatthismythofownershipisreallyamaskforanothermyth,amythofwaragainstnature.Thiswariscarriedoutthroughthesecondtheme,the

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themeofritualor"participatinginouragriculture,"wherehumansturna"homeplace"intoa''machineforagriculture."Thisritualisreallyanactofterribleviolence,consciousandunconsciousviolenceagainstnature.Theresultofthisstrategyofsacralizingnaturesoitcouldbeownedandviolatedwasthecreationofa"howling,stinkingplace."Attheendofthisessay,Iwanttotakeustoafarawayplace,acityofhisancestors,wheremythsandritualsofviolencewerecreated.

InOwningItAlandthroughouthiswork,weseeadoubleconsciousnessinKittredge.Ontheonehandhegrowsupenclosedinatopographyofspirit,alandscapeofneighborhoodsthatweresacredanddemonic,somehabitable,somenot.Thenhewenttoschoolanddiscoveredthatthislandscapewasonlyafertileoasisinavastfeaturelesssagebrushdesert.Hestruggleswiththesetwoimagesandwithwhathelearnsinthefieldsandinschool.Heisdrawnthroughouthislifetoimagesofenclosures.HefeelstheirpowerinOregonandGuamwherehelivesincompounds,Quonsethuts,enclaves.Later,storiesbecomeenclosuresthathestrivestolivewithin.InhisstorieshetellsusthathecamebacktoOregontoparticipateinagricultureinorderto"constructagreatgoodplace,"aperfectagriculturalplacethatwassacred.Hedescribestheplacethisway:"Themajorityofagriculturalpeople,ifyoupressthemhardenough,eventhoughmostofthemdespisesentimentalabstractions,willadmitthattheyaretryingtocreateagoodplace,andtoliveaspartofthatgoodness,inthekindofconnection,whichwithfinereasonwecallrootedness."9

ButasyoureadoninKittredgeyoufindthatthegoodagriculturalplacewasrootedintwotremendousforces,oneobviousandonemoreobscure;namely,violenceandcities.Weseethepresenceofviolencewhenhetellsusthathegrewupinaplacewherepeoplewerescaredandtheonesuredefenseagainsttheoutsideworldwasproperty.The

yeomandream,thepastoralimage,wasnotonlyafortificationagainstthreateninghumans,itwasalsoadreamofpowerovernature,awarwhosecentralinstrumentwasthemachine.

ThisdimensionofKittredge'sworkledmetoreflectuponReneGirard'sViolenceandtheSacred,wheretheauthorarguesthat"violenceistheheartandsecretsoulofthesacred."10Hearguesthatviolenceisendemicinhumansociety,ingrainedinourrelationships.Violenceisnottobedenied,thoughitcanbedivertedontootherobjects.Girardarguesthathumanshavenobrakingmechanismforviolencebuttheycansteeritontoconvenientenemies,scapegoats,sothatviolencewillnotdestroythe"homeplace."TheimportantinsightofKittredgeisthatviolenceisnotonlydivertedontootherpeoplesbutontothelanditself.Therelationshipbetweenhumansandlandscapeis

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aviolentone.Thispatternwon'tbechangedbyafewnewlawsorabluelineortwo,butbyashiftinthenatureofthehuman,the"sonofabitch"CharlieRussellroaredagainst.

Further,KittredgeshowsthatthemythsofAmericansagainstthelandareenormouslyviolent.Infact,hesometimesstatesthatthemythofviolencehasbeenproddingusonforsolongthatitistoolate,theviolencehasaccomplisheditswork"itallwentdead,overtheyears,butswiftly.Youcanimagineoursurpriseanddespair,oursenseofhavingbeenprofoundlycheated."ll

PerhapswearemeetinginBoulderafterthefact,disguisingthefuneralasasymposium.Maybewehave"owned"ourownviolenceanditisnowfilteringbackthroughouratmosphereandbodies.

HispointmademethinkaboutaNativeAmericancase,thecaseofthecollapseoftheClassicMayainthetenthcenturyA.D.Archaeologistsshowusafrighteningrecordofamagnificentculturefallingtotheground,destroyingitsfields,killingitsinhabitantsatanastonishingratebetweenA.D.830and930.Itappearsthatthesenativepeoplesforgottheirsenseoflimitsinfarming,celebrating,building,controlling,andexpressingviolencetosuchadegreethatthewhirlwindofdeteriorationtheysetinmotioncouldnotbestopped.ThekeyhereisthattheMayabuiltearlyformsofcities,andcitiesownanddestroythelandscape.ThisisthesecondforceinKittredge'svision,thoughitisinfrequentlydrawninhisprose.liewritesthatwhenhereturnedtoWarnerValleyandsawpavedroadsandpowerlinesandaTVtranslatorbeaming"flutteringpicturesfromNewYorkandLosAngelesdirecttous,"heknewsomethingterriblehadcomeupontheland.12

Citiesarethegreatestforcesofecologicaltransformationinthehistoryofculture.Asonescholarhaswritten,"Citiesarethestylecentersoftheworld,controllinglifeinthecountrysideand

disseminatingpolitical,social,economic,aestheticandsacredvaluestoallwhocomeundertheirsway"13EventhoughpeopleintheWestthinktheyliveinruralAmerica,ontheedgeofthewildernessorinMontanaspaces,theyactuallyliveinaworlddeterminedmoreandmorebycities.Aterriblefeatureofcitiesintermsofthelandscapeistheircontrolbyelites.Fromtheoriginofcitiesuntiltheriseofnewexperimentalcities,socialorderhasbeencontrolledbysocialprivilege.Theneedsoftheelitessaturatespaceandmakeextraordinarydemandsonalltheplacesoftheglobe.ThisiswhatCharlieRussellsensed,andwecanrephrasehimbyasking,"Whoturnedthegrassupsidedown?Whoprovidedthebarbedwiretomarkofftheslicesoflandthatbecametownsandeventuallycityblocks?Whocutdownthetreesandpoisonedthewater

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andkilledtheIndiansandcalleditprogress?"Thebusinessinandofthecity!

Asameansofcapturingtheferociouspowerandinfluenceofcitiesonthelandscape,letmereadaboutafarawayplace,aplacefarfromKittredge'sMontana,butaplacewhere,ironically,hisancestorscamefrom.Considerthisimageryoftheviolenceofthecity,themachineincarnate,aplacethatknowsnolimitsandhasallthepossibilitiesofownershipofourfuture.ThomasWolfeinOfTimeandtheRiverwrote:

Andtheimageofthecity,writteninhisheart,wassounbelievablethatitseemedtobeafiction,afable,somehugedreamofhisowndreaming,sounbelievablethathedidnotthinkthatheshouldfinditwhenhereturned;yetitwasjustthesameashehadrememberedit.Hefoundit,theinstanthecameoutofthestation:thetidalswarmoffaces,thebrutalstupefactionofthestreet,theimmenseandarrogantblazeandsweepofthegreatbuildings.

Itwasfabulousandincredible,butthereitwas.liesawagainthemillionfacesthefacesdark,dingy,driven,harried,andcorrupt,thefacesstampedwithallthefamiliarmarkingsofsuspicionandmistrust,cunning,contriving,andahardandstupidcynicism....thefacescunning,sly,andfurtive,thehardtwistedmouthsandraspingvoices,theeyesglitteringandtoxicwithunnaturalfires...menacesofprivilegeandpower...movingintunetothatvastcentralenergy,filledwiththecity'slife,aswithageneralanddynamicfluid....

Andashesawthem,asheheardthem,ashelistenedtotheirwordsagain,...itseemedthatspeechhadbeengiventothembysomedemonofeverlastinghatredonlyinorderthattheymightexpresstheinfamyandvilenessofmen,orthefalsenessofwomen...itseemedincredible...thattheycouldlive,breathe,moveatallamongthehugeencrustedtaint,thepoisonouscongestionoftheirlives.

Andyetlive,breathe,movetheydidwithasavageandindubitableviolence,anunfathomedenergy....likeasingleanimal,withthesinuous

andbalefulconvolutionsofanenormousreptile.Andthemagicalandshiningairthestrange,subtleandenchantedweather,wasabovethem,andtheburiedmenwerestrewnthroughtheearthonwhichtheytrod,andabraceletofgreattideswasflashingroundthem,andtheenfabledrockonwhichtheyswarmedswungeastwardinthemarchesofthesunintoeternity,andwasmastedlikeashipwithitsterrifictowers,andwasflungwithalion'sportbetweenitstidesintotheverymawoftheinfinite,all-takingocean.Andexultancyandjoyrosewithacryoftriumphinhisthroat,becausehefounditwonderful.l4

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Thisisofthemythofthe"all-takingocean"ofcitiesthatKittredgewarnsusabout.Thisisthestorywemusthearandevictourselvesfrombeforethelastbestplaceforourselvesandourchildrenbecomessaturatedwithindubitableviolence.

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THECOLLISIONOFWILDERNESSANDCULTUREJamesA.Carrier

ForthefirstthreeyearsinmyjobasregionalreporterforTheDenverPost,Ihadawhitejeepwithmynameonthedoorincursive.(ThankGoditwasn'tropescript.)Belowthat,thankstothemarketinggeniusesofthePost,werethewords"RockyMountainRanger,"writtenlargeenoughtobeseenthroughthewindowofa7-ElevenwhenI'dstopinforcoffee.JustwhenIwasafraidshe'drecognizethenameCarrier,theclerkwouldsay,"DidyoubringourSundaypapers?"WhenIarrivedatnationalparks,I'dhavetoidleinlineandpaytheentrancefeesjustlikeanybodyelse.Therealrangerinsidethewindowwouldslowlycountthechangeintomyhand,allthewhilereadingmydoorandwondering,''Whoisthisyahoo?"

ButIstillfeelanexhilarationwhenIgetintothejeepanddriveoutofDenverintothelandscapethat,forme,continuestoholdthemagicandmeaningoftheWest.MaybeitisbecauseIspendsomuchtimegettingtherethatIfindthevistassoimportant.Whetherit'sdescendingtheSanJuans,kickingupdustontheswitchbacksoftheSunlightBasin,orracingatwhatseemsasnail'spaceacrossthefloorofMonumentValley,Icanstillfeelwhatthepioneersdid,whatWilliamKittredgecalls"owningitall."Ironically,itisprivateownershipbytheWest'sgrowingleisureclass,theRalphLaurensandtheRobertRedfords,thatispreservingsomeofthelookoftheWest.Butitisstilllargelythepublicagenciesthatholdopenlandswithvistasthatpreservethosefeelingsoffreedomandfrontier.

Asyoumayknow,nationalparksintheWestwerepreservedforthosevistas,orforcurioslikeOldFaithful.Theywereourfirstcathedrals.Congressapprovedtheparkswhentheywereconvincedthelandhad

nootherusefulpurpose.AndonlyrecentlyhasYellowstonecometostandforwilderness.ThebattlebetweennaturalregulationandtheleisureclassoftheRVsislessthantwentyyearsold.

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Now,beforeIgoon,letmesaythatIhugasmanytreesasanybody.Thegreenrevolutionismine.Ihavecometoacceptintellectuallythatnaturalisgood.Thegrizzlyneedsmorespace.Thewolvesaremissing.Naturalisgood.Weevenhearitinourcerealads.

ButthefiresofYellowstoneconfusedme.AndifyouweretovisitYellowstoneasIdidandIwasthereallsummerunderthebeautifulblueskiesofIndiansummer,you'dwonderwhatallthefusswasabout.Theparkisstillthere,theanimalsarestillthere.Butthereisanewattraction,afirescape,widespreadandblack.

Itisonething,however,tostandinColoradoandbravelyasserttherightsofnaturalregulation,andquiteanothertospendthesummerwatchingYellowstoneburn;toeatandworkandsleepthere,inthesmoke,andtowatchonecrisisevacuationafteranother;tostandbehindtheOldFaithfulInnonSeptember7(GeorgeBushwasright,thatdaywillliveininfamy)andwatchboilinggobsofflamerollatyou;towatchthroughsquinched,wateredeyes,airthecolorofsootswirlaroundyou;toflinchwhenredembersthesizeofyourfistbangagainstyourhelmet;towatchflamesfromburningbuildingsroarparalleltothegroundinafifty-mile-an-hourwindandthewateraimedatitblowingaway,too.Atthatmoment,naturalregulationsoundedashollowasthefireextinguishersatthecabinsthatexplodedintheheat.Iwassad.Iwasangry.Iwassicktomystomach.Myemotionswerespeaking,andIthinkalotofpeoplewatchingtelevisionfeltthesameway.

Intheweekssincethen,I'vesearchedforanintellectualanswerforthosefeelings.ThebestI'veheardsofarcomesfromStevenPine,whoisafirehistorianatArizonaStateinTempe.WhathappenedatYellowstone,hethinks,isacollisionoftwohybridswilderness,whichisaconcept,anidea,ahybridofnatureandculture;andfire,whichisanotherhybridofnatureandculture.Itisnaive,heargues,tothink

thatwecanviewfireasawhollynaturalprocessorwildernessasacompletelynaturalenvironment.Itisnaivetothinkthatwhenyoucombinethemyouwon'tgetthekindofanguishedexercisewewentthoughthatsummer.

Yellowstoneisaliveandwellasalandscape,butI'mnotsureitisasanideal.Ithinkthatthesefireshaveforcedus,perhapsforthefirsttimesincethe1960s,toquestionthingsnaturalandthosewhopreachit.IhavewritteninthePostthatthetragedyofthatsummermaybethatYellowstone,thelastbestplaceinthelowerforty-eightforthingswild,cannotbewithoutthehumanhand.

Theparkisbeginningapublicrelationscampaigntoconvincetheworldthat"blackisbeautiful."Itisacampaignaimedlargelyatmendingtheeconomicfences.ButtheparkneedsphilosophicPRas

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well.Thewolfissueisdeadfornowasaresultofthefires.ThedebateoverwhethertoopencampgroundsintheFishingBridgegrizzlyhabitatmayberenewed.TheForestServicewantstologtheburnedareas.Andahayliftfordyingelkisnotoutofthequestion.

Isee,asIdrivearoundtheRockies,agrowingleisureclass,interestedlessinbackpackingthaningolfing.Themountainsarebeingcarvedintoenclaveswithsecuritygatesandlawns.Peopletaketheirlivingroomswiththemwhentheytravelnow.AwomanIknowwhotookoneofthoseguidedtripsthroughtheGrandCanyonforthefirsttimesaiditbest:"It'slikesomethingoutofDisneyland."Control.Ourdominion.ThatiswhatisgoingonatYellowstone.

ThetimeIspentinYellowstoneconvincedmethattheparkislessabiospherethananenvironmentalprovingground.It'saverydemocraticplace,subjecttoallthepressuresofapublicinstitution,includinggreed.I'moptimistic,asIthinkIhavetobeinademocracy.Yellowstoneisaplacenotjustforwildlifebutforpeople,too.It'saplacetolearnabouttheenvironment.Mostimportant,itisaplacewheretheuseofthatparkmirrorsourcountry'sattitudetowardthewild.Likethemiraculousserotinouslodgepolepineconesthatopenunderheat,thepollsareopenagaininYellowstone,Ithink.AndIalsothinkyoushouldbeaskingyourselveshowyouwillvote.

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EXCEEDINGTHECARRYINGCAPACITYOFTHEWEST:ANARTIST'SPERSPECTIVERichardMisrach

ThebrilliantFrenchthinkerJeanBaudrillardhasintroducedaconceptthathashadapowerfulimpactontheworldofhighculture.Theconceptis"simulacra."Inshort,hesuggeststhattheexperiencesoflifehavebeensothoroughlymediatedbyphotography,advertising,andfilmthatwenolongerhaveagenuineprimaryexperience.

OurunderstandingoftheWestisnodifferent.WeknowtheWestfromHollywoodfilms,TVWesterns,andAnselAdams'sphotographs.Ourvisionsareofwhite,ruggedcowboysroamingvastopenplacesortheuninhabitedlandscapespectaclesofMonumentValley,DeathValley,ortheGrandCanyon.WhenonethinksoftheAmericanWest,onedoesnotusuallythinkofirrigationprojectsgoneamuck,plutonium-contaminatedlandscapes,chemical-weaponsstoragedumps,fortyacresofgrapefruittreesonfire,tensofthousandsofswimmingpools,andmillionsofpeople.

ForthelasttenyearsIhavebeenworkingonaprojectcalled"DesertCantos."Thetermcantoissimplyanoldwordthatindicatesthesubsectionofalongsong.Itfunctionslikeachapterinanovel.ThesecantosareindependentgroupingsindependentchaptersaboutmydiscoveriesintheAmericanlandscape,particularlytheAmericandesert.Eachofthesegroupsisindependent,butonceyouputthemtogether,yougetamuchgreaterwhole.

RichardMisrachbroughtanartist'sperspectivetotheconceptoflimitswithahalf-hourslideshowandcommentaryofhiswork.Theflowofimagesduringthecommentarywascontinuous.Presentedherearerepresentativeimagesillustratingeachofthesectionsofhistalk.

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Thefirstcantoiscalled"TheTerrain."Mostoftheworkinthiscantoisbasedonamovementinphotographyinthe1970scalledthe"newtopographies."Theattemptwastoredefinethelandscape.AnselAdamshadbecomefamousforhisbeautifullandscapes,andbuiltuponthenineteenth-centuryidealofpurewilderness,unsulliedwilderness.Thefactofthematteristhatinthetwentiethcenturyyoujustdonothavethatkindoflandanymore.Anumberofpractitionersinthe1970smadearemarkablegroupofphotographswhiletryingtolookattheWestinamorehonestlight.Theywerelookingatwhatwecalltheculturallandscape.Thismovementwasmydeparturepoint.

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DownedSaguaro,Arizona,1983RichardMisrach,RichardMisrach:Photographs1985-1987(Tokyo:Gallery

MIN,1988).

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Thesecondcantoiscalled"TheEvent."IthastodowiththespaceshuttlelandingatEdwardsAirForceBaseintheMojavedesert.ThisiswhereabouttwohundredthousandpeoplearrivedintheirWinnebagosandcamperstowitnessthespaceshuttlefallfromtheskylikeastone.Theyweresupposedtoparkontheoutsideofthefence.Iaskedpeoplewhatthesnowfencewassupposedtodo,andtheysaid,"Well,it'stokeepthepeoplefromrunningontothefieldtowardthespaceshuttle."AndIthoughtthatwassortofabsurdfortwohundredthousandpeople,itdidn'tseemlikeitwoulddothejob.Andthensomebodyelsesaid,"No,no,no,that'snotitatall,it'stokeepthespaceshuttlefromrunningintoallthepeople."

Afterthefirstshuttlelandingtherewassuchatrafficjamaftertheshuttlefinallylandedthat,accordingtoonejournalist,ittookthetwohundredthousandpeopleandtheircamperstwiceaslongtogetoutoftheparkinglotasitdidfortheshuttletogoaroundtheEarthtwice.Sothisnexttimearound,themilitarydecidedtolaydowntarlinessothateverybodycouldlineup.

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CampersandRestrainingFence,EdwardsAirForceBase,California,1983RichardMisrach,DesertCantos(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexico

Press,1987),p.18.

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Thenextcantoiscalled"TheFlood."ThisinvolvestheSaltonSea.ItisinthesouthernCaliforniadesert,afactthatiswroughtwithirony.ItactuallywasSaltonSinkintheearly1900s.ButanirrigationprojectalongtheColoradoRiverwentawry,andthisareaflooded.Eventuallytheydecidedtokeepthewaterandbuildawholeeconomyaroundit.Sohotels,motels,andrecreationalareaswereintroduced.Waterskiingwaspromoted.Theystockedfish.Lateron,theyworkedoutasystemwherebywaterwastakenfromtheColoradotosupportagricultureintheCoachellaandImperialvalleys.That'swhereCaliforniagetsallitsgreatgrapefruitsanddates.ThewaterwouldgothroughthesefarmsandthenleachintotheSaltonSink.

Inthe1970stheirrigationdistrictsnegligentlypumpedalotofwaterintothesink,andallthebusinesses,ranches,andhomesthathadbuiltupalongtheshoreovertheyearswerefloodedout.Sowhatwehavenowisafloodmuseum.It'sbeeninastateofpermanentfloodnowfortenyears.It'sstartingtogetbetter.Afewyearsagotheresidentsfinallywonaclass-actionsuitformillionsofdollarsagainsttheirrigationcompanies.Theironyhereisthatyouhavethisexquisitebodyofwaterandlight,unlikeanythingI'veseen,andyetitisanenvironmentalhorror.

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FloodedMarina(gaspumps),SaltonSea,California,1983RichardMisrach,DesertCantos(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexico

Press,1987),p.33.

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Thenextcantoiscalled''TheFires."ThiscantohasananecdotethatIthinkisanimportantparable.ForthetwoyearsIwasphotographingbetween1983and1985therewasanengineerfromthefiredepartmentwhosetmorethantwohundredfires.Inhisbriefcasehehadacoupleofhundredmatchbooks,withcigarettesamongthem,tiedaroundarock.Whathewoulddoislightthecigarettesandthrowtherockoutofamovingcar,andthushaveadelayedfuse.He'dsetuptosixfiresinaday.Finallyhewascaughtandhe'sinprison.

Allthefireswerehumancausedtheywereeitheraccidents,arson,agriculturalcontrolled-burns,oragriculturalcontrolled-burnsthatgotoutofcontrol.

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DesertFire#17,1983RichardMisrach,DesertCantos(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexico

Press,1987),p.50.

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ThisisfromaseriesaboutnuclearfalloutinAmerica:

SnowCanyonispartoftheareaaroundSt.George,Utah,whichwasexposedtofalloutfromearlyatomictesting.Italsowasthesiteofthe1954HollywoodproductionTheConqueror,directedbyDickPowell.DespiteconcernsexpressedbyPowellandtheRKOscouts,governmentexpertsreassuredthefilmmakersoftheirsafety.DickPowelldiedoflungcancerin1963,AgnesMooreheaddiedofuterinecancerin1974,SusanHaywarddiedofskin,breast,anduterinecancerin1975,andJohnWaynediedoflungcancerin1979.AtthetimeofWayne'sdeath,91ofthe220remainingcastandcrewmembershaddevelopedcancer.

TodaySnowCanyonisabreathtakinglybeautifulstateparkenjoyedbythousandsofcampersandvisitorseachyear.Therearemanywhobelievethatthedunesarestillcontaminatedbyplutonium(half-life,235,000years).15

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SnowCanyonStatePark,Utah,1987RichardMisrach,RichardMisrach:Photographs1985-1987(Tokyo:Gallery

MIN,1988).

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ThisisfromaprojectcalledBravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest.It'sabookthatmywife,Myriam,andIworkedontogether.ThebookisdividedintothreepartsanditopenswiththemilitaryabuseoftheWest.

Bravo20isabombingrange.ItispubliclandusedbytheUnitedStatesNavyforthirty-threeyearswithoutauthorization.Thenavyliterallybombedthisplaceeveryday.ItwasthelocationofanimportantNorthernPaiutepuberty-ritualsitecalledLoneRock.TherecenthistoryofLoneRock,intheCarsonSink,isanincrediblestory.ItinvolvestwomenwholivedinNevadawhotookthenavytotask.Thesemenwentontothebombingrangewhenitwasactiveandannouncedtothepressandthemilitarythattheyweregoingoutonthislandbecausethenavywasbombingitillegally.

Thefirstpartofthebookisthehistoricalbackgroundofthisbombingrange.Parttwocomprisesthephotographsdocumentingthepost-apocalypticlandscapethelandscapethathasbeenshoweredwithbombsandcratersandshrapnel.

In1986,whenthenavywascaughtbythesetwocivilians,DocBarginandRichardHolmes,theyhadtostopbombing,sotheywentbeforeCongressandsaid,"Look,therearethousandsofunexplodedlivebombsthathavebeenburiedbeneaththesandsovertheyearsandwecan'tdecontaminatethem.Itwouldcostmillionsofdollarsandwouldbeonly95percenteffective."Andso,giventhatthenavycouldnotcleanitup,CongresspassedtheMilitaryLandsWithdrawalActof1986,whichgavethenavyauthorizationtoresumebombingforfifteenyears,untiltheyear2001.Parttwoofthebookisaphotographicdocumentationofwhatthatbombinghasdonetotheland.

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UnexplodedBomb,Bravo20BombingRange,Nevada,1986RichardMisrach,Bravo20TheBombingoftheAmericanWest(Baltimore:

JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990),p.53.

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PartthreeofthebookisaformalproposalIdesignedtoconvertthisbombingrangeintoanationalpark,thefirstenvironmentalmemorial.Ithinkitwouldbeausefulmemorial.Youwouldhave"DevastationDrive"adrivingtouraroundthebombingrange.Youwouldhaveawalkingtourofthecratersandthebombscalled"BoardwalkoftheBombs."Theboardwalkwouldleadtoanumberofdifferentsiteexhibits.Therewouldbecratersandactiveeagles'nestsandthesand-dunebiotaand,asinanyconventionalnationalpark,therewouldbesiteplaquesanddisplaystoeducatethepublic.Apicturewindowwouldcontinuedowntoasubterraneanfloor,givingparkvisitorsthechancetoviewthebombsthatwereburiedbeneaththesurface.Ifoundoutintalkingtoamilitarydetonationexpertthattheplacecanbedecontaminatedandcleanedupandthatthenavyhastheabilitytocleanupthesite.Sowecouldjustreplacelivebombswithdummybombssoitwouldbesafe.Andofcourseyou'vegottohaveawalk-incrater.It'stheonlywaypeoplecangettherealsenseofthenatureofthedevastation.

Theprojectwouldcostaboutsevenoreightmilliondollarsaboutone-fourththepriceofoneF-A-18jetbomber.Wefigurethat,ascompensationforfortyyearsofillegaluseandcontamination,themoneyshouldcomeoutofthenavy'sbudget.

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BoardwalkoftheBombs,illustrationbyRicoSolinasRichardMisrach,Bravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest(Baltimore:

JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990),p.107.

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Thelastcantoismoresomber.It'scalled"ThePit."ThisisinNevada.Itisoneofthreedead-animalpitsthatareliketrashdumps.ItisabouteightmilesfromNavalAirStationFallon,whichisaboutanhoureastofReno.Fallonwasthesiteofoneatomictestin1963OperationShoal.Somepeoplestillbelievetheareaishotwithplutoniumandthattheleukemiaratesarehigherthanthestateandnationalaverages.Allofthisisspeculationthatneedstoberesearched.InourresearchfortheBravo20book,MyriamandIdiscoveredaninternalnavydocumentthatisnowcomingtolightdocumentingthenavy'sownresearchintotwentytoxic-pitsites.Everymilitarystationinthecountryprobablyhasterribletoxicsites.Chemicalssuchasnapalm,AgentOrange,jetfuel,andsoonarebeingleakedintothegroundwater,possibly(accordingtothenavy)affectingtheagriculturenearby,inthiscaseFallon.

Ishouldsaybecausethere'salwaysconfusionaboutthisthatifyourpetdied,youwouldbringittothisdump.Ifananimalofyoursdiedofoldage,iftherewasaroadkill,ifanimalsforwhateverreasondied,theywouldbebroughttooneofthesepitsites.

OnMarch24,1953,theBullckbrothersweretrailing2,000headofsheepacrosstheSandSpringsValleywhentheywereexposedtoextensivefalloutfromadirtyatomictest.Withinaweekthefirstewesbegandroppingtheirlambsprematurely.Thelambswerestunted,woolless,legless,andpot-bellied.Soon,full-grownsheepstarteddyinginlargenumbers.Theyhadrunningsores,largepustules,andhardenedhooves.Horsesandcattlewerefounddeadwithbetaburns.Atfinalcount,4,390animalswerekilled.Initialinvestigationsbygovernmentexpertsindicatedthatradiationwasthecause.However,whentheAtomicEnergyCommissionrecognizedthepotentialeconomicandpoliticalliability,allreportsandfindingswereimmediatelyclassified.TheAECdidprovideapublicexplanation.Adryyearandmalnutritionwereblamed.Todaydesignateddead-animalpitscanbefoundthroughouttheWest.Theyfunctionmuchliketrashdumps.Localsareencouragedtodepositanimals

thatdiesuddenly.Thecausesoftheanimals'deathsareoftenunknown.16

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DeadAnimals#86,Nevada,1986RichardMisrach(forthcoming).

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Thisworkisnotmeanttobealiteraljournalisticexposé.Itisaprotest,ifyouwill,ascreamagainstthispracticeofthemilitaryandthegovernment,ofconductingincredibleexperimentsinthedesert,ofscrewingupconstantlyandthencoveringitup.YouhaveitinDenverwithRockyFlats.YouhaveitwiththeNevadaNuclearTestSite.YouhaveitwiththeYuccaMountainnuclear-wastedump,wherethenation'shigh-levelnuclearwastewillbeburied.TheystillaregoingtotrytoshoveitinNevadaontopofanearthquakefault,whichisanunsoundplacetoputit.Itistotallydangerous,butnobodyelsewilltakeit.Contaminantsfromthesedumpsgetintothegroundwater.Afterthetestsfromtheearly1950s,thestuffwouldgetintheairanditwouldendupinBuffalo,NewYork.Itendedupallovertheworld.It'snotsomethingthatyoucanputinthedesertandbedonewith.

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THEPRESSINTHEWEST:CO-OPTEDINTOACELEBRATIONOFTECHNOLOGYMarkTrahant

Iwouldliketoaddathirdthemetothethemesthat,first,thegovernmentandthemilitaryarealwaysscrewingupand,second,alwayscoveringup.Iwanttoaddathirdtheme,becauseIamsomewhatguilty:thatwhenthegovernmentscrewsup,andthenthereisacover-up,oftenthepressignoresit.

I,too,havebeentothelandofthemotorhomes,thelandingofthespaceshuttleDiscoverySTS26.Iwasstrucknotonlybytheimageofthemotorhomesandthewaytheyarelinedup,alltopayhomagetotechnology,butalsobytherowsbehindthemotorhomes.Therearerowsandrowsofcottoncandy,hotdogsanythingyouneedtobuyisavailable,includinginsigniasfromsoldiersoffortune.Youcangetthelatestbadgethatwasworninwhateverwaryouarelookingfor.OneAustralianmanwhomIinterviewedtoldmethatcomingtothelandingofthespaceshuttlewasanear-religiousexperience,andhehadbeentotheMeccatwice.

Whenthespaceshuttleactuallyhitstheground,theNASAfolksincreasethecelebrationbyplaying''TheStarSpangledBanner."And,ofcourse,alotofpeoplehavetearsintheireyes.Thewayjournalistsfitintothisisinteresting.

WebegintheprocessofcoveringanSTSlandingafewdaysearlierinadesertmotel,wherewegetourpresscredentials.Thisishowtheyputyouinthesystem.Firstofall,theygiveyouthesefancybadges.Theygiveyouagiantvehiclepassthatsays"STS26"andhasalittle

shuttleonthebottom.Itisgreattogivetoanykidsinyourfamily.Second,theygiveyouanIDbadgelabeled"STS26"inbrightredletters,whichyougettoweararoundyourneck.Third,theygiveyou

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stacksandstacksofmodelsandtechnicaldiagramsthataresotechnicalyouwillneverunderstandthem,butthatallowyoutobecomepartofthesystemandbecomeaninsider.Youarethenco-optedintothecelebrationoftechnology.Duringthecoverageofashuttle,mostofthejournaliststheredon'tquestionwhetherthetechnologyisvalid,onlywhetheritworks.

Anotherofthewaysthatjournalistsgetco-optedisperhapsmoreseriousthantheshuttle,andthatisbythemilitarytechnologyintheWest.IfyouarecoveringanythingfortheDepartmentofEnergy,theprocessisessentiallythesameasitwouldbeforNASA.Yougetcredentials,yougetafancybadge,yougetaccesstoplacesthatotherpeopledon't,andyougetco-opted.Ihavebeentothe"nationalnuclearbombpark."ItisopenonlytothepressatthispointtheNevadaTestSite.Notonlydoyougetthefancybadges,youalsogetafancydevicethattellsyouifyougettoohot.Younevergettokeepthat,though,theyalwaystakethatback.Soyounevergettoknowhowcloseyoureallywere.

IntheWest,westillarelivingwithtwoplacesatwhichtheUnitedStateshasdecidedwecanburyourmostdeadlyinventions.Thethingswehaveengineeredasahumanracethathavelastedthelongestarethepyramids,whichareaboutfourthousandyearsold.YetournuclearhighprieststellustheyarefairlycertainthattheycanburyourwasteinNewMexicoandNevadaincontainersthatwilllasttenthousandyears.

IamremindedofanimagethatstickswithmefromYuccaMountain,Nevada.YuccaMountainisfarawayfromthetestsite.Thereisnothingmucharoundthereotherthanbeautifulcountry.Oneofthefirstthingsthescientistsdidtherewhentheydecidedthatthisiswherewecanburythehigh-levelwastesthewastethatwillbeaproblemfortenthousandyearswastoputintwopipesthatgodownabout250

feet.Therockissupposedtobesosolidthattherewon'tbeanyproblemwithleakingofwater,leakingofanythingelse.Yetwhentheyputthesetwopipesintotheground,theyfoundaninterestingphenomenon.Inthewintertime,warmairflowsoutofthepipes.Inthesummertime,warmairissuckedintothepipes,thereverseprocess.Inshort,theearthbreathes.Theystilldon'tknowwhythishappens,andthegeologiststendtosaythattheydon'tthinkitwouldaffecttheradionuclidesthatwouldbeburiedunderneathit.Butnonetheless,theearthbreathes.

AfinalpointIwouldliketomakeisthattheseareplaceswethinkofassomewhere"outthere."WhenyouthinkoftheWestasanuclearplace,youshouldrememberthatitisallrighthere.

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RecentlyIhadachancetotakealookatthetransportationofnuclearitemsonourpublichighways.Andtheinterstatehighwaysystemisaboutthebusiestplacethereisforthingsnuclear.Ifyouwanttoseeanuclearbomb,forexample,youarealmostguaranteedtoseeoneifyousitalongI-40betweenAlbuquerqueandtheTexasborder.Bombsrollthroughthereroughlytwotimesaday,sometimesjustonceaday.Rightnowwearetransportingonpublichighways2.8milliontonsofradioactivematerial,includingH-bombs,high-levelwaste,transuranicwaste,low-levelwaste,andotherthingsnuclear.IwasgoingthroughsomecourtrecordsforthistransportationstoryandIwasamazedtofindthatlastyearneartheColorado-Nebraskaborder,atrucktrailerwashaulingCobalt60fromCanadatoDenver,anditwasstoppedatastatetruck-inspectionstationsimplybecauseithadabrokenaxle.TheCobalt60insidewasjustasideproblem.

WhenIwasresearchingthisstory,Ithoughtalotaboutthisproblemofjournalistsbecomingco-optedandbecomingpartofthecelebrationoftechnology.IdecidedthatforthisstoryIdidnotwanttobecomepartofthesystem.Sowedecidedtoseewhatwecouldfollow,aphotographerandI,withouttellingtheDepartmentofEnergy,andtobeoutsiderslikeeveryoneelse.Thisputusinawholedifferentcamp.WewenttoPantex,Texas,whichisthefinalassemblypointfornuclearbombs,andwesetupinacaroutside.Wethoughtwewouldbesomewhatobvious.Weputourbiglonglensesontopofthecarandputnotepadsouttotrytomakeitlooklikewewerereporterssotheywouldn'tshootus.Wesatthereallthatdayandnotrucksrolledout.Weknewthattheyhadashipmentscheduled,sowebegantowonder.Wedecided,well,weworkforalargenewspaper,wehavelotsofresources,let'srentanothercarandparkitontheothersideofthebaseincasetheyaregoingoutthebackdoor.Wedidthatandwedecidedtheywerestillsneakingout,soweboughtportableradiostokeeptrackofwheretheyweremovingthebombs.Afterwedidthat,

welookedintotheskyandsawahelicopterflyingbackandforthkeepingtrackofwherewewere.AtthatpointwerealizedthattheDepartmentofEnergyhadmoreresourcesthanwedid.Fortunatelywewereabletogetpicturesofthebombs.Theamazingthingisthattheytravelatspeedsyouwouldn'tbelieve.WewerechasingonebetweenAlbuquerqueandAmarilloandwewereaveraging75milesanhourandwecouldn'tkeepupwithit.Butifyouwanttoseeit,allyouhavetodoissitalonganinterstate.AnotheronewouldbeI-70,orI-15inIdaho.Mostoftheroadsarealreadynuclear.

WiththeWestbecomingsonuclear,andthemilitaryconstantly

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coveringup,findingthesethingsoutisbecomingmoreandmoredifficult,becausethewholesystemissetuptokeepthesethingssecret.Wecanhopethatweinthepresswillstartreactingmoreandfindingthesethingsout.

PARTFIVETheFuture

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KOKOPELLI'SRETURNTerryTempestWilliams

Onenight,beneaththeruinsofKeetSeel,weheardflutemusicmusicsosweetitcouldhavesplittheseedsofcorn.EarlierwehadwanderedthroughtheroomsofKeetSeel,admiringtheredrockconstructiondabbedintothesandstonealcovelikeswallows'nests,buttherehadbeennomusicthenonlythesilencepressingagainstusinthecoolAnasaziair.

Abovetheruins,cloudscoveredthefullfaceofthemoonlikegauze.Thelandseemedtobowwiththemelodyoftheflute.Ireachedformyhusband'sarmandhereachedforourfriend.Wekeptholdofoneanotherlikechildren,andwelistened,holdingourbreathsbetweentheintervalsofourownheartbeats.Theflutemusicflowedoutfromthecliffdwellinglikeanancientbreath.

Thenextmorningwesataroundcamp,drinkingrosehiptea.Weweretiredandstifffromthecold,stillhalfstunnedfromthenightbefore.Ourfriend,whowasHopi,lookeddownatthecupheheldinbothhands,andtoldastory.

Amantraveledthiscountrywithabagofcornseedoveroneshoulder.Hisshadowagainstthedesertlookedlikeadeformity.liewouldstopateveryvillageandteachthepeoplehowtoplantcorn.Andthenwhenthesunslippedbehindthemesaandthevillagewasasleep,hewouldwalkthroughthecornfieldsplayinghisflute.Theseedswouldflower,pushingthemselvesupthroughthered,sandysoilandfollowthehigh-pitchednotesupward.Thesunwouldriseandthemanwouldbegone,withcornstalkstheheightofayounggirlshimmeringinthemorninglight.Manyoftheyoungwomenwouldcomplainofafullnessintheirbellies.Theelderswouldsmile,knowingtheywerepregnant.Theywouldlooktothesouthwestandcallhim"Kokopelli."

Wefinishedourtea,brokeupourcamp,andorganizedourpacks

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forthetrail.Beforeleaving,IwalkedbacktothebaseofKeetSeel.Theruinsappeareddarkerthanusual,fullofshadowsthatmovedfromroomtoroom.MyeyesfollowedthetalltimbersfromfloortoceilingasIimaginedmacawsperchedontop.Kivashelddarknessbelow,andIwonderedifoldmen'sbonesmightbeburiedthere.Justthen,inastreamoflight,apictographontheceilingofthealcovejumpedout.Itwasabuglikecreature,butasIfocusedmoreclearlyIrecognizeditasthehumpbackedfluteplayer.

"Kokopelli,"Iwhisperedtomyself."ItmustbeKokopelli."

Thelightshiftedandheseemedtoberockingonhisback.Ihadmissedhimthedaybefore,noticingonlythepictographsofbighornsheepandspirals.Atthatmoment,Irecalledtheflutemusicthatfloodedthecanyonthenightbeforeandthecloudslikegossamerhandswithlong,longfingersthatpulledmeintoanabyssofsleep.Iplacedmyhandovermystomach,turnedawayfromtheruins,andwalkedbacktowardmyfellowcampers.Halfwaydownthecanyon,Ifeltstirringsinmybelly.Sweetcornwassproutingallalongtheriver.

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SOMETHINGSTARTINGOVERYoudon'tseebuffaloskullsverymuchanymoreOntheChugwaterbuttesordowntheCheyenneplains,Andwhenyourollattwilightoveradraw,Withagesinyourheartandhillsinyoureyes,YoucangetaboutasmuchfromaModel-T,Strippedandforgotteninasagearroyo,Asyoucanfromaskingthebluepeaksoverandover:

"Willsomethingoldcomebackagaintonight?SendsomethingbacktotellmewhatIwant."

Idonotknowhowlongforeveris,Buttodayisgoingtobelonglongago,Therewillbeflinttofind,andchariotwheels,Andsilversaxophonestheangelsplayed,SoIaskmyselfifIcanstillrememberHowamythbeganthismorningandhowthepeopleSeemedhardlytoknowthatsomethingwasstartingover.

Oh,Igetalongallrightwiththeoldoldtimes,I'veseenthemsiftingtheagesinNebraskaOnSignalButteattheheadofKiowaCreek.

(YoucandrinkfromthespringwhereoldmanRoubadeau

HadhisforgeandanvilupinCedarValley,YoucanlookbackdownthevalleytowardScotts

BluffAndstillseedustcloudsontheOregonTrail.)

IenteredthetrenchtheycutthroughSignalButte,

CopyrightYaleUniversityPress.Reprintedwithpermission.

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AndIpulledabuffalobonefromtheeight-footlayer,AndIwatchedthejaspershardsandarrowheadsBounceinthejiggingscreenthroughwhichfelldustOfantelopeandpiecesoftheworldToosmalltohaveameaningtothesifters.

Oneofthemsaid,whenIheldtheboneinmyhand:"Thismayturnouttobetheoldestbison

InNorthAmerica,"andIcouldhaveadded:"Howstrange,forthisisoneoftheyoungesthands

ThateversqueezedarubberbulbtoshowHowheliumparticlesshootthroughwatervapor."AndthedrywindoutofWyomingmighthave

whispered:''Todayisgoingtobelonglongago."

Iknowhowitsmellsandfeelstosifttheages,ButsomethingstartingoverandIsayIt'sjustasbeautifultoseetheyuccaAndcactusblossomsrisingoutofaFordInasagearroyoontheChugwaterflats,AndpretendyouseethecarbondioxideslippingIntothepovertyweed,andpretendyouseeTheroothairsofthebuffalograssbeginningTosuckthevanadiumsteelofanaxletopieces,Anaxlethattooksomebodysomewhere,Tomovingpicturetheatersandbanks,Overtheranges,overthecattle-guards,Tookpeopletodance-hallsandcemeteriesIliketothinkofthemthatwaytogether:Dance-hallsandcemeteries,bodiesbeginningTocometogetherindance-hallswherethepeopleSeemhardlytoknowthathymnsarebeginningtoo;

ThenbodiesseparatingandgoingaloneIntothetiltinguphillcemeteries,Underthemesas,undertherimrockshadows.

Icanlookatanaxleinsagearroyo,Andhearthemwhispering,thebackseatlovers,Theoldmyth-makers,starlingsomethingover.

ThomasHornsbyFerril

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PUBLICUSEANDTHEFUTUREOFTHEFEDERALLANDSBruceBabbitt

ThepubliclandsoftheAmericanWestarebothahistoricalanomalyandacontinuingpoliticalparadox.Givenourindividualisticculture,preferenceforprivateproperty,antipathytowardgovernment,andrecurrentmovementstoprivatizeanythingpublic,onecouldreasonablyassumethatthepubliclandshadlongsincebeensold,auctionedofforgivenawaysimplytogetgovernmentoutofthelandbusiness.Yetinthetwentiethcenturythepubliclandshaveremainedlargelyintact,andtheconsensusforpublicownershipseemstogrowwitheachgeneration.

Ifthereisasolidconsensusforpublicownership,thereisasyetnosuchagreementabouthowourWesternlandsshouldbeusedandadministered.Thecentury-olddebatebetweenthedisciplesofJohnMuir,preachingwildernessforitsownsake,andthefollowersofGiffordPinchot,advocatingutilitariandoctrinesofresourceuse,ragesonunresolvedandgrowingevermoreintenseastheonce-emptyspacesoftheWestbegintofillup.Likewise,thereisstillnosettledconsensusonwhereland-usedecisionsshouldbemadeatthefederal,state,orlocallevelorbywhomthepublic,electedofficials,judges,orprofessionaladministrators.Giventheuniquehistoryofpubliclands,proposalsforreformrequiresomediscussionofwhathashappenedinthepast.

AstheAmericanfrontieradvancedfromAtlanticshoresacrosstheMississippiandontotheGreatPlains,landswereroutinelytransferredintoprivateownershipthroughlandsalesandtheoperationofthevariouspreemptionandhomesteadlaws.Asaresult,publiclandseast

oftheMississippiRiverhavealmostdisappeared;theyarenowlimitedtoafewsmallforestsandparksandsomelargertractsinNewEnglandandtheAppalachians.

Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,asthelineofsettlementmovedofftheGreatPlainsintothefrontrangesoftheRockyMountainsandbeyond,thehistoricalprocessofprivatizationbeganto

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slow,eventuallycomingtoahalt.Ashomesteaders,conditionedbytheirexperienceontherichagriculturalfrontiersofIowaandNebraska,begantrekkingintotheemptyspacesoftheWest,theyexpectedtoplowthesoilintoacheckerboardextensionoftheMiddleWest.Butforthemostpartitwouldnothappen,fortheclimatewastoocoldinthehighmountainsandtoohotinthedesertbottoms,soilswereoftenunproductive,andalmosteverywheretherewastoolittlerainfall.

Outofthefailureofthehomesteadexperience,twoopposingconceptsoflandtenuregraduallyemerged.One,rootedinthetraditionalurgetoprivatize,advocatedthatthepubliclandbesoldorgivenawayinwhateverquantitiesnecessarytostimulatedevelopment.Ifsmallhomesteadgrantswerenotasufficientinducementtosettlement,thenlargegrantssurelywouldbe.InthenineteenthcenturyCongressgave58millionacresoflandtoNorthernPacificRailroad,justthefirstofmanyhugegrantstorailroadcompanies.AsCongressenactedlawsauthorizingexpandedmineral,timberandgrazinggrants,landmonopoliesbegantodevelopasindividualsandcorporationsmanipulatedandsteppedovertheedgeofnewlandlaws.

EvenasWesternlandsweresold,granted,andotherwiseconcentratedintohugeprivatelandholdings,anewconceptthatpubliclandsshouldberetainedinpermanentownershipandmanagedforpublicpurposesgraduallyemerged.Itbeganwithatraditionalconceptpublicparksimplementedonagrandscale.In1872Congresssetaside2millionacresinYellowstone"asapublicparkorpleasuringgroundforthebenefitandenjoymentofthepeople."1YosemiteNationalParkfollowedin1890afteralongandacrimoniousfightledbyJohnMuir.

Afterparkscamealessfamiliarconceptpublicforestreserves.In1891theCongress,inresponsetoacceleratingdestructionofWesternforests,authorizedthePresidentto"setapartandreserve,inanyState

orTerritoryhavingpubliclandbearingforests,...anypartofthepubliclandswhollyorinpartcoveredwithtimberorundergrowth,whetherofcommercialvalueornot,aspublicreservations."2AsPresidentsHarrison,Cleveland,andthenTheodoreRooseveltinvokedthislawtocreateanationalforestsystem,Congressbeganbacktracking,butbythetimetheexecutiveauthoritywasrescindedin1907,themodernforestsystemwaslargelyinplace.

Ifonepresidentgaveshapetothepublic-landsystemthatweenjoytoday,itwasTheodoreRoosevelt.InsevenyearsintheWhiteHouse,heexpandedthenationalforestsfourfoldto172millionacres,establishedseventy-twowildliferefugesandeighteennationalmonuments,anewcategoryofpublicreservationsintendedtopreserveareasofscenic,

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scientific,andarchaeologicalinterest.Heinitiatedthefirstmineralandreclamationwithdrawals.Mostimportantlyforthefutureofthepubliclands,itwasT.R.'senthusiasticevangelizingandinstinctiveloveoftheoutdoorsthatonceandforallestablishedtheconceptofpubliclandsasapermanentpartoftheAmericanheritage.

AfterTheodoreRooseveltleftoffice,thedebateoverpublic-landpolicydriftedofftotheshadowycornersofAmericanpolitics.Timber,oil,andminingcompanies,aidedbytheconnivanceorplainindifferenceofpublicofficials,discoveredtheycouldexploitlandswithoutbotheringtoownthem.TheTeapotDomescandalcameandwent,yetintheeasyatmosphereofthe1920s,thepublicseemeduninterestedindemandingmeaningfulreforms.

TheconservationmovementrevivedwiththecomingofFranklinRooseveltandtheNewDeal.Still,atheart,theNewDealersweresocialplannersratherthanenvironmentalists.Tothem,conservationmeantbuildingdamsforfloodcontrol,publicpower,andreclamation;replantingforeststoincreasethetimberharvest;andconservingsoiltoincreaseagriculturalproduction.

TheTennesseeValleyAuthoritybecamethemodelforWesternlands;F.D.R.toldthenationthatTVA"leadslogicallytonationalplanningforacompleteriverwatershedinvolvingmany[States]andthefuturelivesandwelfareofmillions."3TheBureauofReclamationwastheWesternTVA,andduringtheNewDealitgearedupdevelopmentprogramsthatwouldeventuallyrunamok,causingmoreenvironmentaldestructionthananyotherpublic-landsprogram.

IftheNewDealemphasizedtheutilitarianaspectsofconservation,implicitlyexaltinghumansovernatureeverywhereintheWest,itnonethelessclinchedtheideaofnationalownershipofWesternlandsasapermanentpartofthenationalheritage.TheTaylorGrazingActeffectivelyclosedthepublicdomaintohomesteadingandestablished

federalmanagementresponsibilityforthenonforestlandsadministeredbytheBureauofLandManagement.PublicpowerlegislationfurtherstrengthenedtheconceptofpublicownershipofWesternnaturalresources,evenasitcompromisedenvironmentalvalues.

Theconceptofpublicownershipisnowsofirmlyestablishedthatitisnolongerseriouslyinquestion,notwithstandinganoccasionalhorseoperaliketheSagebrushRebellion.AndinseveralWesternstatestheForestServiceand,notably,theBureauofLandManagementhaveundertakeninnovativeland-exchangeprogramstoconsolidateinholdingsandprotectcriticalenvironmentalareas.Fromthispointforward,however,thepublic-landdebatewillshifttothetaskofreconcilingthegrowingconflictsovertheuseofpubliclands.

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JustasthestruggleforpublicownershipbeganonWesternforestlandsinthelastcentury,itwasexcessivetimbercuttinginthiscenturythatignitedthepresentusecontroversy.Congressreactedin1960byenactingtheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldAct,whichformallyintroducedtheconceptof"multipleuse,"stating,"ItisthepolicyofCongressthatthenationalforestsareestablishedandshallbeadministeredforoutdoorrecreation,range,timber,watershed,andwildlifeandfishpurposes."4

Foritstime,multipleusewasaforward-looking,progressiveconceptthatatlastawardedrecreation,wildlifeandwatershedusesofficialparitywithtimbercutting.Theactreflectedtheviewsofmany,includingtheleadershipoftheForestService,thattheagencywasindangerofbecominglittlemorethanagovernment-ownedtimbercompany.

Whateveritsoriginalpromise,multipleuseisaconceptthathasprovenunworkableinpractice.PoliticalpressuretoincreasetimbercutshascausedtheForestServicetocommittodoublingtimberproductionfrompubliclands.Theservicehasacceleratedroad-buildingprograms,increasedclear-cutting,andputvirginold-growthforesttothesaw.Thefederalcourtshavebeenlargelyunwillingtocontrolforestabusebecausethephrase"multipleuse"issovaguethatjudgesseempowerlesstosetprioritiesorotherwiselimitthediscretionoftheForestServiceofficials.Meanwhile,inOregon,theheirsofJohnMuiraretakingprotestandcivildisobediencedirectlyintotheold-growthforests.

Thecontroversypersists;Congress,respondinghalfheartedlytopublicpressure,hasenactedstillmoreplanningstatutes,notablytheNationalForestManagementActof1976(NFMA).Yetwithoutcongressionallysetpriorities,expandedmultiple-useplanninghasresultedinlittlemorethaninterminablehearingsandadministrative

reviews,whichdolittletorestrainanagencydeterminedtoelevatetimbercuttingaboveallothervalues.

Asimilarmultiple-usecontroversyisunfoldingonlandsadministeredbytheBureauofLandManagement.JustastheOrganicActof1960broughtmultipleusetotheForestService,sotheFederalLandPolicyandManagementActof1976(FLPMA)establishedasimilarmandatefortheBureauofLandManagement.however,thebureau,lackingtheprofessionalespritoftheForestService,taintedbypoliticsandincompetenceinuppermanagementandheavilyinfluencedbyminingandlivestockconstituencies,hasbeenevenslowertochange.

Nopublic-landpolicycanbecompletewithoutaccountingforthewatersthatoriginateonandflowthroughthepubliclands,nourishingdiversecommunitiesofplantsandwildlife.Unlikethelandoverwhichitflows,Westernwaterhasnotremainedunderpublicstewardship.

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BeginningwiththeDesertActof1871,CongresscededcontroloverWesternwatertothestates,whichinturnallocatedpublicwaterstosettlersonafirst-come,first-servedbasis.

Giventhescarcityofwateranditsessentialroleindevelopment,itwasperhapsinevitablethatalargeshareofWesternwaterwouldquicklybedivertedintoprivateuseandownership.ButafteryieldingcontrolofWesternwaterinthenineteenthcentury,thefederalgovernmentreenteredthefieldinthetwentiethcenturybymeansofa1902congressionalenactment,theNewlandsAct,whichcreatedtheBureauofReclamation,anda1908courtdecision,Wintersv.UnitedStates,whichestablishedthedoctrineoffederalreservedwaterrights.

Induecourse,theBureauofReclamationbecamethemostformidableofallthefederalagenciesoperatingintheWest.Withamandatetoopendesertlandstosmallfarmersandwithhugebudgetsfinancedbyhydropowerfromfederaldams,thebureauchangedthecourseofwesterndevelopment.Itspracticeshavebeenthemostenvironmentallydestructiveofallthepubliclandagencies,andtothisdaythebureauhasbeenscarcelytouchedbythereformmovementsthathavebegun,howeverslowly,tochangetheForestServiceandtheBureauofLandManagement.

Thereformagendaforwesternlandandwatermuststartbyrecognizingthatmultiple-useplanninghas,forthemostpart,beenafailure.MultipleuseskirtsthecentralrealitythatinthenewurbanizingWest,thereisnolongerenoughspacetoaccommodateeverycompetinguseoneverysectionofthepublicdomain.Commodityproduction,whetheroftimber,minerals,orlivestock,isincreasinglyinfringingonthebroaderpublicvaluesofopenspace,wildlife,wildernessandrecreation.Choiceswillhavetobemade,andthosechoicesaretooimportanttobelefttodistrictlandmanagersimposingtheirownpreferencescamouflagedinthejargonofland-use

planning.

Tosomedegree,theenvironmentallegislationofthelastthirtyyears,notablytheWildernessAct,theEndangeredSpeciesAct,theNationalEnvironmentalProtectionAct,andthevariousclean-airandclean-waterlaws,hasnudgedthefederalagenciestowardadministeringtheirlandsforpublicvalues.Wildernessclassificationrepresentsadecisionforwildernessandwaterandagainstminingandtimbercutting,yetitappliestolessthan5percentofthepubliclands.Andthelistingofathreatenedorendangeredspeciescantriggerstrongmeasuresagainsthabitatdestruction.Yet,aswearelearningintheold-growthcontroversyinthePacificNorthwest,thepresenceofathreatenedorendangeredspeciessuchasthespottedowlisnotanadequatesubstituteforanoutrightpolicyagainstcuttingtheremainingold-growthforests.

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Andthefactremainsthatthevastmajorityofpubliclandsarestilladministeredfreeoftherestraintsimposedbygenericenvironmentallegislation.

Thenextstepintheevolutionofpublicland-usepolicyistoreplacemultiple-usemanagementwithanewconceptdominantpublicusethatgivesprioritytorecreation,wildlifeandwatersheduses.Dominantpublicusewouldbeamandatetoreconsiderdestructiveresourceexploitationthatisofmarginaleconomicimportance.

ManyareasoftheWest,especiallyinthesouthernRockyMountains,producesmallamountsoftimberwhoseharvestwouldnotbeeconomicallyjustifiedwithoutfederalsubsidies.IntheTongassandinOregonandWashingtonthevaluesofold-growthforestfaroutweightheprofitsfromexportingrawlogstoJapan.ThecanyonlandsofsouthernUtah,uniqueintheworld,shouldbeoff-limitstoprospectors.Theintroductionofheap-leachgoldmining,atechniquethatallowson-sitegoldrecoverybyleachingwithsulfuricacid,permitsrecoveryofthemicroscopicamountsofgoldpresentinthelandscapeallovertheWest.Asonemountainledgeafteranotherisblastedapart,crushedupanddrenchedinsulfuricacid,itisnonetoosoontoaskwhytheminingofgoldformonetaryspeculation,ringsandnecklaces,shouldbeallowedeverywhereonthepublicdomain.

ThebattleforWesternwaterreformwillrequirechangesinboththebiglandagenciesandtheBureauofReclamation.TheForestServiceandtheBureauofLandManagementstillretainpowerstoprotectstreamsandotherriparianareasbyassertingfederalrightstoinstreamflows.Federalagenciescanalsoprotectfederalwatersbypetitioningforinstreamflowrightsunderstatelaws;yetwithjustanoccasionalexceptiontheyhavefailedtodoso.

CourtdecisionsandthehostilityoftheReaganandBushadministrationstowaterprotectionhavemadethetaskallthemore

difficult.Conceivably,theCongresscouldstepintothevoidbybothassertingandcreatingreservedrightsforwildernessandotherpubliclands.HamstrungbyoppositionfromWesternsenatorsandrepresentativesandtheindifferenceofmostothers,ithassofarrefusedtodoso.

Nowthatstreamsandriversarevirtuallyexhausted,thirstywaterusersareflockingtothelastwaterholesintheWest,thehugegroundwaterreserveshiddenbeneathremotedesertbasins.Whilegroundwatermaybeoutofsightandoflittledirectusetohumansorbeasts,itdoessupportthemarshes,springs,andintermittentstreamsthatmaintainlifeinariddesertlands.Oncethehydrologicconnectionisbrokenbypumping,thesurfacewaterswilldisappear,alteringdesertecosystemsonanunprecedentedscale.

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ThebigtestoffederalresolvetoprotecttheinterconnectedgroundwaterandsurfacewatersonpubliclandswillprobablyoccurinNevada,wherethecityofLasVegas,assertingrightsunderstatelaw,ispreparingtopumpgroundwaterfromtwentythousandsquaremilesoffederallandintheremotedesertbasinsofeasternNevada.TheprojectthreatensthePahranagatWildlifeRefugeineasternNevada,theAshMeadowsWildlifeRefugeandDevil'sHoleNationalMonumentinwesternNevada,andevenspringwatersemergingacrossthestatelineinDeathValleyNationalMonument.

TheFishandWildlifeService,theNationalParkService,andtheBureauofLandManagementhavefiledprotestsbeforetheNevadaStateWaterEngineer.TheSecretaryoftheInteriorandtheCongresshaveremainedsilent.Ultimately,afederalgroundwater-protectionlawmaybetheonlywaytoavoidarepetitionoftheenvironmentaltragedyofOwensValleyandMonoLakefromrecurringinNevadaandthroughouttheWest.

TheBureauofReclamationpresentsaspecialchallengetopublicwaterreform.Withitscultivatedimageaschampionofthesmallfarmer(althoughitisalongtimeallyofcorporateagriculture)andalongrecordofdeliveringwaterprojectsandpublicpowertoeagerWesternmembersofCongress,thebureauhasneverattractedthepublicscrutinyroutinelyaccordedmostotherfederalagencies.EventhegreatcontroversiesofthepastGlenCanyon,EchoPark,BridgeCanyon,andMarbleCanyonandpresentGlenCanyonagaindonotseemtoslowdownthebureaujuggernaut.

Remarkably,nomemberofCongresshas,atleastinmoderntimes,evercomeupwithacomprehensiveplantoreformthebureau.Fornon-Westerners,pickingaquarrelwithsuchagargantuanbureaucracyisanall-consumingtaskofnointeresttoconstituents.ForaWesterner,takingonthebureauwouldamounttoanassaultonmany

venerableWesterninstitutions,includingthepoliticalpowercentersthathavegrownandintertwinedaroundlocalreclamationprojects.

Inenvironmentalterms,thecasefortakingonandreformingthebureauissimple.GrowingWesterncitiesmusthavemorewater,andtheywilleithergetthatwaterfromagriculture(whichconsumesmorethan80percentofthewaterusedintheWest)ortheywillcontinuetoraidanddestroytheremainingwaterslocatedonthepubliclands.

Meanwhile,thebureauremainslockedinatightembracewiththeapparatchiksofWesternagriculture,whoarededicatedtoprotectingthepoliticalpoweroftheirorganizationsbyblockingwatertransfers,evenwhenindividualfarmersmaywanttheoptionofsellingtheirwater.Thereformtaskistobreakthelinkbetweenthebureauandthe

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agriculturalbureaucraciesandredirectthebureautowardapolicyoffacilitatingmarketwater-transfers.DoingsowillbeaboutaseasyastransitioningtheKremlintoamarketeconomy.

Onereformalternativeistoabolishthebureauandtransferitsriver-managementfunctionstointerstateriver-basincouncilsmodeledontheNorthwestPowerPlanningCouncil.Alessdrasticalternativeistoabolishthebureau'sconstructionbudgetandauthorityfornewprojectstarts,takehydropowerrevenuesfromthebasinaccountsthatfeedbureauprojects,transferthemtothegeneralfund,andenactanewreclamationlawthateliminatesallfederalbarrierstovoluntarymarketwatertransfers.

Evenadecadeago,talkoffundamentalreclamationreformwouldhaveseemedutopian.Nowafour-yeardroughtinCaliforniaisbeginningtoexposetheinstitutionalinadequaciesofthepresentsystem.AsCaliforniamoveseverclosertocrisis,therewillbepressuretorelaxenvironmentalstandardsintheSacramentoRiverdelta,todammorewildriversintheSierraNevada,andtoincreasegroundwaterpumpingintheOwensValleyandMonoLakebasins.NoneofthesealternativeswillbenecessaryinCaliforniaorelsewhereifCongresswillusethedroughtcrisisasaspringboardtoredesignthebureaufromthegroundup.

OnehundredyearsagoCongressauthorizedthefirstforestreserves,puttinganewconceptofperpetualownershipofpubliclandsonthepathtowardpublicacceptanceandsupport.Now,atthestartofthecomingcentury,theAmericanpublicanditsleadersmustaccelerateandcompletethestepofdedicatingpubliclandandpublicwatersunequivocallytothehighestandbestpublicuse.

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ECO-POLITICSANDECONOMICDEVELOPMENT:WEALTH,HOPE,ANDCHOICEArecurringthemeinsciencefictionistheearthlinglostinspaceinhisclunkerspacecraft.AllofasuddenhelandsonthelostplanetofOmega.ItturnsoutthatOmegaisinhabitedbytheseincrediblyintelligentpeopledidyouevernoticehowinsciencefictiontheotherpeoplearealwaysmoreintelligentthanweare?TheearthlingtravelsaroundOmegaforseveralmonthslookingatthings,butfinallyhedecideshewantstogobacktoEarth.SohetellshisOmeganfriend,"Itistimeformetogohome.Itwilltakememanyyearstogetthere,socanwegetstarted?"TheOmegansays,"Oh,itisnotgoingtotakeverylongatall.Itisonly17.5minutestoEarth."Theearthlingsays,"Nowwaitaminute,ourtheoriestellusthatnothingintheuniversecanexceedthespeedoflight."AndtheOmeganlooksattheearthlingandsays,somewhatpatronizingly,"Iknow.Butwehavedifferenttheories."

ThatisthepointofviewIwouldliketoexpress.AttheCenterfortheNewWestwehavedifferenttheoriesaboutthefuturefortheWest,theUnitedStates,andtheworld,andforthecourseofeventsonaglobalscale;eventsthataredrivenbyincreasingwealth,expandingchoicesforpeopleandcommunities,andexpandingchoicesinpolitics.Expandingchoicesinpoliticsiswhatdemocracyisallabout,andexpandingchoicesineconomicsiswhatcapitalismisallabout.Capitalismanddemocracyhavebeenexpressingthemselvesdramaticallyoverthelasttwenty-fiveyearsandinarevolutionarywayinthelastfifteenmonths.Infact,theotherdaywhenIpulledoffmybookshelfRobertHeilbroner'sbookTheFutureAsHistory,writtenaboutthirtyyearsago,IwasstruckbyHeilbroner'sdiscussionofhowcollectivistideologieshadfinallywonout.Itwasinthewake

oftheCubanRevolution,andHeilbronersaidthatcommunalwaysoforganizingsocieties,economies,

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andpoliticalsystemswerethewaveofthefuture.Itisamazinghowwronghewas.

Theotherchange,onaglobalscale,isthehigherstandardofstewardshipthatwearefindingeveryplace:increasingconcernforthefamilyanditsroleinnurturingchildren,andincreasingconcernforcommunitiesnotnation-states,butcommunitiesandtherolestheyplay.Infact,oneofthemostremarkabledevelopmentsofourtimeisthedecentralizationofpowerandauthorityinnation-states,includingFrance,whereCharlemagnewouldturnoverinhisgraveifhecouldseetheextenttowhichcentralpowerhasdecayedinthesocietythatinventedmoderncentralizedgovernment.

AnincreasingsenseofstewardshipalsoexistsabouttheenvironmentnotonlyamongthosewhoclassifythemselvesasGreens.MaybeanotherwaytosayitisthatmoreandmorepeopleconsiderthemselvesGreens.ThreeoutoffourAmericanscallthemselvesenvironmentalists,andfouroutoffivesaytheywouldpayhigherpricestopreserveenvironmentalvalues.

Letmebeginwiththebigpicture.Contrarytopopularview,wethinkthattheworldisontheedgeofamajorglobaleconomicexpansion.WealsobelievetheUnitedStatesiswellpositionedtobenefitfromthisexpansion.Thisisaminoritypointofview,butithasanincreasingnumberofadherents.ThefirstexpressionofthisperspectiveinapopularmediumwasanOctober1989articleinTheAtlanticcalled''TheComingGlobalBoom."ThisarticleexpressedtheviewpointwehaveattheCenterfortheNewWest.Itisalsoaviewpointexpressedbyothers,includingEdGuay,thechiefeconomistatCigna,EdYardine,thechiefeconomistatPruBach,andanumberofothereconomistsandobservers.

Whyisthisgoingtohappen?

Oneofthereasonsisnewtechnology.Theexplosioninnewtechnologiesisincredible.Innovationandeconomicexpansioninthelastdecadewasdrivenbythecomputerandnotjustinthissociety.However,theUnitedStatesisnumberoneincomputers.In1989theUnitedStateshad50percentoftheworld'sinstalledcomputercapacity.Thenext-highestcountrywasJapan,with10percent.Theimpactofcomputershasbeenunprecedented,andaswelookintothenextdecadewewillseeanevengreaterexpansionofpowerinsmallerpackages,andnewlevelsofcapability.

Biotechnologyisanotherareathatwilldriveneweconomicactivity,anareawhereColoradohasagreatinvestmentandagreatdealtooffer.Weareseeingmajornewchangesintransportationtechnology.TheJapanesenowhaveaprototypeofaseagoingcargovesselthatcanreach

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fiftyknots60milesanhourwhichmakesthePacificthesamesizeastheAtlanticmeasuredbytransittime.Thechangesthiswillmakeinhowindustriesrelatetoeachotherwillbeenormous.AboutayearagoIwasinNebraska,andIvisitedtheKawasakiplant.Theyuseajust-in-timeinventorysystemthere,inwhichpartscomeinfromJapanalmostninethousandmilesaway.Theyhaveathree-daywarehousingperiod.Thinkwhatwillhappenasthesehigh-speedshipscomeintoplay.AndthinkwhatthatwillmeanforthewesternpartoftheUnitedStatesasweareabletobemorecloselyintegratedwiththeexpandingmarketsandmodernsocietiesemerginginAsia.

Anotherexampleistelecommunications,whereback-officeoperationstodayarecreatingtremendousopportunities,aswellassomechallenges,forremoteareaslikewefindinmuchoftheWest.Today17percentofCiticorp'sprofitscomesfromSiouxFalls,SouthDakota,whereitlocateditscreditcard-processingandserviceactivities."Telework"andothercommunications-basedactivitieswillmakeitpossibleformorepeopletoworkathomeandontheirowntimeandundertheirownconditions.Wewillhavemorejob-sharingandflextimeonceagain,morechoicesforpeopleandforfamiliesonhowtointegratetheirworklifewiththeirfamilylife,andgreaterpossibilitiesfortechnicalprojectsthataretelecommunication-based,suchastrafficmanagement.Highwayengineerswanttolaymoreconcrete.Theywanttobuildmorelightrail,theywanttodomoreofthethingstheyhavedoneinthepast.Butnewtechnologiesoffernewapproaches.LookatLosAngeles.DuringtheOlympicsin1984,everyonepredictedthecitywouldcometoagrindinghalt.Itdidn't.OntheSanDiegoFreeway,theaveragespeedactuallyincreasedabout25percentduringtheOlympics.Why?Becausetherewasaconcertedefforttousemoderntelecommunicationsandinformationtechnologytomakefulluseofthetremendoussurfacecapacitythatexistsinthatcitytomovepeoplearoundincars.Thiswasaprimitiveapplicationofwhat

wenowcall"smartcars"and"smarthighways,''andwearegoingtoseechallengesfromthesenewtechnologiestothosewhowanttolaymoreconcreteonourcitiesandteardownneighborhoodsanddividecommunitieswithrailroadtracks.

Wehaveamajorglobalexpansioncomingbecauseofnewmarkets.InEurope,wehavetwelvenationswithagrossnationalproductof$4.3trillionandapopulationof325million.Theelevenfree-marketnationsoftheAsia-PacificregionincludingtheUnitedStatesandCanada(remember,theUnitedStatesisalsoaPacificnation,notjustanAtlanticnation),Japan,SouthKorea,thePhilippines,Thailand,Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore,Australia,andNewZealandrepresent800millionpeople,asopposedto325millioninEurope.TheseAsian-

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Pacificcountrieshaveagrossnationalproductof$3.4trillion(notcountingtheUnitedStates),asopposedto$4.3trillioninEurope.ButtheAsian-Pacificeconomiesaregrowingattherateof$3billionaweeknotamonthorayear,butaweek.Thegrowthinthatareaisenormous,andthatisanotherreasontherewillbeamajorglobalexpansion.

Thentherearethechangesindemography.Everybodytalksabouttheaging"boomer"generationinthiscountrythatbaby-boompigmovingthroughthedemographicsnake.Itisahugebulge,anunprecedenteddiscontinuityinpopulation.Inthiscountryitrepresentsmorethan78millionpeoplemorethanone-thirdoftheU.S.population.Thebaby-boomphenomenonalsoexistsinalmosteveryotherindustrializedcountry.Butthebaby-boomersinthiscountryarefromtwenty-fourtoforty-fiveyearsold,whileinJapantheyareabouttenyearsolder,becausethebabyboomstartedthereinthemid-1930s.Furthermore,theJapanesehavemandatoryretirementatfifty-five.Sobaby-boomersinJapanarenowretiring,whileinthiscountrymostofourbaby-boomersarebetweentwenty-eightandthirty-five.Thereinisanoteworthypoint.MostoftheUnitedStales'boomersareintheirhigh-consumptionandlowwage-earningyears.Thosearetheyearswhenyoubuyyourfirsthouse,yourFirstcar,yourfirsttelevision,yourfirstradio,andyourfirstbassinet.SoitisnowonderthatwehavealowsavingsrateintheUnitedStates.Butthoseofuswhoseethatweareontheedgeofamajorglobalboomwillargue,asEdYardineargues,thatwearegoingtoseeahugeincreaseintheUnitedStates'savingsrateoverthenextsixyearsashighas8to10percentby1996.Savingsratesatthislevelwouldgeneratesavingssurplusesashighas$500billionperyear.IfwecangetthebudgetdeficitundercontrolsothatmoneyisnotsuckedupbyaprofligateCongressandafederalgovernmentthatisoutoftouchwithgrassrootsconcernsandpriorities,thenwearegoingtoseeinterestratesgodownandthe

UnitedStates'emergenceasthemajorexporterofcapitalforacapital-hungryworld.

Afourthfactordrivingglobalexpansionistheworldwideenvironmentalcleanup.Wehaveseriousenvironmentalproblemsinthiscountryair,water,nuclear-wastedisposalofwhichweareallaware.ButnobodycanspendanytimeinEasternEuropeorinAsia,asIhaveduringthelastyear,andnotbestunnedbythescopeandmagnitudeandinsomecasesthetragedyofenvironmentalpollutionthatexistsinthosecountries.InTaiwan,SouthKorea,Thailand,andeveninJapantheproblemsinthosecountriesaremuchworsethantheyarehere,yettheyarenothingcomparedtotheenvironmentaltragediesthatareimminentinEasternEurope,notinthenextcentury,butinthenext

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severalyears,ifdrasticactionisnottaken.IntheEasternEuropeancountriesinPoland,Czechoslovakia,EastGermany,andBulgariawearefindingoneseriousproblemafteranother.Notonlydocommunist-commandeconomiesfailtoincreasewealthandexpandchoicesforpeople,commandeconomiesalsodestroytheenvironmentinwaysthatcapitalismneverhas.Forexample,Polandmaynothavepotablewaterbytheendofthisdecadeunlessextremeremedialactionsaretakeninthenextthreetofiveyears.

Soaswelookoutoverthenextdecade,weseeamajorexpansioninglobaleconomicactivityalongwithamajorshiftinpoliticalandsocialactivityfromcentralizedforumstoincreasinglydecentralizedforums.TheUnitedStatesisinthecatbird'sseattobenefitfromthesechangesandtoprovideleadership.Butwecan'tmakemistakes.Wehavegottobeattentivetohowwedevelopourresponses.

Now,let'sbringthisbacktoColorado.Forthelast140orsoyears,developmentsinColoradohavebeendrivenbymanydifferenteconomicforces,asdetailedinareportlastyearbyDeanCoddington.From1859toabout1900miningwasthedrivingforce.From1901to1940agriculturewasthedrivingforce.From1941to1963theColoradoeconomywasshapedbythegrowthofthefederalgovernmentandespeciallybythedefenseindustry.Then,contrarytoconventionalwisdom,from1964to1973(theyearthefirstenergyboombegan)Coloradoachievedaverydiversifiedeconomy.IBMmovedin,alongwithHewlett-Packard,Kodak,Manville,WesternElectricmanyofwhatnowconstitutethehigh-technologyindustriesontheFrontRangeoftheRockiescameduringthatperiod.Sowhentheenergyboomcamein1973,itreallymaskedalotofsolid,diversifiedandlargelyhealthyeconomicactivitythathadalreadytakenrootinthisarea.Buteventheenergyboomitself,from1974to1983,wasamisnomer,becausetherewerefourorfiveotherthingsgoingonsimultaneously.Inadditiontoanenergyboom,therewasa

miningboomincoalandmolybdenum.Therewasarealestateboominducedbymisguidedfederaltaxpolicies.Therewasatourismboom;forexample,theskierdaysdoubledduringthatperiod.Therewasaregionalair-transportationboomasDenverbecameamajornationalhubinthewakeofairlinederegulationin1978.Therewasabusiness-servicesboomaslegal,accounting,andotherprofessionalfirmssettledinDenverandthemetropolitanareatoprovideservicesthroughouttheRockyMountainregion.Since1984wehaveexperiencedanimportanteconomicrestructuring.Foremost,theminingindustryistransformingfromacaterpillartoabutterflyrightbeforeoureyes.Todaytheminingindustryisoneofthemostimportantindustriesinthestate,notbecauseitisdiggingthingsoutoftheground

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ontheWesternSlope,butbecauseofthebrainpowerandknow-howthatexistontheFrontRange.ThefutureoftheminingindustryinthisstateisnotprimarilyinwesternColorado;itisonSeventeenthStreet,andattheColoradoSchoolofMines.Anditisnotjustinmining;itisalsointunnelingandotherapplicationsofgeotechnologythatareinincreasingdemandtoday.

EnvironmentalmanagementisanothermanifestationofeconomicrestructuringinColoradotoday.ColoradoandtheUnitedStateshavebeenleadersinthreeimportantareasinenvironmentalmanagement.Thefirstisinnovativelegislation,especiallyinthelastseveralyears,tohelpachieveacleanerandgreenerenvironment.Thesecondisnewtechnologiesofenvironmentalcleanupandenvironmentalpreservationforexample,newwaystogetwateroutofthegroundandpreservewhatisthereinamoreeffectiveway.Andthird,thiscountryandthisstatehavebeenleadersinthepolicysciencesindevelopingmarket-orientedsolutionstoenvironmentalproblems.

InColoradowefaceoneofthebiggestchallengesofthenextdecade,andthatisbalancedgrowthandeconomicdevelopmentoftheColoradoPlateau.TheColoradoPlateauisa132,000-square-milearea.Itisnotanissueonthefrontpages.Itneverhasbeen.Butitisoneofthemostimportantareasonthefaceoftheglobe.This132,000-square-mileareahasninenationalparks,twonationalrecreationareas,twelvenationalmonuments,twenty-sixnationalwildernessareas,eighteennationalforests,andfivenationallandmarks.Itcoverstwo-thirdsofColorado,almostone-halfofUtah,thenorthernportionsofNewMexicodowntoSantaFe,andnorthernArizona,includingtheGrandCanyon.

IfyouaskedforeignerswheretheymostwanttocomeintheUnitedStates,Disneylandisalmostalwaysfirst.Butofthenextnineontheirtoptenlist,sixorseven,dependingonwhetheryouaretalkingto

AsiansorEuropeans,willbeintheColoradoPlateau.TheywillbetheGrandCanyon,CanyonlandsNationalPark,Aspen,DinosaurNationalMonument,andothermajortouristdestinationsintheColoradoPlateau.ButthatColoradoPlateaucanbedestroyedbypiecemealdevelopment.Itisbeingdestroyedtodaybypiecemealdevelopment.Intheminingindustryitisverywellknownthatyoucandestroyanorebodybythewayyoumineit.Thatwhichistrueofanaturalresourceistrueofatourismresource.Atourismresourcecanbedestroyedbythewayitisdeveloped.Forthisreasonweneedtomovewithdispatchtoputinplaceacomprehensive,multijurisdictional,public-privatebusinessplantodevelopthisarea.Itneedstobeaprocessthatinvolvesenvironmentalists,politicalleaders,communityandcivicorganizations,includingNative

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Americansalongwiththefederalgovernment.Weneedtoavoidaprocessdominatedbybigbusinessandbiggovernmentmakingallthedecisionsinwaysthathaven'tworkedverywell.

Ifweexaminethepostwarperiod,wecanidentifythreeimportantwavesofeconomicdevelopment.InthefirstwaveafterWorldWarII,therewasanurgetodevelopatanycost.Therewasarape,scrape,andrunmentality.Communitiescompetedtoattractoutsideindustry.That'swhatwecalla"hunting"strategy.

Butinthe1980sthatbegantochange.Webegantomovetoa"gardening"strategytobuildonourstrengths,sticktoourknitting,addingvaluetoexistingactivities.Webegantorealizethatinboththeprivateandpublicsectorswehadtonurtureandcultivatewhatwehad;wecouldn'tdestroywhatweweregiven.Wecouldn'tfoulthenestintheprocessofdevelopingnewchoicesforpeopleandcommunities.

Ifincreasingwealthandexpandingchoices,notsimplygrowth,arethegoalsthatdriveeconomicdevelopment,andarethemajorpurposesofapoliticalculture,theyhavetobeachievedinawaythatpreservesenvironmentalandothervalues,becauseamenitiesareanincreasinglyimportantpartofwhatpeopleareseeking.Inthe1980sthegardeningthatwasdonewasmonopolygardening.Usually,largegovernmentalinstitutionsbutsometimesprivateinstitutionsbecamemonopolysuppliersofwhatmadethegardenwork:monopolysuppliersofeducation,monopolysuppliersoftechnology,andmonopolysuppliersofjobtraining,capitalandotherresources.Peopleareincreasinglyturningtheirbacksonthatkindofapproach.

Itisinterestingtolookateducation.NoonewouldarguethatpostsecondaryeducationintheUnitedStates,evenwithallofitsproblems,istheworld'sbest,mostproductive,andmosteffectivesystemofhighereducation.Nearlyeveryoneagreeswiththat.

WhetheryoutalktotheJapaneseortheBritishortheFrench,almostanyoneitisprettyeasytogetaconsensusonthatpointofview.Butourkindergartenthroughtwelfthgradesystemranksverylowbyalmosteveryone'sestimateandbyalmostanymeasureofperformance.ThinkofthedifferencebetweenhighereducationandK-12intheUnitedStates.InK-12youhavetogototheschooltowhichyouareassigned.Thereisnochoice.Inhighereducationyoushopthreeorfourschools.InK-12youtaketheteacherwhohasbeencertifiedbythecertificationprocess.Inhighereducationyouareexposedtoallkindsofpeople.SomehavePh.D.'s.Somedon't.Somehavebeenineducationalltheirlives.Otherspopinandout.AvarietyofpeoplewithavarietyofexperiencesandbackgroundsareclassroomteachersinU.S.highereducation.Consumersaredeeplyinvolvedinhighereducation,thepeoplewhopaythe

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tuition:theparentsandthestudents.InK-12theconsumerisalmostneverinvolved.LookatFortunemagazine'seducationreformmeetingsthathavebeengoingonforthepastthreeyears.Irecentlyreviewedthelistofparticipantsinthelatestmeeting.Therearealargenumberofbusinesspeopleandschooladministrators,buttherearefewteachers,parents,orstudents.Theschoolboardsaren'tevenonthemap.HowcanwereformU.S.educationiftheprimaryconsumersarenotatthetableandifthemainpubliclyaccountableinstitutionformakingschoolpolicyisleftoutoftheloop?

Monopolygardeningasawayoftryingtomakethenestabetterandmoreprosperousplacewithmorechoicesforeveryoneisslowlygivingwaytoincentivegardening.Wearenowmovingtoanewphaseinwhichwearetryingtoprovidecompetitionandincentivesinfieldssuchaseducationandtechnologyandcapitalandenvironment.

Todaywehavenewclean-airlegislation.Inthe"olddays"in1977,theCleanAirActmandatedthe"bestavailablecontroltechnology"forutilities.Todaywearetalkingabouthavingemission-reductioncredits,wherebyareaswillbeallocatedacertainlevelofemissionsandpolluterstherecandecideamongthemselveshowthosecreditswillbeapportioned.If,forexample,thepeopleorutilitiesundertakecertainkindsofemission-reductionsteps,theycanearncreditsandsellthosecreditstosomeoneelsewhodoesn'twanttoorfeelsitisinefficienttotakethosekindsofsteps.

Inthiscountry,rightafterWorldWarIIandintheearly1950s,webuiltalotofutilities.Theyhavetwenty-fivetothirty-five-yearlifespans.Manywillbedecommissionedinthemid-1990s.Weshouldhavechoicesaboutwhetherweinstallveryexpensiveemissioncontrolsorletthosemanagingagingpowerplantsbuyemissioncredits.Thatisthesmartwaytoregulatetheenvironment.Thatisthesmartwaytogetthekindofperformanceandimprovementsthatwe

need.

Thenthereisnuclear-wastemanagement.InRockyFlats,rightoutsideDenver,wehaveaprimeexampleofwhathappenswhenyouhavemonopolygardening.RockyFlatsshowswhatamonopolysupplier,thefederalgovernment,willdowhenitisbothabrokerandadoer,whenitisbothinthebusinessoftakingcareofnuclearwasteontheonehand,andofenforcingstandardsontheother.AtRockyFlatsthefederalgovernment"enforced"standardsbyexemptingitselffromnearlyeverysingleimportantsafetyandhealthmeasure.

Thelessonsofthepastseveralyearsandthenewdirectionsthatwearetakingsuggestthatenvironmentalpolicycanandshouldworkthroughmarketforces,thatthemarketcanfunctionveryeffectivelytoallocateenvironmentalvalues,thatthemarketcanreconcilethe

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IndustrialRevolutionwiththeGreenRevolution,andthatleadersofbusinessandgovernmentcanbringgrassrootsorganizationstothetablebecauseitisatthegrassrootslevelthattheimpactisthegreatest.

Aswegoforward,wecan'tletthedinosaurinstitutionscalltheshots.Thefederalgovernment,thepoliticalactioncommittees,biglabor,bigbusinessthesearetheinstitutionsthathavegotuswherewearetoday.Wehavetobroadenthebase.Wehavetochangethewayweinterveneintheenvironment.Wemustdoawaywiththemonopolysuppliersandtheregulationandmicro-managementofactivitiesbyfar-offcentralauthorities.Wemustmovetowardusinggovernmenttospecifystandardsandresultsandleaveittoinnovativeindividualsandinstitutionstoachievethoseresults.Wheretheyfail,weneedtochangeourapproachandtheincentivesweuseinordertogettheresultsthatareneeded.

Inaddition,wemustassignmoreresponsibilitytoindividuals.Todayindividualsdon'thavemuchresponsibilitytoreduceenvironmentalpollutionnotforautopollution,notfordisposablediapers,notforthewastetheyputoutinfrontoftheirhomes.Weneedtochargepeoplefortheirwastebythevolumetheyputinfrontoftheirhomes.WeneedtochargepeoplewhowanttodriveaMercedesdiesel.Weneedtolookhardathowwebringtheindividualandtheindividual'sresponsibilitiesintothesematters.Ourfutureisonethatpromisestremendouseconomicexpansionandnewprosperitythatismorewidelyshared.Itisafuturethatneedstobeandwillbeconstrainedbyenvironmentalconsiderations.Thoseconstraintsshouldbemarket-driven.Wehavetheknowledgetodothat.Weneedtohavethecouragetoreject"politicallycorrect"regulatoryapproachesandsubstitutemarketapproaches.Why?Becausetheywork.

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THEAMERICANWEST:WHATIDEASSHOULDDETERMINEITSFUTURE?EdwinH.Marston

WhatideasshoulddeterminethefutureoftheAmericanWest?Beforeattemptingananswer,Ihaveconfessionstomake.First,myideaswillbenotbethekindonecanenumerateandlistinorderofimportance.TheyareobservationsonthenatureofruralWesternsocietyandconclusionsdrawnfromthoseobservations.Second,theseideascomefromanewcomerintheruralWest.Ihavelivedhereonlysince1974apartofawinter,tousewriterGeorgeSibley'sphrase.

Inaddition,IdonotengageinworkusuallyassociatedwiththeWest.Ihadonlybeeninwhatisnowmyhometownforaweekortwobackin1974whenarancherknockedatmydoor.Hehadcometoloaduplogsleftforhimbymynext-doorneighbor,alogger,andheneededahand.Iwaspleasedtobethehand,pleasedtobehelpingarealrancherandrealloggersosoonafterarrivingintheWest.WeworkedforthirtyminutesputtingthenewlycutlogsIdidn'tknowwhatkindoftreestheycamefrom,andwouldn'tknowtodayintoalongstocktrailer.Bythetimetheheavygreenlogswereloaded,Iwasbarelywalking.Therancher,whowasaboutmyageandsize,lookedasifhehadspentthelastthirtyminutesdrinkingcoffee.Icouldn'tclaimaltitudeorlackofcondition.Ihadspentthesummeratourmountaincabin,thestructurethathaddrawnuswest,choppingwoodandclimbingmountains.Iwasinthebestshapeofmylife.Inadditiontopayingmetendollars,thatranchertaughtmethatIcouldn'tearnalivingintheWestasahand.

Iwas,ofcourse,statisticallysafefromsuchafate.TheWestisassociatedwithcattleroundupsandthefellingoftrees,butmost

Westernersworkasrealestateandinsurancesalesmen,teachersandhardware-storeclerks.Weturn"Western"onlyonweekends,whenwe

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climbinto,notonto,ourBroncosandcreatenewroadsandnewverbsbyfour-wheelingintothebackcountry.

WeBetsyMarstonandmyselfobeyedthestatistics.Insteadoffellingorloadingtrees,wechoseatypicallyWesternwaytoearnaliving:wesoldadvertising.Toputitmoreromantically,wefoundedandthenranforsixyearsahometownweeklyservingthe2,600householdsinandaroundthetownsofPaonia,Hotchkiss,andCrawford.BetsyandIaformertelevisionproducerandaformercollegeprofessorfromNewYorkwereprovokedtostartanewspaperbyamischievous$4,000loanfromaboredcountrybanker,andbyourvisceralreactiontotheexistingnewspaper,whichdeclaredfromeverypage:"StopGunControl!It'salmosttoolate!!"Whenithadanewshole,whichwaseveryweek,itpluggeditwiththeJohnBirchSocietyLibertyLogandotherfar-righthandouts.Thinkinggloballyandactinglocally,thepublisheralsoinveighedagainstthe"hippies"formerurbaniteslikeourselveswhoweresettlingandunsettlingthesociallyconservativeNorthForkValley.Thevalley'sownchildrenroutinelyleftafterhighschool,andthetownfolksweren'tkeenontheyoungnewcomerswhowerereplacingtheirchildren.

Inretrospect,Icanseethatwemusthavebeenafigmentofthatpublisher'sworstnightmare:left-wingNewYorkerscometoinvadehissurvivalistretreat.Heandhisgun-nutfriendswerealsoex-urbanites,butfromadifferentbackgroundthanus"hippies."ThesurvivalistshadretreatedtosmallWesterntownstoawaitwhattheysawastheinevitablecollapseofurbansociety.Whenthestarvingurbanhordescamefleeingfromtheburningcities,thesurvivalistsweregoingtoloadtheirrifles,climbintotheirBroncosandheadtherefugeesoffatthepasses.(Thetrendcontinuestodaywiththefar-rightgroupssettlinginnorthernIdaho.)

Thepublisherwasreadyforthepanickedurbanexodusbuthehadn't

expectedaneconomicinvasionusingthetoolsoffreeenterprise.Worstofall,fromhisperspective,wasthefactthattheresidentsoftheNorthForkValleyweremoreinterestedinsubscribingtoanewspaperthatprovidednewsthantheywereinhisviewsonguncontrol.We,Icanseenow,werealmostasdoctrinaireashewas,butwewrotebetterandwedidreporting.

Sowethrived,andhefoundanewwaytoearnaliving.ForsixyearsIlearnedaboutthelightlypopulatedwesternhalfofColoradofromthegroundup:towncouncilmeetings,schoolboardmeetings,ditchcompanymeetings,countyfairs,JeeppokerrunsandslideshowsattheJehovah'sWitnesses'KingdomHall.'heslideshow,especially,wasa

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revelation.ItrevealedamovementIthoughthaddiedwiththeScopestrial.Theargumentagainstevolutionwasonehundredcolorslidesofbirds,flowers,loverswalkinghandinhand.Eachslidewasfollowedbythequestion:Couldthisbeautyhavecomeaboutbyaccident?NooneinthatKingdomHall,includingmyself,suggestedthatitcouldhave.

SosomeofmyWesterneducationcamefromcoveringnewseventsandsellingadvertising.Butmorecamethroughourchildren.Iwasamazedatandgratifiedbythecloseattentiontheschoolsandcommunitypaidtokids.AtypicaleventhappenedattheheightoftheHuntbrotherssilverboom,whenarollofsilverquarterswasworth$70.Igotacallatthenewspaperofficefromthewomanwhoranthegameroomdownthestreet.(Inatownof1,400,everythingisdownthestreet.)Myeight-yearoldwastherewitharollofsilverquartersI'daccumulated.Hewasusingthemtoplayvideogames.Ididn'tknowthiswomanIstillhavenotlearnedtorecognizeeveryoneIshouldortoengageintheruralpastimeofwavingatpeoplewhodrivepastmeonthehighway.Butthewomanknewmykidandme,andIwentdownandrecoveredthequarters.

Theattentionhaditsdrawbacks.Someparentsfeltfreetorebukeusformissingaschoolevent."Oh,youshouldhaveseenhowwellyourdaughterdidatthebandcompetition.Butwegaveherabighand."The"we"werethegoodparentstakinguptheslackleftbypeoplewhowouldn'tdropworktowatchtheirkidplayaSouzamarchwithfiftyotherkids.NotthatIacceptedthe"badparent"statusIsimplyhadotherstandards.Iwasamazedatthelackofemphasisoneducation.Startingwiththefourthgrade,ourchildrenwouldaskwhytheyshouldtrytodowellontheIowaBasicstest.Oursontoldus:"Theotherkidssaythetestdoesn'tmatter.Theysaythey'regoingintothemineswhenthey'reeighteenandmakemoremoneythantheprincipal.''Whentheyreachedhighschool,ourboytoldushisbiology

classhadputevolutiontoavote.Byalargemajority,theclassvotedforcreationism;themajorityincludedthebiologyteacher.

Eventslikethissentmanyurbanparentsintoflightfromtraditionalsmalltowns.Wedidn'tmove.Webelievedwecouldsupplementourchildren'seducationatthesuppertable.Butwhatcouldwedoabouttheotherchildren,andthereforeaboutthefutureofthevalley?Onedoesn'tpublishacommunityweeklyforthemoneyortheprestige.Weweredoingitforideologicalreasons,justasourcompetitorhad.Thepaperwasourinstrumentofchange,awaytopushsocial,economic,andphysicalevolution.TheNorthForkValleywasawonderfulplace.Wewantedtomakeitmorewonderfulmorelikethecitywehadleft,butwithoutthebadaspectsofurbanlife.IunderstandnowthatIsaw

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theplaceinone-dimensionalterms,stillwithinmyNewYorkexperience.Theschoolswereproducingyoungsterswhowereledtoseehighschoolasanendratherthanaspreparationforalargerfuture.Highschoolwasoftenseenasthehighpointoflife,aplacewhereherostatuscouldbeearnedonthefootballfieldorwrestlingmat.IwantedtoseetheruralschoolsimbuedwithurbanvaluesbothforthesakeofmychildrenandforwhatIassumedwerethebestinterestsofthetown.

Theschoolsreflectedtheprioritiesofthecommunitiesasawhole.IwasstruckbythequicknesswithwhichtraditionalsmallWesterntowns,includingmyown,wouldputtheircommunityandlandscapeandclearairatriskinordertohostamine,mill,orpowerplant.Theissueofeducationwasanundercurrentinournewspaper.Wepushedourvaluesbypublicizingacademicachievers,thelocalschools'rankingsonnationaltests,andalumniwhohadsucceededintheoutsideworld.Bycomparison,theissueofcoaldevelopmentwasapitchedbattle,withusnewcomersgenerallyliningupinoppositiontonewmines.OnlygraduallydidIcometoseetherelationshipbetweeneducationandthehungerformineormilljobs.Thosemineandmilljobspaywell,arelocal,andrequirelittleformaltraining.ThekidswhohadignoredtheIowaBasictestscouldindeedcomeoutofhighschool,withorwithoutadiploma,andstartearning$30,000ayear.Thestatementmadesooftenatpublichearings"Weneedtheminingjobsforourchildren"wasunanswerablesolongastheschoolsremainedwhattheywere.

Ishouldsayoneotherthingaspartoflayingmyoutsidercardsonthetable.WhenIrealizedafewyearsagothatIhadlivedinthesamesmalltownforadecadeandhadnothoughtofleaving,Ibegantoworryaboutwhowouldburymeinacommunityoftwentyfundamentalistchurches.NowIonlyworrythatnothingwillhappentoforcemetoleavetheruralWest.

Theconcludingserviceisstillaconcern,butitisaconcernsubmergedbymyinabilitytoimaginebeingafreepersonanywhereelseinAmerica.TheruralWestallowsmetobefreebothphysically,becauseofthevastspaceandthescarcityofpeople,andmentally.Thesenseofphysicalfreedomiseasytoexplain.Thesenseofmentalfreedomismoredifficult.Itismadeup,forme,offreedomfromthesocial,economicandintellectuallockstepIassociatewithurbanareas:theirhighdegreeoforganization,theirintenseeconomicdemands,andthelargeamountoftimegivenovertosuchchoresascommutingandshopping.

IbelievethelatestwaveofimmigrantstosettleintheWest'ssmalltownsareinsearchofthesamefreedomearliersettlerssought.IhaveatheoryaboutwesternColorado,basedonnothingmorethanmyreadingofobituariesofold-timers.MyguessisthatwesternColoradowassettled

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bypeoplefleeingtheearlytwentieth-centuryindustrializationoftheAppalachianhillcountry,andthattheancestorsofthosepeoplehad,intheirturn,fledAdamSmith'sEurope.WesternColorado,Iamconvinced,ispopulatedinpartbypeoplewhohaveneverbeensubjecttothetimeclockortothatotheryoke,thenecktie.Acityperson'sattractiontotheRockyMountainWestismuchlikeamale'sattractiontothewomanheeventuallymarries.Iwascapturedbysnowcappedmountainsandhigh,coldlakes.Butafterseveralyearshadpassed,Iwasheldbythesenseofcommunity,despitemyoutsiderstatus,andbythemoresubtlebeautyofthearidlandbelowthemountains.

Inthesameway,aftersixyearsofpublishingthehometownweekly,andnowfiveyearsofpublishingtheregionalHighCountryNews,IamonlybeginningtogetsomefeelforthelargerWest.InthefirstfewyearsofdoingHighCountryNews,themapIcarriedinmyheadwasofnationalforestsandBureauofLandManagementdomains.Laidoverthesepoliticalboundarieswereissuesstripmining,wilderness,endangeredspeciesandthecourts,agencies,andlocalandnationalenvironmentalgroupsthatconcernedthemselveswiththoseissues.Thencameasenseofthevast,emptynatureoftheWest.Thelandthepaperpretendstocoverincludestheruralpartsoftenstates.IfyouexcludethethreecitiesSaltLake,Denver,andPhoenix-TucsononlyafewmillionpeopleliveontheonemillionsquaremilesthatstretchfromtheIdaho-Montana-NorthDakotaborderwithCanadatotheArizona-NewMexico-TexasborderwithMexico.

Foronehundredyears,thefoundationofthisregion'seconomyhasbeenfarmingandranching,mining,milling,anddrilling,andaspecial,lucrativerelationshipwiththefederalgovernment,whichhasbuiltdams,nuclear-bombfactories,militaryinstallations,powerplants,andthelike.Itistruethattheregionhasmoresalesmenandhardwareclerksthanranchersorminers,butitisthelatterwhoshapetheplace.AwayoflifeIcallitanextractiveculturehasgrownupin

stepwiththeextractiveandagriculturaleconomies.WecollidedwiththatwayoflifewhenwetriedtosettleintheruralWest.Thatextractivecultureis,amongotherthings,familycentered,religiousinafundamentalistsense,andanchoredintheregion'ssmalltowns.Itischaracterizedbyitsrecreationhunting,snowmobiling,jeeping;byitsdisinterestinorxenophobiatowardtheoutsideworld;byitsfriendliness;andbyitsprideinthebeautyoftheplace.

Toareligious,family-centeredcommunity,formaleducationcanappearathreat.Thechildwhobecomesinterestedinmathematicsorliteraturewillinevitablyleavethecommunityandprobablytheregion.Thegeographicseparationwillbeaggravatedbythedifferentvalues

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thataccompanyhighereducation,ahomeinanurbanarea,andaspousewhoprobablygrewupinasuburb.ItisnotonlyHispanicsandNativeAmericanswhoworryaboutlosingchildrentothelargerAmerica.Manysmall-townAnglofamilieshavethesamefear.Theschoolsthatseemedtometoforeclosealargerfuturecanalsobeseenasensuringthatthetown'schildrenwillwanttoremainathomeandadheretothefamily'sandcommunity'sways.

Theschoolsillustratetheworkingsofaremarkablystablewayoflife,onebasedeconomicallyontheextractionofnaturalresourcesandculturallyonthereligious,recreationalandsocialarrangementsI'vedescribed.Icouldhavemadethesamepointsusingpoliticsratherthaneducation.TheWest'sarmyoftwentyU.S.senatorshasmaintainedthenineteenth-centurylawsthatguaranteecheap,freeorsubsidizedaccesstopubliclandandwaterforminers,loggersandranchers.

Thattremendouspoliticalpower6percentofthenation'spopulationcontrolling20percentoftheSenatecouldhavebeenusedinmanyways.Instead,ithasbeenusedalmostexclusivelytodefendtheextractiveculturebypreservingtheextractiveeconomy,justastheSouth'ssenatorsforsolongdefendedthatregion'sracialarrangements,andtherebyforeclosedotheropportunities.TheWesternsenatorsaretheprimarydefendersofwhatCharlesWilkinsoncallstheLordsofYesterday.

InadditiontostealingfromCharles,IhavealsoappropriatedhistorianFrederickJacksonTurner'smetaphorontheclosingoftheWesternfrontier.Turner,followingtheU.S.BureauoftheCensus,saidtheWesternfrontierclosedin1890.Turner'sfrontierwasphysical;Isaythatthefrontierthatclosedwasasocialandeconomicone.Itakethe1890sasthedecade,moreorless,inwhichthesmall-townWesternwayoflifebasedonextractionwasestablished.Itlimitedwhocould

liveintheruralWest,itdeterminedtheaspirationsoftheschoolsandothercommunitybodies,itselectedthekindsofchurchesthatcouldattractparishioners,anditdeterminedthecandidateswhocouldsuccessfullyrunforpublicoffice.

Thecontinuedexistenceofthisstrongculture,onehundredyearslater,isdemonstratedbytheexistenceofitsalteregotownssuchasAspen,Telluride,SantaFe,Jackson,etal.WhywouldpeoplesettleintheseveryexpensiveplacesiftheycouldliveinhundredsofequallyscenicruralWesterntowns,mostofthemwithhigherphysicalqualitiesoflife.Why,totakeaColoradoexample,isrealestateintheskitownofCrestedButteahotsellerwhilelandandhomesinthenearbycollegetownofGunnisonlanguish?

Theanswerisculture.Urbanpeopleinstinctivelyshyawayfrom

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thetraditionalcommunitiesandtowardtheskiandresorttowns.ItiseasiesttoseeinUtah,whereaParkCityisagentileislandinaMormonsea.Butitistrueeverywhere.Duringtheenergyandmineralsboomofthe1970sandearly1980s,thewivesofcorporateexecutivesnewtotheregioncomplainedofthe"lackofshopping."Iamsuretheymissedlargeshoppingmalls.But"lackofshopping"wasalsoacodefortheirdissatisfactionwithtraditionalcommunities'schools,thelackofplanningandzoning(whichmeantalackofprotectionforinvestedmoney),andthelackofsuchsocialmechanismsascountryclubs.ItistheselacksperhapsaccompaniedbytheveryhighrateofviolentdeaththatafflictsyoungAnglomalesintheWest'ssmalltownsthatcreatedabarrierbetweentheruralWestandthelargerAmerica.Itwasasifthesmalltownsexudedaninvisiblechemicalthatkepturbanitesoutdespitethebeauty,thefriendliness,thelowrealestateprices,andthehighqualityoflife.

Thedominanceofextractionandtheextractivewayoflifeperseveredintotheearly1980s.Thenahuge,pervasivebustoccurred.Minesclosed,power-plantprojectswerecanceled,millsshutdown,andthepricesoflandandwaterplummeted.Therewasanoutflowofpeoplefromtheregion.Wholesectionsofsmalltownsemptied,schoolslostone-thirdoftheirstudents,churcheslostchunksoftheircongregations,ambitiouspublicadministratorsschoolsuperintendents,hospitaldirectors,townmanagerswentlookingforyeastierplaces.Thebustisinterestingforthehavocandlossesitcaused,andforitsrevelationofjusthowwrongtheExxonsandAmaxesoftheworldcanbe.Butmostinterestingisthisquestion:Whydidapoliticallystrongregion(rememberthetwentyU.S.senators)openitselfuptotheinevitabledevastationofthebust?Onedidn'thavetobeaseerinthe1970storecognizethatbustwouldfollowboom.FormerColoradoGovernorRichardLammisbestknownforhispropheticwarnings,butalmostalloftheWest'sgovernorssawthatabustwasinevitable.

Thereareexamplesofcommunitiesandstatesthatprotectedthemselvesagainsttheboom.Meeker,Colorado,didwhatitcouldtodampdowntheeffectsoftheoil-shaleboom.Utah,despitetheneedforjobscreatedbyanastronomicalbirthrate,saidnotothefederalracetrack-missileproject,thenestimatedasa$100billionconstructionjob.Butforthemostpart,theregionwentalongwiththeboom.

Itdidso,Ithink,becausetheruralWestlacksthreeimportantinstitutions.Thelackoftheseinstitutionslefttheregionopentotheboom,becausetheWesthadnowaytoexplore,analyze,andcommunicatewhatwashappeningtoit.Ilistthosemissingelementsinnoparticularorder;theyareintertwinedandofequalimportance.

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Education.Totheweaknessesofprimaryandhighschooleducationmustbeaddedthelackofastrongregionaluniversity.SomeoftheWest'suniversities,suchastheUniversityofColorado,havedepartmentsorschoolsconcernedwithWesternquestions.Butforthemostpart,theWest'suniversitiesarenational-orinternational-lookinginstitutionsdoingsuchthingsasseekingSuperconductingSuperColliders.WhentheWestfacesseriousproblems,suchastheforestfiresof1988orquestionsongrazingandpubliclands,thereisnoregionaluniversity,noWesternHarvardorStanfordorBerkeley,toturnto.MostnewideasconcerningWesternquestionscomefromnonuniversitysources:AllanSavory'sHolisticResourceManagementInstituteongrazing,AmoryLovins'RockyMountainInstituteonenergyandeconomicdevelopment,andtheGreaterYellowstoneCoalitiononanewwayoflookingattheYellowstoneregion.Sowhentheboomhit,therewasnouniversitytohelptheregionunderstandandcopewithit.

Communications.Thesecondmissingelementisaregionwidecommunicationsmedium.TheWestlacksanewspaperortelevisionstationormagazinethatcantalktotheruralWestasawhole,thewayTheNewYorkTimestalkstoitsregion,theAtlantaConstitutiontalkstotheSouth,andtheLosAngelesTimestalkstotheSouthwest.

Reformers.Alsomissingisacitizens'reformmovement.TheWestlacksthekindofdo-gooderswhofoughtagainstchildlaborandslumsinthenation'scitiesattheturnofthecenturyandagainstsegregationintheSouthinthe1960s.TheclosesttheWesthastoreformersarethoseintheenvironmentalmovement,andthatmovementuntilnowhasbeenmoreconcernedwiththepreservationoflandthanwiththewell-beingofpeopleandcommunities.

Whatwehave,then,isaregionrootedinnineteenth-centuryeconomies,waysoflife,andlaws.Theeconomiesandcultureare

bothindecline.SotheWestapproachesthetwenty-firstcenturyuprootedfromitstraditionaleconomiesandwayoflife,andlackingthethreeinstitutionsthatcouldhelpitmeetthenewcentury.Thecollapse,symbolizedbyextremelylowpricesforhomes,landandwater,andbyanoutflowofpopulation,hasresultedinareopeningoftheWesternfrontierintheWestbeingupforgrabs.

Whatislikelytocomeofthisreopening?WilltheWestbuildthethreemissinginstitutionsinresponsetothiscrisis?Willitbetakenoverbyurbanitesenamoredofitslandscapeandlowrealestateprices?Orwilltheregionbothfailtoreformfromwithinandberejectedbythelarger,wealthierAmerica,andthushavenochoicebuttodeclineintoanAppalachia-likedarknight?TheWestissothinintermsofeconomicsandpopulationthatconventionalextrapolationsoftrendsareuseless.

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Nothingcouldhaveseemedstrongerthantheland-energy-mineralsboomofthe1970s,andyetaslackeningoftheglobaleconomy'sappetiteforcommoditiesblewawaythattrend.TheWest'scurrenttrendtorecreation-andlifestyle-basedeconomiesandculturescouldbedecimatedevenmoreeasily.

Nevertheless,Ihaveaprediction,oratleastaguess,basedonthestayingpowerofsmallWesterncommunities.Ibelievetheywillchangeinordertopreservetheircohesiveness,theirextendedfamilies,andtheirtraditional,conservativevalues.Thesurvivalofthosehundred-year-oldvalueswillrequirealmosttheoppositeofwhatwasrequiredinthepast.Nowthosevaluescallforanemphasisoneducationandclosecontactswiththeoutsideworld.Thenewconcernwithmarketingamongfarmersandranchersrecognizestheimportanceoflinkstotheoutsideworld.Ofcourse,noteveryoneinagriculturehasrecognizedtheimportanceofmarketingonlythesurvivorshave.

Inthesameway,thesurvivingtownswillturntoeducationandtolinkstothelargerworld.Thosetownswon'tgiveupthepleasuresofFridaynightbasketballandfootballgames,butinsteadofbeingendsinthemselves,astheyarenow,theywillbeseenasadjunctstoacademicachievement.RuralWesternerswillrecognizethattelecommunications,facsimilemachines,satellitedishes,FederalExpress,andcomputershaveopenedruralareastothekindsofworkthatformerlycouldbedoneonlyinmetropolitanareas.Educationandtechnicalskills,onceapassportoutofsmalltowns,willnowbeseenasawayforasmallcommunitytokeepsomeofitsyoungstersathome.

Itis,ofcourse,almostaclichétopredictaneconomicfutureforruralareasbasedonmoderncommunications.ButiftheWestistosurviveasaruralregionwitharuralculture,theremustbemorethan

subdivisionsofelectroniccottages,touristresorts,andretirementvillages.Someextractionhopefullylessdestructiveextractionwillcontinue.Butmyhopeandexpectationisthatthenewruraleconomywillbebasedonreclamationandrestoration.Thedamageorneglectofthepastcenturywillbehealedbycommunitiesthatsitamongtheruinscreatedbythelastcenturyofmining,milling,logging,andagriculture.Myexpectation,andprayer,isthatoverthenextcentury,forestswillbederoaded,damswillbedismantledoroperatedsoastopreservestreamsandriversratherthatdestroythem,minesiteswillbereclaimed,andacidicstreamswillberestoredtohealth.SuchworkwilldoagreatdealfortheWesternlandscape.ButitwilldomoreforWesterncommunities.Anyonecantakeawatchapart,asthehistoryoftheWestshows.Ittakesverydifferentindividualsandaverydifferentsocietytoputawatch

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together.Thelatterrequirespatience,understanding,respectfortheoriginalwatchmaker,andhumility.

ToaccomplishreclamationandrestorationwillrequiredeepchangesintheWest:differentschools,differentsocialinstitutions,differentmedia.Thosechangeswillnotcomeautomaticallyoutofawishlist.Buttheywilldevelopastheregionchangesandadaptstonewtimes.Iseethesignsofchangenotinlargeevents,butinthesamekindsofsmalleventsIdiscussedinthefirstpartofmytalk.Themajordangeristhatthecommodities(coal,uranium,oilshale,etal.)willboombeforetheWesthassetitselffirmlyonthepathtoreclamationandrestoration.Ifthathappens,theWestwillagainsacrificeitslandscapeandskytoprovidejobsfortheyoungpeoplewhosebasicattitudestowardeducationwereshapedduringtheboom.Buteachyearthatpasseswithlowcommodityprices,andwithaneconomicallystraitenedfederalgovernmentunabletosprinkledamsandsubsidizedloggingontheWest,encourageschange.

Foritsfirstcentury,EuropeansettlementintheruralWesthastransformedthescenerytomatchasocietythathaditsstrengths,butthatwasalsoweakanddestructiveinmanyways.Now,thankstoglobaleconomiceventsoverwhichtheWesthasnocontrol,theregionisbeingencouragedtotransformitselfandcreateasocietythatwillwanttorestorewhathasbeendamaged.

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REGIONALISMANDTHEWESTERNUNIVERSITYJamesN.Corbridge,Jr.

Iwanttospeakbrieflyaboutregionalismandthewesternuniversitynotinanyparochialsense,butbecauseIbelievethatweavingastrongregionalthreadintothecurricularandresearchfabricofouruniversitiesisbothintellectuallyappropriateandnecessarytofulfilltheuniversity'sroleinsociety.IintendtofocusontheWest,butIthinktheprinciplesIwilladdressareapplicabletohighereducationinotherregionsofthecountryaswell.

Thisisafascinatingtopictome.IconfesstobeingawaterlawyeraColoradowaterlawyer,themostferventofthespecies,atthatandIhavespentthelasttwentyyearsofmyacademiclifestudyingtheallocationanduseofthewaterresource.Arguably,therehasbeennogreaterinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftheWestthanwater,ortheabsenceofit.WalterPrescottWebb,indefininghisWest,emphasizedtheculturalandinstitutionalimpactofcrossingthegeographicbarrierfromthehumidtothesemiarid,intotheregionwhereonefeels,inWallaceStegner'swords,"[a]drynessinthenostrils,acrackingofthelips,atransparentcrystallinequalityofthelight..."5

Myownexperienceinthestudyofwater-resourceallocation,andthelawingeneral,hasledmetotheconclusionthatthelawcurriculumisoneobviousareawhereemphasisonWesternlegalproblemsandprinciplesisentirelyappropriate.ThissubjecthasbeencapablydiscussedelsewhereandIdon'twanttodwellonittoday.MycolleagueCharlesWilkinsonhasbeguntoexploreindepththelawoftheAmericanWest,andDavidGetchesgaveanexcellentpapertotheMid-ContinentAssociationofLawSchoolsin1988entitled"PuttingaWesternBrandonLegalEducation."Davidsuggestedthatcourses

dealingwithdistinctivelyWesternissueswaterlaw,federalpubliclandlaw,Indianlaw,andmininglawarenotableexamplesareappropriatetothecurriculumandthatcasesdealingwithWesternissuescanbeusedin

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moretraditionalcourses.HenotedthatWesternlaw"hasanessentialingredientthatlendsitcurricularlegitimacy.Theingredientisarichnessinitsissuesthatcallsforrigorousanalysisandwhichdemonstratesthesynthesisandinteractionofavarietyofbasicsubjects."HealsomadethecrucialpointthatemphasizingWesternlaw"doesnotmeanconsciouslyleavingweaknessesinotherareasbutitdoesmeanspecialconcentrationandinstitutionalcommitmentthatcanspawnexcellence,reputationandnotablescholarshipinachosenfield."6

IwanttoexpandonthatpointtodaybyobservingthatthefertilityofWesternregionalsubjectmatterdoesnotceasewiththelaw.Itencompassesmanysubjectsthatcrosstheentirespectrumoftheuniversitycurriculum.

Letmeturn,asanexample,tothatmuch-malignedsubject,historicallysufferingfromtheslightsofregionalism,WesternliteraturetheliteraturefocusingontheWestanditsdistinctivehumancharacteristics:individualism,self-reliance,grit,thesenseofonenesswiththeland.Infact,therehavebeennumerousmajorWesternwriters,amongthemA.B.GuthrieJr.,WillaCather,JohnSteinbeck,FrankWaters,andWallaceStegner.Further,thereisawholenewgenerationofWesternwritershardatworktoday.Thisvigorous,multifacetedbodyofliteraturehasbeenbuiltbynovelistssuchasLeslieMarmonSilko,EdwardAbbey,JohnNichols,JamesWelch,andRudolphoAnaya,andbyessayistssuchasJohnMcPhee,GretelEhrlich,andBruceBrown.

ProfessorPaulBryantofColoradoStateUniversity,whohimselfhastaughtacourseinWesternliterature,hasobservedthat"thestudyoftheWestinAmericanliteratureofferssignificantinsightsintothewholeofAmericanculture,"andnotedthatWesternideascanbeusedtoexaminetheviewpointsofsocietyatlarge,asintheuseofTheOx-

BowIncidenttodiscusstheroleplayedbythetestsofmasculinityincontemporarysociety.7TheentireeffectofWesternideasonmodernAmericancultureisanimportantareaofinquiry.

InWesternliterature,atleastintheSouthwest,wehaveabiculturalliterarytraditionAngloandHispanic.Universitiesneedtocelebratethatfactorwewill,inthewordsofProfessorPhillipOrtego,"deprivenotonlymillionsofMexicanAmericansoftheirliterarybirthrightbutdeprivemillionsofAnglo-Americansofaliterarybirthrightthatisnaturallytheirstoo."8

WecanalsonotethestrongbondbetweenWesternwritingandthephysicalenvironmentperhapstheWest'smoststrikingqualityandacommonthreadthroughoutvirtuallyallofWesternwriting.HowofteninWesternliteratureweseethecharactersofthestoryadaptingto,orsuccumbingto,thephysicalchallenges,betheymountains,deserts,or

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thegreatdistancesandtheircorrespondingsolitudes.ThishasledWesternwritingtobeaparticularlyaptvehiclefortheembodimentofenvironmentalissues,asAbbey'sTheMonkeyWrenchGangwellillustrates.Thispoint,incidentally,hasbeensensitivelyexploredbyProfessorFredErismanofTexasChristianUniversityina1979paperbeforetheannualmeetingoftheNationalCouncilofTeachersofEnglish.9

Surelytheaccommodationofnewwaysofthinkingbyoldculturepatterns,characteristicofthedevelopmentoftheWest,hasapplicationformuchofwhathumankindfacestodayaroundtheglobe.IfmyfriendsintheliteraryworldarecorrectinbelievingthatthemodernWestisproducingsomeoftheworld'sbestwriting,thenweoughttocapitalizeonitandinfuseitintoourcurriculum.

ThesamecommentscouldbemadeofWesternart.OfparticularinterestisnotonlythewayWesternartistsviewotherpartsofthecountry,butthewaytheseartistshavetakenforwardhistoricalforms,especiallypottery,inamannerthatcelebratestraditionalculturesyetis,initsveryessence,contemporary.RickDillingham,thehistorian,collector,artist,andpotterfromSantaFe,andthegreatcontemporaryHopipotterAlQöyawaymaofPhoenix,exemplifythistradition.Itisnotnarrowparochialthinkingtofocusonthesedevelopmentsintheworldofart.Rather,agreatWesternuniversityoughttocelebratethedistinctiveartisticachievementsofWesternartistsbymakingthestudyofthemacentralpartoftheuniversity'svision.

Letmealsomakereferencetohistory.ThehistoryoftheWesthaslongbeenseenasastepchildofAmericanhistory.Thatiswrong.ThehistoryoftheAmericanWestisrifewithfascinatingeventsandpersonalitiesandisjam-packedwithintellectualcontent.ThisappliesbothtothehistoricalandcontemporaryWest,apointdemonstratedbythescholarshipoftwoofthenation'sfirst-ratehistorians,thelate

RobertAthearnandPatriciaNelsonlimerick.TheUniversityofColoradohasbeenproudtohavebothofthemonitsfaculty,andouruniversityhaslongbeenaleaderinthestudyofthisregion'shistory.Nevertheless,wecandostillbetteratthetaskofexploringthemanyaspectsofthischallengingbodyofthought.

Finally,wehavethemostdominantyetoverlookedcontributortotheAmericanWesttheIndian.OnemightcommentnotonlyontheIndians'contributions,butalsoonthedistinctiverelationshipovertimeofthetribalculturestothecultureoftheAmericanWest.Universitiesmustplayaspecialrolenotonlyincelebratingasweshouldwithallculturesintheregionbutinilluminatingfornon-IndiansthesovereigngovernmentalstatusofIndiantribes,andtherichnessofthe

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history,language,customs,andphilosophyoftheIndian.Theuniversity'sroleinexploringandarticulatingthewealthofAmericanIndianculture,especiallyasitisseenbyIndianpeoplethemselves,hasgoneunrealizedforfartoolong.

InarecentissueoftheUniversityofColoradoLawReview,youcanfindapoeticandexcitingarticlebyCharlesWilkinson,''LawandtheAmericanWest:TheSearchforanEthicofPlace"anethicCharlesdescribesas"foundedontheworthofthesubculturesoftheWestand[which]therebypromotesthediversitythatisthelifebloodoftheregion."10Surelythepublicuniversitiesshouldbemajorplayersinthissearch,andnotjustinthosesubjectsthatIhavetouchedupon,butinalloftheareasoftheacademiclandscapewherethehumanspirit,character,andexperiencearebeingexaminedhistory,philosophy,sociology,art,psychology,law,journalism,geography.Thelistcouldgoonandon;allofthesetopicsarepartandparceloftheuniversitymissionofresearchandteaching.Ithasalwaysstruckmeassomewhatpeculiarthat"servicetothecommunity"islisted,alongwithteachingandscholarship,asadistinctcategoryofinstitutionalactivity.Inmyview,thesearenotseparatethings.lather,creativeinquiryandteachingthediscoveryanddisseminationoftheknowledgethatguidesthehumanconditionrepresentthefundamental"service"thatuniversitiesprovide:theenrichmentofthesocietiesthatsupportthem.

OurWesternsocietycallsoutforacelebrationofitsdistinctivecontributiontoAmericanculture.Byresponding,theWesternuniversitywillnot,assomefear,diminishitself.Rather,theuniversitycommunitywillseizethemostpromisingchanceofreachingitsfullestpotential.

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FREEDOMCOMESFROMPEOPLE,NOTPLACECamilleGuerin-Gonzalez

Inhisessay,MayorKemmishassetouttofindthesourceofAmerica'smoralandphysicalstrength,andhelocatesitintheWest.Hisargumentisbasedontwoassumptionsanddrawsonthemostpowerfulofournation'smyths.ThefirstassumptionisthatAmericaisdemocraticandservesasabeaconofdemocracyandfreedomtotherestoftheworld.ThesecondisthatAmericanssharevaluesandinterests.Tosupporttheseassumptions,MayorKemmisdrawsonavarietyofnationalmyths.HeuseswordswithdeepsymbolicmeaningtoAmericans.

First,thereisthemythoftheruggedindividualgoingintothewilderness,thefrontieranemptywastelandwaitingtobetrainedandmakingaplaceforoneself.Theimageisessentiallyamaleimage.Sothemythisofaruggedindividualgoingintothefrontierandintheprocessrecreatingdemocracyandbecomingtougherandbeingmadephysicallystrongerbytheenvironment.SecondthereisthemyththatAmericanshaveadivinemissiontocreateaperfectsociety,acityonthehill.Phrasesfullofsymbolismgivepowertothesemyths,phraseslike"ruggedindividualism,""democracy,""freedom,"and"liberty."

TheWestofMayorKemmisisnottheWestIknow.NorisittheWestofmypeopleHispanos,thatis,mulattos,mestizos,Africanslaves,andEuropeanSpaniards,whosettledinwhatisnowNewMexicoin1598,beforethePilgrimslandedatPlymouth.NorisittheWestofIndianpeopleswhowereintheregiontwenty-fivetofiftythousandyearsago.Instead,itisaWestunformedbythemythofacityonahill,Anglo-Saxon,Protestant,andfreethatis,freefromgovernmentandchurchmeddlinginthepursuitofeconomicgain.TheWestIknow,

theUnitedStatesIknow,iswherelargegroupsofpeoplehavebeenandcontinuetobedisenfranchisedonthebasisoftheirrace,theirgender,andtheirlanguage.Ifademocracyisagovernmentinwhichultimatepoliticalauthorityisinvestedinthepeople,andwhichincludesthe

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conceptsofindividualism,liberty,equality,andfraternity,thenwehavesomeworktodobeforewecanholdourselvesupasabeacontoanyone.

ThechangestakingplaceinEasternEurope,namelythecreationofamarketeconomyundersocialism,havemoretodowiththedisruptivepowerofcapitalismthantheydowithdemocracyasitisexpressedintheUnitedStates.ThemomentouschangestakingplaceinEasternEuropealsoincludeariseinanti-Semitismandarestrictionoftherightsofwomenandofminorities.WhilesomeEasternEuropeancountriesareextendinggreaterfreedomstosomegroups,theU.S.governmentcontinuestosupporttherepressivegovernmentsinElSalvadorandGuatemala,andU.S.troopshavekilledcivilians,mostofwhomarewomenandchildren,butalsocivilianmen.IntheUnitedStates,ourconceptsofdemocracy,freedom,andsharedvaluesofmembersofsmallcommunitiestiedtothelandfromwhichtheyrecreatethemselvesobscure,hide,erasethosewhodon'tfitintothismodel,whodon'tfitintothismyth.Athens,afterall,wasademocracybasedonslavery.Iarguethatthedangertodemocracyisnotconsumerismbutthecontinueduseandlegitimationofnationalmythsthatobscureandredescribeoppressionofwomen,peopleofcolor,gays,anddissenters,sothatthiskindofoppressionwillfitintothemythicalviewsandgoalsofthoseearlyEnglishcolonists.JohnWinthropsaid"weshallbeasaCityuponaHill,theeyesofallpeopleareuponus."11Buthealsosaidthatheknewawomanwhohadbecomementallyillfromreadingtoomanybooks.For,headded,ifshehadattendedtoherhouseholdaffairsandsuchthingsasbelongedtowomen,andnotgoneoutofherwaytomeddleinsuchthingsasareproperformen,shewouldhavekeptherwits.ApparentlyWinthropbelievedthatthelast,bestplaceforwomenwasthekitchen.

IagreewithMayorKemmisthattheworldspiritisaliveinWestern

valleys,butitisaliveinpeople,andnotaplace;inthewhitesettlers,women,men,children,whocreatedalifeforthemselveswithhardwork;inMexicano,migrantfarm-workersinthebeetfieldsofColorado;inHispanoandEasternEuropeanminers;inCentralAmericansintheLosAngelesgarmentdistrict;inIndianpeoplesthroughouttheirland,strugglingtosurviveEuropeanconceptsofdemocracyandfreedom;inSoutheastAsianimmigrantsandinAfrican-SpanishandAfrican-Americansettlers.Ifhardshipispossibility,thenitisinthesepeopleandtheircontinuinghardship,asHerbertMarcusearguedthirtyyearsago,wherethosepowerfulconceptsoffreedomanddemocracymightfinallyberealized.

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THELANDS,NATURALRESOURCES,ANDECONOMYOFTHEWESTSallyK.Fairfax

Thisisaboutpubliclands.IdonotbelieveintheassignedtopictheWestasadiscretepoliticalorculturalentity.PubliclandsmaybetheonlythingthatmakestheWestcoherentordistinctive.I'mgoingtomakeafewrathersparseargumentsaboutprocessandparticipantsinpublic-landpolicydecisionmaking.Botharechanginginwaysthatareinterestingand,inmyopinion,likelytoendure.

Iwillpaintabroadpictureratherthantrytoproveapiddlinglittleone.IalsowillnotrefusetosaysomethinginterestingandperhapstruejustbecauseIcannotfindafootnoteforit.

Myfirstpointisthatpublic-landsmanagementissuesarelikelytocontinuetobelessandlessimportantasnationalissuesandasthefocusofnationalattentionanddebate.Second,Iwillarguethatthischangewillleavethefieldclearforincreasinglyeffectiveparticipationandcontrolbystateandlocalofficials.Finally,Iarguethatthiswillbeespeciallyimportanttowatchwhenrelatedtomythirdpointaboutchangeinlocalparticipants:Keygroupsarechangingintheirprioritiesandimportanceintheprocess.

Iwillconcludewithtwothoughts,oneaboutissuesthatwillbecaughtinthischangingmawandoneabouttheimportanceforallthisofcontinuingadvocacyaboutpublic-landsdecisionmaking.

BeforeIstartonthat,however,Iwishtoexpresssomegeneralreservationsabouttheassignedtask.IamnotsurethatIbelieveintheAmericanWest.Surelyitexistsasadirectionfortravel.Andclearlywelearnsomethingaboutourselvesthatisimportantoratleast

remarkable(inthesenseof"worthremarkingabout")whenwesay"outWest"asopposedto"backEast."Itisfunandeducationaltoexplorewhatthatmightmean.However,itdoesnotestablishthelegitimacyoftheconstruct"West"asasourceofvisionstoguideasharedfuture.Inthebrochurethatdescribedthissymposium,wefindthatthedisparate

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subgroupsthatmakeuptheAmericanWestwerechallengedto"putasidetheirdifferencesandpulltogethersothattheregioncanbuildasocietytomatchitsscenery."Thissuggeststhatourscenerysomehowtranslatesintoacommonpoliticalagenda.Thatmakesmeverycranky.

Asapoliticalscientist,Iamgenuinelyannoyedbypeopleurgingsubgroupstogiveuptheirprioritiestoembracesomebodyelse's.Atbest,theexhortationisunrealistic.Atworst,itmakesmewanttowarnallsubgroupmemberstokeeptheirhandsontheirwallets.Differencesaretheessenceofdiversity.WecannottalkabouttheAmericanWestwithoutrecognizingthelegitimacyofboth.Period.

Ialsogetgrumpyaboutthe"pulltogether"motifbecauseIhavespentalongtimetryingtoferretoutorimagineacommonagendafortheregion.Idonotfindone.EvenduringtheSagebrushRebellion,whichwasaperiodinwhichpublicassertionofanintegratedWesternstrategywasatapeculiarlyhighpitch,itwasnotpossibletofindanyissuethatconsistentlyorevensuggestivelyunitedtheWestasaregionand/or(bothareimportant)consistentlyorevensuggestivelydistinguishedthisallegedregionfromanyother.

Iamnotgoingtothrowawholebunchoffootnotesatyou,butyoumightbeinterestedintheliteratureofpoliticalregionalism.ThedataarefullofanecdotesaboutlocalcolorbutpreciousfewindicationsthatregionmatterstopolicyexceptforsomeslighthintinthedeepSouth.BoththeruleandtheslightexceptionoughttointerestusintellectuallyandmorallyifthatistherootofAmericanregionalism,dowewanttobeefitup?

Finally,IshouldconfessthatIamnotaWesterner.IhavelivedforextendedperiodsofmylifeinNewYorkCityandenvirons,upperNewYorkstate,Boston,NorthCarolina,Michigan,andmostrecentlyBerkeley,California.EvenifCaliforniaisacceptableasapartofthe

WesternregionandtherehasbeenconsiderabledoubtexpressedonthattopiconewillprobablynotwanttoincludeBerkeley.

Givenmyquestionableheritage,itisperhapsunderstandablethatIdonotfindWesternscenerytobeauniquespiritualorpoliticalforce.WiththearguableexceptionofNewYorkCity,everyplaceIhavelivedissurroundedbyscenery.Characteristicscenery,wonderfulscenery,whichmaybedifferentfromWesternscenery,butwhichischerishedbythenatives,includingasignificantnumberwhodefinethemselvesandtheirlives,inpartatleast,inrelationtotheirgeo-emotional(orwhatever)setting.IhavejustspentaweekinVermontandtheweekbeforethatontheroadbetweenSocorroandSantaFe,NewMexico.Inmanydimensions,thereislessdifferencebetweenthetworegionsthanyoumightthink.IdonotdenythattheconceptoftheAmericanWestis

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animportantmarketingdevicethatcanbeused,interalia,tosellhigh-heeled,pointy-toedshoes,nottowomenbuttomalesfromLosAngeles.Thatisnotallbad.DeWittJohn,featuredinthefirstofHighCountryNews'srecentseriesonthisgeneralissue,hasbeenconvincingforaslongasIhaveknownhimthatsellingcowboynessandsceneryisaviableeconomicoption.Butitisnotclearlyaculture,itdoesnotdefineordistinguishasociety,and,mostcentrally,itdoesnotdefineabasisforpoliticalunityoracommonpoliticalaction.

Iamlookingforthebasisofasharedand/ordistinctivepoliticalagendaandIdonotseeit.Hence,Iamnotsurethatthisconversationhasarealsubject.However,otherequallyinsightfulfolksdonotsharemyqualms,soletmespeakmypiece.

Mypointthatpublic-landsmanagementissuesarelikelytocontinuetobelessandlessimportantastopicsofnationalattention,andthatstateofficialsandevolvinglocalgroupswillplayalargerandmoredecisiveroleindecisionmakingis,youmayreadilyobserve,actuallythreepoints:oneregardingthescopeandintensityofattentiontopublic-landsissues;oneregardingthelevelofdecisionmaking;andoneregardinglocaladvocacy.

Regardingthefirst,Inotethatpubliclandshavebeenrecedingfromthecenterofthenationalstageformostofacentury.Letmepointatafewcarefullyselectedgeneralizationsfromhistorytosupportthatobservation.

Publiclandswere,formuchofourfirstcenturyasanation,thedominant,ifnottheonly,nationalpublicissue.ThosewhohaveattendedevenbrieflytotheperiodinwhichtheArticlesofConfederation,theGeneralLandOrdnance,andthenthefederalConstitutionweredraftedandaccededtoknowthattitletoandauthorityovertheWesternpubliclandswhichatthattimewerebasicallyconfinedtotheareabetweentheAppalachiansandthe

Mississippiwerethemajorissuesofnationhoodandgovernance.Itisprobablyonlyaslightoverstatementtoarguethatvirtuallyeveryissueoftrade,fiscalpolicy,andindustry,amongothers,wasdiscussedinthecontextofthepubliclands.Thepubliclandswereeverything,thecauldroninwhichallthemajorissuesweremanifestandfoughtout.

Theyarenotanymore.

Thisistrueinspiteofwhatmayappeartohavebeentwodecadesinwhichthepubliclandsweremajorpoliticalissues.Thereisnodoubtthattheywereissues.Butweare,Iamarguing,inthewinding-downphaseofaslightburstofnationalconcernwiththeenvironmentand,byaclearextension,thepubliclands.Thatburstwasrealandimportant.Indeed,Ithinkthatitisfairtosaythatthewilderness/aesthetic-preservation

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movement,whichisdirectlyrelatedtothepubliclands,wasakeywedgeinopeningtheAmericanconsciousnesstotheenvironmentaldecadeofthe1970s.Further,wildernesswasandwilllikelycontinuetobeanidealentry-levelissueofimmensepedagogicalvalueinarousinguppermiddle-classwhitekidstoconcernfor"theenvironment."Allofthatistrue.Further,itistoalargeextentwhatwehavedonewithourlives.Butitcostsusinperspectiveonthehistoryofthepubliclands.

Wewhohavelivedthroughorcomeofageduringthelasttwentyyearsareinaremarkablypoorplaceforrealizingthatweareinfactexperiencingthetailendofapeculiarblip,orforunderstandingthatourblipisarareandmuch-diminishedperiodofnationwideattentiontopubliclands.

TodemonstratetheargumentthatnationalattentiontotheWesternpubliclandsmanifestinthelastseveralyearshasbeenablipinwhatisclearlyalong-termremovalofthepubliclandsfromthecenterofthenation'spolitical,economic,andpsychicstage,Iwillpointtotheevolutionoftherevenueprogramsassociatedwiththoselands.Ibelievethatinthoseprogramsyoucanclearlyseeapatternevolveandthendissolve.Atfirst,oldstateswerewillingtobribenewstatestogoalongwithmeetingoldstales'prioritiesonpubliclands.Asnewstatesbecamemorenumerous,thebribesgotbigger.Butthen,asthenewstatesbegantobecomeoldstates,theconfigurationshiftedtoEastversusWestorpublicdomainversusnon-publicdomainstates.Easterndemandsclarifiedintheformoflandreservationsandthebribesbecamebiggerstill.Witnessthe90percentofgrossrevenuesthatwerededicatedtotheWesternstatesintheMineralLandsLeasingActof1920.

WhatIamleadinguptohereisthatinthelastseveraldecades,EasternstateshavebeenincreasinglyunwillingtobribeWesternstates

withreceipt-sharingprograms.The1976PILTs(paymentsinlieuoftaxes)Actisnationalinscope.Allthestatesaredefinedashavingpubliclands,whichallowsallthestatestobenefit.Currenteffortstoundoolddecisionstoshiftthebasisofreceipt-sharingpaymentstonetratherthangrossrevenues,forexamplecanbeunderstood,ifIamcorrect,asasignthattheEasternstatesarelessinterestedthanintimespastinachievingtheirowngoalsonthepubliclandsandwantsomeofthemoneybacktoreconstructtheirowndeterioratinginfrastructure.Hence,asmalldatapointtosupporttheargumentthattheEasternstatesarenolongersointerestedinEasternprioritiesforWesternpubliclandsthattheyarewillingtopaytoachievethem.Indeed,justtheopposite.Forallthesereasons,Iamarguing,thefederalgovernmentwillrecede.ItwillnotdisappearovernightoreverfromthemanagementofWesternfederallands.Butitwillleavegreaterand

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greaterroomforstateandlocaldecisionmakingandprioritiestobeexpressedontheland.

Mypointisthatifandwhenthelandscomeupfordiscussion,theycomeupaslandsandresources,notasthelinchpinofAmericanlife.Thus,Iamarguing,weasanationcarelessandlesseveninthatverydiminishedandconstrainedcontext.Having"proved"thatpoint,letmemakemysecondpoint,aboutthelevelofdecisionmakingregardingpubliclands.

Curiously,duringmostoftheperiodwhentheinterestinthelandswasnationalinscope,muchofwhatwenowconsiderthekeydecisions,thatis,thedecisionsaboutaccesstoand"managementof"thelands,weremadeatthestateandlocallevelsorbycoalitionsofstatesactinginCongress.Formuchofthenineteenthcenturyandforasurprisingextentinthetwentiethcentury,itwasnotconsistentlyclearthatthefederalgovernmenthadauthoritytodomuchabouttheWesternlands.Evenifithadauthority,itwasperfectlyclearthatthecentralgovernmenthadneitherthewillnorthewherewithaltoactonit.Manymajorresourcemanagementandallocationprogramsweredevelopedbyandcontinuetobestateundertakings(forexample,oilandgasconservation,wildlifemanagement,waterallocation).

ThatpositionofstateprimacyhasbeenconcealedfromcurrentviewbyanothertrendthatIamarguingisnowending:thecentralizationanddominationofthedecisionmakingbyfederalagencies,instrumentalities,andpriorities.ThattrendwhichweusuallyrelatetotheNewDealbutwhich,likeeverythingthatgrows,hasrootsthataredeepisalsoending,atleastasregardsthepubliclands.ThereasonsforwhatIampresentingasadeclineinfederalcontroloverpubliclandsarenumerous,complex,andobviouslyrelatedtodeclineinthenation'sinterestinthelands.Theyalsoarerelatedtoadeclineindiscretionaryfederalfundsandastaggeringgrowthintheefficacyof

stateandlocalgovernment,intheWestandelsewhere.Thesearegenericpointsapplicabletomanyfamiliardiscussions.Iwillnotboreyouwiththedetails.Iwillbelabortwootherpointsthatmaybemoreinterestinginthissetting.

First,iftheWestisnotamyth,Iwanttotrytoconvinceyouthat"thefederallands"are.Thiswill,Iargue,contributetoincreasingstatecontrol.Myargumenthastwoprongs.Thefirstisaphysicalreality,whatIhaverecentlybeencalling"themythofthegreenblob."Lotsofpeopleseemtohavetheideathatthefederalpubliclandsexistoutthereascontiguousentitiesaboutwhichthefederalmanagerscanmakedecisions.Whileoccasionallythatistrue,thedominantandmoreproblematicrealityisthatfederallandsarechoppedup,interspersed

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amongadiversemixtureofstate,privateandotherfederallands.Frequently,choppingisverticalthatis,thegovernmentmayownonlythesurfaceorthesubsurfacevalues,whileanotherownerownstheother.Thefederalgovernmentcannotmakedecisionsaboutitslittlefiefdomwithoutregardforwhattheotherownersaredoing.Itisalmostalwaystrue,forexample,thatanoil,gas,orcoallesseemustlaboriouslyassemblehundredsofpropertyrights,includingdiversefederalleases,inordertooperate.Themyriadaccessproblemsareonlythecurrentlymostapparentmanifestationofthisimportantbuteasy-to-overlookfact.

Thisgreen-blobmythalsohasalegaldimension.Itisfrequentlyassumedthatthefederalgovernmenthasauthoritytomanageabsolutelywhereitownstheland.Thefactsareotherwise.Ihavealreadyreferredtowater,oil,andgasconservation,andwildlifeprogramsthatareandalwayshavebeenessentiallystateoperations.Theenvironmentalprogramsofthe1970saddanotherdimensiontothisdivisionofauthority.TheForestService,forexample,isnotauthorized,funded,staffed,orsufficientlyskilledtomanageair,water,toxicclean-upandotherenvironmentalprotectionprograms.

DiscountmywordsifyoumustinlightofthefactthatIamaknownGraniteRockfetishistandoneoftheparticularlydangerousCaliforniabrandatthat.Nevertheless,mypositionisthatevenifSupremeCourtJusticeAntoninScaliaandhismerrybandpreemptthestateenvironmentalprograms,theywillnotpreventtheduplicationinprogramswhichsoanguishedJusticeLewisPowell;rather,theywillcreatevacuumsthatthefederalgovernmentwillnotbeabletofillonthefederallands.Thisisbecausetheyhavenospecificauthoritytodoso,and,understandably,nomotivationtoaddstafftoundertaketheprogramsinthesetryingbudgetarytimes.

PerhapsyoubelieveinboththeWestandthegreenblob.Mysecond

pointconcerningtheprobableriseinstaleauthorityoverpubliclandsisonewecanhopefullyallagreeon.Thefederalgovernment'sabilitytodominateinland-managementdecisionsisthreatenedbythefactthatitdoesnotknowwhatitisdoing.Thisdoesnotdistinguishitfromanybodyelsenobodyhasasoundtechnicalbasisforthekindofland-managementdecisionsthatthefederalagenciesgliblyassureustheyarequalifiedtomake.Butasthatfactbecomesmoreandmoreobviousintheplanningprocess,thelocalinterestswillprevailinamoreandmoreexplicitlypoliticalarena.ThatistheargumentIammakingatanyrate.

Bysayingthefederalgovernmentdoesnotknowwhatitisdoing,Idonotmeanthattheagenciesaredumborhavesoldouttothecattle,mineralsortimberindustry.Iseenothingthatsinister.Mypointis

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simplythatwedonothavetheknowledgetodomultiple-uselandmanagement.LetmeillustratebyreferringtotheBelowCostTimberSaleissue.ThecontentionwasthattheForestServicespendsmoretoputtogethertimbersalesthanitgetsinreceiptsfromthosesales.ThatultimatelyturnedouttobeadudintellectuallyasfarasIamconcerned.Atbottomitwasanargumentbetweentwostandardapproachestoaccounting,witheachsidedistortingdifferentinadequaciesinthedatatomakeitspoints.

Whatlingersinmymindasinterestingaboutthatdustupisthatwecannotexpressrelationshipsbetweenandamongdifferentlandusesinthelanguagethatissimplest,leastexacting,andeasiesttomeasure,tradeoff,andexpress:money.Wecannotevendotheeasiest,idiotpartofthemultiple-useanalysis.Wesurelydonotnowandlikelyneverwillunderstandcomplex,diverseecologicalinteractionswithsufficientacuitytopredictandmanipulatethoseecosystemsandtheirresponsestodifferentmanagementregimesanduses.Wecannot,infact,evenmonitorthediverseimpactsofwhatwealreadydid.Nottoputtoofineapointonit,butwecannotevenagreeposthocontheconsequencesofclear-cutting.

Itisnotcleartomewhatkindofpolicytilt,ifany,willresultfromtheshiftfromfederaltostateandlocalprimacy.However,itisimportantthatwethinkabouttheshiftfornumerousreasons,nottheleastofwhichisthatthestateandlocalsceneasregardsfederallandsandlandmanagementischangingrapidly.HereImovetomythirdpointaboutchanginglocalgroups.

TomakethispointIamnotgoingtoboreyouherewithanyvariantontheurbanizingWesternscene.Ithinkitisinterestingtowonderwhat"theWest"meansif,ashasbeensuggested,itdoesnotincludethecities.CitiesinfactcontainmostWesternersandmostoftheeconomicandpoliticalvaluesthatdrivetherurallandsinterspersed.

Nevertheless,Iwillletthatargumentdrift,brieflyIhope,andmakefourotherobservations.

First,Ithinkthatthestateandlocalpoliticalscenewillbealteredbyaradicalshiftintherangelivestockindustryanditspoliticalpriorities.Therangelivestockindustryasweknowandloveitorknowandhateitisdeadasaresultofchangesintasteandeconomics.Iamnotoneofthosewhobelievesthatrangechickensloomlargeinthefutureeconomyofthenation,butrangetourismandput-and-takewildlifedo.Ihavelongbelievedthattherangelivestockindustry,ratherthanthetimberindustryhasbeenbyfarthemostcontrollingpoliticalforceinpublic-landsmanagement.Thatgroupisintheprocessofalteringradically,andIthinkitmattersandbearswatching.

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Asecondchangedparticipantisthewatercrowd.OneofthestrangethingsaboutBureauofLandManagementandForestServicepoliticsisthatsinceJohnWesleyPowellgotshotdownonhisdam-sitereservationsinthelate1800s,thewaterfolkshavebeennoncentralplayersanddecreasinglyimportantplayersinthefederalland-managementagencies.Thatischangingdramatically.Ahintofwhatistocomeisfoundintherecentconjunctionofreservedwaterrightsandwildernessdesignations.Ithinkwecanallconcedethatthisisabitflukyandconfinedinitsimpact.However,whenwestartincludingwater-relatedfactors(suchaswaterproductionandwaterdrop)inthecalculationofthevalueofalternateuses,andexpressingthepriceofatreeintermsofthewateritconsumeswhilegrowing,theplotthickens.Wecansafelypredictthatwatervaluationpromisessomeinterestingalterationsinmanagementpriorities.

Third,theeconomistsarecoming.Thisdoesnotmeanthateconomicorcommodityusesarecoming.Itmeansthatthenotionsandmethodsofeconomicanalysisarefindingunprecedentedlegitimacyinthepublic-landsfield.Amenityadvocatesmayprotest,allegingthateconomicshavealwaysdominated.Perhapsso,butnoteconomicanalysis.Thefactisthattheeconomistisanewkidontheblockandwillalterthenatureofthedebateconsiderably.

Finally,IwouldliketopointtochangingdemographicsintheWest.Thisleadsinturntochangingdefinitionsofefficiencyandproductivity.Myperspectiveisnarrowbutperhapsuseful.YoucangetyourhistoryonthispointfromtheworkofPatWestorBillDubuisorotherswhodescribetheForestService'spreferenceforlarge,''efficient"producersofrangelivestockasopposedtotheinefficient,communalproductionthatcharacterizestheHispaniccommunity'suseofthesouthwesternnationalforests.JohnNichols'sTheMilagroBeanfieldWarisalessacademicbutequallyvaluableintroductiontoearlyyearsonthisissue.

ThecurrentimportanceofthealteringdemographicsforfederallandmanagementmaybeapparentnowinlitigationinvolvingUniversityofCaliforniaagricultureprograms.TheUniversityrecentlylostasuittoCaliforniaRuralLegalAssistance(CIRA).Thesuitwaspremisedontheassertionthattheland-grantuniversityhasviolateditsauthorizingstatutebyservingonlyonepartofitspotentialconstituency,totheexclusionanddetrimentofotherCaliforniacitizens.White,large-scalegrowershavebeentheexclusivetargetandbeneficiaryofExtension,AgExperiment,andkindredprograms.Theyare"efficientproducers."Ostensiblyless-efficientorless-importantgrowers,farmworkers,andahostofothersarenotpartofthepicture.

Thiswholestructureisnowsubjecttoseriousquestioningand

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challenge.TheCRLAsuithassuggestedthatitislegallyvulnerable.Thewholemovementaroundhereisanotherdisgustingbuzzword,thisyear'sintellectualequivalentofthepastamachine"sustainableagriculture"stronglysuggeststhatitistechnicallyvulnerableaswell.Indeed,thewholenotionofefficiencyinproductionevenwhatconstitutesproductivityisupforgrabs.Mypointisthatotherpeople,othervalues,andotherprioritieshavelongexistedatthemarginsofpublic-landmanagementwhichhasbeenundeniablyafestivalofrefreshmentandupwardmobilityforwhiles,primarilyofthemalevariety.ThiswillchangeandmayhaveprofoundeffectsinthedirectionIhavetriedtosuggest.

Thus,wecanreadilysee(aswesayinacademe)thatmybasicargumentiscorrect:Publiclandswillbeincreasinglylessimportantasanationalissue,leavingthefieldtomoreeffectivestateparticipantsandalteredinterestgroups.

LetmeclosewithtwoonlyapparentlyunrelatedpointsthatIthinkoughttogiveyoufuelforthinkingaboutthepolicytiltoftheseprognosticatedchanges.

First,whataretheissuesthatwillemergeinthisnewregime?Iwillpointtothree.First,totheextentthatCongresspaysattentiontothesequestionsatall,itwillresultinsingle-issuelegislation.The1990s,Iamsuggesting,willbemorelikethe1960sthanthe1970s.Therewillbenomega-statuteslikeFLPMAandNFMAthatseektochartthefutureforthelandsintheirentirety.Rather,wewillhave,ifanything,single-focus,onemightsayzoning,statutes.TheWildernessAct,theTrailsAct,andtheWildandScenicRiversActareappropriatereferencepoints.

Second,Ithinkthattherewillbeintensifiedinterestgiventolandconsolidationandaccess.Thestatelandmanagers'interestinthisisobvious,critical,andlongignored.Itwillbecomedispositive,inmy

opinion.Finally,andthisismoreofanadvocacystatementthanapredictionofwhatwillcomebasedonwhatIhavesaid,IhopethattheForestServicewillfinallygainauthoritytomanagethemineralsonNationalForests.Thattheydonotnowhavethatauthorityisanhistoricalanomalythatoughttobecorrected.

MysecondclosingobservationisthatIthinkadvocacyregardingpublic-landsmanagementwillbeandoughttobelesscentralindecisionmaking.Itoughttobelessimportantbecausetheissuesarebasicallyresolved.IhavealongpaeanthatIoccasionallydeliveraboutthediminishingreturnstoadvocacy.Iwillnotboreyouwiththewholenineyardsnow.Basically,theargumentisthatwehaveaccomplishedsomuchofwhatneedslobedoneregardingbalancedmanagementof

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federallandsthatIbelieveitistimetoturnourattentiontootherissuesthatarelesswelldefinedandlessadequatelyaddressed.

Ithinkthiswillhappenwhetherweaccedetotheinevitableornot.Advocacywillbelessimportant,inmyopinion,becausewhatwillbecentraltooutcomesisincreasinglylesslikelytobesubjecttointerestgroupinfluenceorpreference.

Iseemyselffocusingonmajornationalandinternationaltrendsratherthanthespecificpreferencesofgroupsorinterestsdemographics,institutionalevolutionatstateandlocallevels,tasteforbeef,andsoon.Themostobviousonewhichhasnotbeenreferredto,soIwillmentionithereistheweather.WeallocatedtheColoradoRiver,aseveryschoolgirlknows,duringtheyearofhighestwaterflowsincethebirthofChrist.Similarly,Ibelievethatweallocatedwaterresourcesthroughoutthenation,anddevelopedindustrial,domestic,andagriculturalconsumptionpatterns,duringaperiodofuncharacteristicallymild,hospitableweather.Withorwithoutthegreenhouseeffect,anydeviationsbacktowardthemeteorologicalmeanwilldrivepublicresourcemanagementtoafargreaterdegreethanhumanwillorpurposefulactivity.Ithinkthatisfine.Perhapsanotherblipofpreoccupationwillbenecessaryorappropriateinanotherlifetime.Fornow,wehavemoreimportantthingstodothanbleataboutthemarginsofpublic-landspolicyandmanagement.Wehavegottenquitegoodatthat,butweareneededelsewhere.

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ANETHICOFPLACE:THEISSUEAT'THEHEARTOFALLELSEJohnE.Echohawk

Ithinktherewouldbeacertainamountofskepticismamongtribesaboutthenotionofdisparatesubculturescomingtogetherandtalkingaboutourcommonfuture.It'sbeenalessonofAmericanhistoryandWesternhistorythatIndiantribeshavebeenleftoutofthatprocess.Butinthelasttwentyyears,particularlythroughthecourtsandthroughCongress,tribeshavemadetremendousstridesinregainingtheirsovereigntyandtheirresourcesandtheircultures.

Whetherpeoplelikeitornot,triballeadersandtribalissueshavetobedealtwithandhavetobeputonWesternagendas.Triballeaders,Ithink,enjoythisnewstatusthatthey'vefound.Butatthesametime,theyapproachthatstillwithagreatamountofskepticism,realizingthatitwasbarelythirtyyearsagothatofficialpolicyinthiscountrycalledfortheterminationofIndiantribes,eliminationofIndianculturesandtheassimilationofIndianpeopleintothemeltingpot.Thatmemoryisvery,veryfreshinthemindsofNativeAmericanpeople.Ithinkthateventhoughwemaybeatthetable,wecometherewithagreatdealofskepticism.Atthesametime,ifwecansurvivethatprocess,Ihaveagreatamountofoptimismaboutwhatmaybeaheadofus.IthinkthattheenlightenedWesternleaders,bothIndianandnon-Indian,foreseeafutureintheWestthatincludesIndianpeople,thatincludesIndiantribes.Again,thisissomethingthatisfairlynew.Itwasn'tverylongagothatIndianpeoplewereseenasvanishingAmericans,andtherewerenoplansforusbecausewewerenotvisibleonthepoliticallandscapeatall.

Thetribesdocometothetablewith,Ithink,alottooffer.We're

talkingaboutland,naturalresources,andeconomies.Tribescontrol3percentofthelandinthiscountrystill.Theyhavesubstantialtreatyrightstolargeamountsoffish,timber,andenergyresources,amongotherthings.Triballeaders,nowthattheirsovereigntyhasbeenrecognizedandfortifiedmoreandmore,aretakingontheresponsibilities

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thatpoliticalleadershavetoshoulderintermsofdevelopingtribaleconomies.Everybodyknowsthatourpeople,aspeoplewhosociallyandeconomicallyareatthebottomoftheheap,needthatdesperately.

Astriballeadersapproachthatchallenge,theissueofpubliclandsintheWestisgoingtobecomeincreasinglyimportantbecauseitraisesthesamekindsofquestionsthattriballeadersfacewhentheygoaboutusingtheirnewlyfortifiedgovernmentalauthorityoverresourcesthatarenowfirmlyintheircontrol.What'stobedonewiththeseresources?What'stobedoneabouttheneedforeconomicdevelopment,theneedforjobsforpeople?''hekindsofquestionsthattriballeadersfacearethesamekindsofquestionsthatotherWesterngovernmentalleadersaregoingtoface.Thebasicquestionaboutpubliclandsandthebroaderquestionforallofusthatisepitomizedbytheenvironmentalmovementis:Howmuchdowedevelop?Howmuchofourresourcesdoweusenow,forus,forthisgeneration,andhowmuchdowesave,andhowdowepreserveitforfuturegenerations?Thisbattleisfought,forbetterorforworse,largelythroughthediscussionandresolutionofissuesinvolvingpubliclands.

Theseissuesareverydeartotribalpeoplebecausetheygorighttothequestionsofourveryexistence.Therearereligionsthatwehave.SomethingthatiscentraltoallIndianreligionsisthebasicrelationshipbetweenmanandtheland,theenvironment.Thesearethesamekindsofissuesthat,whenwecomedowntoit,encompassabigpartofthedialoguethatwearehavinginthissymposium,becausetheWest,morethananyotherplace,isconcernedwiththeethicofplacetheissuethatisattheheartofeverything.

PARTSIXCreatingaGeographyofHope

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CENTENARYSEQUENCEFORTHEDREAMERS(selectedpassages)

KnowingdepravityfromCalvinoldMarcWhitmanmusthave

diedsmiling,asajaggedCayusehatchetjelliedhisrelentlessbrain...One

hundredyearsprovehedidn'tsmile

invain.ThishappyvalleyreekswithGod'sinexorableplan,his

grace:hereWhitmancamewithCalvin'sgodandsmallpoxmalignantlyin

hand;withAugustine'sheartburntcorkhesmeared

alienstoneagesouls,he

dippedtheirwellpockedbodiesinthisvalley'smanywatersatWallaWallavestigialun-electedsavagesatonedgrimsouledSwissorrareBabylonian

sins...

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Waiilatpu,placeofryegrass,oncegroundforthis

valley'snativecouncils,nowithonorsWhitman,hismissionandhiskin.Hishilltop

monumenttaperstotheskyafingergesturing

abuse,enshrined,officiouslyfencedin.Downthehill,acrossaroad,beyondthemission'sold

foundations,aruttedcreekbedcommendstheNezPerce,

WallaWallaandCayuse,drainedlongsinceanddead...

Itisthesoulofthingsthething'ssoulwhateveritmaybethesoulofwemustdiscover.Andcan.Thereareargumentsinhistoryworthhearing.Wedowhatwecan,thoughsomesaymustandotherswill.Nonetheless,wedo.Andpoetryamongthemisnotmuch.Wemayagreeonthat.Yet,astheDr.said,everydaywedieforlackofwhatisfoundthere.True,thestateofgodsisnotwhat

itwas...Likewiseauthority,andmagiciansamongusnowareentertainers.Stillonequitelatelysays,"Iamnotanentertainer,"puttingusonourmettle.Itishardworkforus,thistalking...likeheavyliftingitbuzzesinourheads...tooheavyliftingeveryday,saidYellowWolf...

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[SmohollatheDreamers'Song]

MyyoungmenshallneverworkFormenwhoworkcanneverdreamMyyoungmenshallneverworkFormenwhoworkcanneverdreamAndwisdomcomestousindreamsAndwisdomcomestousindreams

Amongusthosewhochoose.Aswestepuptothebar,thebarkeep,resplendentinhishandlebarmustache,hissleevesblousedbyredsilkgarters,orsometimessportingblackrobesandjudicialairs,thebarkeep,alwaysaffableandadroit,smilingsays,Allright,Gents,nameyourpoison.Andsmilingback,wechoose.Graciouslywetossthemanatip.Buyyourselfadrink,wesay.Hedeftlyscoopsthespinningcoinfrommidairandtestsitspurityagainsthisteeth.Histeethindentthesoftrichgold.Smiling,hepocketsthecoin.Thetruthisthis:hedoesn'tdrink,heonlypours...Asif,saidJoseph,amanshouldcometomeandsay,Ilikeyourhorses,Iwanttobuythem.IsayNo,myhorsessuitme,Iwillnotsell.Hegoestomyneighborandsays,Josephhasgoodhorses...Iwanttobuythembuthewillnotsell.Myneighboranswers,Paymethemoney,andIwillsellyouJoseph'shorses.Affableandadroitthebarkeepchanges

guise...but,inwhateverguisehegoeshissleevesareblousedforbusiness.So,wechoose.Andyet,wedrinkpreciselywhathepours.CleverLawyer,changesguise,andlearnstomixadrink....Hewasaman,asonemightsay,ofexquisiteunderstanding,onewhowasaChristian,onewholearnedthelaws...

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Isthestory,then,toosimpleforourownexquisitetastes?Wespeaknothereofnoblesavagesnoroftheirromance.Thisstory,thoughoftentold,hasbeenprojectedsotranspicuousitsplotmustthickenintomush.Anditisafterallthelucidsoulofthingsthething'ssoulwhateveritmaybethesoulofwemustdiscover.Andcan.Formattersofart,likelife,aremattersofexecution,andifwewouldhavethecausewemustgoback.Thereareargumentsinhistoryworthhearing...

Ifaftersufferingwewouldnotbepurgedwemustgoback,decliningancientdraughtsandbromideswevulgarianswhocametoconquerandstayedtolearn,rememberit?asweweretaughtthecriticsofit,Gibboneven,smugandsecurely...Mediterranean,wemustgoback

to?OBraveNewWorld!ElizabethandIsabellapickingupthepieces

ofempire...

·

handingthemtothefathers...Adams,rememberit?

praisingAthensandRome,powershecalledthem,forhaving"honoredourspeciesmorethanalltherest..."MeanwhileGeorgeWashington,throwingasilverdollarwestacrossthePotomac,winkedandsaid,shrewdly,"Stayoutofforeignwars...""Bywhichhemeant,"saidQuincy,achipofftheoldblockanywayyouchisel,"ItseemstheverywillofProvidencethatthisentirecontinentbeinhabitedbyonepeople,but,sinceProvidence(Godwouldn't

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meltinhisempiricalmouth)helpsthosewhohelpthemselves,byallmeansstayoutofforeignwars...let'skeepoureyeontheball...''

Ihavedonenothingfortheirteaching,thesesavages,theywillnotlistenandprateofthelandourmissiontithesfromthem...andofthepox...TheyarediseasedandthehandofProvidenceremovesthemtogiveplacetoapeoplemoreworthyofthisfertilecountry...

SoSpaulding,Whitman...which?thebarkeepeverywhereadroitconductstheHallelujahchorus,makingtheworldsafeforProvidence&Enterprise,Ltd.,biggerthantheHanseaticLeagueRothschildsKrupporCaesarhimselfGrandaddytoGeneralMotorsthegreatneo-PlatonicsynthesisofGodandmaninaRubeGoldbergWhirlygigraisingCommercefromthemuckofitsownjackbootstositwithHimhipbyhaunchblowingtheveryWillofProvidencebloodrushingtoHisobeliskstonehardwithDestinyandDeterminationmosttremendoustoolopposablethumbandmathematicsnotwithstandinginthepornographichistory

ofthewest."Andsaywhatyouwill,"saidBuffaloBilladjustingJoseph'sbonnetintheHippodrome,"theBigBoysureknowshowtouseit..."

"There,"saystheVoiceofAmerica,"thatoughttoholdthelittlebastards,"anditdoesitholdsusweloveitabsolutelyloveit...

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(thisdiatribeinfactbroughttoyoubyagrantfromExxonsimulcastwith"RevelooshunaireyRevels"rockoperastarringMarxLeninTrotskyMaoCastroandSunYat-sen,theCastratiChorale,broughttoyouuninterruptedbecause

thereisnothingabsolutelynothingtofear)

InDakotahtheStandingBearstheKickingBirdstheYoung-Men-Afraid-of-their-Horsesliedown,alone,wherethegreatplainsslopetoriversBigHorn,Musselshell,Missouri.Andallaroundthemsky,skyandearthandthecreaturesthereof.theyareonewiththeeagleandthemouseamongthehip-highgrasses,herewherethegreatplainsslopetoriverstheyliedown,alone,atduskbeneaththeMoon-of-the-Geese-Gathering...

Inthedreamstheydreamgreatflightsofgeesewheelinthemorninglight..theirbreastsgleam,flashingblackandsilversignalsfromabovetherisingautumnsun...Witheachtremendousarcingturn,likeimmensearrowheadsinthesky,fromnorthandeastandwest,theycome...ghostlysilentapparitionsdrawninexorably

tothelivingwheel,intheMonthoftheGatheringoftheGeese...

WhenatlasttheywaketheyoungmenwaketolightmoresplendidstillthanaureolesofAugustmoons,theirveryactofwaking,mediation,sostunningisthiscanopyofarcticlights...

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Theyliestill,wide-eyedbeneathbasilicamorebrilliantthanthegalaxies...Aroundthemneitherowlnorcoyotemove,caughtbyincandescenceinthearchingribsofrareDakotahnights...Here,wheregreatplainsslopetorivers,areyoungmenmoregracedthanintheirbirth...andwakeasiftosilvergeeseauroralineffulgentflight...herewherewatersoftheriverstop,givingbackuponitselfthesightyoungmenpurifythemselvestosee,lightandlightandlightclimbingtheholyarchofnight...

PeterF.Michelson

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AGEOGRAPHYOFHOPEWallaceStegner

IoncesaidinprintthattheWestandImeantheinteriorWestofplains,mountains,anddesertsisthegeographyofhope,thenativehomeofoptimism,theyoungestandfreshestofAmerica'sregions,magnificentlyendowedandwiththechancetobecomesomethingunprecedentedandunmatchedintheworld.

IwasprobablydemonstratingmythesiswhileIexpressedit.IwasshapedbytheWestandhavelivedmostofmylifeinit,andnothingwouldgratifymemorethantoseeit,inallitssubregionsandsubcultures,bothprosperousandenvironmentallyhealthy,withacivilizationtomatchitsscenery.WheneverIreturntotheRockyMountainstateswhereIammostathome,mynativeenthusiasmovercomesme,andIrespondasunthinkinglyasasalmonthatswimspastarivermouthandtastesthewatersofitsbirthandfeelsanirresistibleimpulse,bornIamsureoflove,toturninlandinsearchofthestreamwhereitwashatched.

ButwhenIamthinkinginsteadofthrobbing,IrememberwhathistoryandexperiencehavetaughtmeabouttheWest'spast,andwhatmyeyesandnoseandearstellmeabouttheWest'spresent,andIbecomemorecautiousabouttheWest'sfuture.Toooften,whenithasbeenprosperous,ithasbeenprosperousattheexpenseofitsfragileenvironment,anditsprosperityhasbeenmostunequallydistributedamongitscitizens.Itscivilization,stillnascent,hastoooftendegradedthenaturalhabitatwhileexploitingitanddrawingmostofitscharacterfromit.SoIcurbmyenthusiasm,Ibegintoquibbleandqualify;Isayyes,theWestisthenativehomeofhope,buttherearevarietiesanddegreesofhope,andthewrongkind,inexcessive

amounts,goeswithhumandisappointmentandenvironmentaldamageasbustgoeswithboom.

Historically,visionaryexpectationwasagreatenergizerofthewestwardmovementasgreat,probably,asthesenseofbeingpartofavastmythicadventure.Butexaggerated,uninformed,unrealistic,

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greedyexpectationhasbeenaprescriptionfordisasterthattheWesthascarriedtothecornerdrugstoretoomanytimes.Ghosttownsanddustbowls,likemotels,areWesterninventions.Allinstitutionalizetransience,andtransiencehas,outsideUtah,inhibitedthedevelopmentofstable,rooted,Westerncommunitiesandasharedhistorythattakesineverythingfromthekindergartentothegraveyard,andinvolvesallkindsandgradesofpeopleinthepromiseofcontinuance.Ibelieveintheprofoundinfluenceofplacesonpeople,andnobodycouldmisstheeffectofpeopleonplaces.Butthereremainsadoubt:Maybeacontinuingcross-fertilizationbetweenpeopleandplacesisnotfeasibleintheWest,orisfeasibleonlybetweenadamagedenvironmentandalimitedpopulation.MaybeanystablesocietyintheWestisdestinedtobenotmerelymobile,butsparse.

TheWesternstatesdocontainsomedeeplylived-inplaces,buttheyarescarcerintheWestthanelsewhere.Westernplacesarenewer,foronething;foranother,manyofthepeoplewhoestablishedthemcametopillage,ortoworkforpillagers,nottosettleforlife.Whenthepillagingwasdone,theymovedon.Thepeoplewhohavereplacedthemareunrelatedtothefounders,andmaybegonewiththenextbust.Theyarewithouthistory,inthesensethathistoryandplacearelinked,andtheyoftenleavebecausethecountrycannotsupplythemwithjobsorbecausetheyarethemselvestoorestlesstostay.Theyhavenosenseofcommunitywiththeirtemporaryabode;theyhaven'ttheshadowofalandethic.Bothofthosetaketimetodevelop.Andasanotherreasonformobilityweshouldnotforgetthat,howeverattractivethecountrysurroundingthetowns,Westerntownsthemselvesarenotbeautyspotsusually,maynotbeworthlivinginonanythinglessthanhardshippay.

WhatmakestheWestadifficultplacetostayputinisaridity.Pastandfuture,theWestisadrysubject,andallsortsofsocial,economic,

political,andpsychologicalconsequencesflowfromthefactoftoolittlewater.

Environmentally,otherregionshavebeenabletorecoverbetterthantheWestfromtheimpactofourhigh-energycivilization.Vermont,forinstance,isaruggedcountrywitharuggedclimate,butitheals.Itwantstobetrees.Clear-cutit,anditgoespatientlyandinevitablybacktoraspberrybushesandotherbrowse,thentolittleChristmastreesandcrowdingstandsoflittlemaple,ash,beech,andbirchsaplings,andthen,beforeyouhavequitenoticed,towoods.TheWest,vastandmagnificent,greatlyvariousbutwiththeabidingunityoftoolittlewaterexceptinitsnorthwestcorner,hasprovedfarmorefragileandunforgiving.Damagedbyhumanassaultsonitsresources,itismorelikelytogotodesertificationthantorestoreitself.

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AridityhasbeenadifficultfactforAmericanstoaccept,andanevenmoredifficultonetoadaptto.FornearlythefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyweavoidedthedrycountrythatPikeandLonghadcalledtheGreatAmericanDesert;butbythe1840sand1850swewerepushingouragricultureontothedryplainsandtryingtomythologizearidityoutofexistencebysuchhopefuldelusionsasthatrainfollowstheplow,thatsettlementimprovestheclimate.Whenthatmythbroughtonmuchhumanmiseryandfailureaswellasmuchenvironmentaldamage,wetriedtoengineeraridityoutofexistencebydammingandredirectingtherivers.(Mostoftheresultsofthatplumbingjobarestilltocome,buttheyarecoming.)Or,asaplumbingvariation,werobbedPetertopayPaul:WestoletheOwensValley'swatertomakethesubdivisionoftheSanFernandoValleyrichlyprofitable;weconductedwaterthroughtheRockiesfromtheWesternSlopetopermittheurbansprawlofDenver.

HumaningenuityhasbeenmanipulatingWesternwaterfornearlyacentury,butallouringenuityhasnotincreasedtheamountofwaterorsolvedanyofthesecondaryproblemsthatlackofwatercreates.In1878,ahundredandtwelveyearsago,JohnWesleyPowellinhisReportontheLandsoftheAridRegionwarnedthattherewaswaterenoughintheWesttosupplyonlyaboutafifthoftheland.Beingamanofhistime,thoughconsiderablyaheadofitinmanyways,hewasthinkinginagriculturalterms,andthenewsurveyandhomesteadlawsthatheproposedwouldhaveeasedthedifficultyofWesternsettlement.Congress,dominatedbyboostersandlocalpatriots,ignoredhisproposals,andsettlementwentaheadbytradition,habit,mythologyandgreedinsteadofbyobservationandforethought.

Notevenyethasitsunkintosomeheadsthatthesupplyofwaterisfinite.Wehavewateronlyfromthetimewhenitfallsasrainorsnowuntilithasflowedpastus,abovegroundorbelow,toitsfinaloceanorundergroundreservoir.Wecanholditbackandredirectit,butwe

cannotaddonedroptoitstotalsupply.Infact,theevaporationrateinreallydrycountrybeingasmuchastenfeetayear,wemaylosealmostasmuchofitbypondingitaswesavebyslowingitdown.

Moreover,intheWest,"using"generallymeans"usingup."Whatweputtomunicipalorindustrialuseisnotcomingbackintotheriverstobeavailableforirrigationorifitdoes,itcomesbackpoisoned.Whatisusedinirrigationlargelyevaporates,andanypercentagethatfindsitswaybackintotheriversisincreasinglyladenwithsalts,fertilizers,andpesticidesfromthefields.Andnomatterwhatuseyoufindforthewaterfromariver,everyacre-footyoutakeoutleavesalessenedinstreamflowtosustaintrout,salmon,herons,ducks,rafters,picnickers,skinny-dippers,orwhoeverelsemightfindituseful.In

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Colorado,asinsomeotherWesternstates,youcanliterallydryupastreamifyouhavepriorrightsforsomeso-called"beneficial"purpose.

Ariditymeansmorethaninadequaterainfall.Itmeansinadequatestreams,lakes,andsprings.Itmeansundergroundwaterthatreplenishesitselfmoreslowlythanelsewhere.Insomeplacestheundergroundwaterisfossilwater,irreplaceablewithinanyhumantimeframe.Andsurfaceandsubsurfacewaterarenottwoproblems,butone.

Confrontedbythefactsofchronicshortage,thedecreasingfeasibilityofmoredams,andtheoversubscriptionofriverssuchastheColorado,theboosterssometimesspeakof"augmentation"andsuggestever-greaterengineeringprojects,roughlycomparabletothecanalsofMars,tobringwaterdowntothedrycountryfromtheColumbiaortheYukon,ortowitdownasicebergsfromGlacierBaytoletSanDiegansflushtheirdrivewaysandkeeptheirlawnsverdant.

Pipedreams,arrogantpipedreams.Whyshouldweexpectadeserttoblossom?Ithas,orhaduntilwebegantotinkerwithit,itsownintricatelyinterdependentplantandanimalspecies,includingthecreosote-ringclonesthataretheoldestlivingthingsonearth.TheideaofmakingdesertsblossomissomethingweinheritedfromIsaiah.ItisanideaespeciallydeartotheMormons,andithashadremarkableshort-termsuccesses.Butitisopentoallsortsofquestionswhenwelookveryfarintothefuture.Forfinancialandpoliticalreasons,morethanfortechnicalones,therearelimitstohowfreelywecanmovewaterfromonewatershedtoanother.Thereareecologicaland(Iwouldsay)moralreasonswhyweshouldn't.AsaCrowIndianfriendofminesaidaboutthecoalinhiscountry,"Godputitthere;that'sagoodplaceforit."LotsofthingshavelearnedtodependontheWest'swaterintheplaceswhereitnaturallyoccurs.Itwouldbecomeusto

leavethemtheirlivingspace,becauseifwedon't,wearetakingchanceswithourown.

Soonerorlaterwemustacceptthelimitationsimposedbyaridity,oneoftheprincipalsofwhichisarestrictedhumanpopulation.Westerngrowthhasalowerceilingthantheboostersarewillingtoadmit,andpeopleingeneral,boththosenativetotheWestandthoseluredtoitbyhopeoradvertising,havesofarnotwelcomedlimitationanymoreeagerlythantheboostershave.Fromveryearlyon,theWesthasbeenalandofCockaigne,anIndianValleylinewhereeverydayispayday,aBigRockCandyMountainwherethebluebirdsingstothelemonadespringsandthelittlestreamsofalcoholcometricklingdowntherocks.Ordinarypeople,makingitbyguessandbyGod,ornotquitemakingit,havealwaysunderstoodWesternhardship,buttheyhavebeenatleastassusceptibletodreamsastheambitiousandthegreedy.ThedreamoftheWestisthedreamoftheNewWorldextendedintothepresent.

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EverythingthatbloodyandcongestedEuropeeverhopedforseemedrealizableinAmerica,wheretherewasfreelandforthestealing,whereideasasdifferentastheNobleSavageandtheSocialContractcouldblendwiththeJeffersoniannotionofthefreeholdyeomanfarmerandbegalvanizedbytheManifestDestinypreachedbySenatorThomasHartBentonofMissouri,amongothers.Expectationflowered,hopebecameavestedright.OnlyinWesternAmerica,asWalterWebbpointedout,didtheword"claim"acquirethemeaningofalandentitlement.

Andofcourse,justifyingthehopeandatfirstobscuringtheconsequences,therewastheapparentlyinfiniteplenitudeofthebuffaloherds.TherewastheCaliforniaGoldHush,plusallthesubsequentrushes,toconsolidateourfaithinsomethingfornothingandhardenourhabitofmasstrespassonthepublicdomain.Therewasthelureofwildnessthatdrewthemountainmenandtheirmodernavatars;therewastheromanticmythoftheself-reliant,chivalriccowboy,homemadebyFredericRemingtonandOwenWister;therewastheiconofthestalwartcovered-wagonpioneer.TheWestwillneverlivedownallthatmythology.AthousandyearsfromnowboyswillprobablyberunningawayfromtheEastandMidwesttopursueadreamthattheVirginian,orLouisL'Amour,orJohnWayne,orRonaldReaganimplantedinthem.

Gaudyorhumble,fixedonquickfabulousrichesorfreedomorsecurity,thedreamhashadbothitsboostersanditssuckers.PromotionofdreamshasalwaysbeenathrivingWesternindustryandbeenafoolprooffallbackpositionforWesternpoliticians.FormorethanahundredyearstheWesthasbeenoversoldastheGardenoftheWorld.

WilliamGilpinwastootingthemanifestlydestinarianhornonthebankofCherryCreekasearlyas1858,allbutfoamingatthemouth

overtheopportunitiesavailableforthepluckinginwhathecalledtheCentralGoldRegion.WilliamSmythe,theJohntheBaptistofirrigation,sangavariantofthesamesonginthe1890s,andhelpedbringontheNewlandsActof1902thatstartedtheremaking(andundoing)oftheWest.Inthe1920sLosAngelesrealestatesharksluredthesusceptiblewiththesametuneofunlimitedopportunityandindefinitecapitalappreciation.Duringtheenergyboomofthe1960sIheardBillingsbusinessmenasserting,withawedconviction,thatBillingscouldbecomeasbigasDenver.Andin1988supportersofthesince-repudiatedTwoForksdamwerepredictingapopulationoffourhundredthousandforthetownofAurora,Colorado.GrowthissomethingthathasalwaysputagleamintheeyesofWesternboosters;butgrowthisexactlywhattheWestdoesnotneedandcannotstand.

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Sometimesitishardtotelltheboostersfromthesuckers.Theymaybethesamepeople.TherehavebeenplentyofWesternbuccaneersoftheMarcusDaley-GeorgeHearststamp,butmanyboostershavebeendeludeddeluders,truebelievers,wishfulthinkers,blindfoldprophets,atoncetheagents,thebeneficiaries,andthevictimsofthevastspeculativerealestatedealthatisWesternAmericanhistory.

Wearealltosomeextentguilty,andwehavebeennarrowlyculture-boundinournotionsofpropertyandprogress.Wehavebeenindifferentorhostiletothe"lesserbreeds"thatgotinourway.WehavebeenlargelyignorantofthespecialconditionsandlimitationsthatanyWesternenterprisefromahomesteadtoastripminemustface.Wehavebeencarelessofwhatwedidtotheland,whetherwediditwithasodbusterploworadragline.Likeotherformsofcommunalguilt,ourcrimesagainstthelandwerenotintentional,buttheywerejustasrealasiftheyhadbeen.Weplowedupbuffalograssthatshouldneverhavebeenplowed,toreupmountainsandleftthempittedwithshaftsdangeroustowalkers,leakingmineralpoisons.Weclear-cutthemostandbestofourforests,pumpedouttheundergroundwater.Withenormousfederalsubsidiesdesignedtoprotectlocaljobswithsweetheartleasesandpermits,wehavemadesemi-desertsoutofsomewonderfulrangeandforestcountry,tryingtoassistacattleindustrythatonitsownhasamostdubiousfuture.Wehavecreatedanagribusinessthatisprofitable,undemocratic,andlikelytobeshort-lived,abusinessbuiltoncheapsubsidizedwaterandapoolofdispossessedmigrantlabor.Theminingindustrythatoncerapedthelandhasnow,throughthenewcyanideheapprocessofextractinggold,becomeitspoisoner.Ironically,whatremainstousoftherelativelyundamagedWesthasbeensavedforusbythesamefedswhohelpedushalfspoiltherest.WhichdoesnotpreventonekindofWesterner,generallythekindwhohasprofitedmostfromfederalsubsidies,fromdamningthefedswheneveranythinggoeswrong.

Iknowthathistoricalhope,energy,carelessness,andself-deception.IknewitbeforeIcouldtalk.Myfatherpracticallyinventedit,thoughhequalifiedmoreassuckerthanasbooster,andprofitedaccordingly.

Hewasaboomerfromtheageoffourteen,alwaysonthelookoutforthebigchance,thegroundfloor,theinsidetrack.AsayouthhetriedtheWisconsinandMinnesotawoodsbutfoundonlythemigratorywage-slaverythathasalwaysbeenonepayoffoftheAmericandream.lietriedprofessionalbaseballbutwasn'tquitegoodenough.Inthe

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1890shefloatedouttoNorthDakotaonthetailendofthelandrush,butfoundhimselfinthemidstofaten-yeardroughtandendedupspeculatingingrainandrunningablindpig.Ifyoubelievethattheworldowesyounotmerelyalivingbutabonanza,thenrestrictivelawsaremoreachallengethananinhibition.

WhenitbegantobeclearthatDakota'spromiseswereindistinguishablefromSiberianexile,myfatherdraggedus,bythenafamilyoffour,outthemigrationroutetotheNorthwest.HisgoalwasAlaska,butagainhewasfartoolate:TheKlondikerushwaslongover,mostofthesurvivorshadstraggledback.ForawhileweranalunchroomintheWashingtonwoodswherenowistheSeattlesuburbofRedmond.Theloggersfinishedcuttingdownthetreesandleftusamongthestumps.By1914wewereupinSaskatchewan,partofanotherlandrushwhereforachangewewouldbeinonthegroundfloor,andmakeakillingraisingwheat.

In1915weplowedupahundredacresorsoofbuffalograss,andforawhilewewereawheatfarm.Then,becauseSaskatchewanispartofthearidWestandwewereinwhatwecalledPalliser'sTriangle,thedriestpartofit,webecameatumbleweedpatchandadustbowl.Thenwewereontheroadagain,firsttoMontana,thentoUtah,ultimatelytoCaliforniaandNevada.Rainbowsfloweredformyfatherineveryskyhelookedat;hewasledbypillarsoffireandcloud.InSaltLakeCityhemetsomemenwhohadadoodlebugthatwouldrevealthepresenceofgoldandsilverintheearth,andasaconsequenceofthatIstillhaveinmysafe-depositboxdeedstovarioussquarerodsofNevadagravelandmountainsidethatmyfatherbelievedwouldonedaymakeusrich.

Whilewewaitedforoneofthosebonanzastomaterialize,heranagamblinghouseinReno,anoccupationassymbolicallyrightforhimasfortheWest.Andfinally,likeClarenceKingandmanyanother

gamblernoworseandnobetter,hediedbrokeandfriendlessinafleabagWesternhotel.OutofhislifeImadeanovel,TheBigRockCandyMountain,myfirstandmostheartfeltcommentaryonWesternoptimismandthecommonman'sdreamofsomethingfornothing.

But,somewillobject,iftheboosterspromisetoomuchandthesuckersexpecttoomuch,shouldthatmakeusknockers?Inanyhumanefforttherewillberisksandcasualties.ButobviouslynoteveryonehasfailedintheWest,ortherewouldn'tbe45or50millionpeoplelivingthere,thePacificCoastwouldnotbeconurbiafromSeattletoSanDiego,andDenver,SaltLake,Albuquerque,Phoenix,andTucsonwouldnotbespreadinglikeimpetigo.IftheWestweren'talittleinour

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favor,wewouldn'thavesurvivedit.WhatifSearchlightisdead,andButtedying?BillingsisgoingtobeasbigasDenver;andAspen,ParkCity,Jackson,andTelluridearerebornasskiresortsandculturalcenters.

True,manypeoplelivesuccessfullyintheWest,andmanyofthemcouldnotbebribedtoliveelsewhere,andmorekeepcoming.Theycomelookingforopportunity,butalsotheycomefollowingthehopefuldreamofescapefromindustrialcivilizationanditsdiscontents.Theywanthealthfulspace,cleanair,sun,skiing,avigorousoutdoorlife,accesstomountainanddesertwilderness,emancipationfromthedirt,crime,andcrowdingofthecities.

True,moderncommunicationshaveannihilatedspaceandbrokendowntheformerisolation.Westerntownsandcities,thosethathaven'tbeenoverwhelmedbyanoilorcoaloruraniumboom,havegrownup.ThereareBouldersandBozemansandLogansandMissoulasaswellasRockSprings'sandGillettes.In-migrantshavesweetenedthelocalculturalkitty.TheNationalEndowmentfortheArtsandtheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanitieshavebroughtart,theater,music,anddancetocommunitieswhereinmychildhoodaboxsupperwasaprime-timeculturalevent.Westernwritershavebeguntolearntheirhistoryandtheirgeography,andarewritingbooksthatleavethemythstothehorseoperas,themovies,TV,andthepoliticians.AlittlecitylikeMissoulabecomesanauthenticliterarycenter.NewMexico,outofitsmultiplecultures,beginstoproduceIndianandHispanicwritersabletocompeteonaequalbasisthroughouttheEnglish-speakingworld.Uptonow,asIhavenotedelsewhereadnauseam,Westernliteraturehasbeenprettymuchaliteratureofmovement,oftheroad.Nowitshowsoccasionalsignsofgrowingoutofdeeplylived-inplacesandtraditionalculturalclimates.

Westernwriters,itseemstome,arelearningtousealltheirtoolsand

exploretheirrealpossibilities.Theycandealwithboththesanctuaryoftownsonwaterandinshelter,andwiththatawesomespacethatsurroundsthem,andthemobilityitenforces.ThatscriptsaysthattheWestisdynamic,hopeful,ontherightroad,assuredofarichfuture.Butwhilemanybelieveandadoptit,revisionisthistorianssuchasEarlPomeroy,HowardLamar,DonaldWorster,andPatriciaLimericksuggestanother,remindingusofthehistorywhich,ifweignoreit,wewillbedoomedtorepeat.

FortheWesternpastwasnotthetriumphalmarchthatthemythsandtheromanticchroniclershavemadeit.NotalloftheadvertisedamenitiesofthedreamareavailabletoallWesternersnow,norweretheyever.Themountainman'scelebratedandcolorfulsavageryinvolveda

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kindofindenturedwage-slavery,badfood,constanthardship,anunpayabledebttothecompany,andtheopportunitytodieyoung.Thecattlemanmightliveabaronialfreelife,butthecowboy,thatsymbolofpersonalindependence,wasandisahiredmanonhorseback,workinglonghoursforlowpay,hislibertythelibertytoquitonejobandtakeanotherjustasbad,hisfutureinthehandsofthechiropractors.Theminer,oncetheplacersplayedout,hadtomoveonorgotoworkforacorporationAnacondaortheHomestakeortheEmpireortheSilverKingandwhathefoundthereswiftlybroughtontheWesternFederationofMiners,amilitantandangryunionunthinkableinthemythicWestofpersonalindependence.Thehomesteader,havingbethislifeagainst160acresofdryground,fellbackinconfusion,orwasgoonedoffbycattleoutfitsclaimingtherangeandcontrollingthewater.TheIndiansandalotofWesternersareIndians,aswesometimesforgetwerefirstrobbedoftheirlandandtheirlivingandthenstuckonapoorfarm,wheretheystillare,enjoyingunemploymentratesupto60percentandstillwaitingforthewaterduethemundertheWintersDoctrine.AndaverylargenumberofWesterners,mostlyHispanic,followthecropsasmigrants,homelessanddispossessedandwithoutwhattheWestusedtocallaChinaman'schanceofbecomingfree,independent,landholdingfarmersofthekindthatThomasJefferson,theHomesteadAct,andtheNewlandsActallhadinmind.

TheWest,asWalterWebbpointedout,isanoasiscivilization.TheoverwhelmingmajorityofWesternersareurban.Theircitieshavetheillsthatcitieselsewheredofamilybreakup,slums,homelessness,drugs,crime,smog,violenceandsomethatarepeculiarlytheirown.Foroneexample,SanDiego,oneofthefastest-growingcitiesinAmerica,hasbeengrowingforyearsonwaterthatlegallybelongstoArizona.WhentheCentralArizonaProjectbeginsdivertingalltheColoradoRiverwateritisentitledto,waterthatuntilnowSanDiego

hasbeenenjoying,thenSanDiegowillbescramblingforaugmentation,whichwillbehardtofind.Anditwillprobablyblamethefedsforthefixitisin.

Anoasiscivilization.Peoplesettledwheretherewaswaterandleftessentiallyemptythewidedryspacesinbetween.Itwasariditythatmadethoseemptyspaces,andthatalsobroughtintobeingthefederalbureauschargedwithmanagingapublicdomainlargelyunfitforhumanhabitation.Humanengineeringletusmoveoutalittleintotheemptyspaces;butaltogether,inallitshistory,theBureauofReclamationreclaimedonlyanareaaboutthesizeofOhio.Nowweareattheendofthedam-buildingeraandclosetotheendofourexploitationofundergroundwater.ThewatertablearoundTucsonandPhoenix,where90percentofthewatercomesfromwells,hasbeenpumpeddownseveral

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hundredfeet.InthecentralvalleyofCalifornia,thoughthereissubstantialwaterfromreclamationdams,itislikewisepumpeddown.TheOgallalaAquiferunderNebraska,Kansas,andOklahomawillsoonbepumpeddry.Idon'tknowaboutotherstates,butinCaliforniathereisnocontrolwhateverofpumping.Theanswertoadryyearoralightsnowpackistodeepentheexistingwellsanddrillnewones.Thelogicalendofthatpracticeisnothardtoimagine.

Thereisapointtoallthiscalamityhowling.AsPatriciaLimerickhaspointedoutinLegacyofConquest,Westernboomshavealmostalwaysbeenraidsonasingleextractiveresourcebeaver,grass,gold,coal,whateverandtheyhavealwaysbeenfollowedbybusts,eitherbecausetheresourceranoutorbecausefierceWesternconditionsofheat,cold,ordroughtcamedownonthehopefullikethewrathofGodonSennacherib'sarmy(remembertheBigDie-UponWesternrangesinthewinterof1886-1887,ortheotheroneexactlytwentyyearslaterintheMontana-Alberta-Saskatchewancountry?),orbecausetheworldmarketbroke,asthebeavermarketbrokeonachangeinhatstylesabout1840.AyearortwoagoIwouldhavehadtoputDallasandFortWorthonmylistofWesterncitiesthatarespreadinglikeringworm.Notnow,eveninspiteofSaddamHussein'sadventureinKuwait.Thepointis,thingsthathappeninthePersianGulf,inBasrahorBahrainorBaghdad,cancooloffaWesternboomorheatitupassurelyascanthepeteringoutoftheresourceoranattackoflocalweather.

InBernardDeVoto'sphrase,Westerneconomicshavealwaysbeentheeconomicsofliquidation.Evenpresumablyrenewableresourcessuchastimberandgrasshavebeenmined,notnourished.TheblamehasoftenbeenlaidonEasterncapitalists,butwhenevertheyhavehadthechance,Westernershavehappilyplunderedthemselves.Fromtheverybeginning,AmericansapproachedtheWestnotastheChildrenofIsraelapproachedtheLandofCanaan(excepttheMormons,whodid

justthat),butasEgyptiangraverobbersmightapproachthetombofapharaoh.

Noboomseemstolearnmuchfromthepreviousones.Inacountrywhereourmostpreciousresourceiswater,wetreatwaterwastefullyandshort-term.IfdrainagefromouraditsthreatenstopoisontheWestRosebud,satisfyprotesterswiththelowestpossibledenominatorofprevention.IfinadryyearMontanastreamsrunlow,thegovernorjustifiestherancherswhodrainthemcompletelytobenefitasecond-ratealfalfacrop,whilethetroutandsalmonandthetouristindustry,whichisworthsixlimesthealfalfacropflopinthegravel.Ifourclear-cutslopesfillthespawningstreamswithsiltandourdamscutofftheColumbiaRiversalmonrunbytwo-thirds,too

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bad;withourwinningswecangofishinginIcelandorNewZealand.Ifweknowthatthefloodirrigationindesertvalleyswilleventuallyturnthefieldsintoalkaliflats,allthemorereasontominecropsoutoftherewhilewecan.IfourrunoffpondsareonthewaytoKestersonization,wehadbettergetonwithourlootingandpollutingbeforesomeinterferingFedtriestostopus.

IflargeareasoftheWestarewellonthewaytobecomingdesert,andifovergrazingisoneoftheprincipalcauses,pushinmorecattleandgettheBLMtochainmoresquaremilesofpiñon-juniperforesttocreatemorerangeforustomakeintodesert.Timeisshort.Ifoursmokestacks,asatFourCornersandPage,dirtywhatwasoncethebestairinAmerica,whythat'sthepriceofprogress.Andifourstripminescutintocoalbedsthatarealsoaquifers,withconsequencesnoonecanpredict,wecan'tstopourdraglinesforsuchhypotheticalreasons.Wemusttakeopportunitybytheforelockandscalpit.WemustkeeppushingourcoalleasesintothePowderRivervalleyandintotheCrowandNorthernCheyennereservations,thoughifwesucceedwewilldisplacebothIndiansandrancherswhohavebeentheresinceGeorgeArmstrongCusterwasacorpse.

IfIthoughttheAmericanDreamwasonlythedreamofbonanzathatmyfatherlivedbyandthatcontemporaryenergyconglomerateslivebyandthatagribusinessandthestockmenandtheminingindustrylivebyandthatpoliticiansapplaudasthespiritthatwontheWest,IcouldbeprettypessimisticabouttheWest'sfuture.Itcouldeasily,undertheattacksofthosewhowillnotadmititslimits,degenerateanddeteriorateuntilnotevenmassiveengineeringcankeepitliveable.Itcouldachieveitsproperpopulationsparsenessthehardwayandendupsupportingfarfewerpeopleandcattleandsheepthanitwouldifitweretreated,inthecantwordofcontemporaryenvironmentalism,''sustainably."Forwecannotforgetthatthedrycountryheals,ifatall,veryslowly.YoucanstillseeGeneralPatton's

tanktracks,leftfromthedeserttrainingexercisesofWorldWarII.Poisonedearthstayspoisonedforthelackofraintoleachandflushit.Bareeartherodesineverythunderstormforlackofrootsandplantstobindandholdit.TheAmericanWestisoneplacewhereanounceofpreventionisworthatonofcure.

Inthesummerof1926wemadeanexcursionthroughthesouthernUtahnationalparksandthenorthrimoftheGrandCanyon.AllthroughtheKaibabNationalForest,ineverylagoonandmeadow,thereweredeerintensandhundreds.MybrotherandI,tryingtokeepcount,losttrackinthatwildernessofanimals.Whatwewereseeingwasaclassicinstanceofapopulationexplosion,whenthewolvesandmountainlionsthat

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normallykeptthedeernumbersdownhadmainlybeenkilledoff.Withoutnaturalenemies,andwithhuntingprohibitedinthenationalpark,theherdsproliferatedlikelaboratorymice.Theywereasplendidsight,aspiritualexhilarationsuchasIhavenothadsince,exceptinTanzaniaduringthewildebeestmigration.Buttherewasacatch,oneweknewtoolittletounderstand:Thebrowsethatthedeerdependedonwasallgone.Wesawbucksstandingontheirhindlegstoreachtheuntastyhangingsprigsofponderosapines.Thatwinterthosedeerintheirthousandswerealldead,starvedtodeath.Whatwasalmostworse,theywouldnotrecoverforalonglongtime,becausebeforestarvingtodeaththeyhaddestroyedtheirownhabitat.

That,Isubmit,iswhatthepeopleoftheplainsandmountainsanddesertshadbetternotdo.IfIknewtheanswertotheWest'sfuture,IwouldcarryittoeverylegislativehallfromHelenatoSantaFe.ButIdon't.AllIknowisthatwhatevercombinationofranching,mining,logging,andtakingineachother'swashtheWestfinallycomesto,alloftheextractiveindustriesaregoingtohavetobefarmorescrupulousabouttheenvironmentthantheyhavebeeninthepast,andthatthepermanentpopulationoftheWesternstatesisgoingtobealotsmallerthantheboostersproject.

WhenIpondertheeffectsthedreamhasalreadyhadonthecountryIknewsixty-fiveorseventyyearsago,IremembertheadvicethatSatangavetheworldattheendofMarkTwain'sTheMysteriousStranger."Dreamotherdreams,andbetter!"Satanadvised.1Hewasspeakingofthedreamofhumanlife,andspeakingasarealpessimist;butasapersonofwideexperienceheshouldbelistenedto,andhiswisdomappliedwhereveritworks.Dreamotherdreams,andbetter.

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HOMEONTHERANGEforWallaceStegner

[sing:]Home,homeontherangeWherethedeerandtheantelope

[]

Chokeonfumespartcarbondioxidepartairborneasbestosyaireoffewerandfewerpartsoxygen.HomeontherangewhereonacoldbrightMarchmorningtheynibblegrassbladesymorassparklingfrostandlaceyedgesofuranium,shinyasfluorescentslimeonrancidham.

[sing:]Whereseldomisheardadiscouragingword []

GreatMiamiRivercontaminationRockyFlats ThreeMile

IslandFernaldOhio ButteMontana

BlackMesa

toxicwaste hazards

contaminants radioactiveleaksnuclearaccidentsTimetoheartheencouragingSTOP!Stopburningcoal!Stopcuttingtrees!Stopsprayingaerosols!Stopdrivingyourcareveryday!Stopignoringgov't/corporatecrimesagainstairlaketreesoil!Thesamecrimesthatgaveus

Page231Indiansorrow/slavesorrow/mestizosorrow/allsorrow.That'sthepathtowardasocietytomatchthescenery:turntheencouragingwordintoaseedofesperanzaforanangle,notawhole,butanangleofrepose,forafuture

[sing:]Wheretheskiesarenotcloudyallday. []

CordeliaCandelaria

PARTSEVENMr.Jeffersonin1990

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THEAMERICANWEST:THEDREAMFROMTHEVANTAGEPOINTOFCOLORADOIN1990ClayStrausJenkinson

Iamgivenaratherdifficultchallengethisafternoon.Iaminstructedtorespondrespectfullytoeachofthepapersthathasbeendelivered;toanswercertaincharges,someofthempolite,othersrude,leveledagainstmethisafternoon;toentertainarangeofaudiencequestionsandgivethecitizensgatheredheretheirfirstrealopportunitytoparticipateinademocraticdialoguetoday;tosumuponacheerfulnote;andtodismissyou.Allinabouteightminutes.Iamtempted,asIdidinallofthearenasofmylife,toshrinkfromsuchachallengeandtorunoutandbuyalaptopcomputer,thelogicalimpulseforthemanwhotinkeredwithportabledesksandthemany-writer,thepaperpolygraphstillondisplayatMonticello.IamremindedofGeoffreyChaucer'sprologuetoTheCanterburyTalesinwhichheepitomizesthecharacterofhisclerkwiththephrase,"andgladlywouldhelearn,andgladlyteach."Thoseofusfromthepasthavemoretolearnfromyourculturethantoteachyou.Iwillbebrief.AndthenIwillturntoyouforyourcommentsandquestions,althoughafterwitnessingafewfragmentsoftheyeastystuffofmoderndemocracyheretoday,Iwilladmittosensingtheadventofoneofthosemigraineheadachesthatplaguedmeallofmyadulthood.

Firstofall,letmesaythatIaminsympathywiththecrustyhumilityofWallaceStegner,whoseextraordinaryletterProfessorWilkinsonreadaloudearlier.Mr.Stegner,whosecrabbybuthonestprosestyleremindsmeagreeablyofmyoldfriendJohnAdams,asks,"HasanybodycarvedmyfaceonamountaininSouthDakota?"Inmy

view,thisissomethingnottobewishedfor,notmerelybecauseitneedlesslydefacesnature,and(inmycase)inaratherbadlikeness,butmoreimportantlybecauseitperpetuatesthemythofa"GoldenAgeof

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FoundingFathers,"demigodsparticularlyprudentandfarsighted.Encouragingthatmythdisablesyoufromtakingbackyourlivesinyourowntime.Asecularnationmustnotcreatesaints.Shakespearesomewheresaysthatweareallmenfrail,andcapableoffrailty.AsanEnlightenmentoptimist,Isayequallythatweareallmenbold,andcapableofrefashioningtheworldofhumanaffairs.

Second,Iwanttogetinmysolethemeearlyandemphatically.Nothingissacredbuttherightsofman;allelseisnegotiable.EverythingIstruggledtoachieveisessentiallyencapsulatedinthatsimplecreed.Ihavearticulatedoncetodaymypastoralvision,aVirginianpictureofaquietpeoplelivingunobtrusivelyontheland,mindingtheirownbusinessandlivinginanationthatmindsitsownbusinessawayfromthearenasofmercantilismandBonaparte.Thisportraitofanation,wherehappinessandfreedomaremoreimportantthanpowerandwealth,mayormaynotseemappropriatetoyouinthelatetwentiethcentury.Itisnotformetosay.Theearthbelongstothelivingandnotthedead.Perhapsmyvisionwasfundamentallyinerror.ThephotographicimagesIsawtodaysuggestedtomethatperhapsmyunderstandingoftheclimateandphysiognomyoftheWestwasmisguided.InmyowntimeIsawLouisianaasakindofinfiniteexpansionoftheOhiovalley:lush,fertile,well-watered,contouredliketheGardenofEden.Theruggednessandtheariditythathavebeenbroughthometometoday,bytechnologiesimpossibletoconceivewhenmovabletypewasstillthrillingandahorselesscarriageproducednomotion,wouldperhapsleadmetorethinksomeofmypastoralvision,atleastinthetrans-MississippiWest.(Ontheotherhand,Ihadbetteradmit,beforeaneo-Hamiltoniancountscouponme,thatItendedtoclingstubbornlytofavoriteideas,evenwhentheweightofevidencemadethemhardtosustain.)Letusatleastconsidermypastoralismdebatable.

Whatthenremainsofmyachievementforyoutoclingtoinyourown

troubledtimes?Theanswerissimple:Nothingissacredbuttherightsofman;allelseisnegotiable.Youreconomyisanartifice,aconstruct,andthereareundoubtedlymanyothereconomiesyoumightsuccessfullytry.IamtoldthateconomicopportunityisveryunevenlydistributedinyourtimesandthatmillionsofAmericansarehomeless,incapableoffindingworkorreducedtoformsoflabornotinharmonywiththedignityofman.Yourconstitutionismerelyarecipeforgovernment.IwasnotattheConstitutionalConventionof1787,butIknowfrommyfriendJamesMadisonandthegreatGeneralWashingtonthatfewoftheFoundingFathers(aconvenientterm,butoneIdislike)thoughtthenewconstitutionlikelytolastmorethanaboutaquarterofacentury.Itwasastartatnationalgovernment.Thedocumentof'87

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wouldeventuallybereplacedbysomethingbetter.Youhavemadeitinsteadasemi-sacreddocument,likethearkofthecovenant,toosacredtobetouched.Inmyview,thatisagreatmistake.Constitutions,politicalsystems,tripartitestructuresofgovernment,methodsofwriting,enacting,enforcing,andamendinglawsallthesearenegotiable.Theyareartifice.Nothingissacredbuttherightsofman.KeepyourBillofRights,orratherrecognizetherightsofmanandarticulateandrearticulatethoserightsasoftenasnecessary,butexperimentboldlyandevenirreverentlywitheverythingelseinlife.Historyonthewholeonlyteachesuswhatbadgovernmenthasbeen.Historyisarecordoffailures,ofanirrationalobsessionwithtradition,receivedideas,sacrosanctnotions,andunnaturalhabits.WemayaswellwearasadultsthesuitsthatfitteduswhenwewereboysasliveaccordingtothebarbarousregimenofourancestorsandthatincludesMr.Madison'sregimenandindeedmine.Yououghttoexperimentboldly,yououghttoseektomakeyourpoliticsequaltoyourdreamsofjustice,yououghttorepudiatethepastasoftenasnecessary.Yourchargeasyoumoveintothenextcenturyistocompletetherevolutionatlast,tofulfillthepromiseoftheDeclarationofIndependence.Thatpromiseistwofold:First,thateveryhumanbeingbornonthiscontinentbetreatedequallyinthemachineryofthelawand,second,thateveryhumanbeingbornonthiscontinentbeentitled,notbythegraceofGodorbythegenerosityofgovernment,butbythelawofnature,tosomethinglikeroughlyequaleconomicopportunity.UnlesseveryonehasasolidchancetothriveasanAmericancitizen,youmustnotpermitunusualaccumulationsofpowerandwealthinthehandsofthefew.Thisistheworld'sonlytruemeritocracy.Thatsystemworksbestonlyworks,infactwithlittleornogovernmentinterference.Butthenaturalaristocracy,asIcalledit,canonlyrisetohumbleleadershipifyouleveltheplayingfieldsothatartificialprivilegedoesnotlorditoverapurposefullyoppressedcitizenry.Untilyoureachthosetwosimplebutelusivegoals,yououghtto

revolutionizethissocietyasoftenasnecessary,andcertainlyonceeachgeneration.Ilikealittlerevolutionnowandthen.

Ihaveheardtodayachorusofanxiety,aconsciousnessofdeepfailureinAmericanhistory,aseriesofdescriptionsofexploitations,sometimessystematic,oflandandpeople,particularlytheaboriginalinhabitantsofthiscontinent.AndIhaveseenglimpsesamongthecitizensoftheWestofanunhappyawarenessofadependencyuponpowerandfinancialcenterselsewhere.Freedomandeconomicdependencyareacontradictioninterms.Myanswertoyourdreadandresentmentisnotthatyouwringyourhandsindespair,butthatyoubeginthebusinessofrevolution,includingpossiblybloodyrebellion.Let

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meofferyousixorsevenquickstrategiesforrevolution.Almostaloneamongtheso-calledrevolutionariesof1776,Iamnotafraidofbloodshedandterroriflibertyisatstake.Isaid,"Thetreeoflibertymustberefreshedfromtimetotimewiththebloodofpatriotsandtyrants.Itisitsnaturalmanure."1Aloneamongthefounders,IwenttomygravedefendingtheFrenchRevolution,includingtheReignofTerror.Apeoplethatwishestoenjoyitsnaturalrightsmustneverrenounceterrorism.Still,perhapsyouneednotresorttobloodshed,notyet.

Youhaveatyourfingertipsconstitutionalmechanismswithwhichtorevolutionizeyourpoliticallandscapealmostovernight.Youhavethepolls:anelectioneverytwoyearsforallmembersoftheHouseofRepresentativesinyournationalCongress,theelectioneveryfourthyearofthepresident,andtheelectioneverysixthyearofU.S.senators.Theroot-boundincumbencyofyourowntimeisashamefulrepudiationofrepublicanprinciples.Amateurgovernmentandrapidrotationinofficearetheheartandsoulofarepublicansystem.Careerismisthedeathofself-rule."Wheneveramancastshiseyelonginglyonpublicoffice,acertainrottennessofcharacterissuretocreepin."Thesimplestapproachtorevolutioninyourtimeissimplytoreturnallnationalofficerstoprivatelifeatthenextopportunity,goodmenandbad.Thenstartfresh.Youhavethatmechanismofrevolutioninyourhands.Whywringyourhandswhenyoucanwieldsuchpowerwiththem?

Perhapsyoumightattemptafewcheerfulimpeachmentsnowandthen.Asalifelongenemytothejudiciary,thatcorpsofsappersandminersdedicatedtothedestructionofAmericanliberties,Isuggestthatyoubeginwiththejudges.Lifetenureisanaffronttoself-government.Soisjudicialreview,oneofmyVirginiacousinJohnMarshall'sdubiousgiftstotheAmericanpoliticalsystem.Thewillofthepeopleisexpressedintheirelectedlegislatures.Legislativebodies

must,inaconstitutionalcrisis,besupreme.Ifinditappallingthatyoupermitanoligarchyofnineunelected,unaccountable,andvirtuallyunimpeachablejuriststodeterminewhatisconstitutionalandwhatisnot.Inademocraticrepublicthewillofthemajoritymustinallcasesprevail,even,Ifeelcompelledtoinsist,whenthatmajorityisinsensitivetothewilloftheminority.

Youmightalsotrytoamendyourconstitution.InmyownlifetimeIfearedthattheamendmentprocesshadbeenmadetoodifficult,butitisneverthelesspossibleandIurgeyoutoattemptit.Asafirmbelieverthatthetruthisgreatandwillprevailwhenlefttoitselfinthefreemarketplaceofideas,Iurgeyoutobuildamajorityforchangebyway

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ofeducation,persuasion,thegradualspreadofenlightenmentandthelightofscience.

Ifamendmentdoesn'tsuityou,tearupyourconstitution.IsuggestedthateveryconstitutionbewritteninplainEnglish,thatitbestrictlyandnotbroadlyinterpreted,thatitbeamendedwhenitceasestobeuseful,thatwhenitceasestobeamendableitbetornup,andthat,underanycircumstance,everyconstitutionstate,local,andnationalbetornupeverynineteenyears(oncepergeneration).Insistuponthatsimplemechanismofpeacefulrevolutionandyoucanstarttheworldoveragaininyourtime.

Ifthatdoesn'twork,secede.Thecompacttheoryofgovernmentguaranteesthateachstateisasovereignentityandthattheconfederationisavoluntarycompactofsovereignconstituentstates.Wheneveranystatefeelsthatitisnotbeingtreatedwellinthenationalconfederation,ithasasacredrighttosecede.Tryit.ItwillatleastgettheattentionofWashington.Asarivalrepublicyoumaydiscoverformsofgovernmentandpursuitsofhappinessthatwillinspirestatesmoretimidthanyourown.Asalonerepublicyouwillofnecessitylearnagainthepainfulbutvirtuouslessonsofself-sufficiency,andyouwilllearnthatmuchofwhatyouconsideressentialtoyourmaterialhappinessnotonlydoesnotmakeyouhappy,butinfactenslavesandenervatesyouwiththeluxuriesofcorruptempire.

Andfinally,andmoreseriously,whenyouhaveexhaustedallpeacefulmeansofbuildingaself-reliantagrarianutopiaandautopiainmyviewisnotaliteraryillusion,butanurgentdemandforallhumanitythenyoumay(andmust)begintoemployterror.Itmayevenbenecessarytokillinnocentpeopleinthestreets.Ipreferpeacefulchange,andwhenbloodshedisnecessaryIprefersurgicalviolencetoindiscriminateslaughter,butyoumustneverforgetthatbloodshedand

terrorarethepriceofhumanliberty.Ifyouabdicateterror,youwillnotlongremainfree.Historyteachesusnomoreclearandemphaticlesson.

ToallofthegloomandhelplessnessthatIhaveheardtoday,Ianswerthattherearesimplemechanismsofrevolutioninyourhands.Ifyouchoosenottousethem,itisyouandnotyoursocialstructurethatistoblameforyourdependencies.Painstakinglyexhaustpeacefulmeansfirstandthenbreakforthyourmusketsandpitchforks.Violenceisnottobeindulgedforlightandtransientcauses.Norisitalwaystobeeschewedbymenofhumanityandpeace.

Thereisasuggestion,implicitinourconversationstoday,thattherehasbeensomethinginevitableaboutAmericanhistory.ThelogicseemstobethatalthoughyouoftenbroughtgoodintentionstotheWest,

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neverthelessinevitablyyouexploitedtheresourcesandthepeoplesthatyouencountered.Inevitablyyoudisplacedtheaboriginalsovereigns,inevitablyyoulostsightofthepastoralvision,inevitablyyouerodedtherepublicandputempireinitsplace,inevitablyyoureplacedsmallfamilyfarmswithMr.Hamilton'sindustrialestates,inevitablymanyofthemostsublimeplacesofthecontinenthadtobe''developed"inthenameofhumanprogress.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.Wearemastersofourdestiny.ThatisthechiefgloryandperhapsthecurseoftheAmericanexperiment.ItisthismyththatIwishtocombatespecially.YouchosetheAmericaof1990.Therearenoironlawseconomic,political,social,environmentalofhistory.TheAmericanpeoplehaditintheirpowertocreateapastoral,decentralized,peacefulandisolationistnation,apluralisticnation,anationthatprizeddiversityandlibertyanddissent.Youchosenottomaintaintherepublic.Thiswasnotinevitable.Youareslavestonokingandnoprinciplesofculture.YouwroughtyourAmericabychoice.TherewasafiercedebateinmytimebetweenMr.Hamilton'svisionofAmericaandmyown.WefoughtliketwococksinthecabinetofthegreatGeneralWashington.Therewereothervisionsatlargeinthemarketplaceofeighteenth-centuryideas,someofthemattractivetome,othersrepellenttomyvision.Inmytimethepeoplepreferredmyvision,thougheventhentheyhadbeguntovotewiththeirpursesandtheirfeetforprinciplesnotinharmonywiththeEnlightenment.Sometimeaftermydeathin1826,amajorityofthecitizensoftheUnitedStatesgavethemselvesovertoMr.Hamilton'sdreamofaworldmilitaryandindustrialempire.YouarenowathoroughlyHamiltoniannationwithathinJeffersonianveneer,anditshows.ThepeopleoftheUnitedStateshavevoted.Theworldbelongstothelivingandnotthedead.Ihavenotcometoday,likeHamlet'sfather,towhetyouralmostbluntedrepublicanappetite.IfyouarecontentwithMr.Hamilton'svision,thenIintrudeuponyourworldonlyasapatheticantediluvianwithaquaintpastoraldream.Asa

democratandanoptimistsomesayafatuousoptimistIcanhavenoquarrelwiththefuture.

If,however,youopposetheempireanditsdislocationsoftherightsofmanhereandinyourclientstates,ifyoupreferdecentralizationtoconsolidation,andhappinesstogettingandspending,ifyoubelievethatthepurposeofAmericaistoexpandtheEnlightenmentandneveragainpermithumanprogresstobedarkenedbytheforcesofunreasonandauthority,ifyouwishtoliveaccordingtothedictatesofnature,andaboveallifyouwishtogovernyourselves,thenyouareatoddswithMr.Hamiltonandyoumustbegintherevolutiontoday.Thereisnothinginevitableinhumanaffairs.Itstrikesmeastheoddestofallparadoxes

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thatAmericanstheargonautsofhumanfreedomwoulddescendintotheconvenientmythofinevitability.ForifAmericastandsforanything,itstandsforlibertyandpossibility.Forapeoplewhohaveprizedtheirfreedoms,foughtforthem,erectedaBillofRightstoprotectthem,in1990toshrugtheirshouldersandsay,"Wehadnochoice,thisishowsocietieswork,itwasinevitable,whatcouldwehavedone?"isinmyviewapatheticabdicationofenlightenedresponsibilityandasuggestionthattheloftyrhetoricoftheNewWorldwasasemptyasthesophistryoftheoldorder,thebabbleofkingsandtherighteousnessofpriesthoods.ThomasPainesaidyouhaveitinyourpowertobegintheworldoveragain.I'dstarttonight.

Finally,althoughIhavepagesofnotesonthepapersthatIhaveheardandwishtorespondtothemall,IhavetimetorespondonlytoDavidCarrasco,professorofreligiousstudies,becauseIthinkheaskedthemostimportantofallthequestionswehaveheardtoday.lieargued,ifIunderstandhim,thatalthoughAmericancivilizationisthestoryofextraordinaryviolence,neverthelessthemythsthatwelivebyfreedom,justice,andopportunityforall,theconstitutionalorder,theruleoflaw,theextensionofthefranchiseofhappinessaremythsthatcondemnviolenceandexploitationandpromisehigherstandardsonthissideoftheAtlantic.AccordingtoProfessorCarrasco,resolvingtheAmericanparadox,comingtotermswithourviolenceratherthanpaperingitoverwithJeffersonianpastoralism,shouldbethebusinessofAmericanintegrity.Perhapsheisrightandperhapsheisn't.HisportraitofAmericanhistorysoundsbleakintheearsofanoptimist.Buthedoesraisethegreatquestionofthehumanities:IsitpossibleforanationliketheUnitedStatestobreakwiththepast,toliftthestandardsofhumanbehavior?OrishumannatureconstantandinsomesenseevenmoreevilinAmericabecauseofallthefreeresourcesandinfinitespacesthatwereavailabletoexploitwiththatdarkhumannaturehedescribes?Myownviewisquitedifferentfrom

his.Ibelievethathumansarebasicallygood,thatwhentheydoevilitisnotthroughtheirnaturebutbecausetheyaredistortedbybadinstitutionsandbadhabits.Andifwewillonlyreforminstitutionstobeequaltohumandignityandreason,andeducatethepeopleliberally,thenhumanswillrisetothechallengeoflivingingoodsenseandforbearanceandmutualunderstanding.Inshort,Idonotbelievethathumannatureisconstant.Ibelieveinprogress.LikethemoremoderatephilosophiesofFrance,Iproposethatweareindefinitely,althoughperhapsnotinfinitely,perfectible.Afriend,lateinlife,wrotemealettersaying:Mr.Jefferson,youhavegivenyourlifetothedestructionofthefourpillarsoftheoldorder:monarchy,aristocracy,thepriesthood,andstandingarmies.

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Whatthenislefttoholdoursocietytogether?InresponseIgaveasimpleandcharacteristicanswer.Isaid:Sir,theglueofagreatcultureiseducation.Ifweenlightenthepeoplegenerally,everyformoftyranny,bothofmindandbody,willdisappearlikefogandwitcheswhenthesunrisesinthemorning.Butifyouexpecttobeanationignorantandfree,youexpectsomethingthatneverhasbeenandnevercanbeinthehistoryoftheworld.Restraintinademocracyistheessentialvirtue.Thequestionyoutakeintothetwenty-firstcenturyis:Canaself-governingcitizenryrestrainitself?Ifnot,theWestisingravetrouble.

Therearethreeprerequisitesforrestraintinaself-governingsociety.First,educationisthefoundationofeverythingthatmattersinafreesociety.Contactwithnature,lifeinastateofnature,istheseconddesideratum.AndthethirdnecessityissomethingIliketocallourmoralsense.Youmightcallitconscience.Ibelieveweourbornwithamoralsensethatisasacuteasoursenseoftaste,smell,orhearing.Andifwewillonlyconsultitonalloccasions,justiceandgoodsensewillburstforthallovertheplanet.Inshort,inspiteofwhatIhaveheardtoday,Iremainanoptimist.Ihopeyouwillnotdismissmeasanaiveoptimist.Youhaveitinyourpowertobegintheworldoveragain.Itbeginswithyou.Indeed,whereelse?

Iwillsayonemorewordbeforeturningtowhateverquestionsyouhave.PhilipBurgess,withwhomIagreeinlargepart,saidearliertodaythatwemustinsistthatourcitizenstakeresponsibility.Idisagree.Thatisanimpositionofenlightenment.Wewillonlybeagreatnationwhenourcitizensspontaneouslytakeresponsibility.Thatdoesnotrequireanygovernmentatall.

ThePresidentgraciouslyagreedtoentertainafewquestionsfromtheaudience.Hereisasample.

Question:Mr.President:YouhavelearnedthatyourLouisianaPurchase

hasnotyetbeendigestedbythepeople.Largepartsofitremaininfederalhands,asyouknow,atafearfullosstothefederaltreasury.YouhaveheardthemayorofMissoula,Montana,suggestthatthisshouldbechanged.IwonderifyouwouldadvisethemayorofMissoulatoleadasecession,toformanewcountry,perhapscalledJeffersonia,andtotaketheremnantsoftheLouisianaPurchaseandotherfederalinstallationswithhim.

Answer:DoIsuggestsecession?Theworldbelongstotheliving,notthedead.Ifyoudosecede,however,IurgeyounottocallthiscountryJeffersonia.

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Question:Sir,Iwouldliketoknowyourdefinitionofman.Ifnothingissacredbuttherightsofman,Iwonderifyouwouldbewillingtoexpandyourdefinitionofmantoincludewomen,blacks,allhumanbeingsandalsolifeandstructureinotherwords,treesandmountainsandcanyonsandanimals....Isitpossiblethattheirrightsaresacred?

Answer:BymanImeanallhumanbeings,ofallcolors,ofallcreeds,ofalleconomicbases,andbothgenders.Thisisanabsolutestatement.HadmycountrymenknownofhowabsolutelyImeantmyfelicitousphrasein1776,theywouldprobablynothaveapprovedoftheDeclarationofIndependence.WeareidenticalatbirthintheeyesoftheCreator;weareentitledthroughoutourlivestobetreatedidenticallyinthepoliticalarena.Inthemachineofthelaw,therightsofallhumanbeingsareequal.Rightsmaynotalwaysbeadheredtoequallybygovernment,butthatisonlyameasureofthecorruptionofgovernment,notofthelimitsofthisprinciple.

Havingsaidthat,Iwillnowproceedtoconfirmyourimpliedcriticismofmyachievement,whichItaketobethepointofyourquestion.Mycandidviewwasthatblackpeopleandwhitepeoplewouldneverlivetogetherinharmonyonthiscontinentbecauseofthepoisonoftheinstitutionofslavery.Whiteslavemasterswouldalwaysfearreprisalafteremancipation,andfreedslaveswouldalwaysresenttheirformermasters.Itwasmyhopethatonceemancipationcame,ourblackbrethrenwouldchoosetorepatriatethemselvesintheirnativeAfrica.Iftheydidnotwishtodothis,IsuggestedablackhomelandsomewhereintheAmericanWest.Butitwasmycandidbeliefthattherewouldbepermanentracialtensioninthissocietybecauseoftheplagueofslaverywithwhichwebeganournationalexperiment.Thisisnotatallapleasantsubjectfordiscourse.IalwaysrememberedtheBritishmoralistSamuelJohnson'sstatementduringourrevolution.Isn'titinteresting,hesaid,thatthosewhoyelploudestforlibertyarealsothedriversofNegroslaves?

IndiansIsawsomewhatdifferently.Isawthemaseverybitourequals,inmanyrespectsoursuperiors.Theirgovernmentsweresuperiortoourown.Theyenjoyedtrueanarchy,nogovernmentatall.Theirreligionswerenomoreirrationalthanours,andinmanywaysless.ThesepeoplewerelivingaccordingtothedictatesofnatureandtheywereproofthatJohnLocke,

Rousseau,andothertheoristswerenotsimplyfictionalizingwhentheyspokeofmaninastateofnature.Herewerepeoplelivinginastateofnature.Theythrived.Itwasourdutynottoexploitthesepeople,buttolearnfromthemandatlengthtointermingleandintermarrywiththem.

Thelegalrightsofwomenofcoursemustbeprotected.WhenIrevisedthelawsofVirginiain1777,Iincludedprovisionstoamelioratethepropertylawsandotherlegalrightsofwomen.Mydaughters

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wereamongthebest-educatedwomenintheUnitedStates.Butifyouareaskingwhetherwomenshouldvoteorholdpublicoffice,thenImustindeedbeamanofmyowncenturyandremindyouthatthetenderbreastsofladieswerenotformedforpoliticalconvulsion.

Question:MayIbrieflyfollowupthatquestion?Arelifeandstructurepartofyourdefinitionofman?Inotherwords,doyouhaveregardlegallyforanimalsandthelanditself?

Answer:Ipridedmyselfonbeingontheenlightenedsideofeveryquestion,tostayasteportwoaheadofmycountrymen,butalwaystostayroughlywithintheboundariesoftheirownsenseofthings.Iwasaneighteenth-centuryman.Isubscribedtotheideaofanintricatechainofbeing.Ibelievedwithoutanyapologythathumansoccupythetopofthatchainofbeingand,althoughtheearthdoesnotexistforusalone,weareitsprimaryconstituents.Iftheworldaroundusmustbeadjusted,itisbetterthatitbeadjustedbyhumansratherthanspongesorwolves.Youmaydisagreeinyourtime,butrememberthatIsawtheworldfrombeforetheIndustrialRevolution,andthatmakesallthedifference.I'munabashedlyahumanist.Still,theconceptofusufructsuggeststhatwemustuseourexaltedstatusonthechainofbeingwithrespectandrestraint.Itwouldnotbenaturalforustobehaveinawaythatimpairedtheearth'scapacitytosupportfuturegenerations,includinghumangenerations.Iwasfortunatetoliveinasimplertime.Iwassoenamoredofthechain-of-beingtheorythatIdidnotbelievethatanyspeciesevercreatedcouldbecomeextinct.Thatwouldeffectivelybreakthechain.IinstructedmyexplorerstokeeptheireyesopenforthewoollymammothinnorthernLouisiana.

Letmetellonemorestorybeforeyoudepart,aparableabouttheNewWorldandtheOld.TherewasatheoryputforthbyFrenchscientistsinmytimethatAmericananimalsandplantswerecomparativelydegenerate.TheviewwasthatNorthAmericaemergedfromthelastfloodlaterthanEurope,andthereforeourclimatewascoolerandmoister,andsoouranimalswerelessvirile,lessfertile,lessmagnificent.WeinAmericaknewthiswasnonsense,butconvincingEuropeanskepticswasextraordinarilydifficult.WhenIwentto

FranceastheAmericanministerin1784,Itookwithmearatherlargepantherskin,whichIpresentedtotheComtedeBuffon,thegreatestofEuropeanscientists,asproofthatourfaunawereeverybittheequaloftheirEuropeancounterparts.Hedidn'tbothertoreplytothisgift.LaterIhadachancetomeethimatoneofhisdinnerpartiesinParis.MyfriendtheMarquisdeChastellux,whohadvisitedMonticelloatthecloseofthe

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RevolutionaryWar,introducedmetothecelebratedsavantandsaidthis:"Sir,thisisMr.JeffersonfromAmerica,whoinhisbookNotesonVirginiahasrefutedyourtheoryofAmericandegeneracy."Thegreatscientistdidnotevenbothertolookmeintheeye.Hemerelywenttohisshelf,pulleddownhislatestpublishedvolume,handedittoChastellux,andsaid,"WhentheAmericanshallhavereadthis,hewillseethatheisentirelyinerror."Thistroubledme.Herewasamanofsciencerefusingtoengageinopendebate.SoIscoutedhimandsaid,''Sir,itseemstomeinyourbooksyouhaveconfusedtheAmericanelkwiththeEuropeanreindeer,muchtotheprejudiceofourelk.Secondly,youhavesaidthereisnoantlerorrackinNorthAmericalongerthantwofeet.Ournation,sir,aboundswithbeastswhoseantlersextendbeyondtwofeettofourandfivefeet."Hesaid,"IfyoushowmetheantlerofananimallargerthantwofeetIwillburnmylibrary."AndfinallyIsaid,perhapsgoingtoofar,"Sir,itseemstomethatyourEuropeanreindeercouldwalkunderthebellyofanAmericanmoosewithsomeinchestospare."Well,theconversationendedabruptlyandsodidthedinnerparty.

Butnowmypridewasengaged.IwrotetomyyoungfriendMr.Madison,whomIburdenedallofmylifewithmysometimeszanyrequests,andsaid,amongotherthings,"Sendmeamoose."Well,Mr.Madisonhadnomoose,sohewrotetothegovernorofNewHampshire,JohnSullivan,aRevolutionaryWarheroandgoodRepublican,andsaid,amongotherthings,"Mr.Jeffersonrequiresamoose."AndSullivangotit.HetookoutawarpartyoftwentyarmedmeninablizzardinNewHampshireandfoundasmallherdofmoose,separatedoutarathermagnificentbull,shotit,andthendiscoveredtohischagrinthattheymustnowdragthattwo-thousand-poundcarcasstwentymilestothenearestvillage.Hesaidinhislongandsomewhatwhiningletterabouttheaffairthatthepartyhadtocutaroadthroughthewildernesstobringbackmymoose.Hehadit

cleaned,thebonesseparated,thepeltrymadereadyfortravel.HeboxedtheentirecarcassandshippedittoThomasJefferson,MinisterPlenipotentiary,CourtofLouistheSixteenth,Paris,France,andheshippeditCOD.Well,thiswasmorethanayearandahalfaftermyoriginalrequesttoMr.Madison,andIhadinthepressofbusinessforgottenallaboutthemoose.Onedayaminorofficialfromtheportauthoritycametomeandsaid,"Sir,thereisaratherlargecratewaitingforyouanditwillcostyouforty-fivepoundssterlingtoredeemit."Thatwouldbeabouttwenty-fivehundredofyourdollarsin1990,andinmytimethegovernmentdidnotroutinelyreimbursesuchexpenses.Nevertheless,IredeemedthemooseandtookittotheParisianequivalentofataxidermistandhadit

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preparedafterafashion,andIsentittotheBuffonwithmycompliments.Thegreatmansentapoliteletterofthanks,whichledmetoassumethathewouldcorrectthisgrievouserrorinfutureeditionsofhiswork.Buthedidn't.liediedjustsixmonthslater,andhiserrorswereentaileduponthefuture.

ItellthisstorytoremindyouthattheEuropeancommunitylookedwithderisionandevencontemptupontheNewWorldandourfragilelittleexperimentinself-government.Wehadtoprovetoaskepticalandnot-often-candidworldthathumanscouldgovernthemselves,withoutkings,priests,firstministers,andthecorruptionsoftheoldorder.Youarestillprovingthatgreattruthtotheoldworld,particularlyinLouisiana.Yourchallengeistolearntorestrainyourselves,toprovetotheworldthatafreepeoplecanliveinpeaceandprosperitywithoutexploitingthelifearoundthem.ThereisstilltimetoprovethatMr.Hamiltonwaswrong-wronginhisreadingofhumannature,wronginhissenseofnationalpriorities,wronginhisprinciplesofgovernment.Thisisthenationthatshouldneverknowdespair.ItrustthatyouwillregainyourEnlightenmentconfidenceandshowtheworldthatutopiaisnotthe"nowhere"ofliterarytexts,butanelusiveapproachtogovernmentthattheworldfinallyfoundmanifestinAmerica,andLouisiana.Iclosebyquotingfrommylastletter,writtenafewweeksbeforemydeathin1826:"Alleyesareopenoropeningtotherightsofman.Thegradualspreadofthelightofsciencehasalreadylaidopentoeveryviewthepalpabletruththatthemassofmankindwerenotbornwithsaddlesontheirbacks,norafavoredfewbootedandspurred,readytoridethemlegitimatelybythegraceofGod.Letthisbethegroundofhopeforothers."2

Thankyouverymuch.

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CONTRIBUTORSBruceBabbittservedasgovernorofArizonafrom1978to1987.Hewasacandidateforthe1988Democraticpresidentialnomination,currentlypracticeslawinPhoenix,andlecturesandwritesontheAmericanWest.

PhilipM.BurgessisthedirectoroftheCenterfortheNewWest,anindependent,nonprofitresearchandconsultingorganization.TheCenterfocusesonpublicpolicyandstrategiesforeconomicdevelopmentintheWest.

AdrianHerminioBustamantehasaPh.D.fromtheUniversityofNewMexicoinAmericanstudieswithemphasisonethnohistoryofthesouthwesternUnitedStates.HeistheauthorofvariousarticlesonHispaniclifeinNewMexicoandteachesatSantaFeCommunityCollege,whereheisheadoftheDivisionofArtsandSciences.

CordeliaCandelariaistheauthorofChicanoPoetry:ACriticalIntroduction.SheisanassociateprofessorofEnglishattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder,andassociateprofessorofChicanostudiesfortheuniversity'sCenterforStudiesofEthnicityandRaceinAmerica(CSERA).

DavidL.CarrascoisaprofessorofreligiousstudiesattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.HeistheauthorofQuetzalcoatlandtheIronyofEmpireandReligionsofMesoamerica:CosmovisionCeremonialCenters.

JamesA.CarrierhashadtwoofhisseriesfromTheDenverPost"LettersfromYellowstone"and"JourneyDowntheColorado"publishedinbookform.Hehasbeenajournalistsince1966.

JoClarkisdirectorofprogramsfortheWesternGovernorsAssociation.Herareasofconcentrationincludewater,state-tribalrelations,wastemanagement,andruraldevelopment.

JamesN.Corbridge,Jr.,becamechancelloroftheUniversityofColoradoatBoulderin1986.Aprofessoroflaw,hehaswrittennumerousarticlesonwaterlaw,mininglaw,andrealestateproperty.

EdwardDorn,poetandauthorofHi-Plane,Slinger,andotherbooksofpoetry,isaprofessorofEnglishattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.

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JohnE.EchohawkwasthefirstgraduateoftheUniversityofNewMexico'sspecialprogramtotrainIndianlawyers.HehaslecturedonIndianlawattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,andservesastheexecutivedirectoroftheNativeAmericanRightsFund.

WalterEcho-HawkisaseniorstaffattorneywiththeNativeAmericanRightsFund.liehasreceivednationalrecognitionforhispath-breakingworkoncasesinvolvingreligiousfreedomofAmericanIndians,prisonerrights,waterrights,andNativereburialrights.

SallyK.FairfaxisaprofessorintheCollegeofNaturalResources,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.Theco-author,withSamuelDana,ofForestandRangePolicy,herarticle"BeyondtheSagebrushRebellion:EmergingPatternsinPublicDomainFederalism"appearedintheEcologyLawQuarterly.

ThomasHornsbyFerrilispoetlaureateofColoradoandauthorofnumerousbooksofpoetry.

EstevanT.FloresisanassistantprofessorofsociologyandCSERA'sChicanostudiesresearchcoordinatorattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.Hehaspublishedin,amongothers,theInternationalMigrationReviewandtheHispanicJournalofBehavioralScience.

DavidH.Getches,professoroflaw,haswrittenextensivelyonwaterlaw,Indianlaw,environmentallaw,andpublic-landlaw.HeeditedWaterandtheAmericanWest,isco-authorofFederalIndianLawandWaterResourcesManagement,andwasafoundingdirectoroftheNativeAmericanRightsFund.

CamilleGuerin-GonzalezisanassistantprofessorofhistoryspecializinginlaborandimmigrationhistoryatOberlinCollege.Sheisaco-authorofPoliticsofImmigrantWorkersandtheauthorofProletariansintheGarden:MexicanWageLaborinCaliforniaAgriculture.

WilliamH.HornbyisasenioreditorofTheDenverPost.Inadditiontoextensivenewsexperience,heisadirectoroftheBuffaloBillHistoricalCenter,Cody,Wyoming,andapastchairmanoftheboardoftheColoradoHistoricalSociety.

EvelynHu-Dehartistheauthorof"ImmigrantstoaDevelopingSociety:TheChineseinNorthernMexico,1875-1932,"JournalofArizonaHistory,amongotherarticles.SheisdirectorofCSERAandaprofessorofhistoryattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.

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ThomasJeffersonwasthethirdpresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

ClayStrausJenkinsonisaRhodesscholarcurrentlyworkingonhisPh.D.inclassicalstudies.Since1981hehasdirectedtheGreatPlainsChautauqua,atravelinghumanitiestentshow.Amongotherachievements,heportraysThomasJefferson.

RaymondDeanJones,agraduateoftheHarvardLawSchool,isajudgeoftheColoradoCourtofAppeals.

DanielKemmisisthemayorofMissoula,Montana;seniorfellowandprojectdirectorfortheNorthernLightsResearchandEducationInstitute;andaformerMontanastatelegislator.Hehasworked,boththeoreticallyandpractically,oncommunitybuildingandistheauthorofCommunityandthePoliticsofPlace.

WilliamKittredgeisaprofessorofEnglishattheUniversityofMontana.HehaswrittennumerousworksofWesternfictionandnonfiction,someofwhicharecollectedinOwningItAllandWeAreNotinThisTogether.Heisco-editorofTheLastBestPlace:AnAnthologyofMontanaLiterature.

PatriciaNelsonLimerickisanassociateprofessorofhistory,specializinginthehistoryoftheAmericanWest,attheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.SheisauthorofLegacyofConquestandDesertPassages.

BetsyMarston,agraduateoftheColumbiaUniversityGraduateSchoolofJournalism,workedintheEastasatelevisionnewsproducerpriortomovingtotheWestin1975.Sheiseditoroftheaward-winningbimonthlynewspaperHighCountryNews.

EdwinH.MarstonwasaprofessorofphysicsbeforeturningtojournalismintheRockyMountains.HefoundedtheNorthForkTimes

in1975,theWesternColoradoReportin1982,andsince1983hasbeenpublisherofHighCountryNews.

PeterF.Michelson,authorofPacificPlainsong,isassociateprofessorofEnglishandcreativewritingattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.

CharlesR.MiddletonisdeanofartsandsciencesattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.Heisaprofessorofhistory,specializinginnineteenth-centuryBritishsocialandpoliticalhistory.

RichardMisrach,authorofDesertCantosandBravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest,hasusedhisskillsasaphotographertodocument,study,andappraisenatureandhumannatureintheAmericanWest.

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ThomasJ.Noelisco-authorofDenver:TheCityBeautifulandItsArchitectsandColorado:AHeritageoftheHighestState.HieisaprofessorofhistoryattheUniversityofColoradoatDenver,andin1987receivedHistoricDenver,Inc.'sAwardofHonor.

WallaceStegner,authorofmorethanthirtybooks,istheJacksonElyReynoldsProfessorofHumanitiesatStanfordUniversity,wherehefoundedtheStanfordWritingProgram.

BarbaraSudler,athird-generationDenverite,servedfortenyearsasthepresidentoftheColoradoHistoricalSociety.SheisaboardmemberoftheAmericanAntiquarianSociety.

MarkTrahant,formereditorandpublisheroftheNavajoTimesTodayandreporterfortheArizonaRepublic,isnoweditingandpublishingtheweeklyNavajoNationToday.Heisco-authoroftheawardwinning"FraudinIndianCountry,"aneight-partseriesonfederalIndianprograms.

CharlesF.WilkinsonistheMosesLaskyProfessorofLawattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.HisbooksincludeAmericanIndians,TimeandtheLaw;TheAmericanWest:ANarrativeBibliographyandaStudyinRegionalism;andTheEagleBird:SearchingforanEthicofPlace.

TerryTempestWilliamsisnaturalist-in-residenceattheUtahMuseumofNaturalHistory,UniversityofUtah.Shewasprojectdirectorfor"NavajoStorytelling:PerceptionsofCultureandLandscape,"1983-1985.HerbooksincludePiecesofWhiteShell,TheSecretLanguageofSnow,andCoyote'sCanyon.

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NOTES

PARTONEHolthaus,etal.

1.JosephWoodKrutch,MoreLivesThanOne(NewYork:WilliamSloanAssociates,1962),p.211.

PARTTWOJenkinson

1.MarshaltoC.C.Pinckney,March4,1801,quotedinDumasMaloneJeffersonthePresident:TheFirstTerm,1801-1805(Boston:LittleBrownPublishers,1970),p.22.

2.ThomasJefferson,AutobiographyofThomasJefferson,1743-1790(NewYork:G.P.Putnam'sSons,1914).

3.JeffersontoduPontdeNemours,March2,1809,inTheWritingsofThomasJefferson,Vol.12,eds.AndrewA.LipscombandAlbertElleryBergh(Washington,D.C.:ThomasJeffersonMemorialAssociation,1903),pp.259-260.

4.MerrillPeterson,ed.,ThePortableThomasJefferson(NewYork:PenguinBooks,1975),p.217.

5.ThomasPaine,CommonSense,ed.IsaacKramnik(London:PenguinBooks,1976),p.120.

6.JeffersontoJamesMadison,January30,1787,inPortable,p.417.

7.JeffersontoMadison,September6,1789,inPortable.

PARTTHREELimerick

1.DonaldWorster,etal.,"LegacyofConquest,byPatriciaNelsonLimerick:APanelofAppraisal,"WesternHistoricalQuarterly20,no.3(August1989),p.305.

Williams

2.LutherStandingBear,LandoftheSpottedEagle(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1933),p.26.

3.TerryTempestWilliams,PiecesofWhiteShell:AJourneytoNavajoland(NewYork:Scribner's,1984),pp.4-5.

4.D.11.Lawrence,"IntroductiontoStudiesinClassicAmericanLiterature,"TheEnglishReview,Vol.XXVII,July-December1918(November1918),p.330.

5.HermanMelville,MobyDick(NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1950),p.69.

6.Lawrence,"IntroductiontoStudiesinClassicAmericanLiterature,"p.331.

7.PortlandOregonian,June7,1988.

Page252

8.RalphWaldoEmerson,"TheAmericanScholar,"inAmericanLiteratureSurvey,Vol.2TheAmericanRomantics,1800-1860,eds.MiltonR.SternandSeymourL.Gross(NewYork:VikingPress,1962),p.285.

W.Echo-Hawk

9.FelixS.Cohen,"TheErosionofIndianRights,1950-1953:ACaseStudyinBureaucracy,"TheYaleLawJournal62,no.3(February1953),p.390.

10.VirginiaIrvingArmstrong,IlaveSpoken:AmericanHistoryThroughtheVoicesoftheIndians(Chicago:SageBooks,TheSwallowPress,1971),pp.xi-xii.

11.ChiefSeattle,"TheWhiteManWillNeverBeAlone,"inLiteratureoftheAmericanIndian,eds.ThomasE.SandersandWalterW.Peek(BeverlyHills,Calif.:GlencoePress,1973),pp.284-285.

Flores

12.JamesCoates,BoulderDailyCamera,January15,1989,p.4A.

Kemmis

13.RobinsonJeffers,"ShinePerishingRepublic,"inRoanStallion,TamarandOtherPoems(NewYork:HoraceLiveright,1925),p.95.

14.JohnWinthrop,"AModellofChristianCharitywrittenonboardtheArabellaontheAtlanticOcean1630,"CollectionsoftheMassachusettsHistoricalSocietyVol.27(Boston:CharlesC.Little&JamesBrown,1838),p.47.

15.WendellBerry,"WorkSong,"inClearing(NewYork&London:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1977),p.32.

PARTFOURKittredge

1.GaeWhitneyCanfield,SarahWinnemuccaoftheNorthernPaiutes(Norman,Okla.:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1983),pp.47-48.

2.JaroldRamsey,ed.,CoyoteWasGoingThere-IndianLiteratureoftheOregonCountry(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,1977),p.229.

3.Canfield,SarahWinnemucca,pp.60-61.

4.D.1-.Lawrence,IntroductiontoBottomDogs,byEdwardDahlberg(SanFrancisco:CityLightsBooks,1961),p.viii.

5.Lawrence,IntroductiontoBottomDogs,p.x.

Clark

6.StewartL.Udall,"PausingatthePass:ReflectionsofaNativeSon,"inBeyondtheMythicWest,StewartL.Udall,etal.(SaltLakeCity:PeregrineSmithBooksinAssociationwiththeWesternGovernor'sAssociation,1990),p.20.

Carrasco

7.WilliamKittredge,"OwningItAll,"inOwningItAll(St.Paul:GraywolfPress,1987),pp.55-56.

8.WilliamKittredge,IntroductiontoMontanaSpaces'EssaysandPhotographsin

Page253

CelebrationofMontana,ed.WilliamKittredge(NewYork:NickLyonsBooks,1988),p.xv.

9.Kittredge,"OwningItAll,"p.58.

10.ReneGirard,ViolenceandtheSacred,trans.PatrickGregory(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1977),p.31.

11.Kittredge,"OwningItAll,"p.61.

12.Kittredge,"OwningItAll,"p.57.

13.PaulWheatley,"CityAsSymbol,"inaugurallecture(London:UniversityofLondon,1967),p.9.

14.ThomasWolfe,OfTimeandtheRiver:ALegendofMan'sHungerinHisYouth(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1935),pp.415-417.

Misrach

15.RichardMisrach,textfor"SnowCanyonStatePark,Utah,1987,"InRichardMisrach:Photographs1985-1987(Tokyo:GalleryMIN,1988).

16.RichardMisrach,textfor"ThePit,"atravelingphotographyexhibition(1987).

PARTFIVEBabbitt

1.16U.S.C.21(1982).

2.ActofMarch3,1891,ch.561,24Stat.1103,repealedby16U.S.C.471(1982).

3.FrankBurtFreidel,FranklinD.Roosevelt,Vol.4'Launchingthe

NewDeal(Boston:Little,Brown,1952),p.352.

4.16U.S.C.528(1982).

Corbridge

5.WallaceStegner,TheSoundofMountainWater(NewYork.E.P.Dutton,1980),p.13.

6.DavidH.Getches,"PuttingaWesternBrandonLegalEducation,"paperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheMid-ContinentAssociationofLawSchools(Keystone,Colo.,July28,1986).

7.PaulT.Bryant,"WesternLiterature:AWindowonAmerica,"paperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheCollegeEnglishAssociation(SanAntonio,March31-April2,1977).

8.PhilipD.Ortego,"WhichSouthwesternLiteratureandCultureintheEnglishClassroom?"ArizonaEnglishBulletin13,no.3(1971),pp.15-17.

9.FredErisman,"WesternRegionalismandAwarenessofPlace,"paperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheNationalCouncilofTeachersofEnglish(SanFrancisco,November22-24,1979).

10.CharlesF.Wilkinson,"LawandtheAmericanWest:TheSearchforanEthicofPlace,"UniversityofColoradoLawReview59,no.3(1988),pp.401-425.

Gucrin-Gonzalez

11.JohnWinthrop,"AModellofChristianCharity,"inWinthropPapers,Vol2,

Page254

1623-1630,ed.StewartMitchell(Boston:TheMassachusettsHistoricalSociety),p.295.

PARTSIXStegner

1.MarkTwain,TheMysteriousStranger:ARomance(NewYork&London:Harper&BrothersPublishers,1916),p.150.

PARTSEVENJenkinson

1.JeffersontoCol.WilliamS.Smith,November13,1787,inTheWritingsofThomasJefferson,Vol.6,eds.AndrewA.LipscombandAlbertElleryBergh(Washington,D.C.:ThomasJeffersonMemorialAssociation,1903),pp.372-373.

2.JeffersontoRogerC.Weightman,June24,1826,inWritings,Vol.16,pp.181-182.

Page255

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Clark,WalterVanTilburg.TheOx-BowIncident.NewYork:ThePressoftheReadersClub,1942.

Dahlberg,Edward.BottomDogs.SanFrancisco:CityLightsBooks,1961.

Girard,Rene.ViolenceandtheSacred.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1977.

Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich.ThePhilosophyofHistory.TranslatedbyJ.Sibree.NewYork:WilleyBookCo.,1944.

Heilbroner,RobertL.TheFutureAsHistory:TheHistoricCurrentsofOurTuneandtheDirectioninWhichTheyAreTakingAmerica.NewYork:Harper,1960.

Hopkins,SarahWinnemucca.LifeAmongthePaiutesTheirWrongsandClaims.NewYork:G.P.Putnam'sSons,1883.

Illich,Ivan.DeschoolingSociety.NewYork:Harper&Row,1971.

Jackson,KennethT.CrabgrassFrontier:TheSuburbanizationoftheUnitedStates.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1985.

Jeffers,Robinson.RoanStallion,TamarandOtherPoems.NewYork:

HoraceLiveright,1925.

Jefferson,Thomas.AutobiographyofThomasJefferson,1743-1790.NewYork:G.P.PutnamsSons,1914.

Jefferson,Thomas.NotesontheStateofVirginia.NewYork:Harper&Row,1964.

Kittredge,William.OwningItAll.St.Paul:GraywolfPress,1987.

Kittredge,William,andSmith,Annick,eds.TheLastBestPlace,AMontanaAnthology.Helena:MontanaHistoricalSociety,1988.

Krutch,JosephWood.TheModernTemper:AStudyandaConfession.NewYork:Harcourt,BraceandWorld,1956.

Krutch,JosephWood.MoreLivesThanOne.NewYork:WilliamSloanAssociates,1962.

Limerick,PatriciaNelson.LegacyofConquest:TheUnbrokenPastoftheAmericanWest.NewYork:Norton,1987.

Lipscomb,AndrewA.,andAlbertElleryBergh,eds.TheWritingsofThomasJefferson.20volumes.Washington,D.C.:ThomasJeffersonMemorialAssociation,1903.

Misrach,Richard.Bravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990.

Mitchell,LeeClark.WitnesstoaVanishingAmericaTheNineteenth-CenturyResponse.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1981.

Morris,CharlesR.''TheComingGlobalBoom."TheAtlantic,October1989,pp.51-64.

Nichols,John.TheMilagroBeanfieldWar.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart,andWinston,1974.

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Peterson,Merrill,ed.ThePortableThomasJefferson.NewYork:PenguinBooks,1975.

Powell,JohnW.ReportontheLandsoftheAridRegionoftheUnitedStates,ExecutiveDocumentNo.73,45thCongress,2dSession.Cambridge:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,1962.

StandingBear,Luther.LandoftheSpottedEagle.Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1933.

Stegner,Wallace.BeyondthehundredthMeridian:JohnWesleyPowelandtheSecondOpeningoftheWest.Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1954.

Stegner,Wallace.TheBigRockCandyMountain.NewYork:SagamorePress,1943.

Stegner,Wallace.TheSoundofMountainWater.NewYork:E.P.Dutton,1980.

Turner,FrederickW.BeyondGeography:TheWesternSpiritAgainsttheWilderness.NewYork:VikingPress,1985.

Udall,StewartI.,etal.BeyondtheMythicWest.SaltLakeCity:PeregrineSmithBooksinassociationwiththeWesternGovernorsAssociation,1990.

Weatherford,J.McIver.IndianGiversHowtheIndiansoftheAmericasTransformedtheWorld.NewYork:CrownPublishers,1988.

Wintersv.UnitedStates,207U.S.564(1908).

Wolfe,Thomas.OfTimeandtheRiverALegendofMan'sHungerin

HisYouth.NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1935.

Worster,DonaldE.DustBowlTheSouthernPlainsinthe1930s.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1979.

Worster,DonaldE.RiversofEmpireWater,Aridity,andtheGrowthoftheAmericanWest.NewYork:PantheonBooks,1986.

Page257

INDEX

AAbbey,Edward,191-92

TheMonkeyWrenchGang,192

Abundance,98,107

Adams,Ansel,135-36

Agriculture,98-113

ThomasJeffersonon,23-24

SeealsoFarmers;Settlement

AmericanPlanningAssociation,121

Aridity,219-21,224,226-28

SeealsoWater

Art.SeeWesternart

Asians.SeeChinese;Culturaldiversity

Athearn,Robert,192

BBabbitt,Bruce,5,9

BannockWar,103

Bargin,Doc,146

Baudrillard,Jean,135

Beebe,Vance,112

Benton,ThomasHart,222

Berry,Wendell

TheUnsettlingofAmerica,85

"WorkSong,"90

Blacks.SeeCulturaldiversity;Slavery

Brownridge,Dennis,119

Bryant,Paul,191

Buffon,ComteGeorges-LouisLeclercde,244-46

BureauofLandManagement(BLM),165-66,168,203

BureauofReclamation,165,167-69,226

Burgess,PhilipM.,4,242

Bush,George,132

Bustamante,AdrianHerminio,5-6

CCaliforniaRuralLegalAssistance(CRLA),203-4

CaliforniaTomorrow,74

CaptainJack,103

Carrasco,DavidL.,7-8,241

Carrier,JamesA.,4-5

Carryingcapacity,116-19,135-52

CenteroftheAmericanWest,symposiaat,3-10

Chavez,Linda,73

Chinese,imagesoftheWestofimmigrant,69-70

Chona,Maria,52

Cities,89,114,128-30,226

SeealsoUrbanity

Clark,Jo,6

CleanAirAct(1977),178

Coddington,Dean,175

Cohen,FelixS.,62

Communications,187-88

Corbridge,JamesN.,Jr.,10

Coyote(inNavajoculture),58-59

Culturaldiversity,51-60,71-72

developmentand,73-74

DDemocracyintheWest,86-89

SeealsoFreedomandmyths

DesertAct(1871),167

Development,73-74

SeealsoEco-politics;People'sandenvironmentalneeds;Publiclands

Devine,John,102

DeVoto,Bernard,227

Dillingham,Rick,192

Douglass,Henry,102

Dubuis,Bill,203

EEcho-Hawk,Walter,7-8

Economyandtheenvironment,61-64.

SeealsoCarryingcapacity;Development;Eco-politics;Ethicofplace;People'sandenvironmentalneeds;Publiclands

Eco-politics,171-79

SeealsoPubliclands

Education,182-85,187-89,242

SeealsoRegionalismandeducation

Emerson,RalphWaldo,58

Environment,Indianexperienceof,61-68

SeealsoCarryingcapacity;Development;Eco-politics;Ethicofplace;Landandpeople;People'sandenvironmentalneeds;Preservation;Publiclands;Urbanity

Erisman,Fred,192

Ethicofplace,206-7

FFairfax,SallyK.,4-5

Farmers,ThomasJeffersonon,24-25

FederalLandPolicyandManagementAct(FLPMA)(1976),166,204

ForestService,166,168,201-4

Freedomandmyths,194-95

French,Peter,102-4

Page258

GGetches,DavidH.,9,190

Gilpin,William,222

Girard,Rene,ViolenceandtheSacred,127

Glenn,Hugh,101-2,104

GreatWesternSugarCompany,114

GreaterDallasCommunityRelationsCommission,74

GreaterYellowstoneCoalition,187

Grenville,George,82

Guerin-Gonzalez,Camille,8

HHamilton,Alexander,240,246

Hassrick,Peter,45

Hegel,Friedrich,PhilosophyofHistory,83-84

Heilbroner,Robert,TheFutureAsHistory,171-72

HighCountryNews,78-80,198

Hispanics.SeeCulturaldiversity;Development;Westernliterature

HistoryofEuro-AmericanWesternexpansioncivilizationand,83-90

interpreting,43-50

SeealsoWesternhistory

Holmes,Richard,146

Hornby,WilliamH.,7,9,50

Howard,JosephKinsey,86

Humboldt(Nevada)Register,101

IIllich,Ivan,76

ImagesoftheWest,81-82

ofChineseimmigrants,69-70

inpoetry,11-17,34-36,42,93-97,161-62,211-17,230-31

inprose,31-33,159-60

SeealsoAbundance;West

Indians,192-93

conflictbetweenwhitesand,100-3

culturallessonsof,65-68

inNorthDakota(NorthernPaiute),117

imagesof,andwhites,inpoetry,37-41

environment,economy,and,61-64

ThomasJeffersonon,23-24,243

SeealsoCulturaldiversity;Ethicofplace

JJackson,Kenneth,CrabgrassFrontier:TheSuburbanizationoftheUnitedStates,125

Japanese.SeeCulturaldiversity

Jeffers,Robinson,"ShinePerishingRepublic,"89

Jefferson,Thomas,83-84,88-89

interpretedbyClayJenkinson,21-28,235-46

NotesonVirginia,245

John,DeWitt,198

Jones,D.R.,103

Jones,RaymondDean,8-9

Jonesfamily,71

Journalism.SeePresscoverage

KKemmis,Daniel,5,7-8,194-95

Kittredge,William,10,86,114,128-31

andAnnickSmith,TheLastBestPlace,86

OwningItAll,126-27

MontanaSpaces,126

Kittredgefamily,98-100,103-13

Krutch,JosephWood,10

TheModernTemper,3

Kurumadafamily,54-55

LLamm,Richard,186

Landandpeople,126-33

SeealsoPubliclands

Landownership,89-90

SeealsoLandandpeople;Publiclands

Law.SeeWesternlaw

Lawrence,D[avid]H[erbert],56-57,104-5

Limerick,PatriciaNelson,118,192

LegacyofConquest,81,227

Literature.SeeWesternliterature

Lovins,Amory,187

MMadison,James,245

Marcuse,Herbert,195

Marston,EdwinH.,6,10

Melville,Herman,57

Mexico,relationsof,totheAmericanWest,69-70

TheMilagroBeanfieldWar,73

SeealsoNichols,John

MilitaryLandsWithdrawalAct(1986),146

MineralLandsLeasingAct(1920),199

Misrach,Myriam,146,150

Misrach,Richard,Bravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest,146

Mitchell,Lee,WitnessestoaVanishingAmerica,48

ModocWar,103

Muir,John,163-64

Multiple-UseSustained-YieldAct(1960),166

NNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct,68,167

NationalForestManagementAct(1976),166,204

NewlandsAct(1902),167,222

Nichols,John,203

Page259

Noel,ThomasJ.,6-7

OOnLong,Charlie,103

OrganicAct(1960),166

O'Rourke,Jake,111

Ortego,Phillip,191

PPeople'sandenvironmentalneeds,75-80

SeealsoCarryingcapacity;Ecopolitics;Publiclands

PILTsAct(1976),199

Pinchot,Gifford,163

Pine,Steven,132

PlanforGovernmentoftheWesternTerritories(1784),25-26

Politicsofinhabitation,87-89

Populationgrowth.SeeAridity;Urbanity

Powell,JohnWesley,203

ReportontheLandsoftheAridRegion,220

Powell,Lewis,201

Preservation,124-25

Presscoverage,153-56

SeealsoCommunications

Publiclands,163-70

futuremanagementof,andwater,196-205

SeealsoEthicofplace

PyramidLakeWar,101

QQoyawayma,Al,192

RRamsey,Jarold,CoyoteWasGoingThere:IndianLiteratureoftheOregonCountry,102

Reformers,187

Regionalismandeducation,190-93

Resources.SeeDevelopment;Economyandenvironment;Ecopolitics;Environment;Ethicofplace;Publiclands

Roosevelt,FranklinDelano,165

Roosevelt,Theodore,164-65

Ruckelshaus,William,119

Russell,Charlie,126,128

S

SagebrushRebellion,165,197

Savory,Allan,187

Scalia,Antonin,201

Schragg,Peter,57

Schurtz,Carl,104

Seattle(Chief),63-64

Settlement,100-5

Shortbull,Renny,52

Sinner,George,6,117

Slavery,ThomasJeffersonon,25,243

Smith,Annick,86

Smythe,William,222

StandingBear,Luther,51-52,63

Stegner,Wallace,10,50,86,121,190,235

TheBigRockCandyMountain,224

SeealsoWesternliterature

Stegnerfamily,223-24

Sudler,Barbara,9

Sullivan,John,245

TTanton,John,73

TaylorGrazingAct,165

Technology,153-56

SeealsoEcopolitics

Toole,K.Ross,86

Trahant,Mark,9

Turner,FrederickJackson,56,81,84,86,185

BeyondGeography,56

Twain,Mark,TheMysteriousStranger,229

UUdall,Stewart,BeyondtheMythicWest,119

Urbanity,120-23

SeealsoCities

U.S.English,73

WWasteIsolationPilotProject(WIPP),5-6,76-77

Water,166-70,190

SeealsoAridity;Cities;Publiclands

Weatherford,Jack,IndianGwers,66

Webb,WalterPrescott,190,222,226

West,Pat,203

West

culturaldiversityof,51-60,71-74

environmentalstewardshipof,61-64

futureof,180-89

historicalmeaningofEuro-Americanexpansioninto,43-50

historyofcivilizationand,83-90

ideaoffreedomand,194-95

ThomasJefferson'sdreamof,23-28

WallaceStegner'svisionofthefutureof,218-29

SeealsoImagesoftheWest

Westernart,192

WesternGovernors'Association,119

Westernhistory,192,225-26

mythsandboostersin,222-23

SeealsoHistoryofEuro-AmericanWesternexpansion

Westernlaw,190-91,193

Westernliterature,191-92,225

Whcaton,Frank,103

Whites

imagesof,andIndians,inpoetry,37-41

settlementby,100-5

Wilkinson,Churles,118,122,185,190,193

Williams,C.K.,113