A Resource material on education and federalism in …unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002309/230932E.pdf · A Resource Material on Education and Federalism in Nepal 2014. II A Resource

isbn 9789937893206

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Submitted by: Submitted to:

AasamanNepal UNESCOOfficeinKathmandu Dhobighat,Lalitpur Sanepa-2,Lalitpur Nepal Nepal

UNESCO/UNPFN Project:

PlanningEffectiveDeliveryofEducationinFutureFederalNepal

A Resource Material onEducation and Federalism in Nepal

2014

II

A Resource Material onEducation and Federalism in Nepal 2014

AGSR AverageGovernmentSchoolRecurrent

AGSRG AverageGovernmentSchoolRecurrentGrant

ANNFSU AllNepalNationalFreeStudentUnion

ATEOS AssistantThanaEducationOfficers

B.Ed. BachelorsinEducation

BANBEIS BangladeshBureauofEducationalInformationandStatistics

BISE BoardsofIntermediateandSecondaryEducation

CA ConstituentAssembly

CDC CurriculumDevelopmentCentre

CLC CommunityLearningCenter

CPE CompulsoryPrimaryEducation

CPN–UML CommunistPartyofNepal–UnitedMarxistLeninist

DDC DistrictDevelopmentCommittee

DEO DistrictEducationOffice

DNFE DirectorateofNon–FormalEducation

DOE DepartmentofEducation

DPI DirectorateofPublicInstruction

DSHE DirectorateofSecondaryandHigherEducation

EBA EnrollmentBenchmarkAdjustment

ECD EarlyChildhoodDevelopment

ECED EarlyChildhoodEducationandDevelopment

EFA EducationforAll

EFSG EducationandFederalismSupportGroup

EI EducationInternational

EMIS EducationalManagementInformationsystem

EPC EducationPolicyCommittee

FG FederalGovernment

GCE GeneralCertificateofEducation

GDP GrossDomesticProduct

Acronyms

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GOI GovernmentofIndia

GoN GovernmentofNepal

HSEB HigherSecondaryEducationBoard

HSSC HigherSecondarySchoolCertificate

HT HeadTeacher

IBCC InterBoardCommitteeofChairmen

INFEP IntegratedNon-FormalEducationProgram

INGO InternationalNon-GovernmentOrganization

JICA JapanInternationalCo-operativeAgency

KP KhyberPakhtunkhwa

LC LearningCenter

LG LocalGovernment

LiEP LanguageinEducationPolicy

M.Ed. Master’sinEducation

MDG MillenniumDevelopmentGoal

MEIG MultilingualEducationImplementationGuidelines

MLE MultilingualEducation

MOE MinistryofEducation

NAEM NationalAcademyforEducationManagement

NAEM NationalAcademyofEducationManagement

NCED NationalCenterforEducationalDevelopment

NCTB NationalCurriculumandTextbookBoard

NEP NationalEducationPolicy

NER NetEnrolmentRate

NFE Non-FormalEducation

NGO Non-GovernmentalOrganization

NPA NationalPlanofAction

NSS NationalSampleSurvey

NSU NepalStudentUnion

NSW NewSouthWales

PCF PerCapitaFund

PCL ProficiencyCertificateLevel

PE PrimaryEducation

PG ProvincialGovernment

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PMED PrimaryandMassEducationDivision

PRSP PovertyReductionStrategyPaper

PTA ParentsTeachers’Association

RED RegionalEducationDirectorate

RP ResourcePerson

SES Socio-EconomicStatus

SIP SchoolImprovementPlan

SMC SchoolManagementCommittee

SRC StateRestructuringCommittee

SS SchoolSupervisor

SSC SecondarySchoolCertificate

SSRP SchoolSectorReformProgram

STR StudentTeacherRatio

TEVT TechnicalEducationandVocationalTraining

TOR TermsofReference

TPC TeacherPreparationCourse

TSC Teachers’ServiceCommission

TYIP ThreeYearsInterimPlan

UCC UserCostofCapital

UCPN UnitedCommunistPartyofNepal

UGC UniversityGrantCommission

UK UnitedKingdom

UNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram

UNESCO UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization

UNICEF UnitedNationsChildren’sFund

UNPFN UnitedNationsPeaceFundNepal

UPE UniversalPrimaryEducation

US UnitedStates

VAT ValueAddedTax

VDC VillageDevelopmentCommittee

WB WorldBank

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VII

InNepal,thedraftingofthefirstconstitutionoftheFederalRepublicofNepalbytheConstituentAssembly is underway and it is expected to be completed by the end of2014.Duringthewritingprocessoftheconstitution,thequestionofstaterestructuringhasremainedthemostcontestedissue,whichalsoincludesthemodalityoffederalism.ThebenefitsofFederalismare that it canprovide agovernmental form safeguardingagainst the threats of centralized exploitation, historically embedded exclusions anddiscriminationsagainstmarginalizedsectionsofthepopulation.Itisalsoexpectedthatthe federal model of government maintains the decentralized opportunistic behaviorwhilebringingdecisionmakingclosertothepeople.Inthislight,anydiscussionsaboutreformsintheeducationsectorcannotignorethefactthatNepalissoongoingtobecomea federal country.Over last decade, there have been several studies carried outwithregardtothedifferentmodelsandgovernancesystemsintheexpectedfederalsysteminthecountry,includingthedivisionofpowersamongthedifferentlayersofgovernancestructure, between national and local. Such discussions often include, among others,the issues like, decentralized local governance; policies for regional development;coordinationoffiscal policies; resourcedistributions, national security; etc.Althougheducation is the central pillar of newly formed states, it has not beendiscussedwithduecareinNepal.Therefore,UNESCOOfficeinKathmanduhasinitiatedtodevelopamonographserieswhichfocusesondifferentareasofeducation.Thispublicationisoneoftheoutcomesoftheinitiativecompilingsuchmonographsbyeducationexperts.

ThisvolumecontainssixpaperscommissionedbyUNESCOOfficeinKathmandutoigniteandorientthediscussionsoneducationinthecontextoffederalism.Asimilarityoftheherepublishedpapersistheirapproachtoreflectontheexperiencesofotherfederalcountries,aswellas, tooffersomepractical recommendations.However, ithas tobepointed out that these are working-papers.and thus these should be treated rather asdiscussion-paperstoadvancethediscoursesinabroaderrangeandtofurtherrefinetheconceptsandapproach.Inotherwords,thispublicationcanalsobeutilizedasaresourcetoolkit.

ThefirstpaperFederalism and Education in Nepal Mapping of Ongoing Initiatives analyzes the existing education provisions in Nepal as regard to the degree ofdecentralization of education planning and provision. The paper further maps andcriticaly analyses initiatives in the education sector covering all actors, includinggovernment,civilsociety,academia,internationaldevelopmentpartners,andsoon.Thepaperpointsoutthattransitionalplanningmissesinthecurrentdebateabout?educaioninfederalismaswellasintheworkonfederalism,primarilythewaythattheexistingadministrative structures and personnelwill be distributed in the post-federal set up.Furthermore,financialissuesareignoredintheFederalismdebate,includingequitabledistributionofcentralandstateresourcesforequitabledevelopmentofeducationacrossthestatesandlocalgovernments.Furtherworkintheseareaswillbehighlyuseful.

Executive Summary

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The second paper in this volume The Role of the Federal Government in Education—A Comparative Studypresentscasesfromsomeofthefederalcounties,such asBangladesh,Pakistan, India,SouthAfrica,Australia,Canada, theU.S.A, anddiscusseswaystoplaneffectivedeliveryofeducationinafuturefederalstate.Thispaperflagsoutoneofthemostimportantbutchallengingissuesintheprocessofeducationrestructuring, that is, the multilingual, multicultural and multiethnic background ofstudents.Thiswilldemandmuchmoreplanningandnewadjustments to theexistingeducationsystem.Thepaperassumesthattherewillbethreelevelsofgovernmentand,thoughtheywillhaveseparatepowerrelations,theroleandresponsibilitiesoffederalorcentralgovernmentandstategovernmentswillbemoreorlesssame.Nevertheless,inthecaseofstatepoliciesandplanningstategovernmentwillbemorepowerfulthanthefederal/centralgovernment.Basedontheseassumptions,thepaperoffersaframeworkfortherolesandresponsibilitiesofdifferentlevelsofstakeholdersinthefuturefederalstates.

The third paper Teacher Management and Development in Federal System of Government in Nepalofferssomeevidence-basedinformationonteachermanagementanddevelopmentforpublicschoolsystem.Thispaperarguesthatthenewconstitutionshouldincorporateaseparatesectionorarticlesfortheeducation,explicitlymaintainingthat everychild shallhave the right toget freeeducationup to secondary level fromprofessionally qualified and trained teachers. Further, it suggestthat the local bodiesshouldhaveauthoritytorecruitandappointteachersfromamongthequalifiedandtrainedcandidates certifiedbyTeacherServiceCommission.Thepaper recommends that thecentralgovernmentshouldprovidetheoveralleducationalpolicyguidelinesaswellasdeterminationofminimumnormsofstandardforteachermanagementanddevelopment.

The fourth paperFree and Compulsory Education in Federal Nepal concerns thesuccessful implementation of free and compulsory education, which may demand astrong political commitment, consensus and active participation from and among alleducationstakeholders.Thepaperarguesthatwhilethecentralgovernmentdevelopsabroadpolicyframe,thestatesorprovincesshouldconsidersocio-economicandculturalfactorsforitseffectiveimplementationatthelocallevel.

ThefifthpaperFinancing Education in Nepal under the Federal Systemtalksaboutthefinancingeducation.Underliningtheneedforrestructuringtheeducationalinstitutionsfollowingtherestructuringofthestate,thepaperforewarnstheissuesandchallengesoffinancingeducation.Itsuggeststoreformthepublicsectorfinancing.

The sixth paper Education in a Federal Context in Nepal proposes two sets ofprincipals,firstageneralonewhichbasicallydealswiththeeffectivedecentralizationpolicy,forwhichfederalismisonemodel;second,aparticularonethatrelatingtothereal issuesofensuringqualityeducationaccessedbyall in theneweducationsysteminthefederalstructure.Thepaperdiscussesthedifferentlayersofgoverningstructuresand their possible roles and responsibilities, concerning themanagement of teachers,thefinancingofeducation,theplanningresponsibilities,inparticular;andemphasizes

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theneedforcapacitybuildinginalllevels.Thepapergivesanearlywarningthatifthecapacitybuildingatalllevelsisnotwell-thought-out,thewholeeducationadministrationoffederalNepalrisksanearlyfailure.Capacitybuildingis,asthepaperargues,muchmorethanthetraining.

This evidence-based publication is developed to be used in different workshops.tobroadenthediscussion,deepeningtheunderstandingandgeneratingmoreinsightswithregardtotheeducationsysteminNepal.

Atthesametime,thepapersprovidesomerecommendationsfortheexpertsandpolicy-makersintheeducationfield..Wehopethatthispublicationservesasahandyreferencetoolfordiscussionsintheeducationalsectorinrelationtofederlaism.

Aasaman Nepal

Dhobighat,LalitpurSeptember,2014

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UNESCOOfficeinKathmanduisimplementingaproject,“PlanningEffectiveDeliveryofEducationinFutureFederalNepal”undertheUNPeaceFundNepal.TheprojectaimstocontributetoNepal’speaceanddevelopmentprocessbyfosteringaconstructivedialogueandplanningleadingtoprogresstheconstitutionmaking.Themainfocusofthisprojectistofocusontheeffectivedeliveryofeducationalservicesandtheirinclusivenaturesinthe future federal structure. The project provides technical assistance for analysis andplanningneededbythenewfederalgovernmentbodiesinvolved,toguaranteequalitybasiceducationservicesbasedonhumanrights,socialinclusionandnon-discrimination.

ToinitiatethedialogueonEducationandFederalisminNepal,UNESCOhascarriedouta research series on different areas of education.Based on that, thematic papersweredeveloped for further discussion with different stakeholders. This publication is thecompilationofsuchresearch-basedthematicpapers.

Various persons have contributed to make this publication possible. In this regard, wewould like to express our sincere gratitude to members of Education and FederalismSupportGroup –Dr. ShreeramLamichhane,Dr. PramodBhatta,Dr.YogendraYadava, Dr. Mahesh Nath Parajuli, Dr. Tanka Sharma, Dr. Arbinda Lal Bhomi, Dr. BhubanBajrachaya,Dr.RajendraSuwal,Dr.SushanAcharya,Dr.LavaDeoAwasthi,Dr.BidhyaNathKoirala,Dr.ShivaRajLohani,Dr.TirthaRajParajuli,Mr.TeerthaDhakal,Mr.RamBalakSingh,andMr.SudarshanSigdel

WewouldalsoliketothankDr.SureshDhakal,Mr.DhrubaRajRegmi,Mr.TapRajPant,Mr. Deergha Narayan Shrestha andMr. Dhruba Chhetri for their support tomake thispublicationpossible.

Aasaman NepalDhobighat,LalitpurPhone:00977-01-5552127Email:[email protected];[email protected]:www.aasamannepal.org.np

Acknowledgements

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.aasamannepal.org.np

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Acronyms II

Executive Summary V

Acknowledgements VIII

1. Federalism and Education in Nepal: Mapping of On-going activities 1-12

1.1 Back Ground 3

1.2 Initiatives related to Federalism and Education in Nepal 3

A. InitiativesatthePoliticalFront 3

PoliticalpartymanifestosforCAelections 4

WorkdonethroughtheCAProcess,2008–2012 5

B. InitiativesattheAcademicFront 6

C. InitiativesthroughtheGovernment 6

D. InitiativesfromNon-StateOrganizations 7

1.3 Conclusions and Recommendations 8

2. The Role of Federal Government in Education: A comparative Study (Bangladesh,Pakistan,India,SouthAfrica,Australia,Canada,TheUSA) 13-48

2.1 The Role of the Federal Government in Education— A Comparative Study 15

2.2 Case Study 16

a)Bangladesh 16

b)Pakistan 21

c)India 26

d)SouthAfrica 29

e)Australia 31

f)Canada 31

g)TheU.S.A. 32

2.3 The Nepali Context 36

2.4 Conclusion and Recommendations 38

Table of content

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3. Teacher Management and Development in Federal System of Government in Nepal 55-75

Executive Summary 56

3.1 Background 57

3.2 Teacher Management and Development: The Present Practices and Identification of Issues/Questions to be Addressed 60

3.2.1RecruitmentandAppointmentofTeachersinCommunity SchoolsandCommunityManagedSchools 60

a)PresentPractice 60

b)PolicyDirectionsinSchoolSectorReformPlan2009-2015 60

c)IssuesPertainingtoTeacherRecruitmentandAppointmentin FederalGovernment 61

d)PerspectivesofReferenceGroups 62

Option1:EstablishmentofNationalTeacherServiceCommission 62

Option2:EstablishmentofStateTeacherServiceCommission 62

Option3:RecruitmentandAppointmentofTeachersatCommunity ManagedSchools 62

Option4:RecruitmentandAppointmentofTeachersbyLocalBodies 63

3.2.2PromotionLadder/ProfessionalCareerPathsforTeachersin CommunitySchoolsandCommunityManagedSchools 63


b)ProvisionofProfessionalCareerPathsforTeachersintheSSRP 63

c)IssuesRelatedtoTeacherPromotion 64

d)PerspectivesoftheReferenceGroups 64

3.2.3TeacherPreparation 65


b)ProvisionofTeacherPreparationinSSRP 65

c)IssuesRelatedtoTeacherPreparation 65


3.2.4TeacherProfessionalDevelopment 66


b)TeacherProfessionalDevelopmentinSSRP 66

c)IssuesRelatedtoTeacherDevelopment 67

d)PerspectiveoftheReferenceGroups 67

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3.2.5PerformanceMonitoringandEvaluationofTeachers 68


b)ProvisionofPerformanceMonitoringofTeachersinSSRP 68

c)IssuesPertainingtoPerformanceMonitoringofTeachers 69


3.2.6AmenitiestotheTeachers 69


b)IssuesinRelationtoProvidingAmenitiestotheTeachers 70

c)PerspectivesoftheReferenceGroups 70

3.3 Perspectives of Reference Groups on Other Aspects 70

3.4 Teacher Management and Development in Selected Countries 71

3.4.1ConstitutionalProvisionsforTeachers 71

3.4.2ExistingPracticesofTeacherManagementandDevelopmentin SelectedCountries 71

a) CriticalIssuesandNeedforPolicyOptionsPertainingto TeacherManagementinIndia 71

b) TeacherManagementandDevelopmentinBrazil 72

3.5 Conclusion and Suggestions 73

3.5.1Conclusion 73

3.5.2Suggestions 73

a)ProvisionsforTeachersintheConstitution 73

b)TeacherRecruitment,AppointmentandPromotion 74

c)TeacherPreparation 74

d)TeacherProfessionalDevelopment 74

e)MonitoringofTeachers’Performance 74

f)AmenitiestotheTeachers 74

References 75

4. Free and Compulsory Education in Federal Nepal 77-86 Abstract 78 4.1 Introduction 79

4.2 Free and Compulsory Education in Nepal 79

4.3 Trends and Current Practice in Free and Compulsory Education in Nepal 80

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4.4 Free and Compulsory Education in Some Selected Countries 82

4.5 Free and Compulsory Education in Nepal: Pertinent Concerns 84

Conceptversuspracticality 84

Schoolandcommunitylevel 84

Provinciallevel 85

Centrallevel 85

4.6 Free and Compulsory Education in Nepal: Available Options 86

5. Financing Education in Nepal under the Federal System 89-110

Abstract 90

5.1 Introduction 92

5.2 Overview of Education Financing 93

5.3 Current Situation and Issues 95

5.4 Experiences from other countries 102

5.4.1ExperienceofIndia 102

5.4.2ExperienceofAustralia 103

5.4.3Experienceofothercountries 108

5.5 Conclusion and Recommendations 108

5.5.1Conclusion 108

5.5.2Recommendations 108

a)BasicEducation 108

b)SecondaryEducation 109

c)HigherEducation 109

d)Technicalandvocationaleducation 109

6. Education in a Federal Context in Nepal 111-130

6.1 Context and principles 113

6.1.1Context 113

6.1.2Principles 114

Generalprinciplesforeffectivedecentralization 115

Principlesunderlyingthechoiceofoptions 115

Generalrulesaboutdistributionofresponsibilities 116

FederationList 116

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ProvincialList 116

CommonList(fortheFederationandProvinces) 116

LocalAreasList 116

AutonomousAreasList 116

Federation 117

Province 117

Local 117

6.2 Planning and management of education: options for evolution under a Federal system 118

6.2.1Teachermanagementingovernmentfundedschools 118

6.2.2Financialmanagementofeducation 121

6.2.3Policy-makingandstrategicplanning 125

6.2.4Roleofcentralgovernment 127

6.2.5Consequencesforcapacitydevelopment 130

1

Federalism and Education in Nepal: Mapping of On-going activities

Dr. Pramod Bhatta

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1.1 Background

After the second people’smovement in 2007,Nepal has been declared a federalrepublic but the details of the federal structure, including the delineation ofcomponent states and the roles, responsibilities and authorities to be granted to

themareyettobecarved.Thereisalsolittleapparentpreparationtodeviseeffectiveservicedeliverymechanisms in the context of federalism in case of sectors such as education,the responsibility for whose delivery has traditionally rested with the central state.Concomitantly,thereisalsoscarceconsolidatedknowledge/informationontheinitiatives/activities that havebeen conducted thus far byvariousorganizations and individuals inpreparingforfederalism.

IntherecentlyconcludedsecondelectionstothehistoricConstituentAssembly,allpoliticalpartieshavereaffirmedtheircommitmenttothetimelypromulgationofanewconstitutionwithfederalismandstaterestructuringatthecoreoftheircommitment.However,despitethepoliticalrhetoricofstrongcommitmenttoensuringeducationrights,therehasalwaysbeenweakpoliticalengagementwiththedetailsofeducationsystem,includingtheissueofhowstate restructuringalongfederal lineswillensureamoreequitable,efficientandeffectivedeliveryofeducationprovision.Insuchacontext,thisstudyhasaimedtomapoutwhatbeeninitiatedthusfarintheeducationsectorwithrespecttopreparingforfederalism.

1.2. Initiatives related to Federalism and Education in Nepal

Attheoutset,itshouldbepointedoutthatanumberofinitiativeshavebeentakenbyvariousagenciesandactorstofurtherthedialogueanddebateontheprovisionofeducationinafederalsetup,especiallyafterthehistoricelectionstothefirst

Constituent Assembly (CA) in 2008. These initiatives can be broadly categorized asfollows:Initiativesatthepoliticalfront;initiativesattheacademicfront;andinitiativesofnon-stateorganizations (including internationaldevelopmentpartnerorganizations).Therestofthischapterfocusesondescribingtheseinitiatives.

A. Initiatives at the Political Front

Perhapsthemostsignificantdialoguerelatedtofederalismandeducationhasbeenthroughthemajorpoliticalparties,andthroughtheirrepresentationintheCAprocess.Someworkontheissuehasalsobeendonethroughpoliticalparties’sisterorganizations,primarilythestudentorganizationssuchastheAllNepalnationalFreeStudentUnion(ANNFSU,affiliatedtotheCPN-UML)whichhadconductedathree-daynationaldialogueonthefutureeducationpolicy in theFederal set up, and theNepalStudentUnion (NSU, affiliated to theNepaliCongress)whichhad alsodone a similar exercise. It has beendifficult to track the exactoutcomesofsuchproceedingsbecausenopublisheddocumentswereproducedinthecourse.

Political party manifestos for CA elections

PerhapsthemostimportantworkrelatedtoeducationinthefederalsetupcanbeseenintheCAelectionmanifestosofthepoliticalpartiesfortheCAelectionsin2008.Themain


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agendasofthemajorpoliticalpartiesrelatedtotheprovisionofeducationaresummarizedinTable1below.Ascanbeseen,all themajorpoliticalpartieshaveenvisageda three-tier federal governance structure and have envisaged specific education-related rolesand responsibilities for central, state and local governments, with education seen as acollaborativeresponsibilityandrightofallthreetiers.However,moreexplicitprovisionsrelated tofederalismare in thecontextofhighereducationonly,andthemajorpoliticalpartieshavenotmentionedspecificallyabouthowschooleducationwillbemanaged inthefederalcontext,otherthanstatingthateducationuptosecondary(orhighersecondary)levelwillbeprovidedfreeandbeensuredasafundamentalright.

Table 1: Provision of education in the election manifestos of major political parties, CA election 2008

Fromtheabovetable,itcanbeseenthatallpoliticalpartiesarecommittedtotheensuringeducationasafundamentalright.However,itshouldbenotedthatthisprovisionhasalreadybeenenshrined in the InterimConstitution2007.Politicalparties are also committed toequitabledistributionofeducationinstitutions(particularlyhighereducationinstitutions),provisionoftechnicalandvocationaleducation,andbridgingthegapbetweenpublicand

Political party Major agendas in 2008 Major agendas in 2013

UCPN (Maoist)

A three tier governance structureconsistingofCentral,ProvincialandLocalgovernments;roleofcentralgovernment—central universities; role of state and localgovernment—education.AtleastoneuniversitywillbeestablishedineachstateandtheworkareasoffederalandstateuniversitieswillbeclearlydelineatedEstablishmentof technicaluniversitiesandpromotionofresearch

At least one university will beestablished in each state andthe work areas of federal andstate universities will be clearlydelineatedUniversities will be promoted assitesforresearch-basededucation

NepaliCongress

A two-tier governance structure consistingof Central and Provincial governmentswith autonomous local government (notclearwhethertwo-tierorthree-tier);roleofcentralgovernment—notclear;roleofstateandlocalgovernment—publiceducation.Establishment of poly-technic universitiesinthemidandfarwestregions.

Establishment of at least oneuniversity in each state andprovisionofopenuniversityPromulgation of an umbrella actin higher education to facilitateestablishment of private andcommunityuniversitiesProcess of affiliation will bemanagedbettertoensurequalityofhighereducation

CPM-UML

A three tier governance structureconsistingofCentral,ProvincialandLocalgovernments;roleofcentralgovernment—central universities; role of state and localgovernment—publiceducation.Establishmentofpoly-technicuniversitiesEstablishmentofuniversitiesinthefarwestandothereducationallybackwardareas

Noexplicitprovision

Madheshi JanaadhikarForumNepal

Promotionofatleastoneuniversityineachstateorprovince

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privateeducationinstitutions.Insum,itcanbeseenthatwhiletheelectionmanifestosofallpoliticalpartieshavemadesomementionofeducation,thisismostlywithrespecttoequityissuesratherthanfederalismperse.Interestingly,theworkofthepastCAprocessisnotreflectedinthenewelectionmanifestosforthesecondCA.

Work done through the CA Process, 2008–2012

Other than the electionmanifestos, themost significantwork related to educationwascarriedoutthroughthepastCAthatwasdissolvedin2012withoutpromulgatingthenewconstitution.ForthepurposeofdraftingthenewconstitutionforfederalNepal,theCAhadformed11subjectcommittees.Ofthese11subjectcommittees,fivehadincludedexplicitprovisions related to education.Theworkof these committees is provided inAnnex1.In general, there are a lot of provisions related to ensuring education as a fundamentalright and ensuring equity (includingprovisionof affirmative actionpolicies for variousmarginalizedgroups).

With respect to thedelineationof rolesand responsibilities,however, there is relativelylittle discussion.What theCA processmentions, in general is that educationwill be acollaborativeresponsibilitybetweenthefederal,stateandlocalgovernment,withthefederalgovernmentresponsibleforstandards-settingandmonitoringofhighereducation,nationaleducationagenda,curriculumanduniversities.Likewise,theenvisagedresponsibilitiesforstategovernmentsincludeuniversities,technicaleducation,curriculumandtextbooks,andexaminations.And thoseof the localgovernment includesecondaryeducationandnon-formaleducation.

B. Initiatives at the Academic Front

To explore and examine thework of the academia, a reviewof themajor journals andbookspublishedfromNepalandelsewhererelatedtofederalismandeducationinNepal

SanghiyaSamajbadiPartyNepal

Formationofahigh levelnationaleducation committee to formulateand develop education system forthefederalcontextEstablish at least one highersecondaryschoolorcollegeineachvillagedependingonthecontextEstablishmulti-disciplinaryuniversityineachfederalstate

TaraiMadheshLoktantrikparty

Federal government to formulatenationaleducationpolicyPrimary education to be managedby local government, secondaryeducation by district and stategovernmentsandhighereducationbystateandfederalgovernments


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wasconductedtosearchforarticlesrelatedtothetopic.Likewise,searchwasalsomadeforrelatedpaperspresentedatvariousnationalandinternationalseminarsandconferences.Theseincludepublishedworksbypeoplevariouslyinvolvedinthepubliceducationsystemeitheraspractitioners,researchers,teachersandpolicyadvocates.

Ingeneral,wecansaythatverylittlehasbeenwrittenaboutthetopicinanysystematicdetail.Whatever is available points to the fact that there is a broad consensus on thedelineationof rolesand responsibilitiesbetween thevarious tiersofgovernments in thefederalsetup.Nonetheless,someoftheworkgoesintodetaileddiscussionontheroles,responsibilities andauthorities for each tierofgovernment, and some furtherdetailsoncurriculum,standardssettingandmonitoringandevaluation.Someofthekeyissuesraisedontheacademicfrontinclude,interalia,thefollowing:

• Need for clarity on themanagement of schools that are currently in operationundervariousforms,viz.government,community,private,religious,etc

• Needforclarityinterminalassessmentsystemintheprovinces–whetherthecurrentsystemshouldbeadoptedforuniformityorwhethereachprovinceshouldbeallowedtodevelopitsownsystemsandhowtheycanbecomparedacrossfuturestates

• Howtomanageanddeploytheexistingcadreofteachersandeducationministrypersonnel in theaftermathoffederalrestructuring, includingtheplaceofMOEline agencies and administrative units, and the roles and responsibilities to begrantedtothem

• Regulationandmanagementofprivateschools,includingtheissueofensuringoffreeeducationinprivateschools

• Structureofeducation–shouldtherebeauniformschoolstructure(asenvisagedbytheSchoolSectorReformprogram)orshouldprovincesbeallowedtodevelopand implement their own structures, and if so how tomake them comparableacrossstates.

Someotherworkspointtotheneedforafederalministryofeducationthatisresponsibleforensuringeducationforacrossallstates.Ithasbeenpointedoutthatthisisparticularlyimportantbecauseoftheinequalitiesthatwillbeevidentinthefuturestatesbothintermsofdistributionofeducationinstitutions,humanresourcesandinequalitiesintermsofaccesstoresources.Insuchacontext,expertshavepointedoutthatthefederalorcentralgovernmentneeds to assume a primary role for ensuring universal education of a high quality, andshouldalsoassumeprimeresponsibilityforstandard-setting,curriculum,determinationofnationaleducationagenda,regulationandmonitoringandassessmentsystems.

C. Initiatives through the Government

In2065v.s.,thegovernmentsetupahighleveladministrativerestructuringcommissionledbythesecretaryofMinistryforfederalAffairsandLocaldevelopment.Thecommissionsubmitted its final report to the cabinet in 2067 v.s. The commission also encouragedindividualministries to initiate theirownexercisefor transitiontofederalism.However,nowrittendocumentsfromtheMOEareavailabletounderstandtheworkthatwasdonein

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theMOE.Nonetheless,theCommissionreportdoesenvisageeducationasacollaborativeresponsibilityofthefederal,stateandlocalgovernments,largelyinlinewiththeideasputforthinthepoliticalandacademicarenas.

D. Initiatives from Non-State Organizations

Thereisanoverlapbetweentheworkofnon-stateinstitutionsandacademiawithrespecttotheexistingworkonfederalismandeducation,mainlybecausetheacademiawashighlyinvolvedintheknowledgeproduction,andensuingdebatesanddiscussionsonthetopic.Variousnon-stateactorshaveinitiateddialogueonfederalismandeducationrestructuringaftertheCAelectionsin2008.Forinstance,MartinChautari,aresearchinstitutionbasedinKathmandustartedaseriesofdialoguesonfederalismandeducationontopicssuchasmanagementofprivateeducationinstitutionsinfederalismandtheroleofnon-stateorganizationsinsupportingtheeducationinthefederalcontext.AmorecomprehensivesetofworkdonebyMartinChautariinvolvedananalysisoftheproceedingsofthepastCAprocess in relation toeducation.This led to theorganizationofanationalseminarontheissueinApril2010,whichwasattendedbymanyCAmembers,leadersofmajorpoliticalparties,studentorganizations,otherCSOsandtheacademia.Likewise,ForumofFederationsalsoorganizedaone-dayseminaroncurriculuminthefederalcontextin2009.VariousotherorganizationssuchasEducationNetwork-Nepalalsoorganizedaworkshopon the topic.Forexample,EducationNetworkorganizednationalseminar titled“NewConstitution,RestructuringoftheStateandEducation”on8July2006.Theproceedingsoftheseminarwerelaterpublishedinaspecialissueofthejournal“JanamukhiShiksha”.

However,morecomprehensiveworkrelatedtoeducationandfederalismandhoweducationcan be restructured in a federal Nepal was initiated byUNESCOKathmandu office in2009.Asapartofthisinitiative,UNESCOfacilitatedtheestablishmentofa‘Federalismand Education Support Group’ in early 2009 from among Nepal’s leading scholars intheeducationsector.Thisgroupsentanopen letter to theChairpersonof theCAon15September2009,informinghimofitsexistenceaswellasitswillingnesstowholeheartedlysupportconstitutionaldraftingoneducation-relatedmattersshouldtheCAfeeltheneedforsuchsupport.Thereafter,thegroupmemberslookedatthefollowingsixthemesinschooleducationsystemthatwouldhavetobeconsideredinafederalcontext:

1. FreeandCompulsoryEducation

2. PrivateSchooling

3. LanguageIssues

4. StudentPathways

5. TeacherManagement

6. FinancingEducation

Subsequently, themembers produced a number of thematic papers that highlighted thekeyissuesthatshouldbeattendedtoineachtheme.Thesepapersweredevelopedthrougha highly consultative process that involved interactions with stakeholders from various


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partsofthecountry.Thepapersnotonlycontainedananalysisoftheexistingsituationineachtheme,butalsoreviewedthepracticesinotherfederalcontexts,andultimatelydrewimportant implications for federalNepal.The fullpaperswere thensharedwith theCAmembers,politicalparty leaders,governmentofficials anddonoragency representativesfirst throughasmallerworkshoporganizedat theCentre forConstitutionalDialogueon24August2009,andlaterthroughaNationalSymposiumonFederalismandEducationon18November2009.SummaryversionsofthesepapersweresubsequentlypublishedintheweeklynewspaperAajakoShikshaon13December2009.

Afterfocusingonschooleducation, thegroupshifteditsattentiontothestrategicissuesinhigher/tertiaryeducation in the federalcontext,and inFebruary2011developed fourdiscussionpapersonthefollowingthemes:

1. CurriculumforFederalNepal

2. HigherEducationGovernance

3. FinancingofHigherEducation

4. OpenandDistanceHigherEducationinNepal

These thematic papers were developed in a manner similar to that employed for theproductionof theearlierpaperson schooleducation, andwereexpected tobe similarlysharedatvariousnational forums,although thatdidnothappen.Nonetheless, thegroupmembersexpectedthatthesepaperslaidthefoundationandservedasausefulreferencepoint for an enhanced understanding of the key issues in school and higher educationsystemsthatneedtobeconsideredandaddressedasNepalmovesfromaunitarytofederalstructure.

1.3. Conclusions and Recommendations

Overall, there are relatively little differences among the various interest groupsidentifiedaboveregardingtherolesandresponsibilitiestobegiventovariouslevelsof governments:most have envisaged a two-tier structure consisting of federal,

stateandlocalgovernments(withlocalgovernmentsbeingapartofthestategovernments),andeducationhasbeenenvisagedasajointresponsibilitybetweenthefederalgovernment,states and local governments. In particular, thework thus far on the topic has broadlydelineatedthefollowingrolesforthefederalgovernment:policymaking,standardssetting,andmonitoringandevaluation,andmanagementofhighereducationinstitutions.Likewise,thepossiblerolesandresponsibilitiesforstategovernmentsinclude:managementofstate-ownedhighereducationinstitutionsandsecondaryeducation.Finally, therolesfor localgovernmentsinclude:managementofprimaryandbasiceducationinstitutions,andnon-formaleducationprograms.

At the same time however, one can discern considerable confusion regarding the issuesof inclusion/affirmative action and federalism. For example, a significant body of workconductedthusfarespeciallyonthepoliticalfronthasdealtwithensuringeducationasafundamentalright(whichinfactisalreadyguaranteedbytheInterimConstitution2007),affirmativeactionandpositivediscriminationpoliciesforthehithertomarginalizedvarious

9

socialgroups(Dalits,Janajatis,Madhesis,Disabled,Martyrsandthoseinjuredinvariouspoliticalmovements,poor,etc)suchthatifallthecategoriestobeincludedinsuchaffirmativeactionpoliciesweretobelistedtogether,allNepaliyouthswouldinsomewaybeeligibleforsuchreservationpoliciesespeciallyinhighereducation.Herealso,itshouldbepointedoutthatwhileoneofthemajormotivesforfederalismandstaterestructuringinNepalistoaddresssocialinclusion,evidence/practicefromourowncontextsuggeststhatinclusioncanoccurirrespectiveoffederalism.Forexample,schoolsanduniversities,andthePublicServiceCommissionhavealreadydevisedtheirownstructuresofinclusionthroughvariousscholarshipsandaffirmativeactionpolicieslargelyundertheexistinglegalmandates.

What is significantlymissing in theexistingdebateandworkon federalism is the issueof transitional planning, which primarily includes issues such as howwill the existingadministrative structures and personnel be distributed in the post-federal set up. Alsomissinginthedebateisfinancingpart,includingequitabledistributionofcentralandstateresourcesforequitabledevelopmentofeducationacrossthestatesandlocalgovernments.Furtherworkintheseareaswillbehighlyuseful.

References

Prashasan Punasamrachana Aayog. 2067. Sanghiya Pranalima Sarwajanik Prashasan:Prativedan.Nepalsarkar,PrashasanPunasamrachanaAayog.

Balayar,BhojB.2066v.s.VidhyalayaShikshakoSamrachanagatSworup:SanghiyatamaAadharitVyabasthapanmaShaishikAdhikarkoSunishchitata.InShikshakaChunautiharu,NainSinghMahar,ed.,pp.166–174.Kathmandu:NepalStudentUnion,CentralCommittee.

Baniya,Nakul.2012.EducationinfederalrepublicofNepal.InDimensionsofEducationinNepal.Kathmandu:UrmilaBaniyaandShraddhaBaniya.

Bhurtel,BhimP.2065v.s.ShaishikPrashasankoSanghiyaPunasamrachanakoPrastawa.JanamukhiShiksha9(17):1–7.

Chaudhary, Min. 2066 v.s. Adivasi Janajatiharuko Shaishik Muddhaharu ra SanghiyaNepalkoShikshaPranali.InShikshakaChunautiharu,NainSinghMahar,ed.,pp.319–325.Kathmandu:NepalStudentUnion,CentralCommittee.

Neupane, Lekhnath. 2067 v.s. Shikshama Punarsamrachanako Bahas. In SamrajyabadBirodhiBichar:ShikshamaPunarsamrachanakoBahas.NepalPratikPublication.

JanamukhiShiksha.2063v.s.RestructuringofEducationSystemSpecialIssue.Volume8,Issue16.


10

A Resource M

aterial onE

ducation and Federalism

in Nepal 2014

Fundamental Rights Directive Principles Special RightsDistribution of Roles

and Responsibilities in Federalism

Interim Constitution

2007

Everycitizenhasrighttobasiceducationinmothertongueasprovisionedbythestateinlaw

Everycitizenhasrighttofreeeducationuptosecondarylevelasprovisionedbythestateinlaw

Minority and Marginalized

Groups Rights Protection Committee

Everycitizenhasrighttofreeeducationuptohighereducationlevel

Noeducationalinstitutionwillbebarredfromreceivingstatesupportbasedonestablishmentoroperationfromanyspecificreligious,culturalorlinguisticgroup.

Nopersonwillbebarredfromenrollinginorobtaininghighereducationfrompubliceducationinstitutionsbasedonobtainingeducationfromeducationinstitutionsestablishedoroperatedbyanyspecificreligious,culturalorlinguisticgroup.

Nopersonwillbebarredfromenrollingorobtainingeducationfromanyeducationinstitutionthatisoperatedorsupportedbythestatebasedoncaste,ethnicity,religion,regionalism,religion,language,race,genderorculture.

State Restructuring

and Distribution

of State Authority Committee

Adivasi,AdivasiJanajati,Madhesiwillhaverighttoselfdeterminationin….,education,….Atthelocallevel.

TherewillbeprovisionoffreeeducationwithscholarshipuptohighereducationforDalitstudents.Intechnicalhighereducation,aspecialprovisionwillbemadeaccordingtolawfordalits.

CentralGovernment:CentralUniversity,CentralLibrary

StateGovernment:University,HigherEducation,LibraryandMuseum

LocalGovernment:PrimaryandSecondaryeducation

Annex 1: Suggestions provided by Various CA Commitees related to Education, 2008-2012

11

Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles Committee

Everycitizenwillhaverighttoaccessbasiceducation.

Primaryeducationwillbefreeandcompulsory.Eachcitizenwillhaverighttoobtainfreeeducationuptosecondarylevel.

Citizensfrompoorcategorieswillhaverighttofreeeducationuptohighereducationlevelasprovisionedinlaw.

AllNepalicommunitiesresidingwithinNepalwillhaverighttoestablishandoperateeducationinstitutionsprovidingeducationinmothertongue.

Everychildwillhaverighttoeducation,….,personalitydevelopmentfromfamilyandstate.

Everychildwillhaverighttoeducationinmothertongue.

Toexpandopportunityandqualityofeducation,…toupliftlivingstandardofthepeople.

Toensurethatnocitizenisilliterateandmakeprovisionforeasyandequitableaccessofallcitizenstoqualityeducation.

Tomakeeducationscientific,technical,vocational,practicalforproducingableandcompetenthumanresourcesdedicatedtonationalinterest.

Toincreasestateinvestmentineducationandproperlymonitorprivateinvestmentineducationtodiscouragecommercialization.

Tograduallymakehighereducationfreebymakingiteasilyaccessibleandquality.

Dalitcommunitywillhaverighttospecialopportunitiesineducation,…basedonpositivediscrimination.

Fortheprotection,upliftment,empowermentanddevelopmentofthepoor,peoplewithdisabilitiesandendangeredcommunitycitizens,theywillhaverighttoobtainspecialopportunitiesandincentivesineducation,….

Everyyouthwillhave,forempowermentanddevelopment,righttospecialopportunitiesineducation,…

Allfamiliesofmartyrs,familiesofdisappearedpeople,disabledandinjuredinallpeoplesmovements,people’swarandMadhesmovementwillhaverighttoeducation,reliefandpension.



Federalism

and Education in N

epal: M

apping of On-going activities

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A Resource M

aterial onE


in Nepal 2014



Cultural and Social Solidarity

Determination Committee

Everycommunitywillhaverighttobasiceducationinmothertongue.

Central Government:Primary role as a facilitator,supporter

State Government: Allauthority related to right toeducationinmothertongue

Natural Resources, Economic Rights and Revenues

Distribution Committee

Central Government:Standard-setting andregulation of higher(including technical higher)education and universities,National education agenda,curriculum,examinationandUniversities

State Government:University, technical andvocational education,curriculum, textbooks,examination, specialeducation

Local Government: schooleducation (up to highersecondary) and non-formaleducation

13

The Role of Federal Government in Education:

A comparative Study (Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, South Africa, Australia, Canada, The USA)

- Deepak Aryal

2

15

2.1 The Role of the Federal Government in Education—A Comparative Study(Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, South Africa, Australia, Canada, the U. S. A)

Decentralizationisnotasynonymousconceptoffederalism.ThebasicargumentisthatthereisDecentralizationinunitarysystemswhereasfederalsystemarenon-Centralizedbecauseinthiscase,thepowerissodiffusedthatitcannotbeCentralized

withoutbreakingthestructureandspritofconstitution,andthus,thefederalsystemislikeamatrixmodel,notahierarchymodel.Inthefederalsystem,differentgovernmentsregulatethe same territory in federations; however, each government has exclusive jurisdictionover certain matters. Elazar (1991), states that federalism combines common purposesandprotectionofcertainrightsandintegrityoffederalentities.So,federalismisaspecialcombinationbetweenautonomyand interdependencebetweenfederalentities.Thus, therelationship between the constituent parts of a federation refers to a particular form ofstatethatinvolvesanextensiveandongoingrelationshipbetweenthefederalgovernment,statesandlocalgovernments.Thispresupposestheexistenceofcontinuousnegotiationandbargaining in the formulation and implementationof public policies in federal systems.Ontheotherhand,theconceptof“Decentralization”isalsovagueandhighlyambiguoushowever,itismorepopularandwidelyusedbythepolicy-makersandintellectuals1.Here,thisreportdoesnotdealwiththefederalorDecentralizationsystemsthemselves,butdealsonlywiththeeducationalpoliciesandplanningthathavebeenimplementedinfederalordecentralizedsystems.Mostof thecountries(India,Bangladesh,Pakistan,SouthAfrica,and others) selected for the study2 have their own typical practices and experiences ofeducationsystem.However,mostofthenationsagreeontheprocessofDecentralizationofeducationsystemandhavedoneatleastsomepracticesofit.

Thecharacteristicsornatureofthenation,stateorfederalsystemdeterminetheeducationalsystem.Ifthedemographyofthestateswithinanationisassociatedwithmorecommonculture, language, geography location or historical background there will not be muchdifficultytoadoptthesimilarcontentsinthetextbookaswellaslanguage,teachingandtrainingmaterials,etc.Butdiversecultural,linguisticorsocialgroupswithinonenation,statesorfederalsystemdemandsmoredecentralizedpoliciesinthecontentsoftextbooks,teaching materials, teachers, management, teaching language etc. So, DecentralizationprocesscanbeusedinfederalstateswhereeachstatemayhavetheirowneducationpoliciesusingdifferentaspectsofDecentralization.

Decentralization clearly does not come with the passing of laws or signing decrees.Likemost typesof reform, it isbuilt rather thancreated. Ithappensslowlybecause theorganisational culturemust be transformed; new roles learned leadership styles altered,communicationpatterns reversed, planningprocedures revised, anddeveloping regionalpoliciesandprogrammesdeveloped(Hanson,1996b).

1 Govinda, R. (1997). Decentralisation of Educational Management: Experiences from South Asia. Paris: Interna-tional Institute for International Planning. p 7

2 The report uses federal or central government as synonymous concept which is different than state or provincial government.

The Role of Federal Government in Education:A comparative Study

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Sometimes debates overDecentralization are understood as a local government versuscentral government dichotomy. The Decentralization process does not mean that thecentral governments and their various ministries escape from their responsibilities.A central government’s capacity tomanage theDecentralization process is crucial forits own success.This role is particularly important for service delivery outcomes as itrelates to setting national priorities, ensuringminimumor core standards, and guidinglocalgovernmentsintheirnewfunctions.Forexample,educationalDecentralizationandplanningraisethequestionofhowfardecision-makingshouldbedecentralizedforeachlevelortypeofeducation(primary,secondary,higher,butalsopre-primaryandliteracytraining) andhow responsibilities shouldbeallocated for thedevelopmentof curricula andteachingmethods,evaluation,textbookproductionanddistribution,recruitmentandremuneration of teachers, school building andmaintenance, the establishment of linksbetweenparentsandteachers,etc.

A UNICEF paper on Decentralization by Klugman (1997) warns that Decentralizationmay lead to greater interregional disparitieswhereby local governments faced byfiscalconstraints find themselves competing for the resources from the centre. The relativeinabilityoflocalgovernmentsinpoorerregionstoraiseresourcesthroughlocaltaxleviesandlicensingmayfurtheraccentuateinequalitiesinattainmentofsocialobjectives.3Thesekinds of problem also appear in federal system. In Indian cases, some states are doingbetterineducationhoweversomestateshavepoorperformance.Anationalsamplesurvey(NSS, 1983-2004) shows that there is a negative link between the level of educationalattainmentinschoolcompletionandinequalityofopportunity.Forinstancein2004,76%ofthepopulationcompletedprimaryschoolingintheleastunequalstateofKeralawhilethefigureforUttarPradesh,themostunequalstate,was44%.4InafederalstatelikeIndia,provisionofpublicgoodsistheresponsibilityofindividualstateswheretheimportanceofstate-levelpolicychoiceorthepositiveaspectsofafederalstatearewelldocumentedintheliterature,howeveritignoresthemajoraspectsofentitlementtobasicservicesamongstateslikeUttarPradeshandKeralawhicharerelatedtodifferencesinthescopeandqualityofpublicservicessuchasschoolfacilities(DrezeandSen1995).5

2.2 CASE STUDYa. Bangladesh

MostoftheSouthAsiancountrieshavedirectlyorindirectlyhistoricalbaggageofBritisheducation system and the education system of Bangladesh, Pakistan and India are notexceptions6.Sinceindependencein1971,theBangladeshieducationsystemhasundergonemanychanges.Severalgovernmentshavemadeeducationreformcommissionsfromthebeginningof the independenceofBangladesh.TheQudrat-e-Khudaeducation reform is

3 J. Klugman; 1997; “Decentralisation: A Survey from a Child Welfare Perspective”; UNICEF Innocenti Occasional Papers; #61

4 Inequality of Educational Opportunity in India: Changes over Time and across States M. Niaz Asadul-lah University of Reading, SKOPE, University of Oxford and IZA Gaston Yalonetzky OPHI, University of Oxford

5 Dreze, Jean and Amartya Sen (1995) India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

6 Global Education and Training Information Service (British Council) (2001). Bangladesh: Market notes. August 2001 by the British Council, Bangladesh

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one of them andmost of the commissions’ reports have beenmade in the light of thiscommission.Buttherecommendationsofthecommissionreportwerenotfullyimplementeddue to regular political instability. “Since the 1970s, five EducationCommissionswereformedbythesuccessivegovernments(in1972,1977,1984,1987and1997)buteitherthecommissions failed to submit their reportsor the reportswerenot implemented”(Mujeri2003:22).7Haq(1998:82.) criticizesitastheSouthAsianphenomenathat“theeffectivenessoftheschoolsysteminSouthAsiaishamperedbypoliticalinterference,corruption,overcentralization,alackofschoolautonomy,underdevelopedmanagerialcapacity,andpoorinformationsystems”.8

AccordingtothestudybyWorldBank,lackofinstitutionalization,policiesandadministrativearrangements that can keep the system from performing at an acceptable level e.g. the“shift” system, weak organizational capacity, Centralized management, and inadequatefundingarrangementsaresomeproblemsofprimaryeducationinBangladesh.9EducationInternational(EI)reportmentionsthatthelackoffundingisapartofawidespreadfinancialproblemhowever,itisalsotruethatthefundingproblemsaretheresultoflackofpoliticalwill(Frederiksson1999:64)10.

The Second Five Year Plan (1980-1985) of Bangladesh has implemented a UniversalPrimary Education (UPE) and non-formal education programme aiming to eradicateilliteracyfromthecountry.ThePrimaryeducationwasmadefreeandcompulsoryforallchildrenbetween theagesof6and10 in1991andBangladeshcurrentlyhasoneof thelargestprimaryeducationsystemsintheworld.11TheNationalPlanofAction(NPA-I&II)has takeninitiative toachieve thegoalofEducationforAll (EFA).TheThirdFiveYearPlan(1995-90)madeapolicytonationalizetheschools12.TheFifthFiveYearPlan(1997-2002),andtheNationalEducationPolicy(NEP),2000,madeimportantrecommendedtorestructurethehighereducationsectorinBangladesh(Hopper,2002).

TheeducationsysteminBangladeshconsistsofthreeprincipalstages:primary,secondary,andhigher/tertiaryeducation.Inparalleltomainstreamformaleducation,studentscanalsochoosetostudyatMadrasasthatofferIslamicreligiouseducation(WorldBank,1999).13

7 Mujeri K.Mutafa(2003).Financing education:National priorities and Future Directions-A Right to Development Perspective.

8 Haq Mahbubl (1998).Human Development in South Asia 1998: The Education challenges,The University Press Limited,Red Crecent Building, 114 Motijheel Commercial Area,Dhaka, Bangladesh.

9 World Bank (2004).Project Appraisal Document on a proposed Credit in the amount of SDR 104.2 million (US Dollar 150 million equivalent) to the People’s Republic of Bangladesh for a Primary Education Development Project II Human Development Unit, South Asia Regional Office.

10 Frederiksson Mr.Ulf (1999). Education for all Assessment 2000: The teachers’ perspective, Education Interna-tional, 5, Boulevard Emile Jacquemin , B-1210 Bruxelles, Belgium.

11 (Adapted from UNESCO (sourced from International Association of Universities (IAU), updated from IBE web site, 2000) Transnational Report – Case Study: Bangladesh (October 2003) page 4 of 36

12 Annual Report on Primary Education in Bangladesh, Primary and Mass Education Division,The Government of The People’s Republic of Bangladesh.

13 Public Madrasas are required to adopt national curricula to secure government funding. In the Madrasa system, primary education is provided by ‘Ebtedayee’ institutions (equivalent to five grades in primary schools) and secondary education by Dakhil institutions (equivalent to five grades of lower secondary and secondary schools) and higher secondary by Alim level institutions (two years of study) institutions. Recently, humanities, science and business education have been introduced at Dakhil and Alim stages. There is also a two-year Fazil (degree) level education and two-year Kamil (Masters) level education. The Madrasa Education Board oversees the system and conducts final examinations (Dakhil to Kamil). There is also a non-formal stream of Madrasa


18


ThemostMadrasaeducationtakesplaceinrurallocationsandrurallearnersaccountfor91%ofMadrasahenrolment,comparedwitharound77%inmainstreameducation14.Thelackof formalschoolingopportunities insomeruralareasand incityslumsmeans thatmanystudentsgotonon-traditionaleducationprogrammesfocusingonbasiceducationandliteracy,mainlyorganisedbyNGOs.

Thelargeclasssizes,insufficientresources,andunequalaccess(geographic,gender,andfinancial)aresomechallengesofthesecondarylevelofeducation.Inaddition,studentsareperceivedtolacktransferableskillsduetoanexamfocusedcurriculaandthefactthatlessthan10%ofchildrencompleteallsecondarylevels.

Apartfromtheseschoolstherearesomenewpracticesinprivatesectorschooling.ArangeofEnglishmediumschoolsaffiliatedtointernationalinstitutewithnewcurriculumisalsopopular.Theseschoolshavegrownsignificantlyinresponsetomarketforcesanddemand,andthenumberofstudentshasincreasedby12%in2000.ThecurriculaofferedintheseschoolsareBritish,andstudentspreparefortheirGCEOandALevels15.

Themacro-levelmanagementstructureofBangladesheducationsectorconsistsofministryofeducation,primaryandmasseducationdivision,directoratesofeducation,64districtEducation offices, and about 500Thana (now called upazila) EducationOffices.Apartfrom this there are staff level educational organizations, which help line organizationsto function effectively in order to achieve the goals of education. These organizationsincludeBoardsofIntermediateandSecondaryEducation(BISE),NationalCurriculumandTextBookBoard(NCTB),BangladeshBureauofEducationalInformationandStatistics(BANBEIS)andNationalAcademyforEducationManagement(NAEM)etc.TheMinistryofEducationis theapexbodyforeducationaladministration,managementandplanningexceptforprimaryandadulteducation.ItisresponsibleforeducationalplanningwiththeDirectoratesofEducationandtheeducationsectionofthePlanningCommission.TheMOEtakestheinitiativetoformulatethenationaleducationpolicy.FunctionsofMOEincluderecruitment, selection, promotion, transfer, dismissal and disciplinary actions regardingteachersofthegovernment-runhighschoolsandcolleges;selectionofteachersfortrainingabroad;preparationanddistributionofjobdescriptionsfortheeducationalmanagersatthedirectoratesdowntothedistricteducationofficers.

The Primary and Mass Education Division (PMED) established in 1992 under directadministrative control of the PrimeMinister is the apex administrative structurewhichdeterminespolicyand implementsdevelopmentprogrammesof theprimaryandgeneraladulteducation(calledmasseducationornon-formaleducation)sub-sectors.

DirectoratesofEducationhavekeyrolesintheadministrationandmanagement.Thethreedirectoratesarethebodieswherethemainresponsibilitiesforimplementingpoliciesandmanagingeachsub-sectorofeducationlie.Thesebodies,staffedwithseniorprofessionalsare also supposed to play the lead role in initiating and formulating policy changes,althoughformaladministrativeandpoliticalapprovalofpoliciesistheMOEandPMED

education (e.g. hafizia, qiratia, quaumi, nizamia) under the kharizia system, which survive on private donations made for religious purposes. World Bank (1999a). Bangladesh Education Sector Review (Final Draft). Educa-tion Sector, South Asia Region, The World Bank.

14 Japan Bank for International Cooperation (2002), Bangladesh Education Sector Overview.15 Global Education and Training Information Service (British Council, 2001). Bangladesh: Market notes.

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responsibility. In practice, however, there has been an erosion of the authority of theprofessionalpersonnelandexpansionofcontroloftheMinistrycivilservicecadresovertimeeveninoperationalmatters,muchbeyondtherealmsofpolicyandoverallplanning. Acarry-overfromthepastofpracticesandorganizationalstructuresappropriateforamuchsmaller education system, the bureaucratic culture of a unitary state, and the desire forpoliticalcontrolovereducationaldecisionshavestrengthenedthistrend.

Theentireeducationsystemexcludinguniversitiesandmostoftheprofessionalinstitutionsused to be managed by the Directorate of Public Instruction (DPI). An independentDirectorateofPrimaryEducationwasestablishedin1981tostrengthentheadministrativeset-upofPrimaryeducation.TheDirectorateisheadedbyaDirectorGeneralwithfunctionalsectionsheadedbyDirectorsattheheadquarters.Indifferenttiersofadministrativeunits,such as, Division,District andThana, the directorate has field officers such asDeputyDirector,DistrictPrimaryEducationOfficer,andThanaEducationOfficer(nowrenamedUpazila Education Officer) respectively. Each Thana has a number ofAssistant Thana(Upazila)Educationofficers(ATEOS),eachsupervising15-20schools.Theresponsibilityofconstruction,repairandsupplyoffurniturehasbeengiventotheFacilityDepartmentintheDirectorateofPrimaryEducationandLocalGovernmentEngineeringBureauundertheMinistryofLocalGovernmentandRuralDevelopment.

TheDirectorateofSecondaryandHigherEducationisresponsiblefortheimplementationofgovernmentpoliciesanddevelopmentprogrammesinsecondaryeducation.It,however,has limited capacity in sub-sector planning and academicmanagement.TheDSHEhas208administrativeandsupervisorystaff,40attheHQ,40attheZonalleveland128atthedistrict level.It is involvedlargelyinprojectlevelplanning.It isoverburdenedwiththe payment of salary subvention to over 250,000 teachers and employees of the non-government secondary schools and higher secondary institutions. The DSHE has alsospecificresponsibilityfortheenforcementofacademicstandardsofsecondaryandhighereducation.Itisalsoinvolvedwiththerecruitmentofteachersandnonteachingemployeesofthegovernmentschools,althoughdecision-makinglieswithMOE.

Inlinewiththegovernment’scommitmenttoEducationforAll,anIntegratedNon-FormalEducationProgram (INFEP)was initiated in 1991 to address the needs of the illiteratepopulationoutsidetheformalsystem.

In1996,INFEPwasreplacedbytheDirectorateofNon-FormalEducation(DNFE).Ithasatotalof33officialsandasupportingstaffof55atitsheadquarters.Atthedistrictlevel,ithas64districtcoordinatorsandasupportingstaffof128.

The Directorate of Technical Education is responsible for planning, development,coordinationandsupervisionoftechnicalandvocationaleducationundertheMinistryofEducation.

The National Curriculum and Textbook Board is responsible for developing curriculaand publishing textbooks. Its main functions are to:(a) review curricula and introducechanges,(b)evaluatecurriculaandtextbooks,(c)preparetextbookmanuscripts;(d)approvetextbooksand(e)publishandensuredistributionoftextbooks.


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SixgeographicallybasedBoardsofIntermediateandSecondaryEducation(BISE)aswellas a separateMadrasah EducationBoard exists. BISEs aremainly responsible for twofunctions (1) accreditationofnon-government secondaryeducation institutions; and (2)administrationoftheSSCandHSCexaminations.BISESareautonomous,self-regulatingandfinancedcompletelyfromfeeincome.

TheNationalAcademyofEducationManagement(NAEM)istheprincipalinstitutionfortrainingeducationaladministratorsandmanagers.NAEMhastwodivisions(a)ManagementandAdministration,(b)ExtensionTraining.Itscapacityisabout1,600traineesperyear.Almost half the trainees receive foundation training for civil service positions, and theremainders,mostlyheadsofinstitutions,receivemanagementtraining.EvaluationstudiesonNAEMshowthatthetrainingimpartedbyithaslittleimpactonmanagementchangesontheground.NAEMplanstore-designitstrainingprogrammestoachievebetterresults.(WB2000,EducationSectorReview,vol.III)

Educationaladministration,ingeneral,ischaracterizedbyexcessivecentralizationofpowerandauthorityinthecapital.Administrativereformandrestructuringin1980sand1990shavetheeffectoffurthercentralizationthroughthecreationofthePrimaryandMassEducationDivision,establishmentofaseparateDirectorateofNon-FormalEducation,andsettingupofaunifiedNationalCurriculumandTextbookBoard,becauseofthewaythefunctionsandrolesofthesebodieshavebeendefinedandbecauseoftheprevalentbureaucraticculture.Thelocalgovernmentunitssuchasdistricts,thanasandunionsessentiallyhavethetaskofimplementinginstructionsanddirectivesfromaboveandcarryingoutroutinesupervision.Theeducationalmanagementphilosophyandstructurearedrivenbyapreoccupationwithexercisingcontrolandauthorityfromthetop.

Although,theGovernmentofBangladeshiscommittedtomeetingthegoalsofeducationfor all by 2015, the role of ethnic languages has not been recognized in Bangladesheducation.Focusingontheimportanceofthemothertongueinprimaryeducation,policymakersemphasizedonthemajorityspeakers’language,whichrefersonlytoBangla.Asaresult,indigenousstudentsdonotalwaysinvolvethemselvesinclassroomactivities,andthiscanseverelyjeopardizetheirlifeopportunities.

However,thereissomepositiveresponseonmultilingualideasinIndiaandPakistan.InIndia,forthescheduledtribeswhoaremarginalizedineducation;theGovernmentofIndiabegandifferentprogrammessuchasJanshalaProgramme,the5thFiveYearPlan(1974-1979),the10thFiveYearPlan(2002-2007),MultilingualEducation(MLE)programmes,andSarvaSikshaAviyan after the independence of India.Becoming conscious aboutthe significance of mother tongues, the Indian constitution recognised several triballanguagesasmediumsofinstructionineducation.Inaddition,theConstitutionofIndiaadoptedseveral rulessuchasArticles29(1),30,347and350assafeguards toprotectlinguisticminoritiesinthecountrysothattheyhavetherighttousetheirlanguagesinadministrationandeducation.Learningof tribal childrenareconsidered significant inIndia“notonlybecauseof theConstitutionalobligationbutalsoasacrucial inputfortotaldevelopmentoftribalcommunities”.Forsecondaryeducation,theCentralAdvisoryBoardofEducation in Indiapromoted the “three-language formula” in1961, and themain aim of this formula is to implement three languages such as national language(Hindi),English,andregionallanguage.

21

In late 2010 theKhyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) provincial cabinet committee, Pakistan,approvedamultilingualsolutiontotheteachinginschoolsacrosstheprovince.ItwasagreedthatPashto,Hindko,Seraiki,KhowarandKohistaniwouldbecomecompulsorysubjects in both public and private sector schools in areas where those particularlinguistic groupswere in themajority.Pashtowouldbe introduced as a compulsorysubjectinseventeendistrictsfromClass1toClass10,withHindko,Seraiki,KhowarandKohistaniintroducedintheremainingsevendistrictsofKPK.Thenewlegislationwould see these languages introduced from Class 6 for the 2012 - 2013 academicyear, then Pashto and mother tongue would be included as compulsory subjects inClass 7 from 2012 - 2013 and so on reaching Class 10 from 2015 - 2016 (KhyberPakhtunkhwaGovernment2010).GiventhatPeshawarcityishometopredominantlyHindko speakers, while its suburbs and outlying villages are Pashto-speaking, thecommitteehasrecommendedthatthecitybedividedintotwozones,urbanandrural,whenimplementingthemultilingualscheme.

This attempt by a provincial government to embed mother tongue instruction inschoolingacrossoneof themost linguisticallydiversepartsof thecountryappears tobeinlinewiththe2009EducationPolicygiventhatMathsandSciencesubjectswillbetaughtinEnglish.BoththeEducationDepartmentandtheTextbookBoardinPeshawarhavebeendirectedbythecommittee’schairmantofocusonthespeedypreparationofcurricula and content (Khyber PakhtunkhwaGovernment, 2010). InAugust 2011, theKPKgovernmenttookfurtherstepswithitsmultilingualeducation(MLE)initiativebyapproving the formation of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Regional LanguagesAuthority;whichwillworktopromoteallofthelanguagesoftheprovince.Whatisyettobeseenistheextenttowhichthesepolicieshavebeenimplementedandmaterialspreparedineachlanguage.Moreover, recentpolicydirectiveshaveyet tomentionhowthegovernmentplanstoaddresstheissueofprovidingopportunitiesforteachereducationforlanguageteachers.However, in2011,theChiefMinisterofKPKcommentedthattheprovincialgovernment‘attachedequalimportancetoalllanguagesofKhyberPakhtunkhwaandistakingpracticalmeasuresfortheirpromotion’.

b. Pakistan

Issues of role, responsibilities and management of schools

TheFederal/CentralMinistryofEducationhastheoverallresponsibilityforthedevelopmentand coordination of national policies, plans and programmes in education includingcurriculum development, while implementation of the policies is the responsibility ofthelocaladministrationinPakistan.Eachprovincehasitsowndepartmentofeducation.EducationalinstitutionslocatedinthefederalcapitalterritoryareadministereddirectlybytheMinistryofEducation(MoE).TheConstitutionof1973expressesthegoalsofthestateeducationpolicyasbeingtopromotetheeducationalandeconomicinterestsofbackwardclassesandareas, to remove illiteracyandprovide freeandcompulsoryeducation foraminimum period, tomake technical and professional education generally available andhighereducationequallyaccessibletoallonthebasisofmerit.

ThePrimaryandsecondaryeducation isprovidedbypublicandprivateschoolsaswellasbyIslamicmadrasahsinPakistan.Ithaspassedalawoncompulsoryeducation.Some


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provincesalsohavelawsregardingthis.Implementationofthelawisdependentonsupportfromalltheprovinces,whichhasnotbeensecuredsofar.SchooleducationisorganizedbytheMoE.TheCurriculumWingwithintheministryformulatesthenationalframeworkcurriculum through a wide stakeholder consultation. The Inter Board Committee ofChairmen(IBCC)controlstheboardsofintermediateandsecondaryeducation.Theboards,onefederalandtheremainderprovincial,affiliateschools,implement,regulateandmonitorschemesofstudiesandcurricula,andholdSecondarySchoolCertificate(SSC)andHigherSecondarySchoolCertificate(HSSC)exams16.

In1972 thePakistangovernmentnationalizedallprivateeducational institutionshoweverduetothefinancialconstraintsforthepubliceducation,privateeducationalinstitutionswereagainpermittedtooperatefrom1979.Thegovernmentevenencouragedprivateenterprisestoopeneducationalinstitutionsinruralareas.Non-GovernmentalOrganizations(NGOs)couldcontractuallytakeovergovernmentschoolsforaprescribedtimeperiod.PermissiontosetupeducationalinstitutionsisgrantedeitherbytheMoEortherespectiveProvincialEducationDepartment.Registeredprivateschoolshavetofollowagovernment-prescribedcurriculum.

Islamic Education

The madrasah system or deeni madaris - religious education institutions focusing onreligiouslaw,teachingsoftheProphetMuhammad,classicallogic,literatureandtheKoran- operate in parallelwith the formal education system17. InApril 2002, theMinister ofReligiousAffairsestimatedthenumberofMadrasah-runschoolstobeabout10,000,with1.7millionstudents.Thisnumberhoweveriscontested;differentsourcesnamefiguresfrom600,000to2millionstudents.Themadrasahsarecontrolledbytheirownorganizationsorboards.Theboardsdefinethecurriculum,andcollectregistrationandexaminationfees.

Issues of language and curricula

WhenwetalkaboutthedeclarationofEducationforAll18,signedbymorethan150nationswemustrememberaquestionaskedbyBrock-Utne,‘Educationforall–inwhoselanguage?’Hearguesthat,‘Theconcept“educationforall”becomesacompletelyemptyconceptifthelinguisticenvironmentofthebasiclearnersisnottakenintoaccount’(2000:141)19.

Pakistanisamultilingualandmulticulturalsocietywhereeachofthefourprovinceshasoneormoredominant languages and anumberofminority languages.The emblematicstatus of English, due to its historical associationwith the elite and proto-elite (Haque198320,Rahman199821,200222),hashelpedinmakingitaprestigiouslanguage.EnglishisthelanguageofpowerincomparisonwithUrdu,thenationallanguage,andotherregional

16 http://www.ibcc.edu.pk/default.asp. [accessed November 15, 2013]17 At independence in 1947 there were about 245 madrasahs in Pakistan. The number of madrasahs has increased

since the rule of General Zia ul-Haq (1977-1988).18 For an overview of the Education for All movement and links to the text of the Education for All Declaration

(Jomtien, Thailand, 1990) and subsequent documents see the UNESCO Education for All website at www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/ [accessed November 15, 2013]]

19 Brock-Utne, B. 2000. Whose Education for All? The Recolonisation of the African Mind. London: Falmer Press. 20 Haque, R. 1983. The position and status of English in Pakistan. World Language English 2(1)21 Rahman, T. 1998. Language and Politcs in Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press.22 Rahman, T. 2002. Language, Ideology and Power. Karachi: Oxford University Press.

http://www.ibcc.edu.pk/default.asp

http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/

http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/

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languagesofPakistan(RassoolandMansoor2009)23.

AccordingtotheconstitutionofPakistan,Urduisthenationallanguageofthecountryand‘arrangementsshallbemadeforitsbeingusedforofficialandotherpurposeswithinfifteenyears’from1973whentheconstitutionwasmade(Article251oftheConstitutionoftheIslamicRepublicofPakistan).Urduisthemostwidelyunderstoodlanguageandthemajormediumofinteractionintheurbanareasofthecountry.Therearetwodistinctsystemsofeducationidentifiedmainlyintermsofmediumofinstruction,i.e.EnglishandUrdu.TheEnglishmediumschoolsareprivatelyownedandcatertotheupperclassaswellassomesectionsofthemiddleclass.Incontrast,theUrdumediumschoolsaremainlypublicsectorschoolscateringtothelowerincomegroupsandtheyofferfreeeducationinadditiontootherincentivessuchasfreetextbooks(atleastattheprimarylevel).

Pinnockpointsoutthatifthemediumofinstructioninschoolsisthenationallanguage(or, indeed, a foreign language) and if only a small minority of the population usethat language at home then in effect themajority of children are being denied accesstoeducation in the languagewithwhich theyaremostatease.Pinnockestimates that91.62% of the population of Pakistan speaks mother tongues which are not used ineducation(Pinnock2009:50)24.

Thisgapbetweenthelanguagesofhomeandschoolcontributestopoorparticipationratesineducation.ZubairTorwali,headoftheCentreforEducationandDevelopmentinBahrain,intheSwatvalley,providesanexample:

“TheliteracyrateinthetownofBahraininSwatKohistanis12%formalesandamere1.5%forthefemalepopulation.Amongthemanyfactorsbehindthissorrystateofeducationis the fact that an alien language is used by teachers. Local residents speakTorwali, alanguagedifferentfromPashtu.Forthepastdecadeorso,allteachersattheprimarylevelintheareahavebeenPashtuspeakers,whoselanguagethechildrencouldnotunderstand.Thishaspushedawayalotofstudentsfromtheschoolandtheresultisthelowliteracyrate.”(Torwali2010)25

Thehomeandschoollanguagegapmayalsomeanthatevenifchildrenareinschooltheyare not learningmuch that is of value.A failure to educate school - age children leadseventually to the creation of a body of uneducated, unemployed and frustrated youngpeople.Pinnockidentifies44countriesinthisposition,amongwhichisPakistan.

The data reveal reluctance on the part of some stakeholders to accept that the use oflanguagesotherthanthemothertongueasthemediumofinstructionislikelytohaveseriousnegativeconsequences.Yet there isampleevidenceof thedamagethatcanbecausedifchildrenaretaughtinalanguagewhichtheydonotunderstandandiftheirhomelanguageismarginalised.Afteralifetimeofresearchinthisfield,Skutnabb-Kangascomestotheimpassionedconclusionthat:

23 Rassool, N. and Mansoor, S. 2009. Contemporary issues in language, education and development in Pakistan. In N.Rasool (ed.), Global Issues in Language, Education and Development: Perspectives from Post-colonial Countrie, 218-244. New Delhi: Orient Longman.

24 Pinnock, H. 2009. Language and Education: The Missing Link. Reading: CfBT Education Trust and Save the Children. Available online at http://www.cfbt.com/ evidenceforeducation/pdf/Language&Education_FINAL.pdf [accessed November 15, 2013]

25 Torwali, Z. 2010. Drawbacks of teaching Pashtu in Swat schools. The Express Tribune 20 December 2010.


http://www.cfbt.com/

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“Subtractive dominant - language medium education for IM [indigenous and minority] children can have harmful consequences socially, psychologically, economically and politically. It can cause very serious mental harm: social dislocation, psychological, cognitive, linguistic and educational harm, as well as economic, social and political marginalisation. “(Skutnabb - Kangas 2009:340)

In the specific context of Pakistan, recent research (UNESCO, 2010)26 has shown that,onaverage,morethan54%ofyoungpeoplewhohaveBalochiastheirfirstlanguageandnearly55%ofSeraikispeakershavespentlessthanfouryearsinschool.

Thefirstquestionseekstoinitiateadebateonlinguisticrightsindevelopingcountriesandindicatestheneedforempowermentindeterminingthechoiceoflanguagefordevelopment.Linguistic rights,ormorespecific to thisdiscussion, theright to thechoiceof languagefor education ismeaninglessand turns intoa symbolicact if there is lackof coherencebetweenthelanguagepolicyanditsimplementationplan,asisillustratedbyTaylor(2002)throughhisreviewoflanguage-in-educationprogrammesinEstoniaandAfrica.Thesecondquestion, therefore,aimstoremindus– languageplanners,policymakers, linguistsandpractitioners–ofour responsibility to takeup thechallengeofdraftingviable languagepolices andworkable implementation plans for language-in-education programmes thataimtopromoteindividual,societalandnationaldevelopment.27

InIndia,75differentlanguagesareusedinthecountry’seducationsystem,withsomestatesofferingasmanyas25languageswhilstothersmakejustthreelanguagesavailable.Inthe32statesforwhichdataareavailable,HindiandEnglishareofferedinall32;thenextmostfrequentlyofferedlanguagesareUrduandSanskrit(bothavailablein21states).Punjabiistaughtintenstates,Arabicineight,Farsiinfive,whileGujari,Kashmiri,PahariandSindhiareallavailableinonestateeach.Altogether320languagechoicesareonoffer,anaverageoftenchoicesperstate;notwostatesofferexactlythesamecombinationoflanguages.

EveryyearUNESCOpublishesaGlobalMonitoringReportwhichcalculatesthelikelihoodofeachcountryintheworldbeingabletoachievethesixEducationforAllgoalsby2015.DrawingonresearchbyAyres(2003),Rahman(1997)andWinthrop&Graff(2010),the2011GlobalMonitoringReportdrawsattentiontotherisksinvolvedinusingasmediumofinstructionalanguagetowhichmanypupilshavelittleaffiliation.UNESCOusesthecaseofPakistantoillustratethisdiscussion:

“In multi-ethnic societies, the imposition of a dominant language through the school system has been a frequent source of grievance linked to wider issues of social and cultural inequality. In Pakistan, the post - independence government adopted Urdu as the national language and the language of instruction in schools. This became a source of alienation in a country that was home to six major linguistic groups and fifty - eight smaller ones. The failure to recognise Bengali, spoken by the vast

26 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation). 2003. Education in a multi-lingual world. Education Sector Position Paper. Paris: UNESCO.[November 15, 2013]

27 Taylor, S.G. 2002. Multilingual societies and planned linguistic change: New language-in-education pro-grammes in Estonia and South Africa. Comparative Education Review 46(3), 313-338.

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majority of the population in East Pakistan, was ‘one of the first sources of conflict within the new country, leading to student riots’ (Winthrop & Graff 2010:30). The riots gave birth to the Bengali Language Movement, a precursor to the movement that fought for the secession of East Pakistan and the creation of a new country, Bangladesh. In Pakistan, the continued use of Urdu as the language of instruction in government schools, even though it is spoken at home by less than 8% of the population, has contributed to political tensions28(UNESCO 2011:169 - 170).

The riskof alienation identifiedherecanbeminimisedbygranting recognition to locallanguagesand,inparticular,byemployingthemintheeducationsystemwhileatthesametimecontinuing to teachanduseanational language(inPakistan’scase,Urdu) inwayswhichdonotmarginaliseorstigmatisethelocallanguages.

Pinnock (2009)has alsodemonstrated that, far fromcontributing tonational security, apolicy of marginalisingminority languages gives rise to resentment and contributes tonational fragility.SheconsidersPakistan tobeoneofa smallgroupofcountrieswherethelikelihoodoffragilityisincreasedbecauseofthefailuretoemploylocallanguagesineducation

UNESCO’spositionpapertitled‘Educationinamultilingualworld’(2003)urgesachangeinattitudestowardsmultilingualismasitisarealityinmanynationsoftheworld.

Education in many countries of the world takes place in multilingual contexts. [In these countries] multilingualism is more a way of life than a problem to be solved. The challenge is for education systems to adapt to these complex realities and provide a quality education which takes into consideration learners’ needs, while balancing these at the same time with social, cultural and political demand29s.

PrimaryeducationcomprisesGradesI-V.ThelanguageofinstructioniseitherUrduortheregionallanguage.30

Highersecondaryeducationsometimesreferredtoasthe“intermediatestage”,lastsfromradesXItoXII.Itoftentakesplaceatuniversitycollegesorsimilar31.

28 UNESCO, 2011. Global Monitoring Report.29 UNESCO, 2003. Education in a Multilingual World. p 12.30 The curriculum includes reading, writing, arithmetic, general science, social studies, Islamic education,

and physical education. Middle level education lasts from Grades VI-VIII. The curriculum includes the com-pulsory subjects of Urdu, English, mathematics, sciences, social studies, and Islamic studies. Non-Muslims are exempt from Islamiyat-Islamic Studies. Instead they are taught Moral Education. Secondary Education lasts from Grades IX through X. Students can specialise in science, humanities, or technical streams. Com-pulsory subjects for all are English, Urdu, Islamiyat, Pakistan studies and mathematics.

31 Nordic Recognition Information Centres, 2006. The System of Education in Pakistan http://www.nokut.no/Documents/NOKUT/Artikkelbibliotek/Kunnskapsbasen/Konferanser/SU%20konferanser/Seminarer/Fag-seminar_06/The%20System%20of%20Education%20in%20Pakistan.pdf [Accessed 16 November, 2013]


http://www.nokut.no/

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c. India

Till1833,educationwasapurely‘Central’subjectandtheentireauthorityandresponsibilityineducationwasunderthecommandofGovernmentofIndia.In1870,LordMayointroducedasystemofadministrativeDecentralizationunderwhichtheProvincialGovernmentsweremade responsible for all Expenditure on certain services—inclusive of education—andweregiven,forthatpurpose,afixedgrant-in-aidandcertainsourcesofrevenue.Educationthusbecamea ‘provincial subject’ forpurposesofday-to-dayadministration.But ithastoberememberedthattheCentralGovernmentstillretainedlargepowersofcontroloverit. For instance, both theCentral and Provincial Legislatures had concurrent powers tolegislateonalleducationalmatters.

TheIndianEducationCommission,1882andtheGovernmentResolutionsonEducationalPolicyissuedin1904and1913coversvariousissuesandaspectofeducation.Theviewtaken in thisperiodwas that education is a subject ofnational importance and that theGovernmentofIndiamustholditselfresponsiblefortheformulationofoveralleducationalpolicy;andthisviewwasparticularlystrengthenedintheperiodbetween1900and1921becauseeducationaldevelopmentswereintimatelyconnectedwiththegrowthofnation;consciousnessandthestruggleforIndependence.Themainfunctionofafederal/centralgovernment in education—to decide national policies in education—was thus clearlyunderstoodandacceptedduringthisperiod.

ThecreationofthepostofDirector-Generalofeducation,aseparateEducationDepartmentintheGovernmentofIndiain1910andtheestablishmentofaCentralBureauofEducationin 1915 made it possible to develop some other federal functions in education. ThecoordinatingfunctionoftheFederalGovernmentwasalsorecognizedduringthisperiod.AnotherfunctionofaFederalGovernmenttoberecognizedduringthisperiodwasgrantoffinancialassistanceforeducationaldevelopmentintheprovinces.

ThesearrangementsmadetheProvincialrevenuefairlyinelasticandtheywereunabletokeep pacewith the rapidly growing commitments of an expanding educational system.TheGovernmentofIndia(GoI), therefore,started thepracticeofgivinggrants-in-aid toProvincialGovernmentsforeducationaldevelopmentoverandabovetheagreedcontractarrangements.Thusanotherimportantfunctionofthefederalgovernment,viz.,financialassistance, alsocametobeacceptedduringthisperiod.

Between1870and1921,theresponsibilityoftheday-to-dayadministrationofeducationwasunderthecontrolof theprovincialgovernmentsandtheGoIhadaresponsibilitytofunctionasafederalgovernmentwithfivedistinctfunctions,whichcametoberecognized,viz., thefunctionsof(1)policy-making,(2)clearinghouseofinformation,(3)researchandpublications, (4) coordinationand (5)financial assistance.However, theGovernmentofIndiaAct,1919changedthescenarioandthegovernmentofIndiabecamepowerlessintheeducationfield.

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TheHartogCommitteedescribes that thegovernmentof Indianotonly lost the interestoneducation in192132butalso tried to reduce theexpenditures in1923 (1) loosing theindependentexistenceofEducationDepartmentoftheGovernmentofIndia,amalgamatingitwith other departments and dissolving theCentralAdvisoryBoard of Education andclosingdowntheCentralBureauofEducation.

Itisalsointerestingtoknowthat,forsometimeafter1921,therewasanoutburstofstrongprovincialfeelingsandthedivorceoftheGoIfromeducationwasevenwelcomedinsomequarters.Butitdidnottaketheprovincialgovernmentslongtorealizethatthiswasamistakeandthatsomethinghadtobedonetocreateanationalagencyandmachineryforthedevelopmentofeducation.Itwas,therefore,possibletorevisetheearlierdecisionandtheGovernmentofIndiarevivedtheCentralAdvisoryBoardofEducationin1935;theCentralBureauofEducationwasalsorevived,onarecommendationmadebytheCentralAdvisoryBoardofEducation,in1937;andfinallytheoldEducationDepartmentwasalsorevivedasaMinistryofEducationin1946.Thedecisionsof1921were,therefore,verylargelyundoneby1947.

So,Indiahaddifferentexperiencesandthepoliciesthatnotonlydelegatedtheauthoritytoprovincialgovernmentinaparticulartimebutalsobroughtbackittothecentralgovernment.Between1935and1947,therefore,theroleoftheGoIineducationwasagainbroadenedandtheseveralfunctionswhichhadfallenintodisusebetween1923to1935wereagainresumed.

Soon after the Independence, the problem of the role of theGoI in education came up fordiscussionagainwhentheConstitutionwasbeingframed.ThethinkingoftheframersoftheConstitutiononthissubjectseemstohavebeeninfluencedbytwomainconsiderations:(1)ThegeneralmodeladoptedintheU.S.A.;and(2)TherecommendationsoftheHartogCommittee.

AsintheU.S.A.,afundamentaldecisionwastakentotreateducationasa‘statesubject’andalsotovesttheresiduarypowersineducationintheStateGovernmentsbymakingaspecificenumerationofpowersreservedtotheGovernmentofIndia.Entry11ofListIIoftheSeventhScheduletotheConstitution,therefore,laysdownthat“educationincluding

32 The Hartog Committee strongly criticised this unhappy position and said: “We are of opinion that the divorce of the Government of India from education has been unfortunate; and, holding as we do, that education is essentially a national service, we are of opinion that steps should be taken to consider anew the relation of the Central Government with this subject. We have suggested that the Government of India should serve as a centre of educational experience of the different provinces. But we regard the duties of the Central Government as going beyond that. We cannot accept the view that it should be entirely relieved of all responsibility for the attainment of universal primary education. It may be that some of the provinces, in spite of all efforts, will be unable to provide the funds necessary for that purpose, and the Government of In-dia should, therefore, be constitutionally enabled to make good such financial deficiencies in the interests of India as a whole. The quantitative increase of the education subsequently reduced the quality of the educa-tion provided in the Indian schools, colleges and universities. There was a continuous dissatisfaction about the entire system and the procedure of education. The Indian Statutory Commission appointed a Commis-sion to survey into the whole system. After a prolonged review the Hartog Committee submitted its report. The Hartog Committee emphasised primarily on the national importance of the primaryeducation. Instead of expansion of the education the commission recommended for the consolidation and the improvements of the education procedure. For secondaryeducation the commission reported that the system was dominated by the Matriculation examination. As a result many undeserving students considered it the path to the Universityeducation. As a result the education system was hampered. The commission therefore recom-mended for the selective system of admission. Criticising the policy of University education it recommended improvement of the university work so s that sit could provide proper instructions to the students.


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universities,subjecttotheprovisionsofEntries63,64,65and66ofListIandEntry25ofListIII”shouldbeastatesubject.Similarly,theConstitutionalsomakesitanobligatoryresponsibilityoftheGoItopromotetheeducationalinterestoftheweakersectionsofthepeopleandmakesthefollowingprovision:

“(article 46) The State shall promote with special care the educational and economicinterestsoftheweakersectionsofthepeople,and,inparticular,oftheScheduledCastesand theScheduledTribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all formsofexploitation.”

TheseexceptionsaresolargethattheycircumscribetheStateauthorityforeducationverymaterially andmake education lookmore like a ‘joint’ responsibility than like a Statepreserve.Butthisisnotall.IthastoberememberedthattheConstitutionwasouttocreatea‘strong’Centre.Ithas,therefore,restedmostoftheimportantresourcesintheGovernmentofIndiaandtheresultisthatnoStatehasadequateresourcesofitsowntodevelopeducation—thecostliestofwelfareservices.ConsequentlytheCentre,whichcontrolsthepurse-strings,necessarilyhasthemostdominatingvoiceintheoveralldeterminationofpolicies,prioritiesandprogrammes.Fromthispointofview,therefore,educationbeginstolook,notonlyasajointresponsibility,butalmostlikea‘partnership’inwhichtheGovernmentofIndiaplaystheroleofthe‘BigBrother’.ThisimpliedconstitutionalroleoftheGovernmentofIndiaineducation,therefore,isdirectlyopposedtotheexplicitroleasstatedinEntry11ofListII;anditisthisbasiccontradictioninherentintheConstitutionalprovisionsthatleadstomostofthecontroversiesonthesubject.(Jain:)

The situation is further complicated by another consideration. The role of a federalgovernmentineducationisdetermined,notsomuchbytheprovisionsoftheConstitutionasbyconventionsandpracticesevolvedthroughhistoricaldevelopments.PerhapsthefinestexampleofthisistheConstitutionoftheU.S.A.itself.

ThetraditionoflocalcontrolineducationisextremelystrongintheU.S.A.andbothinhistoryandinlaw;educationisspecificallyaStatesubject.ThecountryhasconsequentlydevelopedahighlydeCentralizedsystemofeducationaladministrationanditisworthyofnotethatthefederalconstitutiondoesnotevencontainareferenceto‘schools’or‘education’.AllthesefactorsshouldtendtomaketheroleoftheU.S.federalgovernmentineducationextremelyweak.But the facts are that federal aid to education isolder than the federalconstitution;andthepresentfunctionsandresponsibilitiesoftheU.S.federalgovernmentineducationarefarheavierandmoreimportantthaninseveralothercountrieswhereeventheConstitutionmakesthefederalgovernmentresponsibleforeducationinsomewayortheother.TodaytheU.S.FederalGovernmentconductsaU.S.OfficeofEducationwhichservesas a clearinghouseof ideasand information. It is alsodirectly responsible for anumber of educational programmes such as education for national defense, cooperationwithothernationsinaworld-wideeducationalendeavor,ineducationinunionterritoriesandtheeducationofthechildrenoffederalemployeesresidingingovernmentreservations,independenciesandatforeignstations.33

Ithasalsoassumedcertainresponsibilitiesforthe educationofbackwardgroupsliketheRed IndiansorBlacks.But aboveall, it hasmade large funds available for educational

33 De Young : Introduction to American Public Education, pp. 32-33.

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developmentwithoutanyideaofimposingfederalcontrolin education.Asstatedabove, thistraditionoffederalfinancialassistance’without‘federalcontrol’isveryoldandgoesbackto1785whiletheConstitutionitselfwasratifiedin1788.34Hardlyanyotherproofisneededtoshowthatitisthehistoricalbackground,andnottheexplicitprovisionsoftheconstitution,thatordinarilydeterminetheactualroleofafederalgovernmentineducation.35

d. South Africa

TheNationalEducationPolicyAct(Act27of1996)empowerstheMinisterofEducationtodetermineanationalpolicyforlanguageineducation.SubsequentlytheLanguage-in-EducationPolicywas adopted in1997.According to theLanguage-in-EducationPolicythemain aims of theMinistry of Education’s policy for language in education are “tosupport the teachingandlearningofallother languagesrequiredby learnersorusedbycommunitiesinSouthAfrica,includinglanguagesusedforreligiouspurposes,languageswhichare important for international tradeandcommunication,andSouthAfricanSignLanguage,aswellasAlternativeandAugmentativeCommunication”.

The Language-in-Education Policy also makes the following statements:

• Theparentexercisesthelanguagechoice(thedocumentusesthewording‘languagerights’)onbehalfoftheminorlearner.

• Learners(i.e.theirparents)mustchoosetheirlanguageofteachinguponadmissiontoaschool.

• Whereacertainlanguageisnotavailable,learnersmayrequesttheprovincialeducationdepartmenttomakeprovisionforinstructioninthechosenlanguage.

• Governingbodiesofschoolsmuststipulatehowtheschoolwillpromotemultilingualismthroughusingmore thanone languageof learningand teaching,and/orbyofferingadditionallanguagesasfully-fledgedsubjects,and/orapplyingspecialimmersionorlanguagemaintenanceprogrammes,orthroughothermeansapprovedbytheheadoftheprovincialeducationdepartment.

• TheobjectiveoftheSouthAfricanSchoolsAct(Act84of1996)istoprovideastrongfoundationfortheprotectionandadvancementofthecountry’sdiverseculturesandlanguages.Section6ofthisactempowersschoolgoverningbodiestodeterminethelanguagepolicyofschoolswithinguidelinessetnationallyandonprovinciallevel.

• AccordingtotheDepartmentofEducation’slanguagepolicyschoolpupilshavearighttobe taught ina languageof theirchoiceand theyshould informtheschoolwhichlanguagetheywishtobetaughtinwhenapplyingforadmission.Schoolsshouldtakethesepreferencesintoaccountandworktowardsmultilingualism.

34 ** We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

35 *** In the Australian Constitution also, Education is left to the States, there being no express power of the Commonwealth in this respect, in the Constitution. The Commonwealth has, however, assumed control over education under its powers of grant-in-aid, and under its powers over Defence, Trade and Commerce—Nicholas,Australian Constitution, p. 49.


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Onlyofficiallanguagesmaybeusedforinstruction.FromGrade3onwards,allpupilswillhavetostudythelanguagetheyaretaughtin,andatleastoneotherapprovedlanguage.Furthermorelanguagemaynotbeusedasabarriertoadmission.Governingbodiesmuststipulatehowtheirschoolswillpromotemultilingualism.Failingalanguagewillresultinfailingagrade.

Mostofthepeoplearewillingtomaintaintheirprimarylanguagesinfamily,communityand religiouscontextsbut theydonotbelieve that these languageshave thecapacity todevelop into languages of power. In terms ofBourdieu’s paradigm, their consciousnessreflectstherealityofthelinguisticmarketandtheyhavebecomevictimsofamonolingualhabitus,inspiteofthefactthatmostAfricanpeopleareproficientintwoormorelanguages.Paradoxically, in South Africa, English, the dominant and well-nigh universal targetlanguage,isnotusuallyoneofthese!Becausetheracequestionwasthesalientissueforblackpeopleunderthesuccessivewhitesupremacistregimesthroughoutthe20thcentury,therewasnoequivalenttotheculturalpoliticalmovementthatcharacterizedthestrugglesofthe(enfranchised)Afrikanercommunity.Blackpoliticalorganizations,whetherorganizedonaracialornon-racialbasis,foughtinthefirstandlastinstancefortheeradicationofracialoppressionandracialinequality.Consequently,ethnic,culturalandlinguisticquestionshadaverylowpriorityontheirrespectiveagendas.

AfteranextremelyproblematicstartduringthefirstsevenyearsofthenewRepublicofSouthAfrica,languageeducationpolicyappearstobeontheroadtowardsfindingadefinitedirection.Althoughthegapbetweentheconstitutionalandlegislativepositionontheonehand,andtheactualpracticesintheclassroomsandlecturehallsofthecountryontheotherhand,remainsverywideandoftenappearstobewidening,thefactthattheseinstrumentsexist is of the greatest significance. They represent democratic space for the legal andpeacefulpromotionofmultilingualismandformothertonguebasedbilingualeducationinSouthAfrica(seeAppendices).Moreover,recentdevelopmentsindicatethatonthepartofthestate,thereisadefinitealbeitproblematiccommitmenttotheconstitutionalprovisionsonlanguageandlanguageeducation.

Ifapartheidlanguagepolicyhadintentionallypromotedandentrenchedoldandnewsocialdivisions, the languagepolicyof the newSouthAfrica is clearly geared to the strategyofreconciliationandnationbuilding,whichwasthedefiningfeatureofformerPresidentMandela’s government. Both the constitution of the country and the language policyin education take it as their point of departure that the 11 official languages shall haveequalityofstatusand“parityofesteem”.Allthelanguagesusedinthecountryaredeemedtobe assets rather thanproblems.However, there is nodoubt that inpractice; the statebureaucracy aswell asmost of the political leadership is trapped in the language-is-a-problemparadigm.Thepublicserviceisrapidlyslidinginthedirectionofunilingualisminspiteoftheconstitutionalprovisionfortheuseofaminimumoftwolanguagesatbothnational and provincial levels. In summary, the issues can be stated simply. Languagepolicy in education has to promote inter-group communication and understanding.Thebestwayofdoingsoisviamothertongue-basedbilingualeducationandthepromotionofindividualmultilingualism(orplurilingualism)ratherthanbymeansofrelianceonalinguafrancaonly.This is the rationale for the official language educationpolicy of “additive

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bilingualism”(i.e., the addition of another language andmaintenance of thefirst/motherlanguage).Thisisnowbeingre-baptised“mothertongue-basedbilingualeducation”asitisarguedthatthisformulationismoreeasilycomprehensibletonon-specialists.Italsohastheadvantagethatinacontextofcontinuingsuspicionaboutthevalueofmothertongueeducation,itsuggestsveryclearlythattheobjectiveofthesystemgoesbeyondtheuseofthemothertongueasalanguageoflearninginthatitpointstothelearningofadditionallanguagesandtotheiruseaslanguagesofteaching.

Whetherornottheattainmentof“anon-racial,non-sexist,uniteddemocraticSouthAfrica”isfeasibleinthemediumtolongtermmaydependonwhetherornotitwillbepossibletodeflectontothelanguagedomainthelatentexplosionsandimplosionsgeneratedbythefrictionofracialprejudiceandracialinequalityandperpetuatedbecauseoftheresurgenceofthediscourseofracialidentitiesassociatedwithanyaffirmativeactionprogramme.

e. Australia

Australia is an exampleof theweakest role that a federal government can ever play ineducation.ThestatesofAustraliawerefoundedandgrewasindependentcoloniesanditwasonlyaslateasin1901thatthefederalgovernmentwascreated.Bythistime,everyStatehaddevelopeditsowneducationalsystemandsuchastronglocalsentimentandtraditionforeducationhadbeencreatedthatthepeopledidnotthinkitnecessarytoinvestthefederalgovernmentwithanyauthorityineducation.Therewasevenafeelingthatfederalcontrolandinterventionineducationwoulddogreatharm;andthisexplainswhytheAustralianconstitutionmakesnoreferencetoeducationandwhythefederalgovernmenttooknostepsforeducationaldevelopmentforseveralyearsafteritsformation.

f. Canada

TheroleoftheCanadianFederalGovernmentineducationissimilartothatinAustraliawithtwomajordifferences:(1)theproblemoflinguisticandreligiousminoritiesisacuteinCanadaandneedsspecialsafeguards,and(2)itismoreinfluencedbythedevelopmentsintheU.S.A.ThepresentDominionofCanadaaroseoutofafusionofBritishandFrenchcolonies.TheFrench-speaking people are aminority in the dominion as awhole but amajorityincertainpartssuchasQuebecandthepositionoftheEnglish-speakingpeopleisjusttheoppositeofthis.Specialsafeguardsfortheinterestsofminoritieshad,therefore,tobeprovidedinthefederalconstitution—theBritishNorthAmericaActof1867—whichlays down that the educational rights enjoyed by the religiousminorities prior to theirentryintothedominionshallnotbeabrogatedand,incasesofdispute,providesappealstotheGovernor-General-in-CouncilandtothePrivyCouncilinLondon.SafeguardingtheeducationalrightsofminoritiesisthusanessentialfederalresponsibilityinCanada.

ThefederalgovernmentinCanadaisalsoconstitutionallyresponsiblefortheeducationintheterritories,fortheeducationofRedIndiansandEskimos,andfortrainingfornationaldefence.AsinAustralia,scientificandotherresearchhasbecomeafederalresponsibilityandthe“NationalResearchCouncil,inconjunctionwiththenationalresearchlaboratoriesinOttawa,maintainslaboratories,offersscholarshipstoresearchstudents,andpaysgrants-


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in-aid for investigationsconductedat theUniversity levelbyProvincialDepartmentsofEducation”.36

As in theU.S.A.,Canadaalsohasmade large landandmoneygrantsforeducationandassistsprogrammesofvocationaland technicaleducation inschools.There is,however,noFederalMinistryorDepartmentofEducation,notevenanOfficeofEducationasintheU.S.A.orAustralia.ThereisaDominionBureauofStatisticswhichpublishes,asoneofitsmultifariousduties,anAnnualSurveyofEducationinCanada.ThereisalsoaCanadianEducation Association which collects and publishes research studies and generallyfunctionsasaclearinghouseforinformationandideas.Recently,thefederalgovernmenthasgivenfinancialassistanceforincreasingstaffsalariesinuniversitiesanditalsobearstheexpenditureonschoolbroadcasts.Allthingsconsidered,therefore,thegeneralopinionis“thatthepartplayedineducationbytheDominionGovernmentinCanadaisimportant,butneitherextensivenorexpending”37

g. The U.S.A.

US education which will ultimately result in a substantial increase in the federal participa-tion in educational development. One of the most important modern trends of thinking in the USA is that education is also a national responsibility and that, whatever justification there may have been for leaving it exclusively to the States in 1788 when the Constitution was framed, the entire position has to be examined afresh in the light of present day require-ments. In fact, it is readily pointed out that the position of exclusive State responsibility for education adopted in 1788 has already become obsolete and that the federal government has, during the last hundred and seventy years, developed a number of very significant and large-scale educational functions to meet the demands of changing times. The most pointed example of this is the recent federal effort to scout for talent in scientific studies and to im-prove science education when it was realized that the USSR was probably outstripping the USA in the development of science; and all that is now urged is that the federal role in edu-cation will have to be expanded still further if the USA has to hold her own in the modern world.

36 Cramer, JF & Brown, S. B. 1965. Contemporary Education . Harcourt, Brace & World. p.145.37 * ibid., p. 146.

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Assumingthatthefederalgovernmentshallexpanditseducationalactivities,thedirectioninwhich thisexpansionshould takeplace is thenext important issue tobediscussed inthisfield.Oneimportantareasuggestedisfederalgrantsfor‘generaleducation’—whichcorresponds to the freeandcompulsoryeducationvisualized inArticle45of the IndianConstitution—withaviewto‘equalizingeducationalopportunities’.InnocountryoftheworldhassomuchresearchandstudybeencarriedoutonthisproblemasintheUSA.38

These ideas which have now come to stay at the community level are being naturallyextendedtotheStatelevelandstudiesmadesofarhaveshownthattheStatesthemselvesexhibitwidevariationin‘educationalloads’,in‘abilities’,in‘efforts’tosupporteducationand in ‘achievements’.Consequently, a demand is now being put forward to the effectthat‘equalizationofeducationalopportunity’mustbeacceptedasafederalresponsibility.The federal government, it is said, must lay down a minimum foundation programmeforall statesandmustgiveequalizationgrantswherenecessaryonprinciplessimilar tothosementionedabove.Itisalsoevidentthatthesupportforthisconceptoffederalaidtoeducationisrapidlygaininggroundandthatitisonlyamatteroftimewhenfederalgrantsforequalizationofeducationalopportunitieswouldbegenerallyavailable.

Themainargumentagainstthiswholesomeandurgentreformisthefearthatfederalaidtoeducationwillnecessarilybefollowedbyfederalcontrol.Thereareseveralthinkerswhowouldratherrefusefederalaidthanhavefederalcontrol.Butanequallystrongargumentisnowbeingputforwardthatfederalaidcanandshouldbegivenwithoutfederalcontrol.

DeYoungwrites,quotingfiscalexperts,“nosoundprogrammeoflocalorstatetaxationcanbedevisedandestablishedwhichwill support ineverycommunityaschoolsystemthatmeetsminimumacceptablestandards.Timecannevereffacetheinequalitiesinnaturalresourcesthatexistbetweenstates.Therefore,unlessthefederalgovernmentparticipatesin38 The work really started with a study of educational facilities provided by the local communities on whom,

not very long ago, the entire responsibility for general education was made to rest. It was discovered that the ‘educational load’ of communities, as shown by the number of children to be educated, varied largely from place to place—rural and agricultural districts generally had more children per 1000 of population than urban and industrialised districts. Secondly, the ‘ability’ of the communities to support education, as measured by their taxable capacity also showed large variations and very often, a community with a poor ‘ability’ to support education was required to carry larger ‘educational load’. Thirdly, the ‘effort’ of the community for education, as measured by the percentage of its taxable capacity raised and devoted to edu-cation, also showed large variations; and finally, the educational ‘achievements’ of the different communi-ties showed extreme variations—some communities providing a very high standard of education to all the children, while others could neither enroll all children nor maintain adequate standards in schools. What is worse, it was found that several communities made the greatest ‘effort’ to provide education and yet, either because of poor ‘capacity’ or heavy ‘educational loads’ or both, they could only show a poor standard of ‘achievement’. Such disparities are increased rather than decreased by the system of ‘matching grants’ which give more to the rich than to the poor. To remove all these shortcomings and to provide equality of educational opportunity for all children, which is a fundamental need of democracy, the State Govern-ments have given up the idea of grants in aid on the basis of matching funds alone and have supplemented it by a new system of grant in aid on the basis of equalisation. The process is complicated but it works out somewhat on the following lines: In the first instance, the State prescribes what is called a ‘foundation programme’ that is to say, a minimum programme below which no community can be allowed to fall. The programme includes targets for enrolments, teachers’ salaries, school buildings, provision of health services (inclusive of school meals) and other contingent expenditures so that it is both a qualitative and a quantita-tive programme. The second step in the process is to work out the total cost of this programme for each com-munity; and the third step is to determine the ‘reasonable’ effort which the local community is expected to make. The difference between the total cost of the foundation programme and the reasonable effort expected of the community.


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thefinancialsupportoftheschoolsandtherelatedservicesthelessableareas,severalmillionchildrenintheUnitedStatesandtheoutlyingterritoriesandpossessionswillcontinuetobedenied theeducationalopportunities thatshouldberegardedas theirbirthright.Mostrecommendationsandrecentproposalsforfederalaidstipulatepositivelythatsuchgrantsshallnotentailfederalcontrolovereducation.Theyalsospecifythatthemoneyshallbeapportionedtothestates,exceptthatforcooperativeeducationalresearch,whichshallbeadministeredby theUnitedStatesOfficeofEducation.This challengehasnotyetbeenadequatelymet.Federalaidtopubliceducationisoneofthemoral‘musts’ofAmerica.”

It is true that the GoI has been taking decisions in all fields of education in the post-independenceperiodandthesedecisionsaremostlybeingacceptedbyStateGovernments.Thisresult,however, isaccidentalandisduetotwoextraneouscircumstances—(1)thepoliticalfactthatthesamepartyisinpowerattheCentreandtheStatesand(2)thefinancialfactthatmostofthesedecisionshavebeensugar-coatedwithliberalfinancialassistance.Butitwouldbewrongtoassumethatthispoliticalsituationwillalwayscontinueanditwouldbeequallydifficult to justify theuseoffinancialpressures for inducingStates toacceptpoliciestowhichtheywouldnototherwisehaveagreedto.Thepresentconstitutionalposition, therefore,presents an impasse.On theonehand, educationmustbe treatedasawholeand it isneitherpossiblenordesirable tobreak itup into twocompartments—universityeducationandothersectors.Ontheotherhand,governmenthasonlyalimitedauthorityformakingpolicydecisionsinthesectorofuniversityeducationwhileitisnotatallempoweredtotakeanypolicydecisionsinotherfields;andevenifitweretotakeanysuchdecision,itdoesnothavethelegalauthoritytoenforceitagainstthestategovernments.

InNepali federal structurewe have towonderwhatwill happen, if for instance, if thefederal and stategovernment are leadby thedifferentpolitical ideologies.Say,will theproposedMadheshPradeshaccept theeducationpolicies, curriculamadeby the federalgovernment,orwillother stateaccept the languagepoliciesof the federalgovernment?Whatwillbethesolution?Whowilldecidewhatwillbetaught,whatwillbethelanguageandwhat contentwill be there in the textbooks?Even,which “nationalism”, “culture”,“history” etc.will be the part of the course book?Further, howcan the nationmanageandforge thenationalunity throughtextbooksoreducationsector?Forexample,whichhistoricalmovementwill be highlighted in the textbooks, Janandolan 2007, Janandolan2046,Janandolan2063-064,Janayuddha,MadheshMovementorothermovements?So,if thefederalgovernmentfails toguideitproperlyonthis issueorthestategovernmentdoes not accept the central proposal, therewill be different historical discourses taughtindifferentstates.So,federalismisnotajustanissueofDecentralizationthepowerandauthoritybutitalsotheissueoftransformationorDecentralizationofideologywhichmaybejustoppositethecurrentnationalideologyordiscourseofnationalism,nationalidentityandhistorical,culturalorsocialassumptionsandbeliefs.

The federal governmentmust give financial assistance is universally admitted; and thetask isof special significance in Indiawhere themostelasticandproductivesourcesofrevenuearevestedintheCentre.Themaincontroversies,therefore,relatetotwoissues—theobjectivesofassistanceandtheformandconditionsofgrants-in-aid.

Withregardtothefirstoftheseissues,itisgenerallysuggestedthatthereshouldbethreetypesofgrants.Thefirst isa transferofadditionalrevenuesinorder toenabletheState

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Governmentstoplantheirprogrammesinallwelfareserviceswithgreaterconfidenceandself-reliance;thesecondistheinstitutionofageneralgrantforeducationalpurposesbutnotearmarkedforanyspecificprogramme;andthethirdisaspecificpurposegrantwhichisintendedforaprogrammeorganizedandimplementedwiththeapprovaloftheCentre.ItisobviousthatiftheautonomyandindependenceoftheStatesistoberespectedintheeducationalfield,greaterreliancewillhavetobeplacedonthefirsttwoofthesegrants.

Anotherpointofextremeimportanceisthatofspecialfinancialassistancetobackwardstatesorwhatiscalled‘anequalizationgrant’inAmericanparlance.Itisabasicresponsibilityof the federal government tomaintain a uniform standard of social services in generaland to equalize educational opportunities in particular. In this respect, our States showimmensedifferences.Theydifferinthelevelofdevelopmentreachedatpresentduemainlyto historical accidents; their ‘educational loads’ i.e. the number of children still outsidetheschoolalsovarygreatly;andeven thesocialandeconomicconditionsshowequallywidevariationssothattheStatesarefarfromcomparableintermsof‘ability’tosupporteducationandthedifficultyofthetasktobeperformed.TheadvancedStateshaveabiggerandamoredifficult task toperformwithmore limited resources.Today, the conditionsaresodiversethattheexpenditureonPrimaryeducationinthesinglecityofBombayisgreaterthanthatintheentireStateofOrissa.ItisfortheGovernmentofIndiatoadoptanequalizationgrantandlevelupsuchdifferencestotheextentpossible.

Itshouldalsobestatedthatitisnottheobjectoftheequalizationprogrammetobringalldevelopments toadead levelofuniformity.Thisneednotandcannotbedone.What issuggested isa three-foldprogramme: (1) the federalgovernmentshouldprescribe, fromtimetotime,minimumorfoundationprogrammesbelowwhichnoareashouldbeallowedtofall;(2)thefreedomofindividualStatestogoaheadshouldberetained;and(3)thegapbetweentheadvancedandthebackwardStatesshouldbecontinuallynarroweddown.

Itisobviousthatthisprincipleofgrant-in-aidisdiametricallyopposedtothatofmatchinggrantswhichgivesmore to him that hath.Under this concept, someStatesmayget nogrant,othersmaygetamediumoneandstillothersmaygetalargeone.ItsoperationcanprobablybebestdescribedinthefollowingpassagefromDeYoung,TheTenthAmendmenttotheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesmadeeducationtheprimaryresponsibilityoftheindividualstates.Hencethesupportofpubliceducationbecamemainlyamatterofstateconcern.Todayeverystatemakessomecontributionfromitsrevenuesforthesupportofpublicschools.39

39 Strayer and Haig in 1923 were the first to give a clear-cut picture of the equalisation principle. Their analysis interpreted this principle as the complete equalisation of the burden of a satisfactory minimum educational programme below which no locality could be allowed to go, but above which any locality would be allowed to rise by means of local support. In contradistinction to the payment-for-effort or matching principle, the operation of the equalisation plan tends to shift to more able communities some of the undue burden carried by the less wealthy localities (see Fig. below). Most states today have a state-local “partnership foundation programme” in which the commonwealth bestows more on these schools which have less in fiscal resources.

How state equalisation works in three types of districts. In the poor district, local effort to support schools pro-duces only a small fraction of the cost of a state-guaranteed minimum or foundation programme. In the district of average wealth, the same effort produces about half the needed fiscal support. The wealthy district receives no state equalisation aid because the local wealth back of each child is great enough to more than finance the minimum programme. The district serves as a lighthouse to indicate better practices.

In brief, the equalisation principle means that governmental agencies collect educational funds where the money


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2.3 The Nepali Context

InNepal, thepolitical ideologyofPanchayatwaslinkedwithschoolandeducationalsystemasaninstitutionwhichwasessentialforamodern‘developed’nation.Theschoolthusactedasanarenaof‘development’processwherestatecouldwinthesupportand

confidenceofthepeople.Educationwastakenasanideaofmodernity,prestige,andsocialstatusanditwasacceptedasabasicrequirementfor‘development’.

Theimplementationofaneweducationsystemasthebasicrequirementsfor‘development’playedacrucialroleintheideologicalregimeofPanchayat.Thenewideasofmodernityanddevelopment,andtheuseofschoolsasinstrumentsofsocialchangebecamethekeysourcesoflegitimacyforthePanchayatipoliticalsystem,whichsoughttoadvanceanewvisionof“nepaliness’.Letmeremind,mostoftoday’sNepalitextbookswerewritteninthisperiod.

Withthishistoricalandculturalbaggage,thereappearssubstantialchallengeforthenewfederalismtomakenewpoliciesoneducationorchangetextbooks.Howcannewfederalismchangethetextbooksormakenewpoliciesineducation.Whatwillbethehistorycontentoftextbooks?Whowillmakethepolicyandwhatwillbethelanguageofcommunicationandlanguageoftextbooksinschools?Itwilldependonthestructureoffederalism.Willthenationbefederalisedonthebasisofgeography,language,culture,orsomeotherbasis?Whowillmanage,whowillfinance?WhatabouttheschoolsrunbyreligiousinstitutionsliketheGumbasandtheMadrasass?

is and spend the money where the pupils are. Every man’s property and income must be taxed to educate every man’s child. Even though a man chooses to send his own children to a parochial or private school he is not exempt from contributing his support to the education of all children. The golden rule in educational finance is : “Thou shalt educate thy neighbor’s children as thine own.”

At first this idea of equalisation was applied to small areas, as the county and state. Now the old slogan “the wealth of the state must educate the children of the state” is being supplemented with the clause “and the wealth of the United States must be used to equalise the education of all the children in the nation”. Furthermore, the phrase “all the children in the nation” implies that more adequate educational opportunities and greater financial support be provided for exceptional or a typical children, since their learning opportunities, as in the case of the blind, are below par, and the costs of their instruction are above average. American public education will not be genuinely democratic until there is nation-wide application of the principle that opportunity and burden shall be equalised for all learners.”*

69. The second issue refers to the conditions of grant-in-aid. Here strict adherence to certain general principles is necessary. To begin with, the tendency to use grants-in-aid as indirect pressure levers for policy decisions should be discouraged as far as possible. Secondly, the quantum of specific purpose grants should be restricted to the very minimum and confined to basic programmes of national significance only or schemes in the nature of experimental or pilot projects. Thirdly, the procedure for sanctioning these grants will have to be simplified to the utmost. And lastly, a suitable machinery will have to be devised to obtain, from the State Governments, a report on the utilisation of grants and the results obtained thereof. This can probably be effectively done by appointing high level advisers who should pay visits to States and submit reports after a special study on the spot.

70. Another useful suggestion to be made in this context is that the specific purpose grants should be included in the Centrally-sponsored sector. In a Centrally-sponsored scheme, ‘planning’ should be a joint responsibility in which the fundamental principles are laid down by the Centre, but a large initiative and freedom is left to State Governments to make the Plan suit its local needs and conditions; ‘implementation’ would be through the State Government; and ‘finance’ would come from the Centre on a hundred per cent basis and outside the State Plan and ceiling. This will ensure that the programme is most effectively implemented and also that such implementa-tion does not interfere with any other schemes.

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Improving thequalityofeducation isoftenofferedasagoalofDecentralization,and itreflectsthenotionthatlocalpeoplecansolvelocaleducationalproblemsbetterthanthestate(Winkler,1993,p.66).ButintheNepalicontextthereisahugedebateonfederalismwhetherit isgoingtobegeographical,linguistic,culture,ethnicorothers.Whatwillbethenationallanguageandwhatwillbethemediumofcommunicationatnationalandlocallevels.Whichdepartment(central,stateorlocal)willmakethepolicies,curricula,andtaketheresponsibilityoffinancingtheeducation?

Forexample, ifMadheshPradeshasdemandedbymostof theMadhesh-centricpartieswill be one state,whatwill be the language of educationalmaterials,whatwill be thecurricula,which languagewill be themediumof teaching,whatwill be the content ofeducationmaterialssuchasnationality,geography,culture,language.Willtherebeexistingtexts of PrithiviNarayan Shah orBhanubhaktaAcharya? Whatwill be the priority ofcontentwhenittalksabouttheNepalipoliticalmovementsandmartyrs.Madheshmartyrs,madheshmovementorJanandolan2006?IfthefederalstatewillbejustoppositeasmostoftheMadhesipartieswants,whatwillbethelanguagepolicies.Forinstance,willtheNepalilanguage become a bone of contention between seekers of ‘Tharuwan’ and ‘AkhandaSudurpaschim’. Similarly, for the majority of schools in Kaski and Lamjung districts,GurungcanbeabettermediumofteachingthanNepali.Alotwillhingeonwhatwillbethecommonlanguage,whatwillbethemedium,whatwillbetheteachertrainingsmanual,whatwillbethecurriculum,whatwillbethehistorical,social,politicalandculturalcontentofthetextbooksandwhowillmakethepoliciesandwhowilldecidethatwhatwillbetaughtintheschool.So,conflictinpolitical,ethnic,linguistic,oridentityareawillaffecttheeducationalpoliciesofNepal.Whatwillbethesolutionorhowcanhandleandmanagesuchtypeofchallenges.

HansonsuggestsatleastfourcentersofpowerthatcansignificantlyfacilitateaneducationalDecentralization programme if they collaborate within the context of a shared vision:politicalparties,nationalandregionalgovernmentinstitutions,teachers’unions,andlocalcitizens.The singlemost important force in determining the fate of aDecentralizationinitiative is whether or not the main political parties have a shared vision about thecourseandcontentof thereformandagreetocollaborate.Forexample, theVenezuelanreform(1968)wasruinedassuccessivepoliticalparties,allofwhichprofessedbeliefinDecentralization,mademassivepersonnelandpolicychangessolelytocaptureattentionandcreditfortheprogramme(Hanson,1976).

InArgentina(1993),anewlawofeducationwaspassedwhichsupportedDecentralization(federalisation).HowevertheprocessoftheDecentralizationremainsuncertainforlongtimebecauseofweakcollaborationandinitiationofpoliticalparties(Hanson,1996b).Spaingotitrightin1978whenbothmajorpoliticalpartiescollaboratedincraftingtheDecentralizationreformofgovernmentandsupporteditasbeinginthebestinterestofthenation.“Countrybeforeparty”wasthewatchwordatthatdecisivemoment(Tussel&Soto,1996).

A secondnecessary component is to have the collaborationof themajor institutionsofgovernment,suchas:theministriesofeducationandfinance,theofficeofnationalplanning,andthenational,regional,andmunicipallegislatures.AnyoneoftheseinstitutionscandosignificantdamagetoaDecentralizationstrategyifitchoosestopursueitsownmodelandrefusestocompromise.


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AthirdcriticalcenterofpowerthatcansignificantlyadvanceorretardtheDecentralizationprocess may be the national teachers’ unions, school associations (like the Private andBoarding Schools Organization, National Private and Boarding Schools Association),Guardians’AssociationNepalamongothers.Iftheteachers’unionmembershipdoesnotfeelthreatenedbyafragmentationoftheirbargainingunitsoritimprovestheirworkingconditionsandbenefits,thetheteacherscanbeaformidableally(orfoe)inthechangeprocess.

Finally,Decentralizationineducationcanonlyworkifcommunitymembersarepreparedtoputinthetimeandenergynecessarytomakethereformworkifthelocalcommunitiesdistrust,donottakeseriously,donotparticipatein,ordonotwanttoassumetheaddedresponsibility, then the opportunity for successful change through Decentralization isseriously limited. Insum, thegreater theacceptedvisionofDecentralizationwithinandbetweenthedistinctcentersofpower,thegreaterthechanceofsuccess.

2.4 Conclusion and Recommendations

Oneofthemostimportantbutchallengingissueintheprocessofeducationrestructurewill be the multilingual, multicultural and multiethnic background of students.Teachingmaterials, curricula and the necessity of teacher’s language skillswill

bedeterminedbythenatureofstateandthelanguagepoliciesofthenation.Thereisnoclear-cutconceptofnewfederalstructurebutany typeof federalsystemwilldemandadifferenteducationalstructurethannow.Since,Nepalhasalreadyadoptedmultilingualanddecentralizededucationsystemtoanextenttheanticipatedchangesmaynotbeatotallynew and shocking experience. However, it will demandmuchmore planning and newadjustmentstotheexistingeducationsystem.

TheInterimConstitutionofNepal(2007)hasacknowledged theimportanceofmultilingualeducationbygrantingtherighttoreceivebasiceducationinmothertongue.Part3,Article17of this constitutionmentions: (a) “Each community shall have the right to get basiceducationintheirmothertongueasprovidedforinthelaw,”(b)“EachcommunityresidinginNepalshallhavetherighttopreserveandpromoteitslanguage,script,culture,culturalcivilityandheritage.”InNepal,thelocalbodieshavebeenauthorizedtorunprimaryschoolsinmother tonguesby theLocalSelf-governanceAct, 1998.Similarly, theprovisions inEducationAct(amendedin2002)andEducationRegulations,2002havebeenmadeforrunningprimaryschoolsinmothertongues.TheCurriculumofPrimaryEducation,2007,hasalsoauthorizedtheconcernedstakeholderstoimpartprimaryeducationinrespectivemothertongues.NationalCurriculumFramework,2007,hasstatedthatthefirstphaseofbasic education (1-3) can be imparted inmother tongue.TheThreeYear Interim Plan,2007,alsofocusedontheinstitutionalizationofeducationinmothertongueandexpansionof such programme in par with the demand and promotion of multilingual education.Implementation Guidelines 2005 for District Curriculum Coordination Committee andRegionalCurriculumCoordinationCommitteehavealsomadeprovisionsfordevelopingcurriculaandteachingmaterialsatthelocallevel.

ThecommitmentmadebyNepalattheWorldEducationForum2000inDakartoensuretherighttoeverychildparticularlygirlsandchildrenfromethnicminoritiesforthecompletefreeandcompulsoryprimaryeducationofgoodqualityby2015andmakingtheschoolsinclusivelearningcentersofexcellencewilltakemoretimetoachieve.Theintroductionofmother-tongueliteracyclassesindifferentpartsofthecountrywerenotcontinuedfor

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anumberofreasonsandoneofthemwastheinterestofthelearnerstolearnthesecondlanguageotherthantheirfirstlanguage(Khadka,2006).However,therearesomepositivesigns in this regard and Nepal has endorsed Multilingual Education ImplementationGuidelines,2010.TheMEIG,focusingon“bottom-up”approach,hasacknowledgedtheprominentroleofthelanguagecommunities,schoolmanagementcommittees,localbodies,non-governmentalorganizationsinestablishingchildrighttoreceivequalitybasiceducationinmother tongue. CurriculumDevelopment Centre (CDC) has produced textbooks formothertongueassubjectfordifferentgradesinanumberoflanguages.

Various studies (Benson, 2002; Dutcher, 2003) have identified that overall educationalattainmentofchildrencanbeenhancedif theyare taught in theirmother tongueinearlygrades.Incontrarytothis,teachinginadominantlanguage,whichisdifferentfromchildren’smother tongue, inearlygrades invites seriouschallenges ineducatione.g.highdrop-outrates,loweducationalattainmentandlackofclassroominteraction(UNESCO,2003).

Indiaisoneofthemostdiversecountriesintermsoflanguage,cultureandethnicitywith427languages(Ethnologue,2005).TheconstitutionofIndiasupportstheuseoflearner’smothertongueineducation.However,thenumberoflanguagesusedasamediumofinstructionhasdeclinedfrom81in1970to33in2005.India,Pakistan,SouthAfrica,Canadaandmanyothercountrieshaveaccepted themultilingualorminoritypolicies ineducationsystem.LanguagehasalwaysbeenacontentiousissueinSouthAfrica.In1997,theLanguageinEducationPolicy(LiEP)wasstarted,makingaplaceforAfricanlanguagesintheschools.EnglishandAfrikaansremaintheprimarymediaof learning.TheAfricanlanguagesareofferedfromfirstthroughfourthgradeinpredominantlyblackschools,afterwhichEnglishtakesoverastheinstructionalmedium.TheprivateschoolsandtheattractiononEnglishmediumornational languageshaveplayedacrucialrole todevaluate the importanceofmotherlanguageinchildhoodeducation.BangladeshisanexamplewherethetribalpeoplerapidlyshiftawayfromtheirheritagelanguagestoBanglaasaconsequenceofcompetitionfromthemajoritylanguageandfromthelackoflanguagemaintenancesupportfromtheauthorities.Theprivatisationofschoolsmaybethecrucialpartofdiscussionwhilewetalkabouttheneweducationsystem.Apartfromthis,theroleofcentral(Federal)governmentandstategovernmentineducationsystemisoneofthemostcrucialpartsofeducationpolicymaking.OntheonehandwetalkaboutDecentralizationorfederalismwheremostoftheresponsibilityandauthoritywillbehandedovertostateorlocallevelandontheotherhand,wemustconsiderthenationalprogrammethatneedsnationaleffortsandmustdotogether.Forexample,womeneducation,childeducation,disableeducationcannotbeignoredbythenationorcentralgovernment.Themajorargumentisthattheeducationisnotasubjectofignoranceandtheremustbesomeroleandresponsibilitywithcentralgovernmentandstate government that can control,manage, implement or change the policies. If, somestateshavepoorperformanceineducationattainmentthenthecentralgovernmentcannotignoreitwithouttakinganyresponsibility.So,stategovernmentsarefreetomakepoliciesandimplementtheplansforgoodpurposeorforbettermentofeducation.

Inanarticleon“Educationinafederalsystem:Acase-studyofBelgium”(2006),CarolineVarin sees some problemswithin different educational systems across ethnic lineswhichcanincreasesocialandeconomicinequality.InafederalcountrysuchasBelgiumwithpre-existingethnictensions,thisinequalitycanleadtopoliticalinstability.So,itisveryimportanttoincreasecommunicationandcooperationamongstatesinordertoharmonizethecountry.


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Apartfromsocial,linguisticorculturaldilemmawithinfederaleducationsystemthereisnoclear-cutpoliciesonfinancialsupportforthestate.Nosoundprogrammeoflocalorstatetaxationcanbedevisedandestablishedwhichwillsupportineverycommunityoraschoolsystemthatmeetsminimumacceptablestandards.Inmanycountries,ifthecentral/federalgovernmentdoesnot support the schoolsand the relatedservices in the lessableareas,severalmillionchildrenwillcontinuetobedeniededucationalopportunities.So,educationsystemnotonlydemandstheautonomyandDecentralizationforthebettermentbutalsowaitsforthecentralhelpifitisinhelplesssituation.

NepalieducationsystemseemsdifferentthaneitherfromotherSouthAsiancountrieslikePakistan,IndiaorBangladeshwheretheeducationsystemandtheDecentralizationprocesshasalonghistoryorfromthedevelopedcountrieslikeAustralia,CanadaorUSwherestateshavemoreresponsibilitiesoneducationplanningandpolicies.Thesecountrieshadalreadyaneducationalsetupineverystatesothestatesbecamepowerfulintheeducationsector.However, educators realise that the activeparticipationof federal/centralgovernment isalsoneededinnationaleducationprojectsuchaswomen’seducation,childeducation,freeeducationetc.Apartfromthis,centralgovernmentmusthelporsupportthosestateswhichdonothavegood record in educational attainment.ThenewSouthAfricanconstitutionidentifiedschoolingasaprovincialcompetencysothatthegovernanceandadministrationofschoolingisnowtheresponsibilityofthenineprovinces.However,Nepalisgoingtobepartofauniquesetofexperiences.OntheonehandithasalonglegacyofoldBritisheducation systemwhereason theother it has adopted theDecentralizationof educationpolicieswithweak performance. The policies onDecentralization and improvement ofeducationsystemhasbeenplannedwellenoughintermsofmultilingualclass,textbooks,free education, child-centric education, Decentralization of authority to local level.However,itstillenactswithahierarchicaldecision-makingprocessholdingtheCentralizedpoweranddecentralizingthedepartments,offices,agencies.Thedifferentexperiencesfromvariousnationsshowthatwecanuseexistingeducationaldepartmentsandinfrastructureforthefuturefederalsetup.Theroleandresponsibilitymaybedifferentandtheremustbesomeadjustmentinnumber,placesandauthorityetc.However,thebasicinfrastructurefortheexistingdecentralizededucationsystemofNepalmoreorlesscanplayseparateroleinadifferentsituation.Inthesecondtable,Ihavetriedtorelocatetheroleandresponsibilitiesofdifferentdepartments,administrativeunitsandofficesthatcanmakepoliciesandplansandimplementitindifferentpoliticaloradministrativesituations.

Tilldate,therehasbeennoclearideaonthefutureoffederalismwithregardtoitsstructureand howmany levels of government will be formed under this process. However, thereportassumesthattherewillbethreelevelsofgovernmentandtheywillhaveseparatepower relations.Theroleandresponsibilitiesof federalorcentralgovernmentandstategovernmentswillbemoreorlesssamebutinthecaseofstatepoliciesandplanningstategovernmentwillbemorepowerfulthanthefederal/centralgovernment.However,inthenationalscenarioorinthecaseofsomedebatableissuessuchasculture,language,curricula,historycentralgovernmentcansuggestandmakebalancesamongdifferentstates.Apartfrom this, the implementation of the national education project will be handled by thecentralgovernment.Itcanalsodirectandhelpthestategovernmentforbetterperformanceineducationsystemandtoensuretheeducationrightsofmarginalizedcommunities,girlsanddisabledchildren.

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Possible Assignments/Functions in a federal system

EducationInstitutions

Curricula,TextbooksandTeachingmaterials

• Alllevelsofeducationsystemifnecessaryintheterritorystate(controlledbythecentral/federalgovernment)

• Schools,Colleges,Universities• Religiousschools(Gumba,Gurukul,Madharshaandothers)

• Majortechnical/vocationaleducationcentres

• Majorresearchcentres/institutes(Scienceandtechnology,socialscience,defense,nationalsecurity,foreignpoliciesandinternationalrelationsandothers)

• Schools/Institutesfordisabledchildren/students

• Majortrainingcenters• CentralLibrary• ResearchLibraries

• Specifiescontentofthecorecurriculumonnationalism,nationalhistory,cultureandsociety.

• Formulationofguidelinestosolvethedebateondifferentsocial,cultureorhistoricalbackgroundsofthedifferentstatesorterritoriesinthecurriculumcontent.

• Formulationofaguidelinetoovercomethebiased/stereotypedcontentsorwrongrepresentationsbasedoncaste/religious/

• Specifiesthelanguagepoliciesineducationsystemandincurricula

• Provideoptionswithdifferentsetsofcurricula

• Decideifothercurricula(foreign,centralorotherstatecurricula)willbeallowedandunderwhatcircumstances.circumstances?

• Approvalprocessfortheabove,ifany

• Canaddlocalrequirementstocorecurriculasuggestedbythestate

• Cansuggestthestatetoaddlocalcontentsandcontextswhilemakingcurricula

• Canuselocallanguage• Canaddlocalexamples• Selectthecurriculafrom

• Alllevelsofeducationsystem• School,College,Universities• Religiousschools(Gumba,Gurukul,Madharshaandothers)

• Schools/Institutesfordisabledchildren/students

• Technical/VocationaleducationCentres

• Researchcentres/institutes• Trainingcenters• Statelibrary• Researchlibraries

• Schools(alsorunprimaryschoolsinmothertongues)

• Colleges• Religiousormarginalisedcommunity-basedschools

• Smalltechnical/vocationalinstitutions

• Locallibraries

UnderCentral /Federal Government

UnderState/provincial Government

Under District/Local government

Remarks

Table no. 1: Role and responsibilities of different levels of government in the future federal states

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Remarks

state/communityetc.• Candevelopcurriculaandproducethetextbooksforparticulargroup/sorforparticularnationalprogramme/s(e.g.thenationalliteracyprogramme,women”seducation,childeducation,adulteducation,educationfordisabledchildren,formarginaland/orreligiousgroups).

• Canformulatethecurriculafortheterritoryeducationsystem(controlledbythecentral/federalgovernment)

• Accept/rejectforeignorstatecurricula(itmaybeoptionalbutitcanatleastcheckandcontroloverbiasness,misrepresentations,foreignmattersorothercontentiousissues)

• Specifiestextrequirementstomatchcorecurricula;providesanapprovedlistoftextsonlyfortheterritory(evenstatecanselectfromit).

• Productionanddistribution.• Researchoncurricula,textbooks,teachingmaterialsandnewtechnologieswhichcanbeusedtoimprovetheeducationsystem.

• Diffusionofeducationmaterials,books,educationtechnology

• Promotion,campaignforeducationforall,women,indigenous/marginalisedgroups

• Similarrulesforpublic/privateschoolcurricula

• Makeprovisionsfororallowaparticularsubjectthatcanbemadebylocaldistrictorlocallevel.(Forinstance,localcommunity/schoolsinKathmanducanteachonesubjectonNewarculture,handicraft,pottery,agricultureetc.)

• Specifiestextrequirementstomatchcorecurricula;providesanapprovedlistoftexts

• Productionanddistribution -makecurriculaandproducetextbooksforstateeducation(pre-primary,secondary,vocationalschools,informaloradultschool,universityetc.)policy

• Decideoncompulsoryeducation:somelevelsorall

• Decideonfreeeducation:somelevelsorall

• Decideonownershipofschools:Ownership-Private,communityorstaterunschools,collegesanduniversities

approvedlistprovidedbythestate

• Ifthereisanyprovisionthatallowslocalgovernmentsfortheproductionofanyoneortwooptionalsubjectsthenlocalgovernmentscanmakenewcurriculaatlocallevelswhichmaybesuitableonlyfortheparticulararea.

• Useoflocalknowledge,participationoflocalresources/studentsparticipation/culturallyandsociallyadopted/multilingual;willhelpstudentslearnbetter

• Challenges:funds/coordination/roleand

responsibility/decisionmakingpower

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Possible Assignments/Functions in a federal systemTeachersTraining

Teacherrecruitmentandpayment




Remarks

• Canprovidethenational/internationalexperts

• Canproducevarioustrainingmaterialsanddistributetostate/locallevel

• Canmakepoliciesormakeproperguidelines,givetrainingtoterritoryschool.

• Organiseseminar/conference• Nationalandinternationaltraining,seminars,workshops,conferencesoneducation;

coordinationwithnationalandinternationalinstitutions;bi-lateralandmulti-lateraleducationalagreements;Regularandperiodicmonitoringandevaluationofeducationprogrammesimplementedbygovernmentalandnon-governmentalorganisations

• Controloverteacherrecruitment,dismissals,salary,interritoryorcentral

• Employmentcontractarrangements• Appointschoolheads.(centralterritory)• Employmentcontractarrangements• Teacherregistration/qualificationrequirements

• Maydeterminein-servicetrainingneeds

• Canprovidethenational/internationalexperts

• Canproducevarioustrainingmaterialsanddistributetolocallevel

• Organiseseminary/conferenceoncurricula,educationquality,roleofteachersandothers.

• Nationalandinternationaltraining,seminars,workshops,conferencesoneducation;

coordinationwithnationalandinternationalinstitutions;bi-lateralandmulti-lateraleducationalagreements;regularandperiodicmonitoringandevaluationofeducationprogrammesimplementedbygovernmentalandnon-governmentalorganisations• Controloverteacherrecruitment,dismissals,salary,inthestaterunschools

• Appointschoolheads.• Employmentcontractarrangements

• Teacherregistration/qualificationrequirements

• Cangiveopportunitiestofreshgraduatestoteachvoluntarilyatlocalschools

Schoolscanidentifypromisingvolunteerswhomaybecometeachersinthefuture.

• Localschoolmanagementcommitteescanbeelectedthatrecruitlocalteacherforlocallanguageandlocalcurricula.

Humanresources/language/finalcial/use/implementation/standard/management/

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ExaminationsystemAssessment/Qualifications




Remarks

• Commonexams• State/privaterunschoolexams• Differencesbetweenstate/privaterunschoolexams

• Otherassessment• Qualificationsystems• Foreign/anotherstatequalificationsandrecognitionissues

• Samequalificationsforpublic/private• Qualityassurance/review

• Designtestinstruments;ensuresteststakeplaceanddisseminatesresults.

• Commonexamssystem• State/privaterunschoolandexams

• Differencesbetweenstate/privateexams

• Qualificationssystem• Foreignoranotherstatequalificationsandrecognitionissues

• Samequalificationsforpublic/private

• Qualityassurance/review• Particulargradeexamsmaybetakenstatewise(5,10or12,collegelevel,universitylevels)

Apartfromparticulargradeslike(5,10,12)otherexaminationsandresultsarecontrolledbythelocaleducationadministration.

Commonexaminationsystemmaytreatallstudentsequalandgiveanopportunitytoqualifyinthefuture.However,differentexaminationboardsmaygivedifferentmessagesStillpeople/educationinstitutions/oremployercancomparestudentsqualificationonthebaseofstate

• Canappoint/selectothervolunteersandgroomthemforparticularprogrammes,fore.g.marginalisedgroup,religiousgroup,vocationalschools,informaloradulteducationschool,freeeducationforallcampaigns,educationfordisablechildrenetc.

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Remarks

• Maysuperviseschoolperformanceandprovidesassistancetoremedyproblemsinterritoryeducationsystem.

• Maydirectandsupervisethetechnical,women,adult,religious,marginalisedcommunities’educationetc.

• Maycomparetheeducationsystemandeducationalattainmentindifferentstate

• Maysuggestthestatefortheimprovementofeducationaftersupervisingtheoveralleducationperformanceofthestate

Howinstitutionsareaccountabletostudents,shareholders,parents,government

Reportingrequirements(educational,financial,infrastructure)

• Maysuperviseschoolperformanceandprovidesassistancetoremedyproblems.

• Maysuperviseandgivedirectionforthebettermentofthetechnical,women,adult,religious,marginalisedcommunities’educationatlocalleveletc.

• Maycomparetheeducationsystemandeducationalattainmentatlocallevel.

• Maysuggestthelocalinstitutionfortheimprovementofeducationaftersupervisingtheoveralleducationperformanceinlocallevel.

• Howinstitutionsareaccountabletostudents,shareholders,parents,government

• Reportingrequirements(educational,financial,infrastructure,otherfacilitiesandnecessary)

• Howstatesareaccountabletoparticulargroups’girls,adults,ethnicgroups,religiousgroupsetc.

• Localschool/teacherspresence/infrastructure/andotheractivitiescanbesupervisedbyparticularofficerappointedbythestateordistrictlevel.

• Localcommunitycanalsosupervisetheschoolandgivethereporttodistrictorstateleveleducationadministration.

• Howinstitutionsareaccountabletostudents,shareholders,parents,government

• Reportingrequirements(educational,financial,infrastructure,otherfacilities)

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• Maysetminimumstandardsandmonitorcompliance

• Religious,marginalised,adult,childrenschoolsandinfrastructure

• Territoryeducationsystem• Technicalorvocationalinstitute• Trainingcentre• ResearchCentre• Library• Canprovidetheresourcesforthedevelopmentofschool

• mayhelpforinfrastructuredevelopment

• Maysetminimumstandardsandmonitorcompliance

• Ofalltypesofschool,technicalorvocationalinstitution,trainingcentre,researchcentre,libraryetc.

• Canprovidetheresourcesforthedevelopmentofschool

• mayhelpforinfrastructuredevelopment

• maysolvedisputesbetweenlocalpeoplevs.schoolmanagementetc.

• Reporttostate/districtlevel

• Maybuildapartnershipwithstategovernmentorotherinstitutesfortheimprovementofschool,library,child-centricinfrastructureandfacilities

• Mayworktogetherwithlocalcommunity,NGOsorINGOs.

Schoolconstructionandmaintenance

Financialandbudgeting

• Maygenerateownrevenueandusethefund

• Disbursesharedrevenues(betweencentralandstategovernment

• Disbursegrantsfromthecentretostateorlocallevel.

• Disbursegrantsfromcentretoparticulareducationareassuchasdisablededucation,womeneducation,adulteducation.

• Donorsupportedfunds• Establishesminimumlevelsofexpenditure.

• Mayprovidecentraltransfers(installmentsorblock)tohelpfinanceschools.

• Ownrevenue/usercharges• Sharerevenuesfortheeducation(betweencentral/stateandlocalgovernment

• Cross-sectoralblockgrantsfromcentral/stategovernment

• Sectoralgrantsfromcentral/stategovernment

• Statelevelprizesforstudents• Statelevelfundsforschoolsforbetterperformance

• Donorsupportedfunds• Scholarships,grants• Stategovernmentalso

• locallevelplansanduseofbudgets

• Maintainsproperaccounts.

• Canrunlocalfundsandscholarship

• Useoflocalresourcessuchasland,building,schoolhallforthegeneralincomethatmaybespendforvolunteers,localcurriculadevelopmentor

Table no. 2: Existing education system that can be managed differently in new federal system without devaluating the existing mechanism

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Remarks

• Monitoringofvariationsinexpenditureandoutcomeineducationsector.

• Administerscholarships,grants• Mayestablish‘bestschoolprize’fundandprovideittobestschoolselectedfromthestates

• Allresponsibilitiesofterritoryschools,vocationalandtechnicalschools,university,college,

• Budgetforreligious,marginalised,women,adulteducationsystemorprogramme

• Budgetingforparticularnationaleducationprogramme(educationforall,educationforwomen,literacyprogrammeetc)

• Fundingforparticulartextbooks,trainingsandotherfacilitieswhichmaynotbethepriorityofanyparticularstatebutcouldbeofnationalimportanceite.g.indigenouslanguages,textbooks,endangeredlanguagepreservationetc.

• Canprovidetheeducationsupportfundforthosestateswhichhavepooreducationalattainmentlevel.(educationisnotonlytheresponsibilityofaparticularstatebutitisequallyaresponsibilityofthenationsoeverystatemustequalineducationfield)

providesspecialsupportforparticularlocalareasordistrictswithpooreducationalattainmentlevel.

• subsidies- operatingsubsidies- subsidiesforteachersalaries- freeorsubsidisedlandandbuildings

- freeteachertraining,curriculummaterials,etc

• StudentFinanceAllowancespaidtostudentsStudentloanschemesScholarshipprogrammesResearchgrantInternshipfacilitiesAssistanceresearch/facultystaffProject/research-basedgrantsfacilities

scholarshipsandprizes

• Donorsupportedfunds(mayneedcertainguidelines)

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• Mayprovidesubsidies:- operatingsubsidies- subsidiesforteachersalaries- freeorsubsidisedlandandbuildings- freeteachertraining,curriculummaterials,etc

• StudentFinanceAllowancespaidtostudentsStudentloanschemesScholarshipprogrammesResearchGrantInternfacilitiesResearchassistance/facultystaffProject/research-basedgrantsfacilities

• Educationalandculturalrelationswithothercountries

• Theclearinghousefunctionofcollectingandbroadcastingideasandinformation;

• Thecoordinatingfunctionofharmonisingtheeducationalactivitiesofthecentreandthestates

• EducationintheUnionTerritories;• Propagation,developmentandenrichmentofdifferentlanguage,culture

• Preservationandpromotionofnationalcultureinclusiveofpatronagetonationalart(drama,literary,handicraftetc)

• Patronagetothestudyofancientcultures

Otherfunctionsoffederal/centralgovernmentsuggestedbyJaininIndiancase

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Remarks

• Promotionandcoordinationofeducationalresearch

• Specialresponsibilityfortheculturalinterestsoftheminorities

• Responsibilityfortheweakersectionsofthepeoplei.e.themarginalised,indigenousandethniccommunities

• Responsibilityforstrengtheningnationalunitythroughsuitableprogrammesandparticularlythroughthoseofemotionalintegration

• Grantofscholarships• Advancedprofessionalandvocationaltraining;MaintenanceofCentralInstitutionsoragenciesforeducation

• Provisionoffreeandcompulsoryeducation

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Policy making level Ministry of Education(Central or federal)

Policy making level Ministry of Education (State)

Districts/ Local Level Remarks

DistrictEducationOfficesorlocaleducationofficemaybesetup.Itwilldependonfederalismstructure;however,someroleandresponsibilitiescanbetransferredfromstatetodistrictordistricttolocallevel.

Onesystemmaybe(centralorfederalgovernment,stategovernment,districtsgovernmentsandlocalgovernments(fourtiers)AnothermaybeFederal,stateandlocallevel(3tiers)Thebasicfunctionsoffederalandstate

Theministryisresponsibleforformulatingeducationpoliciesandplansandmanagingandimplementingthemacrossthecountrythroughtheinstitutionsunderit.

MainFunctions:

• Educationalpolicies,plans,formulationofprogrammes,implementations,follow-upandevaluations;

• ECDC/Pre-Primary,SchoolLevelEducation,HigherEducation,DistanceEducation,AdultEducation,Non-FormalEducation,SpecialNeedsEducation;PopulationEducationandNutritionProgrammes;TechnicalandVocationalaswellasMoralandPhysicalEducation;

• Policyformationandimplementationofteachertrainingandeducationalhumanresourcedevelopment;

• EducationalInstitutions(includingGurukul,Gumba,Madarsa);

Theministryisresponsibleforformulatingeducationpoliciesandplansandmanagingandimplementingthemacrossthecountrythroughtheinstitutionsunderit.

MainFunctions:

• Educationalpolicies,plans,formulationofprogrammes,implementations,follow-upandevaluations;

• EarlyChildhoodDevelopmentCentre/Pre-Primary,SchoolLevelEducation,HigherEducation,DistanceEducation,AdultEducation,Non-FormalEducation,SpecialNeedsEducation;PopulationEducationandNutritionProgrammes;TechnicalandVocationalaswellasMoralandPhysicalEducation;

• Policyformationandimplementationofteachertrainingandeducationalhumanresourcedevelopment;

• EducationalInstitutions(includingGurukul,Gumba,Madrasa);

AgenciesunderMoE(Central)Variouscentral,regional,districts,localandautonomousagenciesarefunctioningtoachieve

Programme-formulationlevel(understategovernment)

DistrictEducationDirectorates(DEDs)DistrictEducationOfficesDEOs

ObjectivesImplementtheprogrammeswithinthedistrictasdirectedbystateMoE;Coordinateeducationalprogrammesandactivitieswithinthedistrictsandcoveragelocalarea;Monitorandinspecttheeducationalprogrammeswithinthedistrict/local.

Functions

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theirobjectivesandgoalsunderMoE.Thesetechnicalagenciesareintendedforaccess,quality,equityandhumanresourcedevelopmentCentrallevelDepartmentofeducation(DoE)NationalCentreforEducationDevelopment(NCED)CurriculumDevelopmentCentre(CDC)OfficeoftheControllerofExamination(OCE)Non-formalEducationCentre(NEFC)SchoolTeachers’RecordOffice(STRO)EducationReviewOffice(ERO)

CommissionsUniversityGrantCommission(UGC)TeacherServiceCommission(TSC)NepalNationalCommissionforEducation,ScienceandCulturalOrganisation(NATCOM)

ExistingUniversities(UnderCentralGovernmentorStateGovernment)Councils/BoardsCouncilforTechnicalEducationandVocationalTraining(CTEVT)HigherSecondaryEducationBoard(HSEB)

AgenciesunderMoE,stateVariouscentral,regional,districts,localandautonomousagenciesarefunctioningtoachievetheirobjectivesandgoalsunderMoE.Thesetechnicalagenciesareintendedforaccess,quality,equityandhumanresourcedevelopmentCentrallevelDepartmentofEducation(DoE)NationalCentreforEducationDevelopment(NCED)CurriculumDevelopmentCentre(CDC)OfficeoftheControllerofExaminations(OCE)Non-formalEducationCentre(NEFC)SchoolTeachers’RecordOffice(STRO)EducationReviewOffice(ERO)CommissionsUniversityGrantCommission(UGC)TeacherServiceCommission(TSC)NepalNationalCommissionforEducation,ScienceandCulturalOrganisation(NATCOM)

ExistingUniversities(UnderCentral

• Correct,changeandupdatethename,casteanddateofbirthofstudentswhopassedcommonorstateexam(5,10,12class)andprovidetemporarycertificates;• Conductandassiststateexamination;monitorandsupervisehighersecondaryschools;

• Carryoutonthespotsupervisionandfollow-upactivitiesforbothformalandnon-formaleducationprogrammes;

• CoordinateandinspectGOs’andI/NGOs’educationalprojectsatlocallevel;

• Prepareand

governmentsaresamehoweverinsomecasescentralgovernmentmaybemorepowerfulbutwithinastateterritorystategovernmentmaybemorepowerful.

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Libraries(undercentralorstatecontrol)

JanakEducationMaterialCentreLimited(JEMCL)(CentralControlorstatecontrolorcanbeusedforsometimeorbeforeinstallationofsuchtypeofpressandinfrastructureineverystate;or,canproduce/andpublishallmaterialsinprivatepress)Examquestionpapers,certificatesandothersecurityprinting

ScholarshipSection

Formulatepolicies,rulesandregulationsonscholarshipandimplementaccordingly;Formulatequestions,conductexamsandselectcandidates;Selectandrecommendcandidatesforforeignscholarshipsavailabletotheministryandmaintainanupdatedrecordofthis;Prepareanupdatedrecordofpersonsgoingabroad(andreturning)forstudyortraining;Demandandcollectforeignscholarshipaspertherequirementoftheministry;RecommendforforeignexchangefacilitiesandprovideNoObjectionLettertothestudentsgoing

GovernmentorStateGovernment)Councils/boardsCouncilforTeachnicalEducationandVocationalTraining(CTEVT)HigherSecondaryEducationBoard(HSEB)

Libraries(UnderCentralorstateControl)

JanakEducationMaterialCentreLimited(JEMCL)(CentralControlorstatecontrolorcanbeusedforsometimeorbeforeinstallationofsuchtypeofpressandinfrastructureineverystate?Orcanproduce/andpublishallmaterialsinprivatepress)Examquestionpapersandothersecurityprinting?

Functions• Coordinateeducationalplanningandprogrammeactivitieswithinthedistrict;collectandanalysestatisticalinformationonschooleducation

implementdifferenteducationaldevelopmentprogrammesindistrict/locallevelinaccordancewiththestategovernment’seducationalpolicyandplanning

• provideprofessionalinputstoteachers,headteachersandstudents;

• Monitorandevaluateeducationalprogressintheschool.

• Appointandtransferteachersandmaintaintheirrecords;

• Prepareannualandperiodicstatisticalreportsonschools,teachers,etc.

• Establishnewschoolsand




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abroadforstudyinself-financeandkeeptheirsubject-wiserecord;AccomplishdefinedandinstructedtasksmentionedintheCitizen’sCharter.

PlanningsectionPrepareannualandperiodicplansinlinewiththenationaleducationdevelopmentpolicies.TheDivisionisentrustedwiththeresponsibilityforpolicydevelopmentandanalysis.Italsoco-ordinatesforeignaidforimplementingprogrammesandprojectsineducation.TheDivisionistheentrypointfordonoragenciesintheeducationsector.ThemainfunctionsofthesectionsunderthisDivisionareasfollows:1.PolicyAnalysisandProgrammeSection2.ForeignAidCo-ordinationSection3.LibraryCoordinationSection

1.PolicyAnalysisandProgrammeSectionStudy,compareandanalyseeducationpoliciesandprogrammesforimplementation;Analyseshort-termandlong-termeducationplansimplementedunderMinistryofEducationanditsagencies;Conductpolicylevelstudyandresearchof

• ProvideapprovalofLowerSecondaryandSecondaryschools;

• Approvetheup-gradationofclassesinLowerSecondaryandHigherSecondaryschools;

• Assistinthemonitoringandsupervisionofschools;

• Providesupportforconductingexams;• Organisetrainings,workshopsandseminarsforprincipals,teachers,

• Measureeducationalqualitiesofschools;

• Collectfeedbacksfortheimprovementofcurriculum;

• Conductdistrict/localeducationalexhibitions;Performance-basedmonitoring;ConductorientationprogrammefortheformulationofannualprogrammetoDEOs;

• HandoverofmanagementofLowerSecondaryandSecondarySchools;

• Recordinstitutionalschoolsaspublicandprivatetrust;

• Coordinate,supervise/inspectandevaluatetheperformanceofDEO;

strengthenexistingschools;

• Organiseshort-termteachertrainings,workshopsandseminars;

• Organiseextra-curricularactivities;

• Conductdistrictlevelandstate-levelcommonexaminations;

• Prepareandconducttheprogrammesforaccessandqualityeducation;

• Conductcapacitybuildingprogrammesforstakeholders;

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educationpoliciesandprogrammes;Carryoutstudyandanalyseonrelationofeducationalplans,programmesandstrategieswithexistingEducationalActsandRegulationsandrecommendit;Analysenationallevelexamresultsandprovidefeedbacks;

Providesuggestionsofeducationalresearchanditsfindingsforpolicymakinglevel;Prepareshort-andlong-termplanforeducationdevelopment;Prepareannualeducationdevelopmentprogrammes;Coordinatedistrictleveldevelopmentprogrammes;Preparebudgetstructureforproposedplansandprogrammes;CollectproposalsofannualplansandprogrammesfromofficesundertheMinistry,finaliseandsendthemtotheNationalPlanningCommissiontoincludeintheNationalPlan;AccomplishdefinedandinstructedtasksmentionedintheCitizenCharter.

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Teacher Management and Development in Federal System of Government

in Nepal

- Dr. Arbinda Lal Bhomi- Dr. Rajendra Suwal

3

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Executive Summary

TheConstitutionforFederalDemocraticRepublicofNepal,whichisbeingdrafted,needstoaddresseducationforthepeople,amongotherthings.Inherently,itisalsoexpectedthatsystemandstructureofeducationwillbedesignedinconsonancewith

thefederalsystemofgovernmentinthecountry.Consideringtheserealities,thisconceptpaperhasbeenpreparedtoprovidetheconstitutionalcommitteeandconcernedgovernmentagencieswith evidence-based informationon teachermanagement anddevelopment forpublicschoolsystem.Itincludesteacherrecruitment,appointmentandpromotion;teacherpreparation; teacher professional development; monitoring of teacher performance;and amenities to the teachers. The concept paper came up with a wide spectrum ofrecommendations on teacher management and development which were derived fromthereviewofnationalandinternationaldocuments,andperspectivesofstakeholders.Thesynthesisoftherecommendationsofthepaperispresentedbelow.

The new constitution should incorporate a separate chapter or section or articles foreducation.Thissection,amongothers,shouldincorporatetheconcernoftheteachers,andtheirmanagementanddevelopment.Oneofthemajorstatementswhichisappropriatetobeincorporatedundertherelevantsectionintheconstitutioncouldbe:Everychildshallhaverighttogetfreeeducationuptosecondarylevelfromprofessionallyqualified,trainedandup-to-dateteachers.

ForFederalNepal,twooptionsinrelationtoteacherrecruitment,appointmentandpromotionarerecommended.First,ifschoolsexpectthattheteachers’recruitment,appointmentandpromotion should go under the jurisdiction of StateTeacher ServiceCommission, theyshouldbesuppliedteachersaccordingly.Second,thecapablecommunitiesorlocalbodies(municipalities or VDCs) interested to take the management responsibility of schoolsshouldbegiventheopportunitytorecruitandappointteachersfromamongthecandidateshavingtherequiredqualificationandtrainingandwhoarecertifiedbytheTeacherServiceCommissionofanystateortheTeacherCouncil.Whiledoingso,aselectioncommitteecomprising the head teacher, education experts and SMC chairperson should follow arigorousscreeningprocesswithobjectiveandtransparentcriteriadevelopedatthecentralorstatelevel.

TheprovisionforaninternalcareerpathforteacherstomovefromBasictoSecondarylevelhasbeensuggested,iftheypossesstherequiredqualification,trainingandcompetency.Theneed for performance based promotion system has been stressed, which requires regularperformanceappraisalofteachers,basedonmoreobjectiveandtransparentcriteria.

Theresponsibilityofteacherpreparationindifferentstatesshouldbegiventotheuniversities.Forensuringqualityinteacherpreparationprogramme,substantialtimeneedstobegivenforpracticalactivitiesduringtraining.Importantly,thesystemofgrantingaccreditationtoteacherpreparationprogrammesandinstitutionsinvolvedinteacherpreparationshouldbeinitiated.

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Whatever the ways of developing teachers’ professional competency, it must be site-based, leading to improvingclassroomperformance. It implies that teacherprofessionaldevelopmentwillbelocalizedtomeettheneedsoftheteachersandschools.Inordertoimprovethequalityoftraining,NationalCentreforEducationalDevelopmentatthecentrewill have todevelop innovative trainingpackages including theprogrammes for trainerdevelopment.

For the purpose of managerial monitoring, a team comprising the head teacher, SMCchairperson and experts from the government should be formed at the local level.Thismonitoringteamshouldbeempoweredtotakenecessaryactionagainstthosewhodonotworkaccordingtothenormsandstandards.However,technicalteamsformedatthestatelevelshouldbemaderesponsiblefortechnicalmonitoring.

Amenitiestobeprovidedtotheteachersshouldbecomparabletothosegiventogovernmentemployeesforattractingandretainingprofessionallyqualified,competentanddedicatedteachers.Minimumnormsandstandardsforamenitiesshouldbedevelopedbythecentralgovernment.Stategovernmentsshouldbemaderesponsibleforprovidingthesefacilities.Additionalfacilitiescanbegivenbythestatesbasedontherevenuetheygenerate.

Finally,thepaperrecommendsthatcentralgovernmentshouldprovideoveralleducationalpolicyguidelinesaswellasdeterminationofminimumnormsandstandardsfor teachermanagementanddevelopment.Thestategovernmentshouldplayacrucialrolebyprovidingschoolsandlocalgovernmentswiththerequiredfinancialandtechnicalsupportforteachermanagementanddevelopment,whiletheresponsibilityofschoolmanagementshouldbegiventolocallevel.

Teacher Management and Development in Federal System of Government in Nepal

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3.1. Background

The Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 (2007) has declared Nepal as a FederalDemocraticRepublic.All thestakeholders ingeneralandmembersofconstituentassembly in particular are engaged in one way or another in the drafting of

constitution. In federal systemofgovernment thepower togovern isdistributedamongthecentralgovernment,provincial/stategovernmentsandlocalgovernments.Eachlevelofgovernmentwillhaveitsownadministrativemechanisminwhicheducationwillbeoneofthesectors.Consideringtheimportanceofeducationinthesocial,politicalandeconomicdevelopmentofthecountry,thenewconstitutionshouldaddresseducationalmatterssothatthissectorwillgetdueimportance.

Thecriticalaspectsofeducation(e.g.therightofeverychildtofreeeducation)shouldbeincorporatedintheconstitution,whereassomeaspectsshouldbeenactedintostatutelaw,and some shouldbe included inEducationAct andEducationRegulations. In addition,policiesshouldbeformulatedbythelegislature(e.g.,compulsorytaxationforthesupportofschools).Withineducationsector,allthestakeholdersexpectgoodschoolsforwhichwemusthavegoodteachers,andtohavegoodteacherswemustensuretheminimumamenitiestoattract and retaincompetentyoungpeople in theprofession.Theseamenities includeminimumsalaryscale,providentfundorgratuity,professionaldevelopment,professionalcareerpathsandmedicalallowances.Allthesemattersrequireabetterteachermanagementanddevelopmentsystem.

TheGovernmentofNepal(GoN),atpresent,throughitsSchoolSectorReformPlan(SSRP)2009-2015,aimsatachievingsignificantimprovementsin15keyindicatorsoutofwhich2aredirectlyrelatedtoteachers(e.g.Teacherswithrequiredqualificationandtraining,andTeacherswithrequiredcertification);andother2(e.g.learningachievementofthestudents,andpassrateinSchoolLeavingCertificate/SLCandHigherSecondaryEducationBoard/HSEB)arerelatedtoperformanceofteachers.

Again,asindicatedinSSRP,thelearningachievement(i.e.averagescoreofstudentsincoresubjects)ingrade5and8in2008/09is53percentand46percentrespectively.TheSSRPhastargetedtoreachthelearningachievementofgrade5studentsat80percentandthatofgrade8at60percentby2015/16.Likewise,theSSRPhasmadeatargettoincreasethepassrate(i.e.percentageofstudentswhopassinSLCexamination)from62percentin2008/09to75percentin2015/16andthatinHSEnationalexaminationfrom25percentin2008/09to50percentin2015/16.

Inordertoachievethesetargets, teachermanagementanddevelopmentsystemneedstobestrengthenedby thegovernment, forwhich theConstitutionofFederalNepalshouldgivedueattentiontothissector.WithaviewtohelpConstituentAssemblymembersgiveadequateattentiontoteachermanagementanddevelopmentwhiledraftingtheconstitution,thisconceptpaperhasbeenprepared. Similarly,thispaperalsoservesasapointofreferencefortheconcernedgovernmentagenciestoformulatepoliciesandprogrammespertainingtoteachermanagementanddevelopmentinthefederalsystemofgovernmentofNepal. Inthiscontext,thisthematicconceptpapertriestocoversixmajorareasofteachermanagementanddevelopment:(i)Recruitmentandappointmentofteachers,(ii)Promotionofteachers/

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professionalcareerpathsforteachers,(iii)Teacherpreparation/pre-serviceteachertraining,(iv)Teacherprofessionaldevelopment,(v)Performancemonitoring,and(vi)Amenitiestotheteachers.

Whilepreparingthisconceptpaper,thefollowingprocedurewasadopted:

• ReviewoftheexistingsituationofteachermanagementanddevelopmentinNepalbasedonthegovernmentdocuments

• StudyoftheSSRdocuments

• Reviewofthedocumentsrelatedtoteachermanagementanddevelopmentinselectedcountries

• Identificationoftheissuesonteachermanagementanddevelopmentbasedonthestudyofdocuments

• Organizationof4consultativemeetingswithreferencegroups/stakeholdersinKathmanduand2inRupandehi(SeeAnnex-Aforthedate,venueandthetypesoftheparticipants.)forgettingtheiropinionsonthevariousissues

• Derivingthesuggestionsfromthereviewofdocumentsandstakeholders’views


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3.2. Teacher Management and Development: The Present Practices and Identification of Issues/Questions to be Addressed

3. 2.1 Recruitment and Appointment of Teachers in Community Schools and Community Managed Schools

Schools in Nepal, at present, can be divided in two groups: Community Schools(Government-funded) and Institutional Schools (Private). This paper deals only withthe teacher management and development in community schools, which can again beclassifiedintothreecategories:(i)Communityschoolswithapprovedgovernmentteacherpositions,(ii)Communitymanagedschoolswithapprovedgovernmentteacherpositionsbut themanagement responsibility has been transferred to respective communities, and(iii)Communityschoolswithoutapprovedgovernmentteacherpositions.Theproceduresinvolvedintheappointmentofteachersintheseschoolsarepresentedbelow.

a) Present Practice

Community schools and communitymanaged schools haveboth categoriesof teachers:permanentandtemporary.BeforetheestablishmentofTeacherServiceCommission(TSC)in2000,DistrictEducationOffice(DEO)usedtoappointteachersinpermanentpositionson the basis of the recommendation ofDistrictTeacherSelectionCommittee.After theestablishmentof thisCommission,DEOhasbeen appointing the teachers inpermanentpositionsbasedontherecommendationoftheTSC.

Fortheappointmentoftemporaryteachers,DistrictEducationOfficeineachdistrictusedtogranttheapprovedteacherpositionstocommunityschools.Schoolscouldalsoappointteachers temporarily in thevacantpostsof approvedgovernment teacherpositionwhentheteachersresignorretire.Temporaryteachersweregenerallyappointedintheapprovedgovernmentteacherpositionsontherecommendationofschoollevelselectioncommittee.

However,overthelastfewyears,governmenthasadoptedthepolicyofprovidingRahat(relief)quotaofteacherstoappointtemporaryteachersratherthanprovidingtheapprovedteacher positions to schools. In addition, schools can also appoint temporary teacherson their own source. Similarly, temporary teacherswere found to have been appointedunder per-capita fundingprogramme too.All these appointments couldbemadeon therecommendationofschoollevelselectioncommittee.

In the community schools that donot have the approvedgovernment teacherpositions,teachersaregenerallyappointedunderschool’sownsource,inrahat(relief)teacherquotasandwiththesupportofINGOs/donors.

In case of Community Higher Secondary Schools, there are two ways of appointingteachers:(i)onparttimeorfulltimebasisunderschool’sownsource;and(b)onfulltimebasisunderthesupportprovidedbytheHigherSecondaryEducationBoard.

b) Policy Directions in School Sector Reform Plan 2009-2015

SchoolSectorReformPlan(SSRP)hasenvisagedthestructureofschooleducationtobeof12yearswith1-8gradesofbasicleveland9-12gradesofsecondarylevel.SSRPaimsat

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makingthefollowingpolicydirectionsinrelationtoteachermanagementofschoolsystem.

• Decentralizedsystemofteacherrecruitmentandappointmentprocess

• KeyroleofSMCsinteacherrecruitmentandmanagementinCommunityManagedSchools

• KeyroleofSMCinteachermanagementincommunityschools

• Priority to therecruitmentoffemales,dalitsandotherdisadvantagedgroupswhilefillingteacherpositions.

• Recruitment of teachers from among the license holders in a transparent andcompetitivemanner,usingtheguidelinesprovidedbythecentrallevel.

• StrengtheningthecurrentpracticeofteacherlicensingthroughtheTSC

AspertheSSRP,acandidateshouldpossessatleast12yearsofschooleducationwithoneyearofteacherpreparationcoursetobeateacherattheBasicLevel.Similarly,Master’sDegreewithoneyear’steacherpreparationcourseisrequiredtobeateacheratSecondaryLevel.

c) Issues Pertaining to Teacher Recruitment and Appointment in Federal Government

Education forAll (EFA) 2004-2009 and SSRP 2009-2015 have tried to bring about aparadigm shift in themanagement of teachers in the school system. Both programmesintend thatschoolswillmanage their teachers themselveswithout relyingon thecentralcontrol.Moreover,theteachermanagementsystemisexpectedtogiveprioritytofemales,dalitsandthecandidatesfromdisadvantagedgroupsinteacherrecruitment.Atthesametime,theTSCisinexistenceandisfunctioningforrecruitmentandselectionofteachers.Teachers’UnionandseveralTeachers’Associationsprefer the recruitmentandselectionof teachers throughTSC.In thiscontext, it isnecessary toseekanswers/opinions to thefollowingquestions/issues regarding the recruitment andappointmentof teachers in thefederalsystemofgovernmentinNepal.

•Which agency should be the employer of school teachers? Central government, or State/Provincial government, or Local government, or Schools themselves?

•How should teacher recruitment and appointment system be simplified in the federal system?

•What will be the role of Teacher Service Commission at the central and state level?

•What should be done to implement the provision of appointment of permanent teachers by School Management Committee in Community Managed Schools as stated in Education Act and Education Regulations?


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d) Perspectives of Reference Groups

Fourdifferentviewsinrelationtoteacherrecruitmentandappointmentemergedfromtheconsultativemeetings.Thesearepresentedbelow:

Option 1: Establishment of National Teacher Service Commission

ThereshouldbeaprovisionofNationalTeacherServiceCommissionatthecentrallevelwhichshouldhavesimilarmandateasthatofPublicServiceCommissioninitsstructureandfunctions.Underthiscommission,freeandfairselectionofteachersneedtobeensuredbasedonspecificcriteriadevelopedscientifically.

ThestategovernmentshouldemploythecandidatesrecommendedbytheNationalTeacherService Commission. Thus, the state government should be the employer of teachers.The supporters of this view also argue that teachers should be appointed on permanentbasisonly.Forthis,thereshouldbeapoolofcertifiedteachersi.e.whohavepassedtheexaminationofTSC.

Option 2: Establishment of State Teacher Service Commission

Thesupportersofthisviewhavearguedthatifeverythingistobedoneatthecentrallevel,therewillbenouseofstategovernment,andtheessenceoffederalisminNepalwillhavelittlemeaning.Hence,everystateshouldbemaderesponsibleforteacherrecruitment;andtheteachersshouldbeappointedbythestateitself.Forthispurpose,eachstatewillhaveaStateTeacherServiceCommissionwhichshouldbeautonomous,independentandfreefromanysortofpoliticalinterference.

Withaviewtobringuniformityintherecruitmentofteachersinallstates,nationalstandardsought to be established at the central level. Following this option, therewill be a poolofcertifiedcandidateswhoarerecommendedbytheStateTeacherServiceCommission.The stakeholders insisted on the systematic and rigorous selection of candidates.Theseteacherswillbesenttotheconcernedschoolsbasedonthepriorityandneedsoftheschools.The schools will appoint the certified teachers recommended by the Teacher ServiceCommission.Inthisway,thereisanindicationofschoolautonomyinteacherappointment.Ifteachers’recruitmentandappointmentaredoneinthisway,itwillbeeasierandfeasiblefortransferofteacherfromoneschooltoanotherwithinthestate.

Option 3: Recruitment and Appointment of Teachers at Community Managed Schools

Experience showed that the teachers appointed by the governmental agency becomeaccountable to the agency which appoints them, not to the schools.Moreover, gettingtherequiredsubjectteachersmaynotbeensuredforschoolsinthisway.Consideringtheaccountabilityofteacherstotheschool,stakeholdershavepointedoutthatteachersneedtobeappointedbytheschoolitselfbasedontherecommendationofafairselectioncommittee.

However,transparencyandfairnessshouldbeensuredwhileappointingteachers.Amongotherthings,oneofthecriteriaforselectionmustbethetestofclassroomteaching;andtheteachingperformanceofthecandidatesmustbeacceptedbytheselectioncommitteeand

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students.Ithasalsobeenrecommendedthatpreferenceshouldbegiventothecandidateswhoarefromthesamestate.Thistypeofresponsibilityofrecruitmentandappointmentofteachersshouldbegiventothosecommunityschoolswhicharecapableaswellasreadyto take theresponsibility.Thiswayofappointmentof teacherswill foster thefeelingofownershipamongselected teachers towards theschool.Thestategovernment,however,shouldprovidethefinancialresourcestotheschoolsforensuringteachers’jobsecurity;andtheschoolsthemselveswillbetheemployersofteachers.

Option 4: Recruitment and Appointment of Teachers by Local Bodies

IfMunicipalitiesorVillageDevelopmentCommitteesarereadytotaketheresponsibilityof school management, they should be given the responsibility to recruit and appointteachers. In such cases, the overall management responsibility of teachers’ recruitmentandappointmentneedstobegiventothelocalbodies.Forexample,KhowpaCollegeinBhaktapurhasbeenfullymanagedbyBhaktapurMunicipalitywhichrunshighersecondarygradesalongwiththeunder-graduateandgraduateprogrammesofTribhuvanUniversity.Thestakeholdershavestressedthateveninthesystemofteachers’recruitmenthandledbythelocalbodies,teacher’sjobsecuritymustbeensuredbyrulesandregulations.

In the four optionsmentioned above, all agreed that the candidatesmust have teachinglicensetobecometeachers.InthecontextofthepresentpracticeoflicensingfromTeacherService Commission, a new proposal has been suggested by the stakeholders. Theysuggested that licensing/certificationof teachers should be the responsibility ofTeacherCouncillikeMedicalCouncil(formedicaldoctors)orBarAssociation(forlawyers).Thiscouncilwillbeestablishedasaprofessionalbodyofteachers.

3.2.2 Promotion Ladder/Professional Career Paths for Teachers in Community Schools and Community Managed Schools

a) Present Practice

EducationActandEducationRegulationshavemadeaprovisionofseparateteachersforprimary,lowersecondaryandsecondarylevels.Teachersareeligibleforpromotionateachoftheselevels,oncetheybecomepermanent.Forpromotionpurpose,threeclasseshavebeencreatedateachlevel.Inthebeginning,teachersforeachlevelareappointedinthethirdclassandlatertheyarepromotedtosecondclassandthentofirstclassonthebasisofpre-determinedcriteria.Todate,TeacherServiceCommissionhasbeenperformingthetaskofteacherpromotion.Performanceappraisalofteachersdonebytheheadteacherandreviewed by theDistrictEducationOfficer is one of the criteria for teacher promotion.Similarly,thereisalsoaprovisionofseparateteachersforhighersecondarylevel.Atthislevel,provisionforpromotionhasnotyetbeenmade.

b) Provision of Professional Career Paths for Teachers in the SSRP

Two separate paths have been developed for teacher’s career: one for basic level andtheother for secondary level.Ateach level, fourclasseshavebeenproposed:beginner,experienced,masterandexpert.Inordertopromotetheteachers,indicatorssuchastimeontask,seniority,qualification,trainingandstudents’achievementwillbeused.Moreover,teacherwith additional academic qualificationswill gain eligibility for fast-track careerprogressionatthebasicandsecondarylevels.


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c) Issues Related to Teacher Promotion

Intheproposedpromotionladder,theteachersateachlevelareappointedas‘beginners’,andthentheyarepromotedto‘experienced’,‘master’and‘expert’positions.Themaingapappearsas towhether the teachersofbasic levelwithrequiredqualification, trainingandexperiencecangetpromotiontosecondarylevel.Furthermore,ensuringfairness,bringingpromptness,anddevelopingobjectiveandtransparentcriteriaarethemainissuesthatneedtobeaddressedinthepresentcontext.Hence,followingcouldbethepertinentissuesrelatedtoteacherpromotioninthefederalsystemofgovernmentinNepalthatneedtobeaddressed.

• Howshouldteacherpromotionbemadeobjective,transparent,andprompt?

• Whichagencyshouldmanageit?

d) Perspectives of the Reference Groups

Severalpropositionswereputforwardbythestakeholdersontheprofessionalcareerpathsof teachers.As they suggested, there should be a provision for an internal career pathfor teachers tomove fromprimary to lower secondary level and from lower secondaryto secondary level if they possess the required qualification and training.Two types ofpromotionsystemshouldbeformulated:(i)internalcompetitionamongworkingteachersbasedonthecriteriadeterminedbytheTeacherServiceCommissionatthestatelevel,and(ii)opencompetitionamongworkingteachers.

Most stakeholders stressed the need for performance based promotion system whichrequiresregularperformanceappraisalofteachers.Theappraisalformshouldincludesuchobjectivecriteriaas:passpercentageandachievementlevelofstudentsinthesubjecttaughtbytheteacher,regularity,punctuality,andcontributiontotheschooldevelopmentactivitiesso that teachers can calculate their score themselves. Inorder tomake theperformanceappraisalmoreobjective,fairandtransparent,abetterrecordkeepingsystemisessential,whichshouldbefreefromthesubjectivejudgmentofheadteacher,SMC,schoolsupervisororresourceperson.

Since permanent teachers will be eligible for promotion, the agency responsible forpermanent recruitment and appointment should also be made responsible for teacherpromotion.

Whicheveragency(theTSCatstatelevel,orlocalgovernmentorSMC)ismaderesponsibleforteacherpromotion,theperformanceappraisalformsentbytheschoolmustbeconsideredthemaincriterionforpromotion.However,transparency,confidentialityandfairnessneedtobeensured.

However,somestakeholdersexpresseddifferentview.Astheysuggested,oncetrainedandqualified teachers are appointed, they should be promoted automatically based on theirexperience, qualification, achievement of the students and competency which will bemeasuredbasedonteachercompetencystandards.Teacherswhomeettheserequirementsshould be recommended for promotion. To measure teacher competency, a committeecomprising head teacher, representative of SMC andDEO needs to be formed and thecommitteeshoulddothiswork.Teachers’meetingshouldalsoendorsetheirdecision.

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3.2.3 Teacher Preparation

a) Present Practice

Teacher training has beenmademandatory to become a teacher.At present, ProficiencyCertificateLevel(PCL),B.Ed.andM.Ed.degreesofferedbyuniversities,HigherSecondaryLevelEducationCertificateineducation;andprimarylevelpre-serviceteachertrainingoftenmonthsunderNCEDareconsideredasteacherpreparationprogrammes.Theten-monthpre-service teacher training programme ofNCED has been discontinued from this year.Similarly,PCLineducationunderTribhuvanUniversitywillbephasedoutbynextyear.

b) Provision of Teacher Preparation in SSRP

TheSSRPstatesthatone-yearTeacherPreparationCourseontopoftheminimumacademicqualificationwillberequiredatbothlevels(BasicandSecondaryLevel)forthosecandidateswhohaveacademicqualificationotherthanHigherSecondaryEducationCertificatewithEducation,ProficiencyCertificateinEducation,B.Ed.,andM.Ed.Inconnectionwiththisprovision,FacultyofEducation,TribhuvanUniversityhasdevelopedaTeacherPreparationCourse(TPC)withone-yeardurationfor thosecandidateswhohavethequalificationofhighersecondaryeducationcertificateandproficiencycertificatelevelinthespecializationareasotherthaneducation.Thiscourseisconsideredequivalenttothefirstyearofthree-yearB.Ed.programme.However, this sortofTeacherPreparationCourse for secondarylevelisyettobedeveloped.

c) Issues Related to Teacher Preparation

Teacher preparation programmes/pre-service teacher training programmes have beeninoperationsince theestablishmentofCollegeofEducation in1956,adegreegrantingcollegeunderMinistryofEducation.Later,withtheimplementationofNationalEducationSystemPlan1971-1976,CollegeofEducationwasrenamedasInstituteofEducationandwas placed underTribhuvanUniversity. For a long time, Institute of Education,whichwasagainrenamedasFacultyofEducation,hasbeenpreparingteachersforprimaryandsecondaryschools.SelectedconstituentandaffiliatedcampusesofTribhuvanUniversity,whichareconductingtheprogrammesofFacultyofEducation,willconducttheone-yearTeacherPreparationCourseforbasiclevel,forwhichpreparatoryworkhasbeencompleted.InthiscontextofFederalNepal,thefollowingissuesneedtobeaddressed:

• HowshouldtheTeacherPreparationCoursebeexpandedindifferentstates?

• WhatwillbetheroleofotheruniversitiesinthepreparationofteachersinfederalsystemofgovernmentinNepal?

• WhatwillbetheroleofNationalCentreforEducationalDevelopmentinpreparingteachersforschools?


Since teacher training is made mandatory to enter the teaching profession, pre-serviceteachertrainingisessential.Todate,universitieshavebeenpreparingteachersforschool


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educationthroughtheirProficiencyCertificateinEducation,B.Ed.andM.Ed.programmesfora longtime.Inadditionto theseprogrammes,pre-service teacher trainingor teacherpreparation programmes are required for those candidateswho haveHigher SecondaryEducationCertificate,Bachelor’sorMaster’sDegreeinthesubjectsotherthaneducation.The stakeholders’ view in relation to teacher preparationwas almost the same. In theiropinion,theresponsibilityofpre-serviceteachertrainingorteacherpreparationprogrammeshould be given to the universities. In the teacher preparation courses offered by theuniversities,atleast6months’practicalactivitiesmustbeincorporated.

SpecialprogrammesshouldbelaunchedforthepreparationofMathematicsandScienceteachers insufficientnumber,asper theneed.Stateshouldprovidespecial facilities forsuchpreparationprogrammes.

It was also emphasized that pre-service teacher training or teacher preparation coursesshouldnotbemeantonlyas requirementbut there is aneed toestablish strong linkagebetween training and quality of teaching. Furthermore, though core teacher preparationcoursemightbe the same inalluniversities, itwillbenecessary todesignandconductspecificteacherpreparationcoursesaspertherequirementoftherespectivestates.

3.2.4 Teacher Professional Development

Worldwide, professional development of teachers is increasingly seen as a career-longprocess,withcontinuousfeedbackloopsbetweentheory,practice,andresearch.Teacherprofessionaldevelopmentincludessuchactivitiesaslife-longtraining,networksoflearningteachers,actionresearch,communityrelations,evaluationandaccountability.

a) Present Practice

ThemajorresponsibilityforteacherdevelopmentlieswithNationalCentreforEducationalDevelopment(NCED)atpresent.NCEDhadbeenconductingaten-monthprimarylevelin-service teacher training in threephases through itsEducationalTrainingCentres andselected constituent campuses of TribhuvanUniversity. The first phase of trainingwascentre-based and of 2.5months’ duration.The second phase of trainingwas conductedthrough distancemode in the duration of 5months, whereas the third phase was bothcentre-basedandschool-based,withthedurationof2.5months.Theten-monthin-servicetrainingforsecondaryschoolteachersconductedbyNCEDalsofollowsthesamepatternoftheten-monthprimaryteachertraining.

Asaresultoftheten-monthteachertrainingofbothlevels,thenumberofteacherswithtrainingcertificateshasbeendrasticallyincreased.AsreportedbytheProjectPerformanceReport of Teacher Education Project, after the implementation of Backlog ClearanceCampaign,only2percentoutofthetotal81310teachersworkingunderapprovedpositionsareleftouttoenrollintrainingforvariousreasons.Inthiscontext,itwasfeltthattherewasnoneedforcontinuingtheseteachertrainingsandhence,thesetrainingprogrammeshavebeenstopped.

b) Teacher Professional Development in SSRP

TheSSRPhasalsomadesubstantialprovisionforteacherprofessionaldevelopment.Head

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teachers, supervisors, master teachers, and resource persons will provide professionalsupporttotheteachers.Theprovisionsincludethefollowing:

• Jobinductiontrainingtonoviceteachers.

• Onemonthin-servicetrainingatleastonceineveryfiveyearsforteachers

• Provisionforaccreditingshorttermtrainingstocumulativetrainingcertification,linkedwithteachercareerdevelopment.

• Resourcecentrebaseddemanddrivenandrefresherteachertrainingtoteachersofalllevels.

• Additionalsupportforprofessionaldevelopmentthroughtechnicalsupervision,on-linecourses,self-learningmaterials.

• Monitoringtrainingprogrammeandpost-trainingperformanceofteachersbyNCED.

c) Issues Related to Teacher Development

NationalCentreforEducationalDevelopmentistheapexbodycreatedbythegovernmentfor in-service trainingof teachers alongwithother trainingprogrammes.Several issuesregarding teacherprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiesmayarise in thefederalsystemofgovernmentinNepal.Theseissues/questionsarepresentedbelow.

• Whichagency(oragencies)shoulddothefollowingactivitiesatcentral,stateandlocallevelsinthefederalsystemofgovernmentinNepal?

- Teachercompetencystandards

- In-serviceteachertraining

- Monitoringofteachertraining

- Teacherprofessionaldevelopment

- Accreditationofteachertraininginstitutions

- Accreditingthetrainingofteachers

• WhatshouldbetheroleofNCEDinthefederalsystemofgovernmentinNepalinrelationtotheaforementionedaspectsofteachertrainingandteacherprofessionaldevelopment?

• WhatshouldbethestructureofNCEDanditsconstituentEducationalTrainingCentresinthefederalsystemofgovernmentinNepal?

d) Perspective of the Reference Groups

Referencegroupsidentifiedtheneedforschool-based,cluster-based/resourcecentrebasedandcombinedmodel (centre-basedandschool-based) in-service teacher trainingsas themeansofteacherprofessionaldevelopment.Thesegroupsrecommendedthatneed-basedordemand-basedtrainingsbedesignedandconductedatthelocallevelforwhichexpertteamsshouldbeformedatthelocallevel;andthefinancialsupportshouldbeprovidedbythe respectivestates.Thefinancial support shouldbedirectly released to the schools so


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thattheycanprocuretrainingaspertheirneed.Whiledesigningtraining,provisionshouldbemadetoensure thequalityof trainingandteachercompetencystandards. Itwasalsosuggestedtoestablishteachertrainingcentresatthelocallevel.

Thesecondmeansidentifiedbythereferencegroupsforteacherprofessionaldevelopmentwas regular teacher support at the school level. Specifically, teacher professionaldevelopmentshouldbeclassroom-based,supportiveandflexibleasperteachers’problemsandneeds.Similarly, teacher exchangeprogrammebetween schools is the thirdwayofprofessional development suggested by the reference groups,which should be initiatedby the schools themselves and facilitated by the local government.As a fourth meansof teacher professional development, on-line teacher training programme needs to belaunchedwhereverpossibleandradiostations/FMstationsshouldbedevelopedtoworkaseducationalstations.

Fortheprofessionaldevelopmentofteachers,NationalCentreforEducationalDevelopmentastheapexbodyforteacherprofessionaldevelopmentwithitsbranchesineachstateshouldbemaderesponsiblefordesigninginnovativeteachertrainingmodels.Besides,NCEDwillalsodosuchworksaspreparingnationalcurriculumframeworkforin-serviceteachertraining,coordination among the training providers, facilitation in developing training policies,designingteachercompetencystandardsandtrainingstandardsforqualityassurance.

3.2.5 Performance Monitoring and Evaluation of Teachers

a) Present Practice

IntheexistingEducationActandEducationRegulations,theuseofthetermmonitoringofteachershasgotlittleemphasis,whereasheavyimportanceisgiventothetermsinspectionandsupervisionandevaluationofteachers.Forexample,asstatedinEducationRegulations2002,theschoolsupervisorsevaluatethecompetency/performanceofteachersandkeeptherecord.Similarly,theheadteachersalsoevaluatetheperformanceofteachersbyusingtheperformanceappraisalformincludedinEducationRegulations,2002.Theperformanceofteacherswillalsobeevaluatedbytherevieweri.e.theDistrictEducationOfficer.Thescores thus obtained by the teacherswill be used for their promotion.As stated in theTeacherServiceCommissionRegulations,2000,performanceevaluationofteacherscarries40percentofthetotalmarksintheirpromotion.Incaseoftheteachersappointedfromtheschool’sownsources,theirperformanceevaluationformfilledupbytheheadteacherwillbesubmittedtotheSchoolManagementCommitteefornecessaryaction.

b) Provision of Performance Monitoring of Teachers in SSRP

Thoughthetermmonitoringofteachers’performancewasnotusedsomuchinEducationActandEducationRegulations,theSchoolSectorReformCoreDocumenthasconsideredmonitoringandevaluationasitsintegralpart.Itsmainpurposeistolinkthestrategyforservice management (i.e. teacher management) and service delivery (i.e. instructionalprocess)withresultsbytrackingachievementsagainstSSRtargetsandobjectives.Intermsofservicedelivery,theSSRhasmadeaprovisionforcarryingoutcompliancemonitoring,progressmonitoringandimpactevaluation.AsstatedinSSRCoreDocument,compliancemonitoringisconcernedwithidentifyingwhetherteachershavethequalificationrequiredfor grades and subjects taught by them. Similarly, progress monitoring is carried outthroughtechnicalsupervision,andimpactevaluationisundertakenbasedonlearningand

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equityresults.TheSSRfurtherstatesthattheSchoolManagementCommitteewillbetheapexbodyattheschoollevelformonitoringandevaluation.TheSMCmonitorsprogressagainsttheSchoolImprovementPlanandtheheadteachermonitorsprogressonstudents’learningagainstschoolleveltargets.

c) Issues Pertaining to Performance Monitoring of Teachers

Monitoring and evaluation of teachers’ performance has been one of the areas whichcomesunderseverecriticism.Themajorcriticismisthattheperformanceofteachersisnotmonitoredandevaluatedimpartiallyastherearenoobjectiveandtransparentcriteria.Inthisconnection,thefollowingquestions/issuesshouldbeaddressedtomakethemonitoringofteachers’performancemorescientificinthefederalgovernmentsystemofNepal.

• HowshouldmonitoringandevaluationoftheperformanceoftheteachersbecarriedoutinNepalwhentherewillbethecentralgovernment,provincial/stategovernmentsandlocalgovernments?

• Whatwillbetheroleofheadteacher,SMC,schoolsupervisorsandresourcepersonsinmonitoringteachers’performance?

• Howshouldthemonitoringofficialsbemadecapableandempowered?

• Whichagenciesshouldworkforestablishingthecompetencystandardsofteachersformonitoringpurpose?


Formonitoringpurpose,teachercompetencystandardsshouldbedevelopedatthecentrallevel and circulated in all the states.Two types ofmonitoring should be implemented:technicalandmanagerial.Technicalmonitoringshouldbetheresponsibilityofthestateandlocallevel;whilemanagerialmonitoringofteachers’performanceshouldbecarriedoutattheschoollevelforwhichamonitoringcommitteecomprisingtheheadteacher,SMCchair/member,PTAchair/member,andconcernedRP/SSshouldbeformedattheschoollevel.Specifically,SMCandPTAchairpersons/membersshouldbetrainedandempoweredforteacher’smonitoring.Theteamshouldbegivenauthoritytotakenecessaryactionsagainstthosewhoseperformanceisnotfounduptothemark.

3. 2. 6 Amenities to the Teachers

Thegovernmentandalltheparentsexpectgoodschoolsforwhichthereisaneedofgoodteachersand tohavegood teachers theremustbeaguaranteeofminimumamenities toattractandretaincompetentpeopleinthisprofession.Notonlytheteachersexpectbenefitsin terms of monetary gains, but they also expect their profession to be attractive andprestigious.

a) Present Practice

Amenities to the teachers include salary, provident fund, pension, gratuity, medicalallowances, and various types of leaves as stated in the Education Regulations 2002.Atpresent, these amenities are almost at parwith thoseof government employees.But


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regardingthestudyleave,despitetheprovisionofgrantingthisfacilitytotheteachers,theyhavenotgotitsoreadilyduetothelackoffund.

b) Issues in Relation to Providing Amenities to the Teachers

Consideringthepresentprovisionforapackageofamenitiestotheteachers,thefollowingquestions/issuesneedtobeaddressed.

• Infederalsystemofgovernment,howshouldamenitiestotheteachersbeprovided?

• Whichlevelofgovernmentwillberesponsibleforprovidingtheseamenities?

• Shouldtherebeuniformityinamenitiesgiventotheteachersinallstates?Oritmaydiffer?

c) Perspectives of the Reference Groups

Amenities to the teachers must be made attractive for attracting competent candidatestowardsthisprofession.Atleast,facilitiestobegiventotheteachersshouldbeequivalentto those given to the government employees. It is suggested thatminimum norms andstandardsforfacilitiesgiventotheteachersshouldbedeterminedbythecentralgovernmentand the stategovernmentcanaddsomemore facilitiesbasedon its resourcegenerationcapacityforwhichthestatesshouldhaverighttoraisetaxesofdifferenttypes.Teachers,ontheotherhand,shoulddemonstratetheircommitmenttoqualityteaching,andtheyshouldbeaccountabletotheschools.Whileprovidingfacilitiestotheteachers,onedoorpolicyshouldbeadopted.

3.3 Perspectives of Reference Groups on Other Aspects

Apart from the perspectives of reference groups mentioned in Section 2, theyhaveprovidedthefollowingsuggestionswhichneedtobeaddressedbythenewconstitutionbeingdraftedforFederalDemocraticRepublicofNepal.

• Eachchildshallhavetherighttogeteducationfromtheprofessionallyqualified,welltrainedandup-to-dateteachers.

• Teachingwillbemadeaprestigiousprofession.

• Righttoeducationshouldbefurtherelaboratedintheconstitution.Forexample,inthenewcontext,everystateshouldgivefirstprioritytoeducation.

• Rightblendofverticalandhorizontalcoordinationbetweencentral,stateandlocallevelagenciesshouldbeproperlyestablishedforrecruitment,appointment,promotionandamenitiestotheteachers.

• Inter-statecompetitioncanbemadeinrelationtoenhancementofqualityofeducationandprovisionofamenitiestotheteachers.

• In federal systemofgovernment, the candidates fromanycasteor race shouldbetreatedequallybasedontheircompetencyandqualification.

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3.4 Teacher Management and Development in Selected Countriesv

Thissectiondealswithconstitutionalprovisionspertainingtoteachersandexistingpracticesofteachermanagementanddevelopmentinsomeselectedcountries.

3.4.1 Constitutional Provisions for Teachers

Thestudyofrelatedliteraturerevealedthatonly24oftheworld’s193countrieshavefederalpoliticalsystem.Inaddition,Nepalalongwithothertwocountriesismakingthetransitionto a federal system. Hence, with a view to derive certain implications for developingteachermanagementinNepal,theconstitutionsandthesystemofteachermanagementanddevelopmentofsomeselectedfederalcountries(IndiaandBrazil)werestudied.Moreover,theConstitutionoftheRepublicofthePhilippines,thoughitisnotafederalcountry,wasalsostudied.Theoverviewofthestudyofrelatedliteratureissummarizedbelow.

Theconstitutionsofthecountrieswhichwerestudiedhavementionedthecitizens’righttoeducation;butonlytwoofthem(BrazilandThePhilippines)havespecificallymentionedaboutteachers.TheConstitutionoftheFederativeRepublicofBrazil1988hasaseparatechapteronEducation,CultureandSportsandaseparatesectiononEducationwithseveralarticles.Regardingtheteacher,ArticleVoftheconstitutionstatestheappreciationofthevalueofteachingprofessionals;andguaranteeing,inaccordancewiththelaw,careerplansforpublicschoolteachers,withaprofessionalminimumsalary.Ithasalsodelineatedthatteachers’recruitmentwillbedoneexclusivelybymeansofpublicentranceexaminationsconsistingoftestsandpresentationofacademicand/orprofessionalcredentials.

Inthesameway,theConstitutionofRepublicofthePhilippines1987hasaspecialarticleforeducation,scienceandtechnology,arts,cultureandsports,withseparatesectionsforeducation.Thesectionsdealinginfavourofteachersintheconstitutionareasfollows:

• TheStateshallenhancetherightofteacherstoprofessionaladvancement.

• The State shall assign the highest budgetary priority to education and ensure thatteachingwillattractandretainitsrightfulshareofthebestavailabletalentsthroughadequateremunerationandothermeansofjobsatisfactionandfulfillment.

3.4.2 Existing Practices of Teacher Management and Development in Selected Countries

TheexistingpracticesofteachermanagementanddevelopmentinUttarPradesh,IndiaandBrazilwerestudiedandtheirimportantfeaturesarebrieflypresentedbelow.

a) Critical Issues and Need for Policy Options Pertaining to Teacher anagement in India

In the federal structure of India, school education is essentially governed by individualStateGovernments.Elementary school teachers inmostof the statesare theemployees


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ofstategovernment.However, insomestatesofWesternIndia,for instance, teachers inthepublic schoolsofMumbaiandVadodaraareemployeesof the respectiveMunicipalCorporationsandarenottreatedasStateGovernmentemployees.

AsinNepal,thereisaprovisionofappointingteachersinpermanenttenureinthepublicschools ofUttar Pradesh, India.However, engagement of teachers on contract basis asopposedtoemploymentonpermanenttenures,particularlyingovernmentschools,isalsofoundinrecentpractices.Theteachersappointedoncontractortemporarybasisaretermedas‘para-teachers’.Sincetheissuesofpara-teachersinIndiaaresomehowsimilartothoseoftemporaryteachersappointedunderrahat(relief)quota,school’sownsource,orvacantgovernmentapprovedpositionsinNepal,anattempthasbeenmadeheretoshedlightonit.

AstudyconductedbyGovindaandJosephine,2004,foundthatemploymentofpara-teachersinIndiahasbecomeahighlycontroversialissue.Supportersofthiskindofappointmenthavearguedthatteachersshouldbeappointedtotheschoolsnottothesystem;andhence,theyshouldbetheemployeesoflocalbodies,notofthestategovernment.However,thecriticshighlightthedetrimentalimpactitcanhaveontheeducationsysteminthelongrun.Theissueisdefinitelyquitecomplexinvolvingmultipleelementsandvaryingstakeholderperspectives. The study has recommended that the matter be addressed carefully andexplorethevariouspolicyoptionsintacklingtheissues.

b) Teacher Management and Development in Brazil

Brazilhasarichexperience in thepreparation,managementanddevelopmentofschoolteachers.SomeofthemaresimilartothoseofNepal,andthereareseveralgoodpracticeswhichNepalcanborrow.

Teacherpreparation:Brazilhassetoutaclearvisionforthereformofteacherpreparation.Themostcrucialactionisrelatedtoassuringthequalitystandardsinteacherpreparation.Forthis,reformintheprocessforaccreditingteachereducationcourses,programmesandinstitutionshasalreadybeenlegislated.

SystemSupporttoSchools:InBrazil,therehasbeentheincreasingrealizationthatschoolimprovementrequirescontinuoussupporttoprovidejust-in-timetechnicalassistanceandon-site,need-basedtrainingsinordertostimulateteacherteams,promotetheestablishmentofprofessionalnetworks,andtoconductorcommissionappliedclassroomresearch.

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3.5 Conclusion and Suggestions

Basedonthecurrentpracticesofteachermanagementanddevelopment,provisionof teacher management and development in SSRP, perspectives of referencegroupsontheteachermanagementanddevelopment,andteachermanagementand

developmentinselectedcountries,thefollowingconclusionisderivedandsuggestionsarepresented.

3.5.1 Conclusion

Teachersarethekeyhumanresourceinanynation’seducationsystemandhence,teachermanagementanddevelopmentbecomesacriticalcomponentwhichanygovernmentcannotignoreif itwants toensuredeliveryofqualityeducationtothechildrenat large.Inlinewiththegovernment’scommitmenttoMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsandEducationforAll,thegovernmentistakingmanyinitiativestobringaboutchangesinthismuchneededqualityeducationservicearea.Itis,therefore,hightimethatadequateattentionisgiventohowteachermanagementanddevelopmentcouldbeaddressedinthenewconstitutionofFederalNepalwhichisintheprocessofdrafting.

Review of government documents as well as discussions with the reference groups/stakeholders indicates that it is reallydifficult tocome to thefirmconclusion regardingthe provision of various components of teachermanagement at central, provincial/stateandlocalgovernmentlevel.However,mostseemstoagreethatcentralgovernmentshouldprovideoveralleducationalpolicyguidelinesaswellasdeterminationofminimumnormsand standards for teacher management and development. The state government shouldplay a crucial role by providing schools and local governmentswith adequatefinancialandtechnicalsupportforteachermanagementanddevelopmentwhiletheresponsibilityofschoolmanagementwillbegiventolocallevel.

3.5.2 Suggestions

a) Provisions for Teachers in the Constitution

Considering the importanceofeducation innationaldevelopment, thecentralgovernmentas well as state governments ought to give the highest priority to education sector. Theinclusionofaseparatechapterorsectionorarticlesintheconstitutionwillbejustifiedinthisconnection.Thissection,amongothers,shouldincorporatetheconcernsofthemainagentsofeducationincludingteachers,andtheirmanagementanddevelopment.Themajorstatementswhichneedtobeincorporatedundertherelevantsectionintheconstitutionshouldbe:

• Every child shall have right to get free education up to secondary level fromprofessionallyqualified,trainedandup-to-dateteachers.

• Amenitiestobeprovidedtotheteacherswillbecomparabletothosegiventootherprofessions.

• Teacherswillberecruitedbasedontheircompetencyandqualificationirrespectiveofanycasteorraceorethnicityorgeographiclocation.However,inclusivenessneedstobegivendueattention.


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b) Teacher Recruitment, Appointment and Promotion

ForFederalNepal,twooptionsshouldbeopenedforteacherrecruitment,appointmentandpromotion.First,ifschoolsexpectthattheteachers’recruitment,appointmentandpromotionshouldgounderthejurisdictionofStateTeacherServiceCommission,theywillbesuppliedteachersaccordingly.Second,thecapablecommunitiesorlocalbodies(municipalitiesorVDCs) interested to take themanagement responsibilityof schools shouldbegiven theopportunitytorecruitandappointteachersfromamongthecandidateshavingtherequiredqualificationandtrainingandwhoarecertifiedbytheTeacherServiceCommissionofanystateortheTeacherCouncil.Whiledoingso,aselectioncommitteecomprisingtheheadteacher,educationexpertsandSMCchairpersonshouldfollowarigorousscreeningprocesswithobjectiveandtransparentcriteriadevelopedatthecentralorstatelevel.

c) Teacher Preparation

Astheuniversitiesarepreparingteachersforschooleducationatpresent,theresponsibilityofteacherpreparationindifferentstatesshouldbegiventotheuniversities.However,thequestionregardinghowgoodqualityteachersshouldbepreparedismoreimportantthanwhichagencyshouldbeinvolvedinteacherpreparation.Forensuringquality in teacherpreparationprogramme,substantial timeneedstobegivenforpracticalactivitiesduringtraining.Inaddition,timehascometogiveaccreditationtotheinstitutionswhichwillbeinvolvedinteacherpreparationcoursesforproducingqualityteachers.

d) Teacher Professional Development

The SSR core document states that the government will take the responsibility forteacher development activities.Whatever theways of developing teachers’ professionalcompetency,itmustbesite-basedleadingtoimprovingclassroomperformance.Itimpliesthatteacherprofessionaldevelopmentwillbelocalizedtomeettheneedsoftheteachersand schools. In order to improve the training practice,NationalCentre for EducationalDevelopmentatthecentrewillhavetodevelopinnovativetrainingpackagesincludingtheprogrammesfortrainerdevelopment.

e) Monitoring of Teachers’ Performance

For the purpose of managerial monitoring, a team comprising the head teacher, SMCchairpersonandexpertrepresentativefromthegovernmentshouldbeformedatthelocallevel.Thismonitoringteamshouldbeempoweredtotakenecessaryactionagainstthosewhodonotmeet thestandardsandwhodonotworkasper theplan.Besides, technicalteamsformedatthestatelevelshouldbemaderesponsiblefortechnicalmonitoring.

f) Amenities to the Teachers

Amenitiestobeprovidedtotheteachersshouldbeattractiveandcomparabletothefacilitiesgiven to government employees for attracting and retaining professionally qualified,competent and dedicated teachers.Minimumnorms and standards for amenities shouldbedevelopedbythecentralgovernment.Stategovernmentsshouldbemaderesponsibleforprovidingthesefacilities.Additionalfacilitiescanbegivenbythestatesbasedontherevenuetheygenerate.

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References

ConstitutionoftheFederativeRepublicofBrazil,1988withamendmentsuntilConstitutionalAmendment52,enactedonMarch8th2006.Retrievedon28October2009.www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/constitution.html.

ConstitutionofIndia,http//India.gov.inhttp://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coison29july2008.pdf.

Delannoy,F.&Guilherme,S.(2001).Brazilincentivesanddevelopmentteachers:Astrategicframework.NewYork:TheWorldBank

EducationAct,1971withEighthAmendmentandEducationRegulations,2002withThirdAmendment2005.Kathmandu:MinistryofEducationandSports

EducationofAllNationalPlanofActionNepal(2001-2015).Kathmandu:MinistryofEducationandSports

EducationforAll2004-2009CoreDocument(2003).Kathmandu:MinistryofEducationandSports

Govinda, R.& Josephine,Y. (2004). Para teachers in India:A review. Paris: International Institute forEducationalPlanning

Joint Evaluation of Nepal’s Education for All 2004 - 2009 Sector Programme. (2009). Kathmandu:CambridgeEducationLtdandMETCONConsultants.

Monitoring&Evaluation:SomeTools,Methods&Approaches.(2004).WashingtonD.C.:TheWorldBank.

NepalNationalEducationalPlanningCommission.(1956).EducationinNepal.Kathmandu:CollegeofEducation.

ParateachersinIndia.(2000).RetrievedonOctober8,2009fromEducationforAllinIndia(SarvaShikshaAbiviyan,DistrictPrimaryEducationProgramme.Website:\E:\PARATEACHERSinIndia.htm.

Rajbhandari,P.andKafle,A.P.(2009).ExploringtheopportunitiesforprofessionaldevelopmentofprimaryschoolteachersinNepal.Kathmandu:ResearchCentreforEducationalInnovationandDevelopment.

SchoolSectorReformCoreDocument:PoliciesandStrategies.(2008).Kathmandu:MinistryofEducationandSports

SchoolSectorReformPlan2009-2015.(2009).Kathmandu:MinistryofEducation

Supervision:akeycomponentofaqualitymonitoringsystem.(2007).Paris:UNESCO/IIEP

TeacherEducationProject,28December2008to12January2009.Bhaktapur:NationalCentreforEducationalDevelopment

TeacherServiceCommissionRegulations2002.Kathmandu:MinistryofEducationandSports

The1987ConstitutionoftheRepublicofthethePhilippines.Retrievedon1November2009.www.chanrobles.com/article14.htm.

TheInterimConstitutionofNepal2063(2007).Interim-constitutionpdf.Retrievedon2November2009.


http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/

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http://www.chanrobles.com/article14.htm

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77

Free and Compulsory Education in Federal

Nepal

- Dr. Mahesh Nath Parajuli - Dr. Sushan Acharya

4

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Abstract

AsNepalispreparingitsnewfederalconstitution,thispaperaimstogeneratediscussionfocusingonthethemeoffreeandcompulsoryeducationwiththepurposeofsupportingconstitutiondraftingprocess.Thispaperitselfistheoutcomeofdiscussionandinteractionsmadewithdifferentpeopleatdifferentlocationsandthroughdifferentmodes.

Nepalisoneofthecountrieswhichhavegivenhighpriorityandcommitmenttothegoalsofeducationforall.Duringits60years’longhistoryofmoderneducationandschooling,thecountryhasemphasizedfreeandcompulsoryeducation.Followingsuchpolicy,currentlypublicschoolingis“free”inNepaluptogradeeightforallanduptogradetenforchildrenfromselected socialgroupsand in selectedareas. Experience incompulsoryeducationishowevernotthatpositive.Despiteefforts,thecountryhasnotbeenabletoimplementcompulsoryeducationandeverysuchefforthas turned intoa failuremainlybecauseoflack of political commitment,weakmanagement capacity of the system, poor financialprovisions,etc.

Consideringinternationalandnationalpracticesandexperiences,thispapersuggeststhatfree and compulsory education should be developed as a shared responsibility betweendifferent layersofgovernance–centre, regionand local. Successful implementationoffreeandcompulsoryeducationdemandsstrongpoliticalcommitment,consensusandactiveparticipationfromandamongalleducationstakeholders.Thecentralgovernmentshouldberesponsiblefordevelopingbroadpolicyframeaswellasforensuringtheresourceforfreeandcompulsoryeducation.Stayingwithinthebroadnationalpolicyframe,developingplansandpoliciesalongwithfundingsourceandmechanismshouldbetheresponsibilityofregionallevelandtranslatingsuchplansandpoliciesintotheactualpracticeshouldbetheresponsibilityofthelocallevels.

Giventhepresentnationaleconomicsituation,thepresentpracticeoffreeschoolinguptogradeeightshouldbecontinuedthatshouldincludenofeeatallinschoolalongwithfreetextbooks,notebooksanddaytiffin.Thisprovisionshouldbeexpandeduptogradetwelveforselectedsocioeconomicgroupandareas. Likewise,vocationaleducationshouldbemadefreeuptograde10or12.Educationshouldalsobemadefreeforall5to14yearsagegroupchildrenthroughNFEandopenlearningsystems.Withthis,theemphasisshouldbeonbroadeningthewholemeaningofeducationandlearningbeyondtheconfinesofformalschools.

The country should adopt the policy of compulsory primary education (CPE) but itsimplementationshouldgoinaphasedmannerbeginningwithfewselectedmunicipalandvillageareaswherelearningopportunitiesarealreadyavailableorcouldbemadeavailablewithinthespecifiedtimeperiod.CPEshouldbefortheState;itshouldtakepersuasiveandnotthepunitivemeasureswithtargetedmotivatingandawarenessprogramsforthoseparentswhohavenotbeenabletosendtheirchildrentolearningcentresduetodifferentreasons.Incasesomechildrendonotattendlearningcentres,whatsocioeconomicandculturalreasonsmightbethereshouldbeidentified–aresponsibilityofthelocalgovernment–andshouldbeaddressedaccordingly.Hence,schemeforfinancialsupporttoselectedpoorfamiliesshouldbethere.

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4.1 Introduction

Educationempowersindividualhumanbeingaswellashumansocietiestomaximizetheavailableopportunitiesforabetterlifequalityforall.Duetothisreasoneducationhasbeenoneprimeconcernbothattheinternationalandthenationallevel.Ithas

thusbeenregardedasoneofthefundamentalhumanrightsmorethan60yearsagowiththedeclarationoftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsbytheUnitedNationalGeneralAssemblyon10December1948.Article26oftheDeclarationhasnoted,“Everyonehastherighttoeducation.Educationshallbefree,atleastintheelementaryandfundamentalstages.Elementaryeducationshallbecompulsory.”

Followingthis,someotherinternationaldeclarationsandgoals,inoneortheotherway,havepromotedtheideaofeducationashumanrightsandthatitshouldbefreeandcompulsoryattheelementaryorprimaryorbasiclevel.Manycountriesaroundtheworldhaverecognizedtheimportanceofeducationandhavemadeconstitutionaland/orlegalprovisionsforthesepurposes. Theargument formakingprimaryorbasiceducation freeandcompulsory isthatwhenweregardeducationasoneof thenecessaryconditionofhumanandsocietaldevelopmentandseeitasoneofthehumanrights,theStateshouldtaketheresponsibilityofmakingsuchprovision.

4.2 Free and Compulsory Education in Nepal

Inaccordancewithinternationaltrends,Nepalhasbeengivinghighprioritytoeducation.Though the first modern school in Nepal was established about 150 years ago, Nepalbeganaplannedandsystematicefforttospreadtheeducationtothegeneralpopulaceonlyabout60yearsago.SeveralforcesworkedtogethertoexpandeducationinNepal.Peoplecontributedtoeducationasagatewaytoemploymentandsocialstatus,governmentinvestedineducationasapartofitseffortstowardsnationaldevelopmentandmodernizationofthecountry, anddonorsmade importantfinancial and technical support in theexpansionofeducationinthecountry.Apartfromthesethreekeyactors,theprocessesofmodernizationalsomadeimportantcontributionintheexpansionofeducationinNepal.

Through constitutional and legal provisions aswell as through other policy documentseducationhasbeenregardedasoneofthehumanrightsandthatprovisionsaremadetomakeitfree,atleastatprimaryandsecondarylevel.Thecountryhasbeeninvestinglargeamountofmoneyinimplementingdifferentprogramsandprojectssothatprimaryorbasiceducationcouldbemadefreeandcompulsoryforall.

Wearenowpreparinganewconstitutionforourcountry.Weallhavegreathopewiththisconstitution in the sense that thiswill provide a guiding framework for social, politicalandeconomicdevelopmentof thecountry. Wealsoexpect that thisconstitutionwillbeable enough to provide framework to safeguard the rights of all people in the country,particularlythosewhohavebeendeprivedsofar.Itisnowourresponsibilitytoseethatourconstitutionwillhavenecessaryprovisionsforthispurpose.

Followingsuchconcern, thispapernowfocusesonhowbest theaspects related to freeandcompulsoryeducationcouldbementioned in thenewconstitution in thecontextoffederalism.Therationaleforfocusingonthethemefreeandcompulsoryeducationisthat

Free and Compulsory Education in Federal Nepal

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giventheimportancetoeducationasoneofthefundamentalhumanrights,allpeopleinthecountry,irrespectiveoftheirsocio-economicstatus,culturalcontext,caste,sex,language,religion, location, and any form of disability should have access to primary or basiceducation.IfweaimtoprovideequalopportunitiesforallforprimaryorbasiceducationitshouldbefreeandcompulsoryandthattheStategoverningbodiesshouldtakethewholeresponsibilityoffreeandcompulsoryeducationinthecountry.Onlythen,everyonecouldhaveequalityinopportunities.

Discussioninthispaperisenrichedbyideasexpressedbyparents;teachers(communityand private schools); SMCmembers; representatives of teacher unions, parent teacherassociations,DDC/VDC/municipalities; education experts; and by education officials indistrictsandincentraloffices.Theyhadexpressedtheirideasintwointeractionsessionsorganizedinordertofacilitatethispaper.TheseinteractionswereorganizedinDhulikhel(11October2009)andinDepartmentofEducation(25October2009).Someeducationprofessionalsalsohadexpressedtheirideasthroughanemailedquestionnairesenttothemforthissamepurpose.Atotalof75peopleparticipatedintheseinteractions.NextSectionnowwilllookintohowtheideaoffreeandcompulsoryeducationwasdevelopedinNepal.

4.3 Trends and Current Practice in Free and Compulsory Education in Nepal

Basedontheanalysisofpolicydocumentsthatincludemainlythelegalprovisions,plandocuments,andprojectandprogramdocuments, thisSectionpresents thedevelopmentof idea of free and compulsory education inNepal. The idea of free and compulsoryeducation is not a new idea in Nepal and was practiced even before 1951. The firstEducationOrdinanceof1939(BS1996SaalkoShikchhyaIstihaar)hadtheprovisionoffullorpartialfeewaivingforselectedfewpoorchildrensothat theycouldstudy. TheConstitutionalActof1949(BS2004),thefirsteverconstitutionofthecountry,includedtherighttocompulsoryeducationinitschaptertwo,article4ofthefundamentalrights(Sharma,2005,p.85).Unfortunately,thisconstitutionwasneveractuallyimplementedlargelyduetopoliticalreasons.

Thefirsteducationdevelopmentplan(1956-61)preparedandimplementedin1956hadtheprovisionofUniversalprimaryeducationby1985.ThisshowsthatNepalhadinitiatedtheideaofeducationforallwellbefore1990whentheJomteindeclarationforEducationforAllwasmade.TheEducationActof1962(BS2019)hadmadetheprovisionforimplementingfree and compulsory education in the selected districts in the country. As per theAct,governmentcouldannouncetoimplementfreeeducationinafeworallprimaryschoolswithinagivenareamakingallparentsandguardiansofthedesignatedareacompulsorytosendtheirchildrentoprimaryschools.ThisprogramwasimplementedinsomeselectedVDCs/municipalitiesinsomeselecteddistricts.Thefinancingarrangementofthisschemewassuchthatthoseselectedlocalbodieshadtoraise75percentofthetotalbudgetandtherest25percentwouldcomefromthegovernment.ThoseVDCs/municipalitiesweregiventheauthorityofraisinglocaltaxfortheimplementationoffreeandcompulsoryeducationscheme.However,theprogramcouldnotsustainlongandcollapsedwithinfewyearsduetopoorplanning,weakmanagementandsupervision,andlackofstrongpoliticalwill.

Nextlandmarkeffortofmakingeducationfreewasmadein1975withtheannouncementoffreeprimaryeducation. At that timeonlygrades1-3wereprimarylevel. Withsuch

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announcement schoolswere not allowed to raise tuition fee. However, suffered by anall timefinancial crisis schools continue to raise fee inoneor theothernameand thusthemainpurposeoffreeeducationwasthuslittleachieved.Despitetheseproblems,thisinitiationcouldbeexplainedasthefirstevernationaleffortformakingeducationfree.Thislimitedinitiationwaslaterexpandedgraduallytocoverfreetextbooksaswell.Withtheup-gradationofprimarylevelagaintogradefivein1980,gradesonetofivebecamefreewithfreetextbooks.Furtherexpandingthecoverage,uptogradeeightwasmadefreealongwithfreetextbooksintheyear2008.Fordeprivedgroups(Dalit,marginalizedandendangeredgroups)andarea(Karnali)uptograde12isfreewithfreetextbooks.

Theseeffortswerebacked-upbyconstitutionalandlegalprovisions. Constitutionally, itwastheConstitutionof1990thatnotedforthefirsttimethatthefreeprimaryeducationistherightoftheeverychild.Followingthesameline,theInterimConstitutionofNepalinitsArticle17hasnoted,“EverycitizenshallhavetherighttofreeeducationfromtheStateuptosecondarylevelasprovidedforinthelaw.”Legally,in2001,theseventhamendmentoftheEducationAct,1971notedforthefirsttimethattheprimaryeducationwillbefree.

Thepresentunderstandingoffreeeducationthusincludesnotuitionandnoexaminationsfees(butschoolsareallowedtoraisesomeamountinsomeothername)andfreetextbooks.Ifweaddotherschemelikeincentivesthatincludecash-incentive,day-tiffin,cookingoilandfloor,etc. thescopeoffreeeducationcouldfurtherbeexpanded. AllDalitstudentsandhalfofallgirlstudentsinprimarylevelaregettingfree-ships.Likewise,alldisablestudentsarealsoentitledtogetfreeeducationuptothesecondarylevel.Thefreeprimaryeducationisfreeonlyincommunityschoolsandnotinprivateschools.ThosechildrenwhogetenrolledinprivateschoolsdonotgetthisStatefacilityorsupport.

Theprovisionofcompulsoryeducationhasdifferentstory.AsalreadynotedabovethefirsteffortofmakingprimaryeducationfreeandcompulsorywasmadewiththeEducationActof1962(BS2019).Sincethenalldevelopmentplans,exceptingtheFifthandtheSixthPlans,havementionedcompulsoryprimaryeducationinoneortheotherwaybutwithoutanyconcreteprogramandbudgetarysupport.Assuchthoseprogramscouldneverhaveanymeaningfuloutcomeineducationalprocessesinthecountry.

TheThirdPlan(1965-70)hadnotedprovidingsupporttoschoolswithfreeandcompulsoryeducation scheme. The Fourth Plan (1970-75) had also noted the scheme of free andcompulsoryprimaryeducation in selectedareasof JhapaandChitaun. After remainingsilence for two plan periods, the Seventh Plan (1985-90) again mentioned aboutimplementingcompulsoryprimaryeducationonpilotbasisandonthebasisofeffortsofmunicipality.TheEighthPlan(1992-97)hadadifferenttonewithitspolicyofconductinga feasibility study for the introduction of compulsory primary education and providingauthority to localbodies for introducingcompulsoryeducation. TheNinthPlan (1997-2002) promised to expand the compulsory primary education scheme and the TenthPlan (2002-2007)promised toconvert the freeeducationgradually into thecompulsoryeducation.Goingfurther,theThreeYearInterimPlan(2007-10)promisedtoexpandthefreeandcompulsoryeducationuptothebasiclevel.

TheabovediscussionshowscompulsoryeducationhasalwaysbeenthereinNepalsincelongbutwithoutanysuccess.ItcanratherbesaidthatithasbeenafailedprojectinNepal.


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Despiteconstantlyrepeatedpolicyandprogramprovisions,itcouldnotbeimplementedinanymeaningfulway.Nevertheless,theschemeappearedinalmostalldevelopmentplans.OnemightwonderwhytheNepaliplannershavefelttheurgeandpressureeverytimetheypreparedtheplantohavesomethingonit.Neithertheschemewasimplementedwithfullcommitmentnorweretheweaknessesandshortcomingsanalyzed.OneothershortcomingwasthatthewholeideaofcompulsoryeducationwastobecontextualizedaspertheneedoftheNepalandthiswasalsomissinginoureffort.

TheabovedeliberationsshowthattheattemptsmadebyNepaltoimplementfreeeducationincluded fees-freeand free textbook freeup togradeeight. ForKarnali regionand forstudentsbelongingtodisadvantagedgroupstheschemeisavailableuptograde10.FreeeducationinNepalesecontextisbasicallyfeesfreeandfreetextbooks.InthisrespectitappearsthatlikeothercountriesNepalalsoconsidersitssocio-economicconditionwhiledevisingschemesforfreeeducation.Governmentaidedschoolshowevercannotoperatewith the government grants alone. They therefore chargemoney to the students underdifferentheadings. In thissituationalthoughthegovernmentproclaimsit freefamiliesare paying for their children education. Regarding the status of compulsory education,thehistoryshowsthatduetolackofpoliticalcommitment,financialprovisionsandstronggovernanceandmanagementsystemNepalhasnotbeenable tomaterialize its repeatedcommitment in papers. If this situation continued the free and compulsory educationthatNepalhasbeenaspiringtoachievewillmeetthesamefatethatBangladesh(seenextsection)does.HavingsaidthisnextsectionwillbrieflylookintohowsomecountriesfromAsiaandAfricapromulgatefreeandcompulsoryeducationintheirrespectivecountries.

4.4 Free and Compulsory Education in Some Selected Countries

Thefreeandcompulsoryeducationhasbeenespousedbymanycountriesbutindifferentforms. Theyhavedeviseddifferent legal and implementation frameworks as per theirrespective needs and conditions. An attempt has beenmade below to briefly presentframeworksandprovisionsavailablewithregardtofreeandcompulsoryeducationinsomeSouthAsianandAfricancountries.

InSouthAsianSriLankaistheonlycountrythatmadeahugeleapinachievinguniversaleducationthereforeanydiscussiononfreeandcompulsoryeducationcannotoverlookSriLankancase.SriLanka’scommitmenttoeducationaldevelopmentanduniversalschooleducationhasalonghistory.Theretheprovisionofcompulsoryeducationfor5-14agegroupswasfirst laid out in 1939 through an education ordinance. In 1978provisionsmadethroughthe1939educationordinancewasconsolidatedinthenewConstitutionofSriLanka.ThenewConstitutionof1978furtherassuredrighttouniversalandequalaccesstoeducationatalllevelsofeducationforall.In1998anewregulationrelatedtocompulsoryeducationfor5to14agegroupswasalsoreinforced.

India has also been giving high priority to universal elementary education since itsindependencein1947.However,unlikeSriLankaIndiaincludededucationforchildrenbetween the age of 6 and 14 as a fundamental right in its constitution only in 2002.Constitutional amendment on2002 advocated for theprovisionof free and compulsoryeducationtoallchildrenof6-14agegroups,i.e.completionofelementaryeducation(grades1-8).TheConstitutionalamendment2002wassupportedbytheEducationAct2009ontherightofchildrentofreeandcompulsoryeducation.AspertheAct,theresponsibilityof

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fundingtheimplementationoftheActshallbesharedbetweencentralgovernmentandtheStategovernments.ThelocalgovernmentsarerequiredtoestablishschoolsinareaswheretherearenoschoolswithinthethreeyearsofthecommencementoftheAct.Thecentralgovernmentshallhavetheresponsibilityof

• developingaframeworkofnationalcurriculum,

• enforcingstandardsforteachertraining,and

• providing technical support and resources to the states for promoting innovations,researches,planning,andcapacitybuilding.

TheActhasalsomadeprovisionoffreepre-schooleducationforchildrenabovethreeyears.TheActbarsanyschooltotestorscreenchildorparentsandmandatesbirthregistrationcertificatefor thepurposeofenrolment. However,nochildshouldbedeniedentry intothe school justbecause s/he couldnotproduce thebirth certificate.These are landmarkprovisionsmadebytheIndianEducationAct2009.

InBangladesh free and compulsory educationhasbeen includedunder theFundamentalPrinciplesofStatePolicyintheconstitutionofBangladesh(1972).InthiscasetheStatesarerequiredtoespouseeffectivemeasurestoinstituteauniversalsystemoffreeandcompulsoryeducation.Theprimaryeducationactof1990ofBangladeshmadetheprimaryeducationcompulsoryfor6to10agegroups,i.e.grades1to5. Thegovernmentmaydeclaretheprimary education compulsory in selected areas for certain time period. In areawhereprimaryeducationismadecompulsoryfamiliesarenotallowedtoengagetheirchildrentoanyoccupationthatpreventchildrenfromattendingschool. Aprovisionhasbeenmadetochargefineof200Taka toparents if their child isnot enrolled in schoolwithout anyacceptablereason.However,inBangladesh“Primaryeducationiscompulsorybylaw,butthis is rarelyenforced.Therefore,parentsare free todecidewhetherornot to send theirchildren toschool.Thecompulsoryeducation lawobligates thegovernment toprovideafunctioning countrywide education system; to make education free and provide socialassistance toparentswhocannototherwiseafford indirectcosts (transport,meal,etc.)offulfillingtheirlegalobligationtosendchildrentoschool.”(Rahman&Islam,2009,p.414)

Ethiopia, an African country has no constitutional provision for free and compulsoryeducation.NeitherdoestheConstitutionofEthiopia1994havemadeeducationaright.NeverthelessEthiopiahasgrantedarighttoallchildrentobefreefromexploitationandworkwhichmightbedetrimentaltoher/hiseducation.Statesinthisfederalsystemarerequiredtoallocateresourcestoeducation.TheNationalPolicies,PrinciplesandObjectives(Article85)oftheConstitution1994pronouncesthatpolicesshallaimtoprovideallEthiopiansanaccesstoeducationtotheextentthenation’sresourcesallows.TheresponsibilityofthefederalgovernmentinEthiopiaistoestablishandimplementnationalstandardsandbasicpolicycriteriaforeducation.Theprovincialgovernmentsshalltaketheresponsibilityofdevelopingandimplementingeducationalplansandpolicies.

InSouthAfricatheconstitutionguaranteestherighttobasicandadulteducation(Chapter2:BillofRights,Article29).Theconstitutionalsoassuresthatchildrenshallnotberequiredtoworkorprovideservicesthatwilljeopardizetheireducation.(Chapter2:BillofRights,Article28).InSouthAfricanschooleducationconsistsof13yearsincludingoneyearofPreSchoolorgrade‘0’(Receptiveyear).Grade‘0’to9isknownasgeneraleducationandtraining.AdultBasicEducationandTrainingfallunder‘Generaleducationandtraining’.


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According to the SouthAfricanSchoolsAct 1996 education is compulsory from age 7to15, i.e.grade1 to thecompletionofgrade9. TheConstitutionofSouthAfricadoesnot explicitlymentionabout freeeducation. But it states that independent educationalinstitutions shall notbe excluded from thegovernment subsidies. The aim is to reachpoorest of the poor.Therefore two specific programs have been launched targeting thisgroup.Oneisfee-freeschools.Underthisprograminstitutionsreceivetheentirerequiredfundfromthestatesothestudentsarenotchargedschoolfees.Around40percentoftheschoolslocatedinhighpovertyareasarecoveredbythisprogram.Anotheristheschoolnutritionprogramwhichtargetsprimaryschoolstudentsandcoverssomeruralandurbanareaswithhighincidenceofpoverty.

Some examples from Asia and Africa presented above indicate that countries haveacceptedschooleducationasahumanright.Additionally,theyhavealsomadenecessaryarrangementsforfreeandcompulsoryprimaryandelementaryeducationorbasiceducation.However,countrieslikeBangladesh,EthiopiaandSouthAfricashowthatnation’ssocio-economicanddevelopmentsituationsshouldbeconsideredwhiledevisingpoliciesand/orschemesforfreeandcompulsoryeducation.

4.5 Free and Compulsory Education in Nepal: Pertinent Concerns

Abovediscussionoffreeandcompulsoryeducationinnationalandinternationalcontextshasraisedsomepertinentconcerns.Theseconcernscanbroadlybeidentifiedasconceptversuspracticalityandarepresentedbelow.

Concept versus practicality

Uptowhichleveliseducationfree?Andwhatdoesfreeeducationconstituteatdifferentlevels?Thesequestionsneedtobesortedoutinthecontextofcountry’smacrosocialandeconomicsituation.Attheprovincial levelwhatdotheymeaninasociallyawareandeconomicallyaheadprovinceasopposedtosociallyandeconomicallydeprivedprovinces?Howcanoneguarantee that constitutional provision of free and compulsory education shall not meetthe fate ofBangladesh? What are the basic requirements that the central and provincialgovernment should ensure to implement the provisionof free and compulsory education.Unlessthefreeandcompulsoryeducationisanalyzedinthelightofexistingandrequiredpracticalinstruments,andfocusisgiventoensuringsuchinstrumentstheconceptshallnotbematerialized.Examplesofsuchkeyquestionsrelatedtotheinstrumentsarelistedbelow.

School and community level • Shallstudents/parentsbefreefromanykindoffees?

• Whatshouldbeinplaceintermsofphysicalfacilitiesorinfrastructure?

• How shall teacher quality and accountability be guaranteed? Shall it be schoolmanagement’sresponsibility?

• Howwilltheschoolmanagementbestrengthened?

• Howshallparent’saccountabilitybeguaranteed?Shalltheybepunishediftheirchildrenwerenotsenttoschool?Whatkindoflegalframeworkwillbedevisedandwhoshallimplementit?Isitplausibleforeducationsectortotakethisresponsibility?

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• Whowillbepunishedifparentsdidnotsendtheirchildrentoschoolduetotheabsenceofconduciveenvironment?

• Whoshallmonitortheimplementationoftheconcept?

• Whoshallmonitorqualityintermsofclassroomteachingandstudentperformance?

• CanCLCtakeresponsibilityofalternativeandopenschool?

• CanCLCfallunderthejurisdictionofthelocalgovernment?

• Canlocalgovernmentensurecompulsoryeducation?(implicationutilizationofformalandnonformalstreams,assuranceoffundfornonformalaswell)

• WhatshallbetheframeforschoolandCLCtoworktogether?

Provincial level

• Canprovincesdecidewhatconstitutesfreeeducation?Whichlevelsandhowmuch?(implication- ifonlyfromgrade1andnotECEDunder-agechildrenwith fakebirthcertificatewillenrolingradeone)

• How shall the free and compulsory education and quality teaching learning beguaranteed?

• Can provinces adopt the notion of equity rather than equality in implementing freeeducation?

• WhoshalltaketheresponsibilityofmanagingandfundingNFE?

• Shalltheresponsibilityofteachermanagementincludingtheirqualityandaccountabilitybeonprovincialgovernment?

• Who shall fund school education?What proportion will be funded by provincialgovernment?Shouldalltheprovincesirrespectiveoftheirsocio-economicsituationspendthesameproportion?

• Whatkindoftaxsystemwillbeemployedtoguaranteefreeandcompulsoryeducationschemeatprovinciallevel?

• Shalldirecttaxationorindirecttaxationbelevied?(implication-incomeearnedfrominformalsector(farmlabor,domestic labor,etc. ishard tomonitorunlessastrongnational accounting system and tax compliance system is in place. Tax levied inselectedconsumergoodsandservices(e.g.entertainmenttickets)maybe

Central level• Shouldfreeandcompulsoryeducationbedefinedintermsofgradeonlyorageas

well?

• Should thecentral levelensureestablishment including infrastructureand teachersof all the schools and leave operational responsibility to province and schoolscommunity?

• Shouldqualitystandardbedeterminednationally?(implication-childrencanmove


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Free education Compulsory educationOptions Requirements Implications Options Requirements Implications

Freeuptograde8:Nofees,freetextbooks,freestationeries,provisionofday-meal

Freeuptograde12forselectedgroups/areas

(poor,meritoriousstudents)

Centralgovt.developsanationalpolicyframe

Provincesdeveloptheplanforimplementingfreeeducation

Learningcentres/schools/localbodiesimplementtheirprogramsaspertheplandevelopedbytheprovincialbody

Schemeforfinancialsupporttoselectedpoorfamilies

FinancialliabilityoftheStateincreases

Managerial/regulatoryresponsibilityofthedecentralizedgovts.increases

Politicalpartiesshowcommitmentandaccountability

NGOs/civilsocietiestaketheresponsibilities

Compulsoryprimaryeducation(CPE)forall5-9agechildren

Inconstitution:IncludeCPEintheDirectivePrinciplesoftheState

LegislatebothbycentralandprovincialgovtstoimplementCPE

Provincialgovts.developplantoimplementCPEinaphase-wisearea/groupspecificmanner

LocalgovtsplanandimplementCPEintheirareas

Centralgovt.providesminimumfacilitiestoallschools/LCs,includingqualifiedteachers

Schemeforfinancialsupporttoselectedpoorfamilies

Managerial/regulatoryresponsibilityofalllevelsoftheStateincreases

Politicalpartiesshowcommitmentandaccountability

NGOs/civilsocietiestaketheresponsibilities

Parentswillhavenoexcusefornotsendingchildrentoschool/learningcentres

fromoneprovincetoanotherwithoutproblem,nationalleveltestingatprimary,upperprimary,secondaryandhighersecondarylevelsIevery3years)

• Howshallcentral levelsupportprovincesandschools toensurenationallydefinedqualitystandards?(financial,teacherqualitymeasures)

• HowshallbeNFEfunded?

• Whatkindofrevenuecollectionanddistributionsystemshallbeadoptedtoensureadequatefundingforschooleducation?

• Whose responsibility shall be the capacity development of provincial and school/communitylevelschooleducationpersonneland/orstakeholders?

4.6 Free and Compulsory Education in Nepal: Available Options

Keepinginviewsomeexemplaryconcernsidentifiedabovesomeoptionsandimplicationsaredrawnbelowinthetable.

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Freeuptograde10or12forvocationalstream

EstablishvocationalLCs

(atthebeginningbycentre,thengraduallybytheprovince)

Financialandmanagerial/regulatoryliabilityoftheStateincreases

Parents/studentswillhaveoptionsforcareerdevelopment

CPEisfortheState,

StateprovidesallfacilitiestoLCs,alsofundforteachers

Statecommits5-6%ofGDPand20-25%ofnationalbudgettoeducation

CPEFundbothatnationalandprovinciallevelstosupportlowerlevelsonCPEandalsotosupportthosewhoclaimnotbeingabletojoinschool/LC

FinancialresponsibilityoftheStateincreases

Freefor5to14yearsagegroupthroughNFEandopenlearningsystems

Establishcommunitylearningcentreswithnecessaryfacilities

Developasystemoflinkagebetweenformalschoolsandnonformalandopenlearningsystem/process

Promoteopenlearningsystem/process

Requirementforhumanresourcesincreases

Systemoflinkagebetweenformalandnon-formal/openlearningcontributestocompulsoryeducation;increasesresponsibilityforcoordinationandcollaboration

Nopenalizingprovisionsforparentsfornotsendingchildrentoschool

Conducttargetedawarenessprogram,

specificallyforthosewhoarenoteducatingtheirchildren

PromoteFreeandCompulsoryEducationWatchGroupsatalllevels

Enhancedpartnershipwithalleducationstakeholdersatalllevels

Determineagrade-wisenationalqualitystandard

Centralgovernmentprovidesallrequiredfacilitiestoallschools/LCsasperthedevelopedstandard

Conductnationalachievementtestsineverythreeyears

Qualitystandardwillbemaintainedacrossthecountry

Childrenwillnotfaceproblemswhilemovingfromoneprovincetoanother

Intensivepartneringisrequiredwithnongovernmentsector

Directandindirecteducationtaxesareraised

Authorityforwhetherornottotax,ifyes,howmuch,etc.beprovidedtolocalbody

Explorepossibilitiesfordirectandindirecteducationtaxes

Instituteandstrengthenfinancialandsocialauditforfinancialaccountabilityandtransparency

Effectsonpriceandconsumption(incaseoftaxation)

Managerial/ regulatoryresponsibilities,accountabilityandtransparencyhavetobeensuredatalllevelsofeducationalgovernance

Increasedparentalinterestoneducation,hence,greatsupporttoincreasequalityandrelevance


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Nationalvolunteerservice,learningvolunteers

Provincewilldecideaboutthemanagementofnationalvolunteerservice

Ateachingforcewillbeavailable

References

Rahman, Md. O. & Islam, M.T. (2009). Universal primary education for all towardsmillenniumdevelopmentgoal2:Bangladeshperspective.JournalofHealthManagement,11(2),405–418.

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Financing Education in Nepal under the Federal

System

- Dr. Shiva Raj Lohani

5

Prepared by Education Financing Reference Group under Education and Federalism Support Group supported by UNESCO Kathmandu

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Abstract

The Education Financing Reference Group formed to support the Education andFederalism Support Group pursued the education and federalism initiative byfacilitatinginformeddiscussionsabouthoweducationwillbefinancedandmanaged

inafederalstate.

TheGovernmentofNepal(GoN)iscommittedtoachievethegoalsofEFAby2015andithasfocusedontheuniversalparticipationofitschildren,youthsandadultsintheeducationsector, especially in basic education.Although the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007doesnotmakeanydirectreferencetoeducationfinancing,itincludesbasiceducationasafundamentalrightofallcitizensandalsoemphasizesthateverycitizenshallhavetherightto freeeducation from theStateup to secondary level.TheSchoolSectorReformPlanexpandsbasic education toGrades1 to8.ThePlanalsodefines some requirements foreducationfunding,including:

• Theneedfor85%oftotaleducationexpendituretobeappliedtocomprehensiveschooleducation(0-12).

• Thesuggestionthat4%ofGDPand20%ofnationalexpendituresbeallocatedtoeducation.

• Theneedfor76%oftotaleducationexpenditurebeappliedtobasiceducation.

• Theneedof37%ofthecostoftheSSRPtobemetbydonors.

This paper examines how expenditures are allocated according to teacher numbers andoperating costs (rather than per student as a unit cost). Current expenditure levels oneducation are 17% of total government budget and about 3.8% ofGDP. 27% of totaleducationbudgetand35%ofthetotalprimaryeducationbudgetisprovidedfromexternalsources.Governmentfundingthroughgrantstoschoolsisnotdeliveredinatimelyfashion.Netenrolmentrateisincreasingbutsystemsarenotbecomingasefficienttoretainthemandensuretheiruniversalcompletion.Fundingtoschoolsdoesnotrespondtoschools’needsasexpressedintheirplans.Fundingbylocalbodiesisinconsistentacrossthecountry.Thereisinadequatemonitoringofhowschoolsexpendfunds.Schoolsareinflatingstudentnumberstoacquirefundingforstudentsabovetheprescribedstudentteacherratios.Althoughthecommunity-managedschoolshaveachievedsomesuccess,fundingmodelsdonotprovidegrantsoffundsdirectlytothecommunity.

Thepaperalsohighlightssomeofinternationalexperiencesreflectingtheneedofcountriesto address issues of vertical imbalance of resources and responsibilities (i.e. imbalancebetween tiers of government) and horizontal imbalance (i.e. imbalance between theprovincial governments). Countries deal with these issues through a range of flexiblestrategies–adjustmentstomechanisms,adjustmentstoamountsandshiftingresponsibilitiesamongthetiersofgovernment.

Thepapersuggeststhatthefederalconstitutionneedstomakeclearandspecificstatements

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relatingtothefundingofeducation.Thefundingofschoolandvocationaleducationshouldbetheresponsibilityoftheprovincialgovernments,andthefundingofhighereducationneedstobetheresponsibilityofthefederalgovernment.Forschoolconstruction,thecentralgovernmentshoulddevelopstandardsandtheprovincialgovernmentshouldprovidefundstoachievethosestandards.Teachersshouldberecruitedbylocalauthoritiesbutpaidbyprovincialgovernments.Fundingneedstobedisburseddirectlytoschoolbankaccounts.Thefederalgovernmentshouldfundtextbooks,provideassistancetopoorfamilies,programstargetingincreasedparticipationandresearchanddevelopment.Formulafundingshouldbebasedonstudentenrolmentssupplementedbyincentives(e.g. for increasedretentionrates).Withregardtorevenue,provincialgovernmentsshoulddetermineeducationtaxes.Regulationofprivateschoolsshouldbetheresponsibilityofprovincialgovernments.Donorcoordinationshouldbetheresponsibilityofthefederalgovernmentbutshouldrespondtotheneedsofprovincesasexpressedinprojectplans.Thereisaneedtodistributethefundsdirectlytoschoolaccount.Thegeneralideaforthedistributionoffundsmightbesuggestedasfollows:thelargerunitofgovernmentdistributesfundstothesmallerunitinaccordancewiththeneedsofstudentsinthesmallerunitandwithregardtothefiscalcapacityofthesmallerunitofgovernment.

Financing Education in Nepal under the Federal System

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5.1 Introduction

1. Nepal is moving from unitary system to federal structure of government throughdraftingofanewconstitutionbyelectedconstituentassembly.Majorpoliticalpartieshavealreadyagreedonfederalismandhavealsoshowntheircommitmentinconstituentassemblymanifestos.Inthiscontext,theservicedeliveryapproachesandmodalitiesincluding education service delivery are expected to be reshaped corresponding tofunctionalstructureoffederalism.

2. Education and Federalism Support Group (EFSG) was formed with facilitation ofUNESCO Kathmandu to pursue the education and federalism initiative to supportandfacilitateddiscussionabouthoweducationwillbemanagedinafederalstate.Thecomposition,objectivesandTORaregiveninAnnex–I.

3. UnderEFSG,referencegroups(seeAnnex–IIforeducationfinancingreferencegroup)havebeenformedtoencouragewidespreaddiscussionofissuesrelatedtoeducationandfederalism,andtodisseminateinformationtopersonalandprofessionalnetworksaboutthestrategydevelopedbytheEFSG.Currently,fivereferencegroupsintheareasof educationfinancing, free and compulsoryprimary education, alternatepathways,teachermanagement,andlanguageareworking.TheplanistopreparedraftmonographintheconcernedareasandshareanddistributetowiderrangerofstakeholdersfromCAmemberstoteachersandparents.

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5.2 Overview of Education Financing

4. Education financing has been considered as the key critical aspect of educationmanagement in a federal system. The financing role of federal government (FG),Provincialgovernment(PG),andlocalgovernment(LG)needstobeclearlysothatthefollowingfundingprinciplesareensured.

• Eachlevelofgovernmentandinstitutionsshouldknowwhatthefundingwillbeinthefollowingyearstoallowproperplanningandeffectiveutilization.

• Toensureeffectiveutilizationandaccountability,itisnecessarytodeterminehowtheincomeandexpenditureispublicizedamongthestakeholdersandauditedbyassignedauthority.

• incentivemechanismshouldbeinplaceinadditiontominimumfundingfordaytodayoperationtoencouragethestakeholderstoperformbetter.

• Educaitonfinancingpoliciesshouldindicatetheroleofeachlevelofgovernmentforfundingdifferentlevelsofeducation

• Thedistributionofthebenefitsofeducationbyeducationlevelsdeterminesthefinancialresponsiblityofeachlevelofgovernment;thishoweverisguidedbyoveralltaxationandexpenditureframeworkofthefederalgovernment.

• Eachlevelofgovernmentusesfundingformulaeforeducationfinancingtomeettheneedsoftheeducationinstitutions

5. Theobjectivesofthismonographareto:

• Facilitatetheinclusionofeducationfinancingarrangementsinconstitutionandotherlegaldocumentsinviewofthefundingprinciplesmentionedabovesothattheexistingfinancingissuesunderunitarysystemareproperlyaddressed.

• Assesscurrentsituationandidentifykeyissuestobeaddressedinanewfederalsystem

• DrawlessonslearnedfromothercountriesandassesstheirfeasibilityinNepal’scontext

• Identifymeasurestobetakeninanewsystem

6. Thismonographincludesthefollowingsub-topics:

(i) Allocationtoeducation

(ii) rolesofeachlevelofgovernment,

(iii) formulaefunding,


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(iv) Teachermanagement,

(v) Privateeducation

(vi) DonorHarmonization

(vii) SchoolSectorReformProgram

(viii) Localgovernment

(ix) Communitybasedmanagement

(x) Educationfordisadvantagedgroups

7. Thismonographwasdevelopedbyeducationfinancingreferencegroupafterreviewof literature, intense teamdiscussion,wider consultation at central level,field levelconsultation inMakwanpur,consultationwith representatives fromSetiandKarnaliregion,anddiscussionineduationsupportgroup.

Section – III

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5.3 Current Situation and Issues

8. TheGovernmentofNepalhasshownitsstrongcommitmenttowardsexpandingandimproving school education by accepting and acknowledging Dakar FrameworkofAction on Education forAll (EFA) in 2000. The recent progress review of theMillenniumDevelopmentGoals forNepalbyUNDP indicatesaweakperformancefor most of the goals including universal primary education. Education for AllProgram (2004-2009) has just been completed and School SectorReformProgram(SSRP)isunderway.Statehasalreadyrecognizedschooleducationasoneofitsprimeresponsibilitythroughnumberofplans,policiesandlegaldocuments.

9. There is no specific education financing related statement in the Interim Constitution, 2007 but it has declared free education up to secondary level as a fundamental right.theInterimConstitutionofNepal,2007stipulatesthat“everycitizenshallhavetherighttoreceivefreeeducationfromthestateuptosecondarylevelasprovidedforinthelaw”(article17.2).However,theconstitutionalprovisionsareexpectedtobebroughtintoimplementationbyintroducinglegalprovisions(educationact and regulation).SchoolSectorReformPlan andBudgetSpeech (2009) aims tomakesecondaryeducationgraduallyfree.Thefreeeducationcoversteacher’ssalary,operatingcost,scholarshipsetc.

10. Education Act Seventh Amendment and Regulation (2001) has not categorically mentioned financial requirement of education sector.However, ithasmentionedabout teacher support, scholarship and free education for primary level.Moreover,ithasalsoprovisionedfor freesecondaryeducation todisadvantagedstudents fromsuchpopulationgroupswhichfallbelowpovertyline(article50.1&55.1).EducationRegulation has set the provision for determining the fee structure for secondarylevelswithinthegivenframeworkkeepinginviewthecostsofschoolingbySchoolManagementCommittee.

11. EFA (2004-2009): In 2004, Government indicated to EFA program donors itscommitmenttograduallyraisetheshareofeducationingovernmentbudgetto17.5%.TheEducationforAllProgram2004-2009hasadoptedasub-sectorapproachgraduallymovingtowardsasector-wideapproachineducationfinancing.

12. School Sector Reform Plan (2009-2015) introduced grade 1-8 as basic education. The proposed School Sector Reform (SSR) Plan has articulated the need of 20%of government expenditure for education. In line with the new provision of basiceducationextendingfrompre-primaryeducation tograde8 (previously itwas frompre-primary tograde5), theplanhascalculated theneedof85%of totaleducationexpenditure to the comprehensive school education (i.e. pre-primary to grade 12).BuildinguponsuccessfulexperiencesofEFA(2004-09),theSSRPlan2009-2015hasadoptedamorecomprehensiveapproachforthefinancingofcomprehensiveeducationfrompre-primarytohighereducation.

13. ThisisthefirsteducationdocumentthathasattemptedtomakeadetailedanalysisofeducationfinancingintermsoftheGrossDomesticProductandtheoverallnationalexpendituresbasedonthehighgrowthratescenariowithgrowthtrajectoryindicated


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by2008-09budgetestimatestargetingfortwodigitsgrowthaftertwoyears.Briefly,ithassuggestedallocating4%oftheGrossDomesticProductand20percentofthenational expenditures to the total education, and 76 per cent of the total educationexpenditures to basic educationfinancing formeeting the requirements of ensuringbasiceducationtoallchildren,youthandadults.Inthisrespect,itissuggestedthatupto85percentshareofallocationsmightbeessentialfortheSSRduringtheperiodoftheplanimplementation.Theremaining15percentofeducationexpendituresaresuggestedfortechnicalandvocationeducation,highereducation,administrationandsupervisionsupport,etc.Itisestimatedthat49percentwillberequiredfordevelopmentprogramsandtherestforrecurrentactivities.Nearly37percentofthetotalSchoolSectorReformexpendituresareexpectedtobemetbythedevelopmentpartners.

14. MidTermExpendituteFramework(2002)recommendedtoadoptafiscalframeworkwith the following principles: 80% budget to district, 30% budget for non-salarycomponent, overhead cost not exceeding 10% at the central level, 15% at districtleveland50%oftheprogramcostgoingtoVillageDevelopmentCommittee,DistrictDevelopment Committee, municipality for earmarked activities (Early ChildhoodDevelopment,non-formaletc.).

15. Tenth Plan/PRSP (2002-2007) and Three Year Interim Plan (2007 -2010): BothTenthPlanDocumentandTYIPhaveemphasizedon(i)providinggrants toVDCs/municipalities to run ECD and pre-primary education, (ii) providing free qualityeducationforprimaryleveltoallchildren,(iii)theneedtoadoptcostsharingapproachfor secondary level, (iv) adopt cost recovery principle in higher education and (v)replacethepresentgrants-in-aidsystembasedonteacherswithablockgrantssystem.

16. AccordingtoMDGNeedsAssessmentReport(UNDP,2005),NepalneededtospendatotalofRs.22,128million(US$316million)in20051andRs.41,038million(US$586million)fortheyear2015toattaintheMDGineducation,ifthesametrendcontinued.In2005,thefinancinggapineducationwascalculatedas9424millionrupeesandthesametrendislikelytoresultinfinancinggapof15623millionrupeesfortheyear2015.ThefinancialgaptowardsMDGforeducationiscomparativelylowerthanothergoals.

17. The education policies are not clear about financing provisions. TheproportionofinvestmenttoeducationofGrossDomestictProductisnotdefinedandperstudentunitcost isnotavailable.Thefinancingbase is teacher insteadofstudents.Governmentprovidesteachersalaryandoperatingcoststoschoolsinsteadofprovidingunittuitioncost for each student. However, Government developed SchoolAccreditation andGrantsOperationManualin2006whichwasamendedin2008.

18. Government of Nepal allocated around 17 per cent of total government budget and three percent of total Gross Domestic Product to education sector.Theshareofbudgettoeducationhasincreasedfrom13percentto17percentineightyears.Thesubsectordistributionisdominatedbyprimaryeducation(morethan60%oftotaleducationbudget).Theallocationtoeducationofthetotalnationalbudgetfor2007/08isonly16.80percent.

1 Nepal allocated Rs. 12704 million (US$181.5 million) on primary education where as the total requirement was for primary education subsector was Rs. 22,128 million (US$316 million).

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Table – 1: Allocation of Budget in Education (FY 2000 - 2008)%

0/01 03/04 04/05 05/06* 06/07** 07/08

EducationshareofGDP 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.6

Educationshareofthenationalbudget1 13.9 15.8 16.2 16.7 16.0 16.8

PEshareofthetotaledbudget 57.8 58.8 63.4 62.0 60.8 62

PrimaryeducationshareofGDP 1.6 1.8 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.5

Secondaryedshareofedbudget 21 22 25 23.5 24.1 24

Note: PE = Primary Education, SE = Secondary Education, GDP = Gross Domestic Product

Source: Economic Survey and Red Book 2007/08, *Revised. ** Allocations

19. For the Fiscal Year 2007/08, thegovernmentexpectedtogetaround27% of the total education budgetfinanced through donor source.Similarly, Government allocated 35% of the total primary education budget from external assistance. For the allocations in 2007/08, theloancomponentcovered28%ofthetotal external assistance amount.Education for All Program (2004-09) is the major donor fundedprogramintheeducationsector.

20. Nepalpresentsagood example of donor harmonizationforsupportingtheeducationsector. The development partners supporting the education sector have formed aconsortiumwithpoolandnon-pooldonors.Thereare11externaldonorpartnersinvolvedinpoolandtwootherdonors(JICAandUNICEF)areinvolvedinparallelfunding.

21. The School Grants Operation Manual guides the allocation as well as distribution of general and targeted fund flows. Themanualdividestheschoolgrantsintotwotypes: (i) earmarked grants, and (ii) block grants (see chart – 1) and also envisageperformancebasedallocationsystemthorughaccreditationofschoolsbasedonvariousperformanceindicators.


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Chart – 1: Types of School Grants

Earmarked Grants

• Teachersalaries

• Scholarships

• Infrastructuredevelopment–newclassroomconstructionandfurniture,schoolexternalenvironmentimprovement(drinkingwater,fencing,andtoilets,includingseparatetoiletsforgirls)andmaintenance

General

• Administrative

• Supporttocommunitymanagedschools

SIP Grants

• Blockgrants(perchildfunding)forfreetextbooksandotherlearningmaterialsandteachersupport

Performance Grants

• Rewardgrantsbasedonperformanceindicators

School Grants

Block Grants

22. The non-salary grants occupy small share in school grants. Outofthetotalgrantsthataschoolreceivesinanacademicyear,around80percentgoestoteachersalaryand construction support.There is limitedbudget available for arrangingnecessaryteaching learningmaterials, capacitydevelopmentof teachers, librarydevelopment,computereducationetc.

23. The allocated funds reach to school very late.Currently, thereare33 steps for afundtoreachschoolfromMinistryofFinance.Incaseofprimaryeducationbudget,the involvement of District Development Committee hasmade the process furthercumbersome.Theteachersgetpaymentonceinfourmonthswhileeducationcadresgetpaymentattheendofthemonth.

24. Though enrollment is increasing, the internal efficiency is still not up to the mark. ThoughDepartmentofEducation(FlashReport,2008)reportedthatNetEnrollmentRateforprimarylevelreachedto92percent2in2008,theimprovementsintermsofinternalefficiencyindicators(survivalrate,repetitionrate,promotionrate,transitionrate)arenotuptothemark.

25. Finance is main constraint for access and internal efficiency. Variousstudiesshowthat,Childrenfrompoorhouseholdsarenotenrollingintoschoolsandarenotregulartoschoolandhavehigherchancestodropout,eveniftheyenroll.

26. Government support varies by the types of schools.TheformulaforthedistributionoftheresourcesbytypesofschoolsisgivenshowninTable–2

2 A sample based national survey (NLSS 2003/04) found NER to be around 72%.

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Table 2: Government support to schools3

Support Community ManagedSchool

Community School (aided)

Un-aided community

school

Religious schools

TeacherSalary

SIPGrant

Scholar-ship

Manage-mentSup-portTextbook

Construc-tionsup-port

Perfor-manceGrantIncentivesupport

Nosupport

Nosupport

Nosupport

Rs.50000peryear

Nosupport

• 100%salaryofapprovedpost(includingpensionforpermanentteachers)

• FixedsalarysupportunderRahatquota

PCFsupport

Rs.275forTeraiandValley,Rs.300forHillandRs.325forMountainRs.350perstudentfor50%ofthegirlsanddalitsforprimarylevel

Fixedamountprovided

Providedbasedonthenumberofstudents

Providedbasedonpartialfundingapproach


OnetimesupportofRs.100000/-perlevelaftertakingmanagementresponsibility

• 100%salaryofapprovedpost(includingpensionforpermanentteachers)

• FixedsalarysupportunderrahatquotaPCFsupport

Rs.275forTeraiandValley,Rs.300forHillandRs.325forMountainRs.350perstudentfor50%ofthegirlsanddalitsforprimarylevel

Fixedamountprovided

Fixedamountprovided

ProvidedbasedonpartialfundingapproachProvidedbasedonperformance

• FixedsalarysupportunderRahat quota

• PCFsupport


27. Funding arrangements are not based on bottom up planning. Though schoolspreparerevolvingschoolimprovementplaneveryyearandDistrictEducationOfficesalsodevelopDistrictEducationPlanfortheperiodoffiveyear,thefundingtodistrictsandschoolsarenotaspertheneedassessmentandplans.Schoolsarereceivingthegrantsthatareguidedbyspecificnorms/standardswhereasothergrants(construction,additionalteacherquota)arebeingdistributedonad-hocbasis.

28. The fund allocation by local bodies (DistrictDevelomentCommittee andVillageDevelopmentCommittee) to education is not mandatory and arrangements are not clear. ThoughLocalSelfGovernanceAct1999hasmadeprovisionsofaround

3 Government provides no support to Institutional Schools.


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20% investment to social sector.The share of education out of total budget is notspecified,variesbywidemarginacrosscountry,andarealsonotaccountedorreported.Moreover,thesocialsectorexpenseoflocalbodiesisalsobelowspecifiedpercentageinmanydistricts.

29. There are limited positive incentives to schools and teachers. Governmentgrantsaredistributedtoschoolsinablanketapproach.Thepaymentforteachersofallsubjectsissamethoughthedemandforteachersdiffersbysubjects.

30. The proper utilization of funds at school level is another issue.Thefundsdistributedtoschoolsfordifferenttitlesarenotbeingutilizedforthesamepurposeandbyfollowingtheprescribedmethods.Forexample:thelumsumpamountavailableasoperatingcosttoschoolsisbeingutilizedforgivingsalarytonon-teachingstaff(schoolpeon).

31. Efforts have been made to make fund allocation student centered and statistics based. The rahat teacher quotas are distributed to schools through DEO based onstudent teacherratio3.Schoolsfill inflashformscontainingbasic informationabouttheschool.

32. Per Capita Funding introducedtofulfillteacherdeficitisinturn causing reporting of inflated school statistics. UnderPerCapitaFundinginitiative,Governmentprovidesadditional amount to schools (i.e. per studentRs. 2041 forMountain,Rs. 1814 forHills, and Rs. 1633 for Terai and Kathmandu) if the STR in the school exceedsminimumStudentTeacherRatioprescribedbyEducationRegulation.TheamountisprovidedbasedonnumberofstudentexceedingSTR.ThoughPerCapitaFundingwasstronginitiativeofgovernmenttointroduceandpilotstudentbasedfundingmodality,itisfalteredbywrongreportingofschoolstatisticsbyschoolsandweakmonitoringmechanisminplace.

33. Government has initiated programs to enhance community participation in school.ESTPAPrecommendedtotransfermanagementofgovernmentaidedschoolstocommunitygraduallywithoutreducinggovernmentsupport.SchoolManagementCommittee(SMC)ofrespectiveschoolneedstosignagreementwithDistrictEducationOfficerformanagementtransfer.Aftersigningagreement,GovernmentprovidesRs.100000/-asincentivegrantandhasgivenprioritytosuchschoolsinprovidingrahatteacher quota, building construction and per capita funding. These schools receivesimilarfundingfromgovernmentasothercommunityschools.

34. However,theyareprovidedwithautonomyinteacherrecruitment,reward/punishment,collectionofresourcesanddeterminationofexpendituredomains.Currently,therearemorethan8000communitymanagedschools4.TheprogramstartedwiththeprovisionsetforthinEducationActSeventhAmendmentfollowedbytheoperationguidelinesin2005.Suchschoolshavebeensuccessfulinmobilizingadditionalcommunitylevelresourcesandimprovingaccesstoaswellasqualityofeducation.

3 Student Teacher Ratio is defined by Education Regulation. Additional teacher quota can be made available to schools with student teacher ratio more than 40 for Mountain, 45 for Hill and 50 for Terai.

4 Based on the information provided by Department of Education (Primary Education Section) to the study team during their visit to DOE.

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35. Thoughuniquemodelofcommunityparticipationhasbeencreatedandschoollevelplanningmechanisms are introduced andmademandatory, financing is not inline with with community based approach. TheschoolsdonotreceivethegrantsdirectlyintheiraccountandthefundsavailableatschoolsdonotcorrespondwiththeplanstheyprepareandsubmittoDEO.

36. Social Audit has been introduced and made mandatory recentlytoestablishtwowaycommunicationsbetweenschoolsandparents.Byformulatingeduationregulation,government made social audits of school mandatory along with financial audit.However,allschoolsdonotcarryoutsocialauditbyfollowinganticipatedprocedure.SchoolReportCardsarealsobeingpreparedanddistributedtoparentsinfewschools.


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5.4 Experiences from other countries

5.4.1 Experience of India

37. TheIndianmodelofeducationandfederalismcanbeinterestingforNepalsincebothcountries possess similar sort of socio-economic circumstances. In India, educationfinancingoccursinthecontextofafederalpoliticalsystem.Since1991,thegovernmentofIndiahasputintoplaceaseriesofeconomicreformswithimplicationsforseveralaspectsofcentralandstatepublicfinances.Thecoverage,andperhaps,thequality,ofeducationvarieswidelyacrossstates, reflectingdifferences inbothpastandcurrentresourcesandintheprioritygiventothesector.

38. India’s 1949 Constitution assigned responsibility of school education to Provincial Government while Central government has few contstitutional roles in higher education and TEVT.TheConstitutiondividedthepowerbetweencentralandstategovernment.Itgavethecentralgovernmentdirectresponsibilityonlyforthecentraluniversities and similar institutions and for standars in higher education (includingprofessional,vocations,andtechnaleducation)andashared(concurrent)responsibilitywith the states for vocational and technical training.All other responsibilitieswereassignedtoProvincialGovernment.However,theroleofcentralgovernmentincreasedinpracticebecauseofcomprehensiveeconomicplanningandfiveyearplans.

39. TheamendmentofConstitutionin1976mademuchofthefinancialresponsibilityforeducationconcurrentandlegalizedasituationthatwasalreadyinpractice.Despitetheamendment,25 state government and 7 union territories provide almost 90 per cent of all education finance, invariably their largest expenditure item.Onaverage,however,more than40 per cent of state government expendtirues are based on resources transfereed by the central governmentthroughamixofnondiscretionaryanddiscretionaryfunding.

40. Central Government plays role in guiding policy and encouraging national initiatives. Thecentralgovernment’sdirectinvolvementineducationislimitedtoasmallsetofinstitutionssuchasregionalcollegesofeducationandcentersforadvanceduniversitystudiesandtoactivitiessuchaspromotingSanskritandHindiinnon-Hindi-speaking states and educating the handicapped. Central Government also directlyallocates funds forUniversityGrantCommission for central universities and someplannedactivitiesinstateuniversitiesandcolleges.

41. Local Governments are expected take over the management,thoughnotnecessarilythefinancing,of primary and secondary schools.However,clearframeworksonrolesoflocalgovernmentonschooleducationhavenotbeenlaidout(WorldBank,1997).

42. The educational development is uneven across India’s states. The per capitaallocationacrossallstatesbetween1989-90and1994-1995wasRs.11.8,butforthefivemosteducationallybackwardstatesitwasRs.10.9.PerunitcostofelementaryeducationwasRs.645inHaryanawhileitwas912inKeraladuring1991-1992.TheexpendituremadebyProvincialGovernmentoneducationisdominatedbyteacher’sslalryandstudentincentives.

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43. Provincial Governments, households (community and parents) and the Central Government are the main providers of financing, in the order of distributingresourcestoschools.TheabilityofProvincialGovernmenttoeducationdependsonwillingness andability to raise revenues, revenues transferred to them fromcentralandsectoralpriority.Incaseofprimaryeducation,96% of total funding to primary schools comes from Provincial Government.

44. TheexistingissuesofeducationfinancinginIndiaare:(i)relativelylowgovernmentexpenditureoneducation, (ii) smallbut strategiccentralgovernmentfinancing, (iii)largebut tightly constrained state governmentfinancing, (iv) diversity in educationexpenditureacrossstates,and(iv)unbalancedcompositionofexpendituresinprimaryeducation.ThestrongandweakaspectsofIndianEducaitonFederalism5issummarizedinthetablebelow:

Table – 4: Strong and Weak Aspects of Education and Federalism in India

Strong aspects Weak aspects

• Central government takes 2% VATformiddaymeal

• Commoncourseforallstate

• provincialresponsibilityofeducation

• Central government funds providedthroughprovincialgovernment

• Central government plays roles innational initiatives, special efforts inregionswithneed

• Higher education and technicaleducation financed by centralgovernment

• 40% of educational expenditure byProvincialGovernmentderivedfromcentralgovernment

• Lowgovernmentexpenditure(resultedduetohorizontalimbalance)

• Higher inequality in educationalexpenditurebyprovincialgovernment(unequalqualityofeducation)

• Perunitcostcalculationnotavailable

• Unclear provisions regardinginvolvement of local government ineducation

• Investment focused on teacher salaryandstudentincentives

• Private education system determinedbyProvincialGovernment

5.4.2 Experience of Austrailia

45. TheAustralianConstitutionof1901establishedafederalsystemofgovernment.Underthissystem,powersaredistributedbetweenanationalgovernment(theCommonwealth)and the sixStates (threeTerritories – theAustralianCapitalTerritory, theNorthernTerritory,andNorfolkIslandhaveself-governmentarrangements).The Constitution defines the boundaries of law-making powers between the Commonwealth and the States/Territories.Politicallythereareeightstategovernments.ThepoliticalandfinancialrelationshipbetweentheStatesandtheFederalGovernment isanongoingconcern.

5 Derived based on the discussions among reference group members.


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46. Thefederalleadershipovernationaleducationpolicy,asdidthe“CommonandAgreedNationalGoals forSchooling inAustralia”.With federation in1901, theAustralianstates retained theobligation to fundeducation.TheAustralianeducationsystem isbasedonfollowingprinciples,

• Right of access to education–Educationmustbeavailablefor,accessibletoandinclusiveofallchildren.

• The right to quality education–Educationneedstobechild-centered,relevantandembraceabroadcurriculum,andbeappropriatelyresourcedandmonitored.

• The right to respect within the learning environment–Educationmustbeprovidedinawaythatisconsistentwithhumanrights,equalrespectforculture,religionandlanguageandfreefromallformsofviolence.

47. With federation in 1901, the Australian states retained the obligation to fund education.Afederalframeworkgavereasonforthemtoseekstandardizedapproachesacross the country. After 1891,Committees like the FinkCommission inVictoria(throughtheEducationActof1901,andthesubsequentTeacher’sAct)andtheNSWRoyalCommissiononEducation(throughtheFreeEducationAct1906),guidedthereformoftechnicaleducation,eliminatedpupilteachers,abolishedfeesinstateschools,promotedthebuildingofstatehighschools,providedforteachereducationinstitutionsandregistration,extendedthecompulsorybaseofeducation,andthecentralizationofeducationunderpermanentheads.

48. Though education was a state issue, the Commonwealth became more vitally involved in state.Dawkinsunified national schemeregularizedrelationshipsbetweenthe states and the commonwealth with regard to federal leadership over nationaleducationpolicy,asdid the“CommonandAgreedNationalGoals forSchooling inAustralia” (theHobartDeclaration),which emerged out of the 1989 conference ofEducationMinisters. Universities received greatly increased per capita funding forstudent places. Australian government spends a significant amount of money onschooleducationandthespendingiscomparabletoUSandUKintermsofperstudentspending.TheAustralianfundingofschoolsderivesinpartfromCommonwealthandinpartfromstategovernments.

49. Most school funding comes from state government (77.5%) while the remainder comes from Commonwealth (22.5%).In2004-2005,stateprovided91.3percentofthetotalfundingavaibabletogovernmentschoolswhiletheCommonwealthprovided73% of the total funding available to non-government schools. The norm is thatState providesmost of their funding to government schools (up to 93%)while thecommonwealth providesmost of their funding to non-government schools (around70%)6.Commonwealthisthemainfunderfornon-governmentschoolsbasedonpercapitaamounts.Thisincluderecurrentgrant85.2%targetedprogram6.8percentandcapitalprogram8%.

6 Source: Australia`a school fundingt system, December 2007 by Andrew Dowling, Policy analysis and program Evaluation Unit.

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50. Two funding models are in use: (i) average Government School Recurrent Grant(AGSRG)introducedin1993,and(ii)socio-EconomicStatus(SES)fundingformulaintroducedin2001.AGSRCestablishesperstudentamounttobespentforallstudentswhileSESformuladistributetonon-governmentschools.TheAGSRamountfor2005wasasfollowing:

PrimaryschoolAGSRC $6,783

SecondaryschoolAGSRC $8,994

51. StatesindicateshowmuchisspentperstudentonaverageingovernmentschoolsandCommonwealththenadjustthisamounttoderiveAGSRC.Theaggregiatewillcomeasnationalcostofeducatingachild.In2003-4thiscostwas$9,015perstudentinprimaryschoolsand$11,552perstudentinsecondaryschool.

52. Besides this there ismodeloffundingcalledasSocio-economicstatus(SESModel)which applies appropriationofAGSRC tonon-government school for each studenttheyenrolldependingontheschool`sSESstatus. The amount depends entirely on the schools SES score which is based on combined average SES of communities in which each student`s home is situated. Non-government schools also receiveadditional income from state government grants, interest free government loans insome cases, private fee and donations. It is said that non-government schools arefundedonaverageofeducatingachildatgovernmentschoolscoststonon-governmentschoolfund.

53. Both government and non-governemt schools are receiving funding based on average student.ThecommonwealthfundprovidedtogovernmentschoolsataflatrateofAGSRC(8.9percentforgovtprimaryschoolsand10percentforgovernment secondaryschools).NewSouthWales,Queenland,westerAustraliaandTsamaniyausetheAGSRCforpaymenttonon-governmentschoolstocreatepooloffunding.

54. BroadlytherearetwomainprocessofdistributingstatefundstogovernmentschoolsegDecentralizedandcentralizedmethods.InthedecentralizedfundinggreatproportionoffundsareprovideddirectlytoindividualgovernmentschoolslikeVictoriaprovided100%while SA 80% only. For this, School Principals are autonomous for staffingandotherexpenses.Inthecentralizedsystemthefundcannotdisaggregatedintoitscomponents based on school autonomy. Teachers salaries and disability funds arecategoriesveryclearly(NSA,WAandQLD).

55. Provisions were made to target poor and disadvantaged communities. Officialmulticulturalism was promulgated and the rights of minorities, especially girls,Aborigines, rural children, migrant children and the physically and mentallyhandicappedwereprotectedandadvanced.Fundingforchildcarewasmadeavailabletoempowerworkingmothers—asystemthatexistedinmoderatedformuntiltheearly1990s.At secondary level, the radical experience of SouthAustraliawas extendedto the federal scene by Peter Karmel through theAustralian Schools Commission.The systemof government grants to schoolswasmeans tested,meaning thatmoreresourcesflowedtothepoorerCatholicschoolsthantotheprivategrammarschools.


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Moreimportantly,thebeneficiariesofastudentgenerationoffreeuniversityeducationremainedbeholdentothevisionofdemocraticeducation,acohortthatstillfillsmanyof education’s senior positions, and resents the swing to amarket economy that istransformingsocialactivismintomarketawareness.

56. As the century ended,Australians awaited the federal government’s final word onwhether the recommendation of devolved educational funding, such as a vouchersystemwouldbeputintoplace.Elementsofdevolvedbudgetingareinplace,suchastheHowardLiberalGovernmentofEnrollmentBenchmarkAdjustment(EBA)whichfacilitates the establishmentof non-government schools, andpenalizes thosepublicsystemswhich losemarket share.The use of theEBAhas also provided away ofestimating the scaleofmovement towards theprivate system inAustralia: in2000,DETYA estimated that, “the gradual movement of students to the nongovernmentschoolsectorhassavedthestatessome$3billionsince1983”(DETYA,2000c).TheNSWgovernmentestimatedin2000thatitspublicsystemwouldbelosingsome$50millionperyearby2003toEBAduetotheshifttowardsprivateschools(NSWDET2000). In the same year, most states were closing surplus public schools in oldersuburbanareasduetodecliningnumbersofschool-agedchildrenandthegrowthoftheprivate sector.Some tensions,particularly as relates tohiringpolicies and suchissuesascorporalpunishment,havearisenoverthefactthatreceiptoffederalfundingrequiresprivateschoolstocomply.

57. The financial reporting is obscure which has created maximum flexibility in the budget spending at school level.UserCostofCapital(UCC)isaconcepttousestatereportingandgettingthestatefundingbasedonaccrualaccounting.ButUCCconceptisnotinuseincommonwealthfunding.UCCconstitute13.6percentoftotalrecurrentexpenditureingovernmentschools.

58. Tomake theunderstandingsclear, a tableconsistingof strongandweakaspectsofAustralianEducationFederalismispresentedintablebelow:

Table – 5: Strong and Weak Aspects of Education and Federalism in Australia

Strong aspects Weak aspects

• Availabilityofperunitcostcalculation(perstudentcostestimationavailable)

• Studentbasedfunddisbursementtoschools• Specificprovisionfordisadvantagedpopulation• Moreexpenditurebyprovincialgovernment• Lessfinancingroleofcentralgovernment

• Higher involvement ofFederalGovernmentthoughProvincial Governmentare made responsible foreducationfinancing

5.4.3 Experience of other countries

59. Under fiscal arrangements for education financing, countries face two kinds of imbalance between resources and responsibilities – vertical imbalance (betweenthecentralgovernmentandallstategovernmentscombined)andhorizontalimbalance

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(among state governments).Countries have responded in differentways to both ofthe imbalance – constantly adjusting the redistributivemechanisms, increasing nonstatutorygrants,shiftingadministrativeresponsibilitiestohigherlevelsofgovernment,orusingsomecomibinationofthesestrategies.

60. Mostofthefederalcountriesassigntheconstitutionalrolesoffinancingeducationtoprovincialorlocalgovernments.Noneoftheindustrialcountrieswithawellestablishedfederal system of government assigns constitutional responsibility for education tothefederalgovernment(WorldBank,1997).DirectFGgrantsarelimitedtoaround8-9%whichmostly includesgrantsforpooranddisadvantagedstudents, researchesand higher education, in few countries. In Brazil, FG accounts for 30 per cent ofeducation expendutre and is involved in higher education and secondary technicaleducation. To solve horizontal vertical imbalances,Australia bases the amounts ofgrants on rcommendations of independent commissions, and Canada on formulas,whilegernmanydeterminesgratnsthroughabroadsystemofresponsibility-sharing.IndevelopingfederalcountrieslikeNigeriaandBrazil,FGprovidesspecificpruprosegrants to specific states to equalize performance in education. Such programs havebeenbothpopularandunpopular.

61. InUSA,theresponsibilityofprimaryeducationisgiventolocalgovernmentwhilePGismaderesponsibleforalllevelsofeducation.FGsetsnormsandstandardsbasedonperunitcostderivedthroughextensiveresearches.

62. Brazil has successful experience in implementing pro-poor stipend program withinvolvementoflocalgovernment.AprogramcallBolsa Escolaprovidesgrantstopoorfamiliesbasedonconditionlinkedwithprimaryeducationoftheirchildren.


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5.5 Conclusion and Recommendations

5.5.1 Conclusion

63. Currently,Nepalhasnumberofproblemsassociatedwitheducationfinancingpoliciesandprovisions, allocations,distributions,utilizationand transparency. Other federalcountries(India,Australia,Brazil,Nigeria,USA)arestrugglingtosolveverticalandhorizontal imbalance infinancing education.However, there are some examples ofsuccessfulpractices too. It is right timeforNepal todesign theeducationfinancingmechanisminfederalstructuresothatitsolvestheexistingproblemssustainably.

5.5.2 Recommendations

64. The new constitution need to have education financing related statements. Theconstitutionshallmentionthefinancialresponsibilityofcentral,provincialandlocalgovernmentineducationsectoralongwithillustrationofallocationinpercentageofGroosDomesticProduct.Moreover,Constitutionalsoneedstobeclearaboutthefreeand compulsory education provisions.Alongwith constitution, EducationActs andRegulationsneedtobeclearlydescribethefinancingresponsibilityofFG,PG,andLG.

65. Provincial Government needs to be made responsible for financing School Education and Technical Education whereas FG needs to finance higher education. Centralgovernmentneedstodevelopthepolicy,carryoutresearches,fixthenormsandstandards,monitorperformanceofallstates,implementspecificprojectsinprovincewithgreatneedofexternalsupport,andhaveunderstandingwithexternaldonorpartners.Thedetaileddistributionofrolesispresentedbelow:

a) Basic Education

66. Provincial government needs to be made principally responsible for financing thebasiceduationsinceprovincialandlocalgovernmentareexpectedtobenefitfromthepeoplereceivingbasiceducation.Centralgovernmentneedstofixnecessaryminimumnorms and standards to be followed by PG. The minimum norms and standardswill fix per student unit cost, scholarship amounts and criteria for selecting thebeneficiaries,criteriastoselectschoolsforconstructionsupport,minimumoperatingcost, minimum teacher salary, minimum salary for non-teaching staff, educationtechnology requirements.ProvincialGovernmentwill developadditionalguidelineson performance based incentives to schools and teachers, additional scholarships,constructionsupport,maintenancesupportetc.

67. For construction support, provincial government provides the financial resourcesto school following the standards fixed by central government. Local governmentand community will be responsible for school maintenance. Similarly, educationaltechnologieswillalsobefinancedbyprovincialgovernment.Localgovernmentneedstofinancetheteachinglearningmaterials.

68. BasicschoolteacherswillberecruitedbySMCandpaidbyProvincialGovernmentas per the teacher quota approved. Central government fixes the minimum salary

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levelandcriteriaforpromotion.ProvincialGovernmentdevelopsseparateguidelinefor additional and performance based payment to teachers. Similarly, provincialgovernmentprovidesmoneyforteachertrainingwhereascentralgovernmentprovidestechnicalandfinancialsupporttotrainingcenters.Theteachermanagementneedstobegiventoprovincialgovernmentwithgradualtransferteacherstoprovince.

69. TheschoolswillbeprovidedwiththemoneydirectlytotheiraccountoperatedwithcombinedsignaturesofSMCchairandHT.Central,ProvincialandLocalGovernmentdirectlydeposittheamountonschoolaccountbasedonthefixednormsandstandards.

70. In basic education, central government will (i) finance textbook publication anddistribution, (ii) identify the poor andprovide stipends, (ii) implement specific andtargetedprojectinthedistrictsorregionswithlowereducationaloutcomesforcertainperiod of times, (iii) research and development.The authority to decide on privateeducationneedstogiventoprovincialgovernment.

b) Secondary Education

71. Themanagement of secondary education is proposed to be similar to that of basiceducation.Seconaryeducationcanbedevelopedasconcurrent responsibilityofPGandFG.

c) Higher Education

72. The overall responsibility of financing higher education needs to be of centralgovernmentasittakesmajorbenefitofhighereducationproducts.ProvincialandLocalGovernmentcancontributeincontruction,maintenanceandmonitoring.FGneedstodevelophighereducationpolicywithseparateact.

d) Technical and vocational education

73. The principle responsibility of designing the policy and financing technical andvocational education will be on provincial government. Federal Government willsupportininfrastructuredevelopment,technicalbackstoppingandpolicydevelopment(linktotheemploymentopportunities).

74. There is a need to design spontaneous and clear provision related to education financing in federalism. A comprehensive education financing framework isnecessary.Theproposedframeworkofresourcefor theeducationsectoratdifferenttiers ofGovernment in the context ofmacro economic framework is given below:

Tiers of Government % GDP % total budget

% of doemestically generated resource

Federal

Provincial/Regional

Local(District)Parents/Communities


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75. The funding formulae need to be based on number of students along with positive incentives. FederalGovernmentneedstobeinvolvedinidentifyingtheunitcostsanddevelopingthefundingmanualsapplicabletoallprovinces.Therewillbeaneedofhighleveltechnicalcostingstudyacrosstheprovincestofixminimumunitcosttoprovideschooleducation(basicandsecondaryeducation)toeachchildineachprovince.ThefundingformulaeneedtobeasperSchoolandCommunityBasedApproach(SchoolImprovementPlan,SocialAudit).

76. Federal Government needs to implement specific projects in the regions with lower education outcomes (because of lower level of funding by PG). Underfederalstructure, there are higher chances of horizontal imbalance in terms of educationfinancingacrossprovinces.Inthiscontext,FGneedstoidentifytheregionwithlowesteducationoutcomes,findthereasonsbehindtheoutcomestobelow,anddesignaswellasimplementeddirectprojectstoimprovetheoutcomes.Inthisway,FGcancontributeinensuringachievementofaccessandequityrelatednationaltargets.

77. Provincial Government needs to be made responsible for providing teacher salary. TheteacherquotaneedstobegraduallytransferredtoPGfromFG.OneofthemechanismssuggestedistomakeallcurrentlyrecruitedteachersasFGteachersandnewlyrecruited(temporary,rahat)asPG.TeachersneedtobeencouragedtojoinPGthroughvariousattractivepolicies.

78. Forprimarylevel,thereisaneedtodistribute grants to famliies based on poverty targeting by FG. FGneedstodevelopindependentprocedureforselectingthepoorhouseholdsandprovidingthenecessarygrantstosuchfamilitiesbasedonapplicableconditions.The applicable conditions can be enrollment to schools, higher level ofattendance, high learning achievements etc. Poor can be selected through scientificprocedures like ProxyMeans Testing. There is also a need of matching grants todisadvangedschoolsandstudentsthroughFG.

79. Provincial Government will determine education taxation relatedprovisionsbasedontheirresourceneed. ProvincialGovernmentwillhaveauthoritytodeterminewaystoresourcecollectionforeducationaldevelopment.

80. Provincial Government will determine and implemented policies and provisions related to Private education. StateGovernmentwillhaveprerogativestodecideaboutoverallprovisionsrelatedtoprivateeducationwhichincludesdecisionrelatedtoallowor not allow opening and operation of private schools, taxation to private schools,monitoringandminimumstandardsofprivateschools,grantstoprivateschoolsetc.

81. Foracquiringdonorsupport,PG will identify the projectandplansactivitieswhereasFG will approve and have formal agreement with donors. Provincial Governmentagrees and designs the projects in coordination with donors based on their needs. Donor harmonization will be the responsibility of Federal Government.

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Education in a Federal Context in Nepal

- Anton De Grauwe - Francoise Calliods

6

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6.1 Context and principles

6.1.1 Context

Anygovernance reformneeds to take intoaccount thecontextwithinwhich it isdesignedandimplemented.WewillnotdescribehereindetailthecharacteristicsofNepal.WewillhoweverrecallsomeofthemaincharacteristicsoftheNepalese

context,whichhaveanimpactonthechoicesmadeconcerningthefederalmodel.

First, the main reason for the introduction of federalism is to allow participation bypreviouslyexcludedgroupsandcommunitiesindecision-making.Already,initsPreamble,theInterimConstitutionmakesreferencetothisbackground:“PledgingtoaccomplishtheprogressiverestructuringoftheStateinordertosolvetheproblemsexistinginthecountryrelatingtoclass,ethnicity,regionandgender”.Article138(1a)makesthismoreexplicit:“Recognizingthedesireoftheindigenouspeoplesandofthepeopleofbackwardandotherarea includingMadhesi people towards autonomousprovincesNepal shall be a federaldemocraticrepublicanstate.Provincesshallbeautonomousandvestedwithfullauthority.”

Second,Nepal is a countryof great diversity andof significant disparities.The federalstructuremaybemorerelevantthanacentralizedstatetorespectthatdiversity.TheInterimConstitution’sArticle17claimsunder“Rightsrelatedtoeducationandculture”that“(1)Everycommunity shallhave the right togetbasiceducation in itsownmother tongue,asprovidedinlaw”and“(3)EverycommunityresidinginNepalshallhavetherighttopreserveandpromoteitslanguage,script,culture,culturalcivilizationandheritage.”

Third,evidentlygovernancestructuresarealreadyinplace.Theyaresomewhatdifferentinlocalgovernmentorganizationthanintheeducationaladministration.Butbothhaveafairlylonghistoryandbothhavesomeimportantresponsibilities.Intheeducationadministration,thereareseverallevelsunderthecentralministry:theRegionalEducationDirectorates,theDistrictEducationOffices,theResourceCenters,andtheschools.Thelocalgovernmentstructureconsistsoftwolevelsunderthecentralstate:thedistrictdevelopmentcommittee(DDC)andunderneaththevillagedevelopmentcommittee(VDC),andinurbanareas,themunicipalities.TheDDCs,VDCs,andmunicipalitiesreceivegrantsfromthecentrallevel,accordingtoaformula,andmanagethesewithsomeautonomy.Bothatdistrictandvillagelevel, there isaDistrictorVillageEducationCommittee,whichapproves theeducationplanspreparedbytheDEOononehand,andtheResourceCenterandtheschoolsontheother. In both these governance systems, the levelswith greater responsibilities are thedistrictandlocalones,while theregional level(whichmaybeclosest innumber to theprovincestobecreatedunderafederalsystem)iseithernon-existentorplaysalimitedrole.

Fourth,Nepalhasmanyyearsagooptedforapolicyofdecentralization.Thishasmainlytaken the shape of strengthening the local government and community structures.Thisistrueforeducationandforothersectors.TheSchoolSectorReformPlan2009–2015


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states “in the context of Nepal, the Government’s decentralization policy is gainingmomentumandlocalgovernmentsareexpectedtoplayanincreasingroleintheplanningandimplementationofpublicservices”(p.4).Whencommentingonbasicandsecondaryeducation, the point is made that “participation and ownership by the community inschooldevelopment,includingresourcemobilizationandmanagementsupportforqualityeducation,havedemonstratedpositiveresultsacrossthenation”(p.11).

Fifth, at present, there remains much discussion and significant disagreement on theshapeof the future federal state.Thedebate so far has focusedmainlyon themake-upandthenumberoftheprovinces.Shouldthemaincriterionbeoneof“identity”oroneof“capacity”?Butitisimportanttomention,inthecontextofthisstudy,thatsofartherehasbeenlittlediscussiononthelocalgovernmentlevel.Itisoftenmentionedthattheywillbetheresultofaregrouping/reconstitutionoftheexistingVDC’sandmunicipalities,buttheirnumberandthebasisforthisreconstitutionhavenotbeendiscussedindepth.

A sixth andfinal point is that there has been little reflection on the implications of thefederalsystemwithinthesectoralministries.ThefirstConstituentAssemblyanditsmanycommitteeshaveproducedmanydocumentsandmuchthinkingonthemanyoptionsinthedesignandimplementationofafederalsystem.However,theMinistryofEducationhasnotsofarundertakenanyexaminationontheimplicationsofthefederalsystemforthestructureofitsadministrationandforitsownrole(withtheexceptionoftheprojectwithinwhichthiswork isundertaken).Fromourowninterviewswithstaff in theMinistry, itbecameclear that theirpresent focus isonmaking theexistingsystemfunctioningproperlyandeffectively.Theirexpectationisthatitwilltakequiteafewyearsbeforethefederalsystemisimplemented.Moreover,ascivilservants,itisnottheirroletospeculateonthefutureshapeoftheNepaleseState,asthisisverymuchapoliticalquestion.TheriskhoweveristhattheMinistrywillnotbereadyfortransformation,whenthetimecomes.

6.1.2 Principles

Weproposeheretwosetsofprinciples.Afirstsetisgeneral:thesearecommonprinciplesforanyeffectivedecentralizationpolicy(ofwhichfederalismisonemodel).Asecondsetismorespecific to thisdocument.Wehave taken these intoaccountwhenselecting thedifferentoptionsfor teachermanagement,financialmanagement,andplanning,withinafederalNepal.Intheory,manymoreoptionsareavailable,butitisoflittleusetopresentallofthem.Wehaveselectedonlyafew,and,inordertodoso,weusedalsosomeprinciples.

General principles for effective decentralization

Complementaritybetweenthedifferentactorsiscrucialtothesuccessofdecentralization.Federalismtendstocreatenewactorsortoinvestexistingactorswithnewauthorities.Itisessentialthatthedifferentdecision-makersineducation,atwhateverleveltheyareplaced,worktogetherandthattheiractionsarecomplimentaryandnotconflicting.

Balance between central regulation and local autonomy. This core principle is easy todefine,butmanyconflictsarounddecentralizationcenteron this tension.Anyeducationsystem,beitthemostdecentralized,needssomecentralregulation;otherwiseitisnolonger

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a“system”.Buttheessenceofdecentralizationisthatlocallevelactorshaveautonomy.Thebalancebetweenthesetwoforcesmaybedifferentforeachcountryandmaydifferfromthemetotheme,asourdiscussionswillshow.

Balance between professional-technical expertise and political legitimacy. Federalismimpliesthatprovincial,andprobablylocal,governmentswillbeelected.Thesegovernmentswillthereforehavepoliticallegitimacytomakeeducationpolicy,buttheyneedtotakeintoaccount the technical expertise that educationpublic servantshaveandcanput at theirdisposal.

Balance between the mandate and the resources and capacities of an actor.An actor,suchasaSchoolManagementCommittee(SMC)oraLocalGovernmentoraProvincialgovernment,shouldnotbeassignedfunctionsforwhichtheyhaveneithertheresourcesnorthecapacities.However,ifthepolicysetistogivenewfunctionstoanactor,theneffortshavetobemadetoensurethatthisactorwillhavethenecessaryresourcesandcapacities.

Balance between professionalism, autonomy, and accountability. This final principleimpliesthat,whenanactorhasgenuineprofessionalskillsandtheothercharacteristicsthatcomewith professionalism (specialized training; service orientation; social status), thatactorcanbegivensignificantautonomybutwillalsobeheldaccountableforthewayinwhichtheautonomyhasbeenused.

Principles underlying the choice of options

Asmentionedabove,Nepalisacountryofdiversityandofdisparities.Acentralprincipleisthatthefederalsystemshouldrespectthisdiversity,withoutdeepeningthedisparities.ThefirstpartofthisprinciplemayimplythattheprovinceswillbeconstructedinsuchawayastorecognizethedifferentlinguisticandethnicidentitiesinNepal.Thesecondpartmeansthatdisparitiesneedtobeaddressed,forinstancethroughequalizationmechanismstobedevelopedandimplementedbythecentrallevel.

Severalexistinggovernancestructures,withinlocalgovernmentsandwithintheeducationaladministration,functionmoreorlesseffectivelyandhavealonghistory.Itisimportant,whenconstructinganewfederalsystem,tobuildupontheexistingstructures.Ifwedonottakeintoaccounttheirexistence,tworisksexist.Ontheonehand,theriskistoweakentheentiresystem,bycreatingentirelynewstructures,whichmaynotbeveryeffectiveatthebeginning.Ontheotherhand,ifanadditionallevelissimplyaddedtotheexistingones,theremaybeconflictsbetweenthenewandtheexistingstructures,andtheremaybetoomanylevels,creatingaheavybureaucracy.

Inthesameveinas thepreviousprinciple,successfulstrategiesneedtoberetainedandintegratedintothenewfederalsystem.Forinstance,ifithasbeendemonstratedthatschoolsgrants are a reasonably effective school financing mechanism, especially at secondarylevel,itmakessensetokeepthisstrategy.

TheinstaurationoffederalisminNepalshouldatthesametimebeseenasanopportunityto transformtheeducationsystem,wheresuchtransformationisneeded,andtoaddress


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deep-seatedproblems,whichhavebeenimpervioustopreviousattemptstoresolving.Theinstaurationof federalism is indeed amajor changewhichmayopen space for reformswhichpreviouslyweredifficulttoimagineorimplement.

General rules about distribution of responsibilities

ThefirstNepalConstituentAssemblyfailedtoreachanagreementontheprecisedesignofthefederalstructure,andthesecondConstituentAssemblyhasonlyjuststartedworking.Nonetheless,whilenofullagreementhasbeenreached,thereisacommonunderstandingonanumberofgeneralrulesaboutthedistributionofresponsibilities.

Themainpointofagreementis that therewillbethreetiersofgovernment:centralorfederal; provincial; and local.Twocommitteesof thefirstConstituentAssemblyhavemadesomewhatmoredetailedproposalswithregardtotheresponsibilitiesofthesethreelevels1.

TheState Re-structuring Committee(SRC)includedunderthevariouslevelsthefollowingresponsibilitiesconcerningeducationorrelatedareas(tothethreetiersisaddedalistfor“autonomousareas”):

Federation List

• Managementofcentralcivilservice

• CentralUniversity,centrallibrary

Provincial List

• Managementofprovincialcivilservice

• University,highereducation,library,museum

• Protectionanduseoflanguage,cultureandreligion.

Common List (for the Federation and Provinces)

• Economicandsocialplanning,familyplanningandpopulation

Local Areas List

• Primaryandsecondaryeducation

Autonomous Areas List• Primary,secondaryeducation,libraryandmuseum

TheCommittee on Natural Resources, Economic Rights and Revenue Allocation(ERC)hasmadethefollowingproposaloneducation.1 The information on these two committees is based on the paper “Proposed Allocation of Competencies

between Levels of Government in Nepal” prepared by Dr. JayampathyWickramaratne, for the UNDP

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Federation

• Universities; higher education; regulation and standardization of quality ofuniversities;nationalagendaofeducation;courseofstudy;examinations.

Province

• Universities; technical and vocational education; course of study/textbooks/examinations;specialeducation(forvisuallychallenged,deafandothertypeofphysicallychallengedpeople).

Local

• Educationupto10+2;informaleducation.

Whiletheseproposalsleavemuchspaceforinterpretation,thefollowingmaybeagoodsummary:Thefederallevelwillbeinchargeofoverallpolicy,andofthefederaluniversities.Theprovinciallevelwillberesponsiblefortheprovincialuniversities,teachertraining,andtechnicalandvocationaleducation.Thelocallevelmaybeinchargeofbasiceducation(1to8).

Thisleavesopenthequestionofwhowouldberesponsibleforsecondaryeducation.Thereisacomplicationbecausethenewstructureoftheeducationsystem,with8yearsofbasiceducation,2yearsofsecondaryand2yearsofuppersecondarydoesnotcorrespondtothestructureofmanyschools.Manypresentschoolsoffergrade1to5,or6to10.Assigningbasiceducationtoonelevelandsecondaryeducationtoanotherwouldbedifficulttomanageasthesameschoolandthesameteacherswouldberesponsibletotwodifferentgovernmentlevels.Thecapacityofthelocalgovernmenttomanage8yearsofbasiceducation,letalonesecondary,isanotherquandary,towhichwewillreturn.

Other important debates remain unsolved. The first one concerns the number and themake-upoftheprovinces,andofthelocalgovernments.AsmentionedearliereachlocalgovernmentmaybeaconglomerateofexistingVDC’s,but this isnotconfirmed,whiletheunfinisheddiscussionabouttheprovincesisattheheartofthefailureofthepreviousConstituentAssemblytoarriveatanagreement.

The secondunresolvedquestionconcerns theway inwhich theprovincesand the localgovernmentswill befinanced, aswewill discuss later.Undoubtedly, theprovinceswillhavetheirownresourcesfromtaxestheycancollect,whilethefederallevelwillcontinuetocollectseveraltaxes,withsomefundsprobablydistributedtotheprovinciallevel.Butthebalanceatprovinciallevelbetweentheirownresourcesandthosereceivedfromthefederallevel,isnotyetclear,thoughithasasignificantimpactontheautonomyoftheprovinces.Thefuturesituationofthelocalgovernmentsisequallyunclear.


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6.2 Planning and management of education: options for evolution under a Federal system

ThegovernanceoftheeducationsysteminNepalisfairlycentralizedinasmuchasthepolicyand the long termplanaredefinedat the central level, the teachers ingovernmentaidedschoolsarerecruitedaccordingtothenormsandcriteriaofthe

Teachers’ServiceCommission(TSC)andpermanentteachersarepaidbytheMinistry.Buttherehavebeensignificanteffortsatdeconcentratinganddecentralizingcertainmanagementtasks:ineducationschools-theschoolmanagementcommittees,themunicipalitiesandVillageEducationCommittees(VDCs),andtheDistrictEducationCommitteesallprepareaplanwhichareintegratedrespectivelyintheplanoftheVillageDevelopmentCommitteesand that of theDistrict development Committees ; theTeachers’ Service CommissionrecruitstheteacherswhicharethenappointedbytheDEOs;Districtsorganizethe8thgradeexaminationand,thecommunityschoolsandtheirschoolmanagementcommitteesrecruittemporaryteachersongovernmentfundsorontheirownfunds.

ItisimportanttolaydownwhatthepowersofthecentralgovernmentandtheFederalunitscouldbeinthefuturemanagementofeducationandtoopenlydiscusswhattheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferentmodesofdivisionofpowercouldbe. Thereare severaloptionspossibleandinordertobeasclearandtransparentaspossiblewehaveselectedthreekeyactivitiesineducationmanagement:teachermanagement;financingofeducationandplanningofeducation.Weshallafterwardsrecallwhatcouldbethekeyfunctionswhichmayremainatthelevelofthecentralgovernmentwhatevertheoptiontaken.

6.2.1 Teacher management in government funded schools

Presently,asmentionedabove,theTeachers’ServiceCommission(TSC)preparesalistofpeopletoberecruitedaspermanentteachersforbasiceducationinthedifferentdistrictsand theseareappointedby theDistrictEducationOfficersandassigned toschoolswithapprovedposts.Onceappointedtheteachersarepaidbytheschoolswithearmarkedfundscomingfromthecentralgovernment.

Communityschoolsarealsoallowedtoappointtemporaryteachersonvacantpostsusinggovernmentfunds(untilthepermanentteachersarrive).Theseareselectedatschoolslevelbyaschoolselectioncommittee,approvedbytheSMCandlaterbytheDEO.Schoolscanalsorecruittemporaryteachersiftheydonothaveenoughapprovedposts-i.e.theirP/Tratioisabovethenorm-usingthereliefpercapitafundinginitiative.Theycanalsorecruitontheirownfunds.Finallyrecentlyestablishedcommunitymanagedschoolswilleventuallyhavemore freedom in themanagement of their teachers, including the appointment ofpermanent teachers fundedbvy thecentralgovernment. All temporary teachersshouldhaveateachinglicensebutasschoolsemployeestheyareaccountabletotheschoolanditsmanagementcommittee.

It appears from the above that the role of a professional body such as theTSC iswellappreciatedbythestakeholders;andthatthedistrictsbutalsotheschoolshaveacertain

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capacitytorecruitandtoorganizethepaymentoftheirteachers.TheNepalSchoolSectorReformPlan(SSRP)2009-2015statesthatschoolsshouldmanagetheirownteachersinfuture.

Henceinanewfederalsystemfouroptionsarepossibleregardingtheselectionofpossiblecandidates, theappointmentand theemployment /paymentofbasiceducation teachers2. What is important is that teachers shouldhaveaminimumof securityofemployment ;thattheirrecruitmentshouldbetransparentandbasedonanumberofclearlyestablishedcriteria,similarfromonefederalunittoanother,andthattheycouldbekeptaccountableincaseofimproperbehavior,unsatisfactoryteachingandunjustifiedabsenteeism3.

The four options presented below are largely inspired by those retained in the conceptpaperentitled“TeacherManagementandDevelopmentinFederalSystemofGovernmentofNepal”4writtenafterseveralconsultingmeetingsofdifferentstakeholders.

One option could be that the selection of teachers, i.e. the licensing and the testing ofteacherscontinuetobedonebytheNationalTeachers’ServiceCommission(moreorlessasnow)butthatteachersareappointedandemployedbytheprovincialgovernments.Thisoption has not been retained as being too centralized; leading to unnecessary delays intheselectionprocessandnotgivingenough leeway to the federalunits to influence therecruitmentprocess.Federalismwouldhavelittlemeaningifeachprovincialgovernmentcannotestablish itsownTeacherServiceCommissionsoas tohave itsownrecruitmentcriteria. Another extreme option would have been to decentralize the whole teachermanagement process at the level of the local governments. There is a great deal ofuncertaintyonwhatthenumberoflocalgovernmentswillbeinthefutureConstitutionandnotmuchdiscussionhastakenplaceyetonthisissue.ItdoesnotappearhoweverfeasibletoenvisagethecreationofseveralhundredTeachers’ServiceCommissions,nortodevelopthecapacityofseveralhundredLocalGovernmentofficesintheappointment,paymentandoverallmanagementofteachers5.

Thefouroptionsretainedfitbetweentheseextremes.Inthefirstthreeoptionsthelicensing,testingandpre-selectionofteacherswouldbecarriedoutbyaProvincialTeacherServiceCommission,whileinthefourthoptionitwouldbecarriedoutbyaNationalTeacherCouncil(apurelyprofessionalbodyas,say,theBarforlawyers).Theseprofessionalbodieswouldestablishtheminimumstandardofqualification(licensing)andthecodeofconduct.TheProvincialTeachers’ServiceCommissionswouldinadditiontestthecandidatesandprovidearosterofpossibleteacherscandidatesfromwhichtheprovincialgovernments(option1)thelocalgovernments(options2),ortheschools(Options3)wouldappointteachers.Itislikely that theseprofessionalbodieswillmake recommendationsas towhomshouldberecruited(astheTeachers’ServiceCommissiondoesnow)buttheappointingbodycouldaddadditionalcriteria(suchaslanguagespoken,placeofresidence,genderorevenhighereducationalqualification)andnotnecessarilyfollowtherankingoftheProvincialTeacher

2 Grade 1 to 10 teachers. For the reasons mentioned earlier, it is not proposed to separate grade 9-10 schools from basic education schools.

3 The lack of accountability may be the reason – together with the use of English as medium of instruction-- why in some regions the proportion of pupils and students enrolled in private school is so high.

4 Prepared by DtArbindaLalBhomi and DrRajendraSuwal for the UNESCO Office in Kathmandu ( Nov 2009).5 There are presently 3913 Village Development Committees and 58 municipalities . Even if these are regrouped,

the number of local governments would remain very high.


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ServiceCommission:theteacherswillbemadeaccountabletotheappointingbody.Inthecasewhereschoolswouldappointteachers(options3and4),aschoolselectioncommittee6 wouldtesttheteachercandidates.

In options 1, 2 and 3 the teachers would be employed and financed by the ProvincialGovernments with funds those would receive from the provinces and the FederalGovernment. In option 4 basic education and secondary school teachers would beemployedandfinancedbytheLocalGovernmentswithfundsthattheywouldreceivefromtheprovincesandtheFederalGovernment7,whileuppersecondaryschoolteachers-grade11-12-wouldbeemployedandfinancedbytheProvincialGovernments(againwithfundsthattheywouldreceivefromtheprovincesandFederalGovernment).

Inoption1schoolteacherswouldbeselectedbyaProvincialTeachers’ServiceCommissionwhowouldlicensethem,interviewthemandestablishalistofpossiblecandidatestobeappointed by the provincial government. Teachers would be appointed, employed andfinancedbytheelectedprovincialgovernments.Theteacherswouldbeaccountabletotheprovincialauthorities.Schoolswouldstillrecruitsometemporaryteachers.

Option 2 is very similar to option 1 but the teacherswould be appointed by theLocalGovernments.These could add a few additional criteriaconcerning language(s) spoken,genderortheplaceoforigin.Teacherswouldthenbeaccountabletothem.Theywouldbeemployedandfinancedbyprovincialgovernmentsandthisshouldgivethemacertainlevelofjobsecurity.

Option3recognizesthatschoolsandschoolmanagementcommitteeshouldhavemoretosayontheappointmentandrecruitmentofteachers.Itisatthatlevelthatdisadvantagedandminoritygroupsaremostlikelytoexpressinterestinthemanagementoftheeducationalsystem,wantingtoinfluencetheschoolplanandhavesomethingtosayonthequalityoftheeducationdelivered.HencetheProvincialTeacherServiceCommissionwouldestablisha rosterofpossiblecandidates. Aschoolselectioncommitteewouldconductadditionalinterviews/ tests and select the candidate to be appointed by the school managementcommittee.Theprovincialgovernmentswouldbetheemployerandfunder,againprovidingsome security of employment to the teachers. It is hoped that teachers will be moreaccountabletothecommunity.

Option 4 also recognizes that schools and school management committee should havemoretosayontheappointmentofteachers.Itproposesthataprofessionalbody‘Teachercouncil’doesthelicensingofteachersinsteadofaProvincialTeacherServiceCommission.TheappointmentofteachersproperwouldbedonebytheSchoolManagementCommitteeupontheadviceofaschoolselectioncommitteeasinoption3.Theemployerandfundingorganizationinthisoptionwouldbethelocalgovernmentsusingtheirownfundsorfundscoming from theprovincesand/or the federalgovernment.Thisproposal is in linewiththe Constitution and with School Sector Reform Plan which both refers to the Local

6 As they do now: two of the three members of these present committees are professionals from the DEO :a super-visor, and a resource person.

7 The way the third tier of government i.e. the local governments would be financed is not yet decided (local taxa-tion but which? Block grants from federal government or from provinces?) .

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Governments(LGs)asthelevelinchargeofbasiceducationmanagement.AlthoughitisnotclearlydefinedhowmanyLGstherewillbe,therewillbemanymorethanprovincialgovernments.ThiswillrequirealotofcapacitybuildingtoenableLGstoprepareplansandbudgetsandtocollectfunds,aswellastomanagethepaymentsofteachersandgrantstothedifferentschools.Ontheotherhanditisatthatlevelthatlocalconcernfortherelevanceofbasiceducationandsecondaryeducationcanbestbeinsured.Teachersunionmaynothoweverconsidersuchanoptionveryfavorably.

Twoadditionalnotes:Firstitisnotproposedtoseparatethemanagementofsecondaryeducation (grade9-10 ) from thatofbasiceducationas lower secondaryand secondaryeducationareoftenprovidedinthesameschoolsandteachersareoftenteachingatbothlevels. Puttingthemunderdifferentadministrationswouldaddtothecomplexityofthemanagementprocess.Second,teacherunionsandassociationsarepressingtoregularizeall temporary teachers and to change their status to that of permanent teachers. Thisproposalhasnotbeenretainedasitwasconsideredthatfederalismshouldnotmeanmorecentralization thanatpresentandschoolsand theirmanagementcommitteeshouldkeepaminimumofautonomyandflexibilitywhatevertheoptionschosen.Itisverylikelythatthenumberoftemporaryteacherswouldbeverymuchreducedinoptions3and4whereschoolsaretheappointingbodies(temporaryteacherscouldbereducedtothosereplacingabsentorsickteachersforseveralmonths).

Option Preliminary selection / Licensing by

Employed and financed by

Appointed by Accountable to

Temporary teachers

1 ProvincialTeacherServiceCommission

ProvincialGovernment


Yes as presently


ProvincialGovernment LocalGovernment Yes as

presently



School:SMConrecommendationofSchoolSelectionCommittee

Few

4 TeacherCouncil LGA

School:SMConrecommendationofSchoolSelectionCommittee

Few

Teachers’salariesarethelargestexpenseintheeducationbudgetatwhateverlevel.Theseoptionswillhavedirectconsequencesontheoptionsregardingthefinancialmanagementofeducation.

6.2.2 Financial management of education

IssuesconcerningfinancialmanagementinafederalNepalarenumerous.Theseinclude:

• Whoshouldpayfortheeducationcost:financeteachersalaries,buytextbooks,fundscholarships,maintainschools,payforinfrastructuresandoperatingcosts?


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• With which resources? Different local taxations? Subsidies from the federalgovernment?Externalaid?

• Local resources are likely to be very different from one province to another. Isthe federal government going to equalize the level of resources between differentprovinces/LGs?andhow?

• Which incentives is the federal government going to develop to encourage theperformanceofvariousprovinces/LGSandyetreducedisparitybetweenresourcerichandresourcepoorprovinces/LGs?

• Whatwillbethemarginofmaneuverofprovinces/LGsintheallocationofresourcestodifferentsectors?Willrulesandregulationsbeconsidered,ornot,toensurethateducationremainsaprioritysector?

• OnwhatbasisaretheProvincesorLGsgoingtotransferfundstoschoolstopayteachersalaries:throughearmarkedfunds,thoughpercapitagrantsorthroughdifferentblockgrants?

• Howaretheoneyearandmediumtermeducationbudgetofprovinces/LGsgoingtobeprepared?Howcanitbeensuredthatitwillbeabottomupapproachandnotatopdownapproach?

• Whichresourceswillremainatthefederalleveltofinancedifferenttypesofeducationalexpenditures?

Manyof these questions should be settled in theConstitution, and implementedby theMinistryofFinance.Wewillonlydiscusssomeofthembelow:

a) Whoshouldfinancetheeducationcost?

According to the various options discussed above concerning teacher management, inoptions1to3theprovincial governmentswouldbethelevelresponsibleforfinancingteachersalariesinearlychildhoodeducation,basiceducationandsecondaryeducationuptograde10.Mostprobablytheywouldalsoberesponsibleforfinancingallothereducationalexpenditures: textbooks,scholarships,andthedevelopmentofinfrastructures(totallyorpartially),andalloperationalcostsincludingmaintenancecosts.

They will need an administration capable of

• collectingandanalyzingthedataandrequestsfromthedifferentschools;

• preparing 5 year plans, 3 year operational plans (to link to the Medium TermexpendituresFramework)andoneyearoperationalplans(linkedtothebudget)

• preparingthebudgets(shorttermandmediumterm)

• developingsomemechanismstodecideonwhichbasistheyaregoingtogivegrantstotheschools;decideonnewinfrastructures.

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In option 4 the local governments would be responsible to finance early childhoodeducation, basic education and secondary education up to grade 10: financing teachersalaries,fundscholarships,financetotallyorpartiallythedevelopmentofinfrastructures,andfinancethegrantstoschoolscoveringoperationalcostsincludingmaintenancecosts.

Likewise they should set up an administration capable of

• collectingandanalyzingthedataandrequestsfromthedifferentschools;

• preparingfiveyearplans,3yearplansandoneyearplans

• preparingthebudgets(shorttermandmediumterm)

• developingsomemechanismstodecideonwhichbasistheyaregoingtogivegrantstotheschools;decideonnewinfrastructures.

In addition in all options (1 to 4) theprovincial governments would be in charge offinancing public upper secondary schools, technical and vocational education, teachertraining and provincial universities, should they decide to build some which are notapprovednorfundedbytheUniversityGrantsCommission.

b) With which resources? Local taxation? Subsidies from the federalgovernment?Externalaid?

Theanswer to thesequestionswillbefound in thenewConstitutionanddetailswillbeworkedoutbytheMinistryofFinance.

Evidently the Federal Ministry of finance will continue to collect taxes (excise taxes,import and export duties, and, probably at the beginning, income taxes, business taxes...).TheprovincesandLGswillthemselvesraisetaxes:thesewillbedefinedbythenewConstitution,includingthefreedomwithwhichtheycanfixthetaxationrates.TheFederalGovernmentwillcomplementwhateachoftheprovincesandLGisabletocollectastaxeswithsomefundssothattheyareabletopayfortheexpensesundertheirresponsibility,inparticularteachersalariesaswellasallthenecessarynonsalaryrecurrentexpendituresanddevelopmentexpenditures.

ItislikelythatexternalaidwillbemanagedbytheFederalMinistryofEducationwhowillnegotiatewithdonors,fundingagenciesandinternationalNGOSwhatkindofdevelopmentprojectstheycouldfinance,andwhere.TheFederalMinistryofEducationwillalsobetheoneresponsiblefornegotiating,implementingandmonitoringasectorwideapproachineducation,shoulditandaidagencieswanttocontinuethisapproach.

HowistheFederalGovernmentgoingtoequalizeresourcesavailabletodifferentprovinces/LGs?ThisagainisamattertobeworkedoutbytheMinistryofFinance.ThesolutionislikelytocombineblockgrantsusingaformulafundingmechanismsimilartotheoneusedbytheMinistryoflocalgovernmenttofinancethemunicipalitiesandVDCs(takingintoaccounttotalpopulation,area,povertylevel,HDI,costofliving…),withincentiveslinkedtoperformance(asmeasuredbyaperformanceindex)andsomepercapitagrants.


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c) Are the funds transferred by the Federal Government to the different provinces /LGs going to be earmarked for education or will the provinces /LGs have the possibility to decide how much they want to give to different sectors, privileging another sector ( e.g. health, transport) over education , or viceversa?

Ononehandfederalismmeansgivingprovincialandlocalgovernmentsthepossibilitytodefinetheirownprioritiesinviewofthesituationencounteredintheirterritories;ontheotherhandtheFederalGovernmentpolicyhastobeimplementedaswellasthecountry’sinternationalcommitments.Thismaybesolvedeither:

- Byfixingaproportionoftheprovince/LGbudgetoroftheirresourcesthatshouldbeassignedtoeducation;

- Orbytransferringfundsforeducationonthebasisofanaverageeducationcostsperpupil(averagerecurrentcostsandaveragedevelopmentcost).Suchaveragecostcouldbemodifiedtotakeintoaccountindicatorsofremotenessandcostofliving8.

d) Are the funds transferred by the Federal units responsible for financingeducation to the schools going to be earmarked for different types of expenditures?What kind of grants will be used to transfer funds to theschools?

There are various options in this regard:

- In option 1 described above -which suggests that the appointment bemade by theprovincialgovernments-andinoption2–accordingtowhichteachersalarieswouldbefinancedbytheprovincesbuttheteacherswouldbeappointedbythelocalgovernment-fundsforteachersalarieswouldbeearmarkedandtransferredbytheprovincedirectlytotheschoolsaccounts;likewisefundswouldbeearmarkedforscholarshipstotheschoolaccount(specialgrant);anotherBlockGrantcouldbeearmarkedforschoolimprovement (water, toilets,maintenance ) and new infrastructure .The rest of thefundscoveringoperationalcosts:books, textbooks , lunchmealandotheroperatingexpensescouldbecoveredbyageneralblockgrantbasedona formula taking intoaccountthenumberofpupils,theremotenessoftheschool,thepupilteacher(P/T)ratioandschoolachievements(retentionrate,examinationresults...).AspecialreliefgrantcouldbetransferredtoschoolsandusedtohireadditionaltemporaryteachersifP/Tisabovethenorm,asitisdonenow.

- Inoptions3and4wheretheselectionandappointmentofteacherswouldbemadebytheschooltherewouldbeseveralblockgrantstransferredtotheschoolaccountby thefinancingFederalUnit : theProvincialGovernment inoption3,or the localgovernmentinoption4:

-8 Special allowances may be needed to encourage teachers to go and teach in remote rural areas.

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o Blockgrantearmarkedforteachersalariestakingintoaccountthenumberofpupilsandanaveragepupil/teacherratiointheFederalUnit

o BlockgrantearmarkedforscholarshipsbasedonthenumberofDalitsandonthenumberofgirlsintheschools

o BlockGrantearmarkedforschoolimprovement(water,toilets,maintenance)andnewinfrastructure

o Blockgrantforoperationalexpenses includingtextbooksbasedonaformulataking into account the number of pupils, the remoteness of the school, andschoolachievements.

Inallcasesitisassumedthattheschoolswillhaveabankaccountandwillreceivefundsincludingforteachersalariesintheirbankaccounts.

Some difficult questions remain to be solved

- Inoptions1,2and3itisnotentirelyclearwhattheroleoftheLGswillbe:willsomefunds be transferred to them instead of going straight to the schools accounts ( forexampletheoperationalgrant)orwillallfundsbetransferredtotheschoolsaccount.WillLGshavearoletoplayonthedecisiontocreatenewschoolsortoexpandexistingones?

- Inoptions4where the schoolswouldbefinancedandpresumablymanagedby thelocalgovernments,will theeducational fundsgostraight from theFederalMinistryof Education to the LocalGovernments?On the basis of some capita grant takingintoaccountindicatorsofthesizeofthepopulation,remotenessaswellasindicatorsof schools coverageandachievements (enrolment ratio, retention ratio)? Orwill itgo through theprovincialgovernments? Will the localGovernmentshave the staffnecessarytohandlethepaymentofteachersandthepaymentofblockgrantapplyingaformulafunding?Itdependsonhowmanylocalgovernmentstherewillbeandhowbigtheywillbe.

- RaisingthecapacityoftheFederalunitstomanageschoolsandtopreparethebudgets.Thiswillbeahugetask,easiertobecarriedoutinoptions1to3thaninoption4.

- Blockgranttoschoolsbasedonaformulatakingintoaccountthenumberofpupils,theremotenessoftheschoolandtheschoolachievementsshouldserveasanincentiveandencourageschools to retain studentsand to increaseachievements. In theotherhanditmaydisadvantageschoolsenrollingahighproportionofminoritypupils.Someresearchisrequiredonwhatwouldbeanappropriateformulafunding.

6.2.3 Policy-making and strategic planning

In this section,wedecided todiscuss threebroadquestions,whichareat theheartof thedebateonwhoisinchargeofpolicy-makingandlong-termplanpreparationinfederalNepal.


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Question 1 concerns policy definition:whodefinesthebroadeducationpolicyprioritiesandobjectives?Theconsensusisthatthisresponsibilitybelongstothefederallevel.Butthisleavesanumberofoptions.Wecandistinguishbetweenthreeoptions:

1. NationalpolicyisdefinedbytheMinistryofEducation,whichmayhaveadepartmentorunitspecificallyinchargeofpolicy-formulationandrelatedtasks(research,analysis,evaluation)

2. An Education Policy Committee has the overall responsibility to provide policydirectionsandguidelinestotheMinistry.ThesettingupofthisCommitteeisproposedintheSchoolSectorReformCoreDocumentandPlan:“theEPCwillbeheadedbytheMinisterofEducationandSports,andwilldrawonrepresentativesfromthekeyMinistriesandinstitutionsinvolvedinpolicy-planning,management,resourcingandservicedeliveryofschooleducation”(p.47).

3. Thethirdoptionisclosetothesecondone.AsimilarCommitteewillbesetupbutitwillbeconstitutedofrepresentativesfromthecentralMinistryandfromeachoftheprovincialministries,inadditiontopossibleotherstakeholders.

Question 2 looks at responsibilities for strategic education plan preparation.Intheory,education plan preparation inNepal is according to a bottom-up, ascending, process. Itstarts from theSchool ImprovementPlan,whichwill feed into thevillageand then thedistrictplan.However,thisprocessencountersatleasttwochallenges.Firstly,theplansaremoreconceivedasbudgetreleasedocumentsthanasstrategicplans.Secondly,theactorsatlocallevelareverymuchguidedbyinstructionsfromabove.Theplanpreparationprocessthereforeismoretop-downthanbottom-up,moredescendingthanascending.

Whendiscussing strategic planpreparationunder a federal structure, one issue is clear,whiletwoneedfurtherexamination.Whatisclearisthateachprovincewillhaveitsownsetofdevelopmentplans,includingastrategiceducationplan(whichmayormaynotbepartofabroadersocio-economicdevelopmentplan).Thetwootherissuesconcern(i)therelationshipbetweenthefederalandtheprovincialplans,and(ii)therelationshipbetweentheprovincialplansandthelocalplans.

Concerning the relationship between the federal and the provincial plans, we can distinguish four scenarios:

1. Thefederalministrydoesnotprepareaplan,butonlyapolicyframework,whiletheprovincespreparetheirplansrespectingthepolicyframework.

2. Boththefederalandtheprovincialministriesprepareplans.Theplansbytheprovincialministriesarepreparedsubsequenttothefederalplan.Eachprovincialplanadaptsthefederalplantothespecificcharacteristicsandprioritiesofthatprovince.

3. Boththefederalandtheprovincialministriesprepareplansbuttheprovincialplansarepreparedbeforethefederalplan.Inthisscenariothefederalplanisaconglomerateoftheprovincialplans,ifnecessaryadaptingtheseplanstotheresources,availableatcentrallevel.

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4. Boththefederalandtheprovincialministriesprepareplansandthefederalplanguidestheprovincialplans.However,thelevelofautonomyofeachprovinceininterpretingthefederalplanandinpreparingtheirownprovincialplandependsonthecapacitiesofeachprovince.Provinceswithlesscapacitywillbeguidedandsupportedmorebythefederallevelthanprovinceswithstrongercapacity.

While in theory these scenarios appear distinct, in the reality of some federal countriesscenarios2and3arebothpresent: the federal andprovincial levelsprepare theirplanssomewhatinparallelandconflictsmayoccur.

Concerning the relationship between the provincial and the local plans, two questionscomeupagain.Thefirstoneconcernsthenatureofthisrelationship:willitbetop-downorbottom-up?Thesecondoneconcernsthepositionofthelocaleducationplan.Intheory,therearetwooptions:

1. Theschoolimprovementplanfeedsintoorisguidedbythelocaleducationplanwhichfeeds intoor isguidedby theprovincialeducationplan. In thiscase, theplansarepreparedbyeducationstaff,whoseresponsibilityliestowardseducationstaffabovethem.

2. The localeducationplan feeds into the localdevelopmentplan,which isapprovedby the local government; the provincial education plan feeds into the provincialdevelopmentplan,whichisapprovedbytheprovincialgovernment.Inthiscase,theeducationstaffisaccountabletowardsthepoliticalauthoritiesattheirlevel.

Thesecondoption,whileitmayfitbetterwithinthepreceptsofafederalstructure,raisestwoquestions.First,howtoensurethelinkbetweenthelocalandprovincialplans?Second,andmaybemorepreoccupying,will the present deconcentrated education structures (inparticulartheDistrictEducationofficesandresourcecenters)continuetoexist,ifnotunderthecentralgovernment,undertheprovincialgovernment?

Question 3 looks at the regulatory framework.Partof theroleofcentralgovernment,including in a federal state, is todefine the regulatory framework.This consists of a setoftools(suchasacurriculumframework;alanguagepolicy;end-ofsecondaryeducationexams)whicharecentrallydefinedormanaged,andsetsofnorms(forinstanceonpupil-teacherratios,ontheminimumrequirementstoopenauniversity,oronresultstobeobtained).

Twochoiceswillhavetobemade.Thefirstoneconcernsthemarginofmaneuverlefttotheprovincesintheinterpretationandadaptationofthisframework.Thisisdirectlyrelatedto the levelofprecisionof theframework.Thesecondchoiceconcerns thefocusof theframework:will itbemoreconcernedwithinputs(e.g.pupil-teacherratios; theshareofbudgettobespentonspecificlevelsandcategories;thenumberandtypeoftextbookstobeused)orwillitfocusonoutcomesandresults(e.g.theNERtobeattainedingeneralandforspecificgroups;examresults;studentachievementonachievementtests).

6.2.4 Role of central government

Whatever the options chosen concerning themanagement of teachers, the financing ofeducation, theplanning responsibilities andotherdomainsnotdiscussed in thispaper anumberofkeyfunctionsaremostlikelytoremainatthecentrallevel.Thesewillbecarried


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out by the FederalMinistry ofEducation or by professional bodies such as theHigherSecondaryEducationBoardortheUniversityGrantCommission.

a) Definethepolicy,preparethecentralplanandnegotiatewiththeMinistryofFinance and Donor agencies

Policyanalysisandcentralplanninghasbeendiscussedabove.TheFederalMinistrywillremaintheinstitutioninchargeofdefiningtheoverallpolicy(goals,objectivesandspecifictargets)forthewholeeducationsystemandwillcontinuetonegotiatewithaidagenciesthepreparation,implementationandmonitoringofasectorwideapproachbasedonsuchapolicyandontheFederalplan.TheFederalMinistryofEducationwillalsodiscusswiththeFederalMinistryofFinancetheyearlybudgetandtheMediumTermExpenditureFramework.

TheUniversityGrantCommissionwillcontinuetofixthepolicyforhighereducationandwillfinancetheapprovedgovernmenthighereducationinstitutions.ItwillalsopromoteeffectivemanagementandfinancialsustainabilityofacademicInstitutionsthroughasetofincentives.

b) Set standards of quality and norms.

The main questions there are:

a. Whatkindofstandardsandnormsaretobeestablishedatcentrallevel,knowingthatseveralnormsarenotimplementedpresently?

b. Howdetailedthesestandardsandnormsshouldbe.Abalancehastobefoundbetweenstandardsandnormswhichshouldensurethequalityofeducationeverywhere–anobjectivefairlywellsharedamongallstakeholders9,andthewillingnessnottorestricttheautonomyofstates/provinces.

Amongst the norms that were considered necessary by many stakeholders are:

• Thecurriculum.

Thepresentcurriculumframeworkforbasiceducationdefinesacertainproportionofthecurriculumwhich is to be designed locally: 20%of the common core plus an optionalsubject.Thisproportionmaybeincreasedandthelanguagepolicyislikelytoberevisedbytheprovincialgovernments.

The examinations are set at district level for grade 8 and at central level for the SLCexamination. The Grade 8 exam could be organized at provincial level, as could theexamination at the end of secondary education (SLC). The organization of the SLCexaminationcouldhoweverremainatfederal level toensurecertainstandardofquality,andtoensurewhatwillbetaughtatthatlevel.

AtpostSLClevel, theHigherEducationBoardisgrantingapprovalfor10+2schools;

9 Even if norms are not implemented presently with a Unitary Government and if disparities between regions, districts and schools are far from negligible. These were amongst the reasons for the conflict.

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developingandrevisingcurriculaandtextbookmaterials;conductingGrade11andGrade12 examinations and publishing results. Several other functions of this Board such asrecruitingtechnical,professionalandadministrativestaffcouldbetransferredinthefuturetoprovincialgovernments.ButtheHigherEducationBoardislikelytocontinuedevelopingcurricula,conductingtheGrade11and12examinations,andgrantingthecertificates.

• Ensureequalityofbasicsalaryscalesforteachers

• Normsonminimumteachersqualificationatdifferentlevelanddefiningthelevelforlicensingteachers

• Defining aminimumandmaximumpupil teacher ratio, and an averageonewhichwouldbethebasisforapossiblepercapitagrant.

• PossiblyanormontheminimumproportionoftheFederalUnitbudgetwhichshouldbeallocatedtoeducation?

c) Monitor progress, equality and quality of education

• Preparing and regularly updating theEducationalManagement Information system(EMIS).

Thisentailsstandardizingtheprocessofdatacollection,theireffectivemanagementandtheirtimelypublication.ThiswouldbedonebytheFederalMinistryofEducationforschooleducation.UGCisalsoendeavoringtoensurethequalityofhighereducationdataandispreparingandpublishinganEducationManagementInformationSystem(EMIS).

• PublishingexaminationsresultsparticularlySBCandGrade11and12examinationresults

• Monitoring the learning achievements and publishing the results of the NationalAssessment of StudentAchievement at grade 8 level conducted by the EducationReviewOffice.

d) Ensure equality of opportunities by

• Equalizing resources available to provinces and local State governments throughdifferentfinancingmechanisms(asdiscussedabove).

• Reducingdisparitiesbetweendifferentsocialgroups.

The allocation of scholarships to Dalits and girls will become a responsibility of theappropriatelowerFederalUnitsandtheschools.Itmayhoweverbenecessarytodevelopamorefocusedsystemofallocationbasedonpovertystatus.Theidentificationofthepoorestmembersof thepopulation, thepreparationof thepovertymapand thepreparationandfinancingofasystemofconditionalgrant transfermaybecometheresponsibilityof thefederallevel.


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TheUGCislikewiseislikewiseworkingonimprovingaccessforacademicallyqualifiedunder-privilegedstudents-girls,Dalitsandeducationallydisadvantagedjanajatis--tohighereducationthroughfinancialassistanceandenhancedcapacityofhighersecondaryschools.

6.2.5 Consequences for capacity development

It is too early to start any capacity development efforts for the provincial and localgovernments.First,thereisnoagreementyetonwhattheirexactfunctionswillbe.Second,andmostimportantly,itisnotyetclearwhowillbethestaffofthesegovernments?Willtheybenewlyappointedpublicservants?WilltheRED,DEOandResourceCentrestaffberedistributed?

Thishoweverdoesnotmeanthatnoactionofcapacitydevelopmentwhatsoevercantakeplace.Wehaveidentifiedthreeareaswhereactionorreflectionisurgentlyneeded.

First,nationalpolicy-makersandthetechnicalstaffwithintheMinistryofEducationandSportsanditsdelegatedservices(suchastheNCED,theCDC,ortheTSC)needstrongerknowledgeanddeeper insights into thedebateonhow the federal structurewill impactupon theeducationaladministration. Itwouldbeveryuseful toorganizeoneoraseriesofdiscussionssessionswiththisstaffonthevariousmodelsoffederalism,theirstrengthsandweaknesses,theoptionsforNepalandwhatwouldbetheirimplications.Inthesamespirit,itwouldbeconstructivetoorganizediscussionsmeetingsbetweenmembersofthepresentConstituentAssembly,withspecificinterestsineducation,andthecentraleducationstaff.TheConstitutionwillnotenterintodetailonthedistributionofresponsibilitiesintheeducationsector;thiswillprobablybe,atleastpartly,theroleofthenewfederalministry,andthebetterprepareditsstaff,theeasierandmoreconstructivewillbethetransition.

Second, whatever the shape of the federal structurewill be, therewill be a significantneedforstrengtheningtheskillsofprovincialandlocalofficialsineducationalplanning,managementandbudgeting.CapacitiesinsomeoftheseareascertainlyexistinsomeDEOs,buttheywillnotbeenoughbyfartohandletheresponsibilitiesthatinprinciplecouldbedecentralizedunderafederalstructure.Whiletrainingworkshopscannotbeorganizednow(forthereasonsmentionedabove),alongerterminterventionisutterlyrelevant,namelythesettingupofanationaltrainingcenterineducationalplanning,managementandbudgeting.Suchacentercouldbeinchargeoftrainingalltheprovincialandlocalgovernmentstaff.Thisisamuchbetteroptionthantoorganizeaseriesofinterspersedandregularlyunrelatedworkshops,sometimesfinancedbyagencieswhichwanttobringtheirownagendaintothetraining.Workonsuchacentershouldstartassoonaspossible.Oneofthefirstquestionsiswhereitwillbelocated.Differentoptionsexist:itcouldbeintegratedintoanexistingorganization,forinstanceaUniversityCenter,orTheNepalStaffCollegeoritcouldbenewlycreated.Theriskofthelatteroptionisoneofcompetitionwithexistingactors.Thesuccessofthecenterwilldependultimatelyonthequalityofitsleadershipanditsstaff.

Third,capacitydevelopmentismuchmorethantraining.TheNepaleseauthoritieshavetomakesure thatprovincialand localcivil servantpostsareoccupiedbystaffwith thecorrectprofileandwithmotivation.Thisdemandsaseriesofinterventionswhichcanbereflecteduponasofnow:clearpostdescriptionsfor thevariousofficialsworkingat the

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provincialanddistrictlevels;transparentandappropriaterecruitmentornominationcriteriaandprocedures(thiscouldinclude,aftersometime,thecompletionofbasictrainingofferedby the above-mentioned center); the possibility to obtain in-service training at regularintervals;theavailabilityofsupporttoolsandmanuals;andthepreparationofperformanceevaluationmodelswhichwouldhelptheindividualtoimprovetheirperformance.Whilenotallofthismaybefeasibletoachieve,thepreparationofclearprofilesandrecruitmentcriteriaareessentialtoensurethatstaffinthesepostswillhaveatleastsomeofthebasiccompetencies.Withoutsuchstaff,thewholeeducationadministrationoffederalNepalrisksanearlyfailure.


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