T.C. YEDİTEPE UNIVERSITY

GRADUATE INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

MBA Thesis

A PSYCHOGRAPHIC VIEW OF MARKET SEGMENTATION:

INTRODUCING A NEW HOLISTIC PARADIGM: ENNEAGRAM

by

Mehmet Fatih KARAKAYA

Supervisor

Dr. Yusuf Can ERDEM

Submitted to the Graduate Institute of Social Sciences

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of

Business Administration

ISTANBUL, 2008

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TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... vii ACKNOWLEGMENTS................................................................................................................ viii ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................... ix ÖZET................................................................................................................................................. x CHAPTER.1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER.2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 2

2.1. Market Segmentation.......................................................................................... 2 2.1.1. Definition............................................................................................ 3 2.1.2. Criteria for market segmentation ..................................................... 3 2.1.3.. Reasons for market segmentation ................................................... 4 2.1.4. Market segmentation is the basis for customer orientation and differentiation ..................................................................... 6

2.2. Personality and Psychographic Market Segmentation.................................... 6 2.3. Personality Theories Utilized in Psychographic Market Segmentation........ 10

2.3.1. Freud and psychoanalytic theory...................................................... 11 2.3.2. Neo-Freudian social theorists............................................................ 12 2.3.2.1. Karen Horney’s CAD scale................................................... 13 2.3.3. Stimulus-response theories................................................................ 16 2.3.4. Trait and factor theories..................................................................... 17 2.3.5. Personality and understanding consumer diversity........................ 18 2.3.5.1. Consumer innovativeness ...................................................... 19 2.3.5.2. Market mavenism................................................................... 20

2.4. Consumer Motivation and Psychographic Market Segmentation................. 20 2.4.1. McClelland’s model: trio of needs................................................... 24

2.5. Enneagram: nine perpectives of life .................................................................. 28 2.5.1. Origin of Enneagram......................................................................... 28 2.5.2. Descriptions of the nine points.......................................................... 29 2.5.3. Enneagram insight ............................................................................. 31 2.5.3.1. Basic Enneagram personality type........................................ 31 2.5.3.2. The triads.................................................................................. 32 2.5.3.3. The wings................................................................................. 35 2.5.3.4. The levels of development..................................................... 36 2.5.3.5. Directions of integration and disintegration ......................... 38 2.5.3.6. The three instincts ................................................................... 40

2.6. Enneagram and Other Lifestyle Instruments................................................... 43 2.7. Reliability Issues.................................................................................................. 45

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) 2.8. Purpose and Objective of the Study ............................................................... 45 2.9. Significance of the Study.................................................................................... 46

CHAPTER.3. METHODOLOGY............................................................................................... 47

3.1. Scope of the Research......................................................................................... 47 3.2. Research Design.................................................................................................. 48 3.3. Statement of the Study: Enneagram Typologies Covering the Other Theories and Models Utilized In Psychographic Segmentation............................ 48 3.4. Data Collection Method...................................................................................... 50 3.5. Data Analysis....................................................................................................... 50

CHAPTER.4. RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................................................................. 52 4.1. Enneagram’s Compatibility with Other Frameworks ..................................... 52

4.1.1. Enneagram and McClelland’s trio of needs.................................... 53 4.1.2. Enneagram and snack food traits...................................................... 53 4.1.3. Enneagram and Karen Horney’s CAD Scale................................. 54 4.1.4. Enneagram and market mavenism................................................... 57 4.1.4.1. Related Sectors or Products of the Enneagram Types........ 58 4.1.5. Enneagram and Kahle’s List of Values........................................... 59 4.1.6. Propositions derived from the interview regarding utilizing Enneagram in psychographic market segmentation................................. 59 4.1.6.1. What do each enneagram type want from a product?......... 59

4.1.6.2. How wings in enneagram effect consumers' behavior and how can we make a segmentation regarding wings?................. 61

4.1.6.3. How triads of enneagram effect consumers' behavior and how can we make a segmentation regarding triads? ................. 62

4.2. Revised Model of Enneagram Psychographic Segmentation: what kind of customer each Enneagram type is?.............................................................. 64

CHAPTER.5. CONCLUSION................................................................................................... 68

5.1. Limitations and Directions for future Research ............................................... 68 5.2. Implications and Conclusion.............................................................................. 69

APPENDICES................................................................................................................................. 71

Appendix 1.1. A Model of Consumer Decision Making....................................... 72 Appendix 2.1. Enneagram Circle.............................................................................. 73 Appendix 2.2. Enneagram Typologies Summary................................................... 74 Appendix 2.3. The Triads of Enneagram................................................................. 75 Appendix 2.4. Dominant Emotions of The Triads Of Enneagram....................... 75 Appendix 2.5. The Continuum of The Levels Of Development........................... 76 Appendix 2.6. The Direction of Disintegration....................................................... 77 Appendix 2.7. The Direction of Integration............................................................. 77

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Appendix 3.1. Research Design................................................................................ 78 Appendix 3.2. Interview Protocol ............................................................................. 79 Appendix 4.1. Enneagram and David Clarence Mcclelland's Theory of Needs Compatibility................................................................................. 93 Appendix 4.2. Enneagram and Dr. Alan Hirsch's Snack Foods and Personality Traits Compatibility................................................................................ 94 Appendix 4.3. Enneagram and Karen Horney's Personality Groups Compatibility................................................................................................. 95 Appendix 4.4. Enneagram and Market Maven Scale Compatibility.................... 96 Appendix 4.5. Enneagram and List of Values (Kahle 1983) Compatibility....................................................................................... 98 Appendix 4.6. What Do Each Enneagram Type Want From A Product?......................................................................................................... 99

REFERENCES................................................................................................................................ 100 CURRICULUM VITAE OF THE RESEARCHER.................................................................. 110

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1.1.A MODEL OF CONSUMER DECISION MAKING....................................... 72 FIGURE 2.1. ENNEAGRAM CIRCLE ..................................................................................... 73 FIGURE 2.3. THE TRIADS OF ENNEAGRAM...................................................................... 75 FIGURE 2.4. DOMINANT EMOTIONS OF THE TRIADS OF ENNEAGRAM............. 75 FIGURE 2.6. THE DIRECTION OF DISINTEGRATION ..................................................... 77 FIGURE 2.7. THE DIRECTION OF INTEGRATION............................................................. 77 FIGURE 3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN.......................................................................................... 78

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.2. ENNEAGRAM TYPOLOGIES SUMMARY.................................................... 74 TABLE 2.5. THE CONTINUUM OF THE LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT...................... 76 TABLE 3.2. INTERVIEW PROTOCOL.................................................................................... 79 TABLE 4.1. ENNEAGRAM AND DAVID CLARENCE MCCLELLAND'S THEORY OF NEEDS COMPATIBILITY................................................................................. 93 TABLE 4.2. ENNEAGRAM AND DR. ALAN HIRSCH'S SNACK FOODS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS COMPATIBILITY.......................................................................... 94 TABLE 4.3. ENNEAGRAM AND KAREN HORNEY'S PERSONALITY GROUPS COMPATIBILITY....................................................................................................... 95 TABLE 4.4. ENNEAGRAM AND MARKET MAVEN SCALE COMPATIBILITY...... 96 TABLE 4.5. ENNEAGRAM AND LIST OF VALUES (KAHLE 1983) COMPATIBILITY............................................................................................. 98 TABLE 4.6. WHAT DO EACH ENNEAGRAM TYPE WANT FROM A PRODUCT? ................................................................................................................... 99

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who helped to make this dissertation

possible. First, my grateful appreciation is extended to my supervisor, Dr. Yusus Can

Erdem, for his invaluable supervision and encouragement throughout my study. His

guidance and instruction made this study possible.

Second, I would like to acknowledge the members of thesis committee for their assistance

and guidance in this research. I would like to thank Dr. Mehmet YAHYAGİL and Dr.

Füsun AKDAĞ for offering many insights and recommendations that contributed to this

study. Their nurturing of my academic interests and professional development is gratefully

appreciated.

Third, I would like to convey my sincerest gratitude to Enneagram experts Dr. Selim

Uzunoğlu, Fahri Karakaş, Yusuf Karabulut who provided their valuable time and expertise

throughout my study.

Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my wife, Aynur, for her continued

loving support and patience, and for believing in me.

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A PSYCHOGRAPHIC VIEW OF MARKET SEGMENTATION:

INTRODUCING A NEW HOLISTIC PARADIGM: ENNEAGRAM

by

MEHMET FATİH KARAKAYA

ABSTRACT

Market segmentation is one of the major concepts in marketing. However, it experiences

changes in terms of both conceptual developments and concrete practical applications.

More specifically, the question whether well known segmentation models are still relevant

and can be used in particular circumstances arise again and again.

Psychographic segmentation is one of important ways to segment markets. Consumers

want to do business with firms that appreciate their respective personal style. Some

consumers are interested in speed, others quality of service, while others appreciate the

personal touch in service. In this context, psychographic market segmentation has been

called the "last-frontier" of relationship marketing. Perhaps it is more correct that

psychographic market segmentation is the "gateway" to a vast frontier of successful

relationship marketing.

In this research the aim is to illustrate how the ancient and mystical technique of the

Enneagram can be effectively used as a base for psychographic segmentation. With the

Enneagram finding ever-increasing applications in strategic management and human

resource development, it is only fitting that scholar in marketing harness the diagnostic and

predictive power of the Enneagram. However, adoption of the Enneagram for marketing

purposes will require further conceptual development and empirical analysis.

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PAZAR SEGMENTASYONUNA PSİKOGRAFİK BİR BAKIŞ:

YENİ HOLİSTİK BİR PARADİGMA: ENNEAGRAM

yazarı

MEHMET FATİH KARAKAYA

ÖZET

Pazar Segmentasyonu, pazarlamanın başlıca konularından bir tanesidir. Aynı zamanda da

kavramsal olarak ta, pratik uygulamaları açısından da gelişim kaydetmekte olan

konularından biridir. Daha açık ifade etmek gerekirse meşhur segmentasyon modellerinin

hala muteber olup olmadığı, ve bunların belirli özel çerçeveler için kullanılıp

kullanılamayacakları sorusu tekrar tekrar gündeme gelmeye devam etmektedir.

Psikografik segmentasyon, pazar segmentasyonunun önemli yöntemlerindendir. Müşteriler

kendi kişilik meyillerine özen gösteren firmalardan alışveriş yapmak istemektedirler. Kimi

müşteriler hızlılığa, kimi müşteriler hizmetin kalitesine, kimisi de kişiye özel yaklaşılan

hizmetlere ilgi göstermektedirler. Psikografik Pazar segmentasyonu bu bağlamda ilişki

odaklı pazarlamanın “son sınırıdır”. Belki daha da doğrusu psikografik pazar

segmentasyonu başarılı bir ilişki odaklı pazarlamanın uçsuz bucaksız sınırlarına bir “geçiş

kapısıdır”.

Bu araştırmada amaç kadim ve mistik bir teknik olan Ennagramın psikografik

segmentayonda etkin bir biçimde nasıl kullanılabileceğinin gösterilmesidir. Enneagram,

stratejik yönetim ve insan kaynaklarının geliştirilmesi alanlarında günbegün artan

uygulamalarla kullanım imkanı bulmasına karşın, pazarlama alanında yalnızca

araştırmacıların Enneagramın teşhis ve tahmin gücünü zorlayan uygulamalarıyla kısıtlı

kalmıştır. Bununla beraber Enneagramın pazarlama maksatlı kullanımının benimsenmesini

sağlamak için daha ileri düzeyde kavramsal geliştirme ve ampirik analizlere ihtiyaç vardır.

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CHAPTER.1.

INTRODUCTION

The most challenging concept in marketing deals with understanding why buyers do what

they do (or don’t do). But such knowledge is critical for marketers since having a strong

understanding of buyer behavior will help explaining what is important to the customer

and also exposing the important effects on customer decision-making to view. Using this

information, marketers can create marketing programs that they believe will be of interest

to customers.

As known, factors affecting customers in the process of decision making are extremely

complex (Appendix 1.1). Buyer behavior is deeply rooted in psychology with some pieces

of sociology put in just to make things more interesting. Since every person in the world is

different, it is impossible to have simple rules to explain how buying decisions are made.

In the past twenty years, it has been very interesting to watch the efforts of companies and

practitioners to gain more customers. New data, new concepts, theories, relationships, and

models have been received with such enthusiasm that new fields in scientific studies have

developed. Studies such as consumer economics, rural sociology, social and mathematical

psychology, social anthropology, and political science have contributed to make the study

of consumer behavior a relatively well defined scientific discipline.

One of the more attractive topics in the study of consumer behavior is that of personality.

Purchasing behavior, media choice, innovation, segmentation, fear, social influence,

product choice, opinion leadership, risk taking, attitude change, and almost anything else

one can think of have been linked to personality.

Personality research has long been a supporting item in the study of consumer behavior.

However little research is directly devoted to personality issues, and when consumer

personality is investigated, it tends to be through the narrow perspective of developing

another individual difference measure in an already crowded field of personality scales.

Research has been done for investigating the moderating effects of some traits on some

relationship of interest. Understanding the individual person in his or her role as a

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consumer should be a key issue in the study of consumer behavior, but in order to realize

this vision, the scope of personality research has to be broadened.

The manner in which a customer makes purchases has long been of interest to marketing

researchers and practitioners. For determining and scaling the consumer behaviors, many

methods had been developed. To attract consumers to their products firms often use these

methods. While conducting a research regarding the issue planned to clarify in the field of

consumer behavior, first exploring the personality of customers in order to understand the

main behavioral patterns of them is essential and besides it would be really helpful to

predict the steps of the customers in advance.

CHAPTER.2.

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Market Segmentation (www.NetMBA.com)

Consumer diversity is increasing rapidly and firms have desires to differentiate their

products relative to competitors. When it comes to marketing strategies, most people

spontaneously think of 4Ps (Product, Price, Place, Promotion) – maybe extended by three

more Ps for marketing services (People, Processes, Physical Evidence).

Market segmentation and the identification of target markets, however, are important

elements of each marketing strategy. They are the basis for determining any particular

marketing mix. Literature suggests the following steps:

The importance of market segmentation results from the fact that the buyers of a product or

a service are no homogenous group. Actually, every buyer has individual needs,

preferences, resources and behaviors. Since it is virtually impossible to cater for every

customer’s individual characteristics, marketers group customers into various market

segments by variables they have in common. These common characteristics allow

developing a standardized marketing mix for all customers in each segment.

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2.1.1. Definition

Market segmentation is the segmentation of markets into homogenous groups of

customers, each of them reacting differently to promotion, communication, pricing and

other variables of the marketing mix. Market segments should be formed in a way that

differences between buyers within each segment are as small as possible. Thus, every

segment can be addressed with an individually targeted marketing mix.

2.1.2. Criteria for market segmentation

There are a huge number of variables that could be used for market segmentation in theory.

They include demographic factors as well as variables on user behavior or customer

preferences. In addition, there are differences between private customers and businesses.

Below is the classification of the most important traditional variables for market

segmentation for consumer markets

Geographic factors:

� Land or region

� Rural or metropolitan area

Demographic factors:

� Age, sex, marital status

� Income, occupation, education

� Religion, nationality, ethnical group

Psychographic factors:

� Social status

� Lifestyle-type

� Personal type

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Behavioral factors:

� Intensity of product use

� Brand loyalty

� User behaviors

2.1.3. Reasons for market segmentation

As already stated, segmentation is the basis for developing targeted and effective

marketing plans. Furthermore, analysis of market segments enables decisions about

intensity of marketing activities in particular segments.

A segment-orientated marketing approach generally offers a range of advantages for both,

businesses and customers:

Better serving customers needs and wants

It is possible to satisfy a variety of customer needs with a limited product range by using

different forms, bundles, incentives and promotional activities. The computer manufacturer

Dell, for instance, does not organize its website by product groups (desktops, notebooks,

servers, printers etc), but by customer groups (privates, small businesses, large businesses,

public/state organizations). They offer the same products to all customer groups.

Nevertheless, they suggest product bundles and supporting services that are individually

tailored for the needs of each particular group. As an example, Dell offers to take on all IT-

administration for companies. This service provides a huge potential for savings for

corporate customers. However, it would be absolutely useless for private customers. Thus,

segment-specific product bundles increase chances for cross selling.

Higher profits

It is often difficult to increase prices for the whole market. Nevertheless, it is possible to

develop premium segments in which customers accept a higher price level. Such segments

could be distinguished from the mass market by features like additional services, exclusive

points of sale, product variations and the like. A typical segment-based price variation is by

region. The generally higher price level in big cities is evidence for this.

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When differentiating prices by segments, organizations have to take care that there is no

chance for cannibalization between high-priced products with high margins and budget

offers in different segments. This risk is the higher, the less distinguished the segments are.

Opportunities for growth

Targeted marketing plans for particular segments allow to approach customer groups that

otherwise would look out for specialized niche players. By segmenting markets,

organizations can create their own ‘niche products’ and thus attract additional customer

groups.

Moreover, a segmentation strategy that is based on customer loyalty offers the chance to

attract new customers with starter products and to move these customers on to premium

products.

Sustainable customer relationships in all phases of customer life cycle

Customers change their preferences and patterns of behavior over time. Organizations that

serve different segments along a customer’s life cycle can guide their customers from stage

to stage by offering them a special solution for their particular needs.

For example, many car manufacturers offer a product range that caters for the needs of all

phases of a customer life cycle: first car for early teens, fun-car for young professionals,

family car for young families, etc. Skin care cosmetics brands often offer special series for

babies, teens, normal skin, and elder skin.

Targeted communication

It is necessary to communicate in a segment-specific way even if product features and

brand identity are identical in all market segments. Such a targeted communications allows

stressing those criteria that are most relevant for each particular segment (e.g. price vs.

reliability vs. prestige).

Stimulating Innovation

An undifferentiated marketing strategy that targets at all customers in the total market

necessarily reduces customers’ preferences to the smallest common basis.

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Segmentations provide information about smaller units in the total market that share

specific needs. Only the identification of these needs enables a planned development of

new or improved products that better meet the wishes of these customer groups. If a

product meets and exceeds a customer’s expectations by adding superior value, the

customers normally is willing to pay a higher price for that product. Thus, profit margins

and profitability of the innovating organizations increase.

Higher market shares

In contrast to an undifferentiated marketing strategy, segmentation supports the

development of niche strategies. Thus marketing activities can be targeted at highly

attractive market segments in the beginning. Market leadership in selected segments

improves the competitive position of the whole organization in its relationship with

suppliers, channel partners and customers. It strengthens the brand and ensures

profitability. On that basis, organizations have better chances to increase their market

shares in the overall market.

Therefore, all these advantages make market segmentation one of the essential tasks in

strategic marketing.

2.1.4. Market segmentation is the basis for customer orientation and differentiation

It is well known that suppliers in mass markets mostly compete on price. Demand for

those products that are clearly differentiated from competition and that offer a particular

value to customers do has lower price elasticity; hence, only those products can sustain a

higher price level and higher margins. The precondition for providing such value added is

detailed knowledge about customers’ preferences. These preferences will probably diverse

in the total market, but somehow homogenous within distinguishable segments.

2.2. Personality and Psychographic Market Segmentation

Consuming is a process directed by marketing strategies which is based on individuals.

Conditioned by the broader social environment at various levels (such as family, school,

and organization), people nevertheless exert their personality traits or individual

preferences. The concept of personality has been called one of the "great" topics of

behavioral sciences (Wilkie, 1986). Thinking on commonality among hundreds of different

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definitions, personality can best be defined as an individual's consistency in behaviors and

reactions to events.

(Kassarjian and Sheffet, 1991) counted over 200 articles on personality in the marketing

literature. Most of these focus almost exclusively on consumer behavior and employ

popular tests such as the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS), Horney's CAD

Scale, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), etc. In general, there has

been a mild response to the use of personality tests in consumer behavior studies. This is

probably due to the inability of personality tests to consistently predict brand and product

preferences. (Wilkie, 1986) concludes that although personality does not dominate all other

factors that bear on consumer behavior, it does exert an influence in decision making (See

Appendix 1.1). Given the face-to-face nature of most buyer-seller encounters, we believe

that personality tests will have a greater applicability in understanding such interactions

than they do in predicting brand preferences.

Most research on personality variables in personal selling looks at the relationship between

salesperson’s personality and job performance (Aaker and Bagozzi, 1979; Bagozzi 1978;

Churchill et al., 1979). Buyer-seller similarity along dimensions involving personality and

demographics has also been a topic of considerable interest to researchers in marketing

(Churchill et al., 1975). The findings so far have been inconclusive. More effort is needed

toward a better understanding of the impact of buyer-seller similarity on the outcome of a

sales transaction.

Research in social psychology suggests that personality dimensions significantly affect the

effectiveness and outcome of consumer behavior (Padgett and Wolosin, 1980). Individual

personality exerts a significant influence on both consuming behavior and the style of

dyadic interactions between buyer and seller (Kroeger and Thuesen, 1988).

Philip Kotler (1989) dramatically predicted the fragmentation of market segments by

stressing that even the term "market segments" will become obsolete. He stated that

segmentation will progress to the era of mass customization where the product can be

tailored down to the individual customer (Kotler, 1989). Caterpillar, Inc. currently

customizes 70% of its machines to suit the needs of individual customers. Caterpillar's

competitor, Natsushita, acknowledges that in the future, the mass market is the individual.

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In a true "pull" economy or "pull" market, the product is “made to the order" of the

consumer (Robert, 1992).

Barich and Kotler (1991) admonish that in order to reach the individual consumer, it now

becomes imperative for organizations to understand their target customers' needs, attitudes,

values and buying behavior (Barich and Kotler, 1991).

Kotler (1992) clarifies that if a marketer really understands the needs, attitudes, values and

buying behavior of the customer then the communication message can be structured in

such a way that it is favorably received by the intended target customer. This favorable

reception of the marketing message is the first step toward building a "relationship" with

the consumer (Kotler, 1992).

The direct marketing industry, like many industries in the developed Western world, is

undergoing great change. It is predicted that the direct marketing industry will experience

more change in the next 6 years than it has in the last 60 years (Alonzo, 1994).

Brandstatter (1993), states that the development and change of socio-economic systems is

very much dependent on the frequency distribution of personality structures in the social

system and on the proper matching of role structures and personality structures

(Brandstatter, 1993).

He further emphasizes that personality measures are based upon the assumptions that

people who share a certain personality structure (i.e. a pattern of personality

characteristics) communicate and respond in a somewhat similar manner to stimuli in their

environment. This communication and response is noticeably different from the

communication and response of people with differing personality structures. Thus the

same message, event or communication can be perceived by two persons in a quite

different manner (Brandstatter, 1993).

Data collected from a relatively large representative sample (N=1050) of West German

households indicated clear relationships between personality types and their way of

dealing with money. Demographic and psychographic factors such as age, sex, education

and income level made less of a difference in the reported saving behavior than personality

(Brandstatter, 1993).

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Sampson (1992) emphatically states that a major problem with lifestyle and value-based

segmentation systems is that they are too general to be of great use. Furthermore, they do

not point clearly to what actions should be taken (Sampson, 1992).

The current popularity of intermediaries, specializing in the field of values and lifestyle

(VALS) segmentation suggests a renewed interest by marketers in the area of segmentation

by personality differences ( Del Valle and Berry, 1994; McBride and Cline, 1988). Some

of the criticism regarding the generality or lack of specificity of the VALS typology may

be attributable to the application of demographics, such as zip codes, as measures of

internal values rather than keeping the principal focus upon the behavioral concept

(McBride and Cline, 1988).

Although personality can provide insights into lifestyle elements (Harrell, 1986),

personality itself "is more deep-seated than lifestyle since personality variables reflect

consistent, enduring patterns of behavior" (Assael, and Poltrack, 1994). Kotler (1986)

suggests that personality can be a useful variable for analyzing consumer behavior,

provided that personality types can be classified and that strong compatibility exists

between personality types and product or brand choices (Kotler, 1986, p. 171).

McBride, Cline and Miller (1987) agree with Rotter's perspective but insist that the concept

of personality must be expanded from relationships between individuals and products to

interrelationships among individuals, products and the communication messages which

form the linkage (McBride, Cline and Miller, 1987). McBride, et al. (1988) admonished

practitioners to conduct research toward development of a psychological type congruence

for advertisers with emphasis upon the message. Their address focused upon a six step

approach to the message analysis process: (1) a conflict between a receiver's perception of

an object's intrinsic or positioned type and a persuader's portrayal of that object as a

different type creates an imbalance in the receiver. (2) a receiver prefers a presentation

where an object's type is congruent with one's own perception of that object's type. (3) each

major part of a message delivers a cue as to the type of the product as it is portrayed. (4)

the cue enters one's cognitive system and reacts with a previous categorization. (5) if a

categorization does not exist, the receiver creates one based upon the cue. (6) when conflict

occurs, the receiver must reduce dissonance by examining other elements for cues

consistent with one's own categorization, considering any congruent cue as dominant,

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changing one's own categorization of the product, rejecting the product, or ignoring the

message outright (McBride and Cline, 1988; McBride, Cline and Miller, 1987).

Taylor, Krajewski and Darling (1993) postulate that employing behavioral segmentation

techniques, both in the identification of the targeted market segments as well as in the

formulation of the correct communication message, can offer new and potentially effective

means of enhancing direct mail response. They advocate the need for further research and

refinement of behavioral style segmentation as a new and unique opportunity for the

development of innovative marketing and communication strategies (Taylor, Krajewski

and Darling, 1993, p. 52).

Sampson (1992) proposes that an eighth category should be added to Rotter's

comprehensive listing of market segmentation variables:

1. Geographic, 2.Demographics, including lifestyle/lifestage, 3. Psychographics, including

lifestyle, attitudes, values, 4. Benefits, 5. Usage rate (consumption), 6. Price, 7. Product

space (product attributes/imagery) (Kotler, 1994).

This eighth category, psychological segmentation by behavioral type, has the power to

explain exactly why different segments purchase different brands of merchandise

(Sampson, 1992). To achieve psychological segmentation, he stresses the correct approach

is one of appropriate qualitative research leading to hypothesized psychological segments

that are then validated (Sampson, 1992).

2.3. Personality Theories Utilized in Psychographic Market Segmentation

The past two decades, especially the last five years, have been exciting times in the field of

consumer behavior. New data, theories, relationships, and models have been received with

such enthusiasm that, in fact, a new field of scientific inquiry has developed. Studies such

as consumer economics, rural sociology, social and mathematical psychology, social

anthropology, and political science have been so churned and milled that from their

amorphous mass the study of consumer behavior has become a relatively well delineated

scientific discipline.

One of the more engrossing concepts in the study of consumer behavior is that of

personality. Purchasing behavior, media choice, innovation, segmentation, fear, social

11

influence, product choice, opinion leadership, risk taking, attitude change, and almost

anything else one can think of have been linked to personality. The purpose of this article

is to review the literature of consumer behavior and organize its contributions around the

theoretical stems from which it grows.

Unfortunately, analysts do not agree on any general definition of the term "personality,"

except to somehow tie it to the concept of consistent responses to the world of stimuli

surrounding the individual. Man does tend to be consistent in coping with his environment.

This consistency of response allows us to type politicians as charismatic or obnoxious,

students as aggressive or submissive, and colleagues as charming or "blah." Since

individuals do react fairly consistently in a variety of environmental situations, these

generalized patterns of response or modes of coping with the world can be called

personality.

Personality, or better yet, the inferred hypothetical constructs relating to certain persistent

qualities in human behavior, have fascinated both laymen and scholars for many centuries.

The study of the relationship between behavior and personality has a most impressive

history, ranging back to the earliest writings of the Chinese and Egyptians, Hippocrates,

and some of the great European philosophers. In the fields of marketing and consumer

behavior, the work in personality dates from Sigmund Freud and his popularizes in the

commercial world, and the motivation researchers of the post-World War II era

(Kassarjian, 1986).

2.3.1. Freud and psychoanalytic theory

The psychoanalytic theories and philosophies of Freud have influenced not only

psychology but also literature, social science, and medicine, as well as marketing. Freud

stressed the unconscious nature of personality and motivation and said that much, if not all,

behavior is related to the stresses within the personality system. The personality's three

interacting sets of forces, the id, ego, and superego, interact to produce behavior.

According to Freudian theory, the id is the source of all driving psychic energy, but its

unrestrained impulses cannot be expressed without running afoul of society's values. The

superego is the internal representative of the traditional values and can be conceptualized

as the moral arm of personality. The manner in which the ego guides the libidinal energies

12

of the id and the moralistic demands of the superego accounts for the rich variety of

personalities, interests, motives, attitudes, and behavior patterns of people. It accounts for

the purchase of a four-door sedan rather than a racy sports car, the adoption of a miniskirt,

and the use of Ultra-Brite toothpaste (with its promise of sex appeal) as a substitute for the

rental of a motel room. The tools of the ego are defenses such as rationalization, projection,

identification, and repression; its goals are integrated action.

Freud further believed that the child passes through various stages of development—the

oral, anal, phallic, and genital periods—that determine the dynamics of his personality. The

degree of tension, frustration, and love at these stages leads to his adult personality and

behavior.

The influence of Freud and psychoanalytic theory cannot be overestimated. Most of the

greatest names in psychiatry and psychology have been followers, disciples, or critics of

Freud, much as many good marketing research studies have been criticisms of motivation

researchers or experiments applying scientific procedures to motivation research. The work

of Sidney Levy, Burleigh Gardner and Lee Rainwater, some of the projects of Martineau,

and the proprietary studies of Social Research, Inc., are in the latter tradition. Although

today the critics of psychoanalytic applications to consumer behavior far outweigh the

adherents, Freud and his critics have contributed much to advances in marketing theory.

2.3.2. Neo-Freudian social theorists

In his lifetime, several members of Freud's inner ring became disillusioned with his

insistence on the biological basis of personality and began to develop their own views and

their own followers. Alfred Adler, for example, felt that the basic drive of man is not the

channelization of the libido, but rather a striving for superiority. The basic aim of life, he

reasoned, is to overcome feelings of inferiority imposed during childhood. Occupations

and spouses are selected, homes purchased, and automobiles owned in the effort to perfect

the self and feel less inferior to others.

Eric Fromm stressed man's loneliness in society and his seeking of love, brotherliness, and

security. The search for satisfying human relationships is of central focus to behavior and

motivations.

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Karen Homey, also one of the neo-Freudian social theorists, reacted against theories of the

biological libido, as did Adler, but felt that childhood insecurities stemming from parent-

child relationships create basic anxieties and that the personality is developed as the

individual learns to cope with his anxieties.

Although these and other neo-Freudians have influenced the work of motivation

researchers, they have had minimal impact on research on consumer behavior. However,

much of their theorizing can be seen in advertising today, which exploits the striving for

superiority and the needs for love, security, and escape from loneliness to sell toothpaste,

deodorants, cigarettes, and even detergents.

The only research in consumer behavior based directly on a neo-Freudian approach is

Cohen's psychological test that purports to measure Horney's three basic orientations

toward coping with anxiety—the compliant, aggressive, and detached types (Cohen,

1967). Cohen found that compliant types prefer brand names and use more mouthwash and

toilet soaps; aggressive types tend to use a razor rather than an electric shaver, use more

cologne and after-shave lotion, and buy Old Spice deodorant and Van Heusen shirts; and

detached types seem to be least aware of brands. Cohen, however, admitted to picking and

choosing from his data, and although the published results are by no means conclusive, his

work does indicate that the Horney typology may have some relevance to marketing.

Several follow-up studies using his instruments are unpublished to date.

2.3.2.1. Karen Horney’s CAD scale

Theoretical Base

Karen Horney (1885-1952) was born and educated in Germany; she practiced

psychoanalysis in both Europe and the United States. She appreciated the value of psycho-

analysis "long before an antagonistic medical world accepted it" (Martin, 1975). Freud's

radically new ideas had brought hope to millions of sufferers from mental and emotional

illness that previously had been ostracized and stigmatized as evil and crazy. Horney was

very much a part of this enlightenment movement. However, Horney believed that Freud

overemphasized sex-she believed that sexual desires represented only one of many desires

an individual might hide. She never turned her back on Freud's ideas, but was one of the

first to deviate from his theories, particularly his belief that we were victims of our inborn

14

instincts and our physiological constitution. She broke away from Freud's rigid orthodoxy

and his fixed belief in determinism. Her work led her to believe that the key determinant of

behavior is neurotic anxiety caused by a child's feelings of isolation and helplessness in a

potentially hostile world (Horney, 1945). She emphasized the powerful formative role of

culture in our development, declaring that culture creates conflicts, problems, and

pressures that force many individuals to adapt in self-defeating ways. Her most radical

break with Freud and most of the philosophers of her time centered around her belief that

each of us has the inborn capacity to make choices and to change our way of life, i.e., she

viewed individuals primarily as being in possession of their instincts rather than being

possessed by them (Martin, 1975).

As Horney has observed in her works, there are three basic ways in which an individual

may relate himself to others. . He may:

a. move toward people—indicating a need for love, affection, and approval

b. move against people—indicating a need for power and exploitation of others

c. move away from people—indicating a need for self-sufficiency, independence, and

un-assailability. (Horney, 1945)

Rosenberg (1957) further explains the typology by describing the compliant type as being

particularly concerned with approval, acceptance, warmth, and support. He stated that the

compliant person "likes everyone, is anxious to please them, is willing to be dominated is

reluctant to dominate others" (p. 42). The aggressive type, he says, is concerned with

mastery, control, domination, and conquest in the external world. He or she is intent on

being "successful (rather than independent or well liked), . . . (and on) giving orders to

other people" (p. 43). The detached type is typified by an emotional distance from others;

tending to be deeply concerned with his/her independence and the expression of his/her

individuality. Rosenberg would characterize persons as detached if they were concerned

with being "independent (rather than successful or well-liked), . . . were bothered at being

given orders by others, considered it relatively unimportant for them to be well liked by

different kinds of people, and . . . preferred to make decisions themselves rather than

having others make the decisions" (p. 42).

15

Cohen (1966) addresses the question of combinations of interpersonal trends. Certain

combinations of tendencies do occur in people, of course, and may make a description

such as "aggressive-detached" suitable. However, Cohen maintains that certain tactics may

be used to achieve a more basic strategy, that strategy being the predominant classificatory

one.

The predominant attitude is the one that most strongly determines actual conduct. It

represents those "ways and means of coping with others in which the particular person

feels most at home" (Horney, 1945).

Horney believed that parents' actions play a major role in personality development.

Through the amount of security they provide is determined the amount of basic anxiety

that will develop (Horney, 1945). By rewarding or punishing a child's tactics, parents (and

other important people) determine the strategy the child will adopt to cope with the anxiety

he/she experiences.

DeRosis (1975) said this of Horney's theory:

Karen Horney has given us a rare, beautiful, and important gift. Her psychoanalytic theory

contributes enormously to the humanizing process. It recognizes the fact that the human

condition is much more than a series of biological instinctual patterns. Through her theory

we perceive our species in its myriad unique richness. We are helped to understand

ourselves relative to the time and place we live in. We come to understand the effects of

culture on our lives and how we in turn contribute to and change our culture. Throughout

the process, her therapy helps us to view ourselves and our fellows with both compassion

and optimism. She contributes to a philosophy that helps to free us from sexual prejudice,

self-hate, and destructive cynicism.

Relation to Consumer Behavior

According to Cohen (1966), the "rationale behind applying any theory of human behavior

to specific aspects of consumer behavior is that the latter behavior is a subset of the

former" (p. 52). In theory should apply to consumer behavior in the areas of consumer

behavior where interpersonal needs play a significant role. Not all consumer decisions

reflect an interpersonal base, but a large proportion of consumer decisions are affected by

16

the person's basic interpersonal disposition.

Although few studies have been undertaken involving the Homey tripartite model, a few

have reached the published literature. Rosenberg (1957) used the Horney system to predict

selection of occupational values and in his discussion states that the results "appear.suf-

ficiently suggestive to indicate that the way a person characteristically relates to others will

influence the type of career he selects".

Sheldon (1944), in a project covering a period of ten years, selected 50 personality traits

for study and formed clusters of traits based upon positive correlations of .60 with other

traits in the cluster and negative correlations of .30 with all traits in other clusters. From

these groupings, three major clusters emerged, correlating in great degree to Horney's

interpersonal types of compliant, aggressive, and detached.

Cohen (1966) performed an extensive study of the relationship of the Horney interpersonal

model to consumer behavior in which he found significant differences among compliant,

aggressive, and detached individuals in their product and brand choices.

2.3.3. Stimulus-response theories

The stimulus-response or learning theory approach to personality presents perhaps the

most elegant view, with a respected history of research and laboratory experimentation

supporting it. Its origins are in the work of Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, Spence, Hull, and

the Institute of Human Relations at Yale University. Although the various theorists differ

among themselves, there is agreement that the link between stimulus and response is

persistent and relatively stable. Personality is seen as a conglomerate of habitual responses

acquired over time to specific and generalized cues. The bulk of theorizing and empirical

research has been concerned with specifying conditions under which habits are formed,

changed, replaced, or broken.

A drive leads to a response to a particular stimulus, and if the response is reinforced or

rewarded, a particular habit is learned. Unrewarded and inappropriate responses are

extinguished or eliminated. Complex behavior such as consumer decision processes is

learned in a similar manner.

According to Dollard and Miller, a drive is a stimulus strong enough to impel activity; it

17

energizes behavior but, by itself, does not direct it. Any stimulus may become a drive if it

reaches sufficient intensity (Hall and Gardner, 1969). Some stimuli are linked to the

physiological processes necessary for the survival of the individual, others are secondary

or acquired. With the concepts of cues, drives, responses, and reinforcement, complex

motives such as the need for achievement or self-esteem are learned in the same manner as

brand preference, racism, attitudes towards big business, purchasing habits, or dislike of

canned spinach.

Marketing is replete with examples of the influence of learning theory, ranging from

Krugman's work to the Yale studies on attitudes and attitude change, from lightweight

discussions on the influence of repetition and reinforcement in advertising texts to Howard

and Sheth's buyer behavior theory and the work in mathematical models. However, very

few personality studies have used this theoretical orientation.

The reason for the lack of impact is probably that personality tests and measuring

instruments using this theoretical base do not exist. Typically, clinical psychologists have

developed measuring instruments, but until this past decade clinicians were not trained

directly in learning theory. Recently, however, behavior modification based on the work of

Skinner has become a psychotherapeutic technique. Many clinical psychologists are

turning to learning theory for guidelines in the treatment of abnormality. Unfortunately,

they do not seem to be predisposed to create psychological tests to measure personality in

line with their definitions, but are more concerned with behavioral change. Until such

instruments are developed there will be little use of these theories in relating consumer

behavior to personality, irrespective of their completeness and extreme relevance.

2.3.4. Trait and factor theories

As learning theory approaches to personality have evolved from the tough-minded

empirical experimentation of the animal laboratories, factor theories have evolved from the

quantitative sophistication of statistical techniques and computer technology. The core of

these theories is that personality is composed of a set of traits or factors, some general and

others specific to a particular situation or test. In constructing a personality instrument, the

theorist typically begins with a wide array of behavioral measures, mostly responses to test

items, and with statistical techniques distills factors which are then defined as the

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personality variables.

For one large group of personality instruments the researcher begins with the intent to

measure certain variables, for example, need for achievement or aggressiveness. Large

samples of subjects predetermined as aggressive or not aggressive (say, by ratings from

teachers and employers) are given the instrument. Each item is statistically analyzed to see

if it discriminates aggressive from nonaggressive subjects. By a series of such distilling

measures and additional validation and reliability studies, an instrument is produced which

measures traits the researcher originally was attempting to gauge. Several of these

variables are often embodied in, for example, a single 200-item instrument.

A second type of personality instrument is created not with theoretically predetermined

variables in mind, but rather to identify a few items (by factor analysis) which account for

a significant portion of the variance. Subjects are given questionnaires, ratings, or tests on a

wide variety of topics, and test items are grouped in the factor analysis by how well they

measure the same statistical factor. The meaning of a particular factor is thus empirically

determined and a label arbitrarily attached to it that hopefully best describes what the

researcher presumes the particular subset of items measures. Further reliability and

validation measures lead to creation of a test instrument with several variables that

accounts for the diversity and complexity of behavior. The theoretical structure is

statistical and the variables are empirically determined and creatively named or labeled.

The concept of traits, factors, or variables that can be quantitatively measured has led to

virtually hundreds of personality scales and dozens of studies in consumer behavior.

Instruments of this type are discussed below.

2.3.5. Personality and understanding consumer diversity

Marketers are interested in understanding how personality influences consumption

behavior because such knowledge enables them to better understand consumers and to

segment and target those consumers who are likely to respond positively to their product or

service communications. Several specific personality traits that provide insights about

consumer behavior are examined next.

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2.3.5.1. Consumer innovativeness

Innovativeness is an individual difference variable that describes reactions to the new and

different. These reactions range from a very positive attitude toward change to a very

negative attitude. Across the population, these predispositions are hypothesized to follow a

bell-shaped normal distribution (Rogers 1995). Innovativeness, however, may manifest

itself at different levels of generality/specificity or abstraction/breadth (Clark and Watson

1995). Thus, there is a general innovation component included in trait theories of

personality describing general reactions to the environment. For example, the Five Factor

Model of Personality contains a trait called "openness to experience," which has been

described as "how willing people are to make adjustments in notions and activities in

accordance with new ideas or situations" (Popkins 1998).

Innovativeness also can be conceptualized at a lower level of abstraction/breadth as

innovative consumer behavior or early adoption of new products and services (Dowling

1999). This was the prevailing view in many early discussions of consumer innovativeness

where it was thought that innovative consumers were innovative across a wide range of

goods and services, i.e., they were innovators in general. Consumer behavior texts contain

summaries of the correlates of consumer innovativeness at this level of abstraction and

marketers often still view it this way (Zandl and Leonard 1992).

(Goldsmith and Hofacker, 1991) conceptualized and measured consumer innovativeness at

the product category level, describing domain specific innovativeness. Goldsmith showed

these levels of generality/specificity are related hierarchically, with each type of

innovativeness influencing buyer behavior, but with domain specific innovativeness more

strongly influencing innovative purchasing within a specific product category. The present

study focused on consumer innovativeness at the mid-level of buyer behavior, general

consumer innovativeness, in between the most abstract personality level ( Mooradian and

Olver 1996) and the most specific product category level. This conceptualizes

innovativeness at the same level of abstraction as the market maven. Consumer

innovativeness is hypothesized to be associated with several types of consumer

characteristics and behaviors including socioeconomic, personality, and communication

variables. In particular, domain specific innovativeness has been shown to be positively

correlated with opinion leadership for, time spent with, and money spent on new products

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across several product categories

2.3.5.2. Market mavenism

(Feick and Price, 1987) first described the market maven concept. These consumers are

very involved in the marketplace. They are exposed to a variety of media where they seek

out and acquire information about products, services, stores, and shopping and buying in

general. Thus, they are quite knowledgeable about shopping and buying and are eager to

share their expertise/opinions with other consumers, who often request information from

them. Previous research has shown market mavens to be heavier users of coupons, they

have larger evoked sets (Elliott and Warfield 1993), and are more interested in smart

buying (Slama, Nataraajan, and Williams 1992) than non-mavens. There is no consensus

regarding any demographic variables that distinguish market mavens from other

consumers. They are better described psychographically by their interest in and

involvement with the marketplace. The characteristics of the market maven suggest that

they tend to be opinion leaders and exhibit some of the same marketplace behaviors as

consumer innovators do. Moreover, market mavens in Germany share some of the same

traits as their US counterparts (Walsh and Mitchell, 2000). Consumers high in the market

maven trait will likely share characteristics with those high in innovativeness, and vice

versa.

While many characteristics of market mavens (greater opinion leadership, more time spent

with media) closely parallel those of innovators and opinion leaders, there are some

differences. Feick and Price (1987) found US mavens to be more likely to be minority,

female, and to have a lower educational level than non-mavens.

2.4. Consumer Motivation and Psychographic Market Segmentation

In a general sense, motivation is "an internal energizing force that orients a

person's activities toward satisfying needs or achieving goals affects…. the direction and

intensity of behavior….[and conversely, may] create barriers to goal achievement" (Pride

& Ferrell, 2003). Others see it as an unobservable internal energy affecting a behavioral

response includes arousal, drive, and direction. Motivation explains why humans do what

they do; it provides a reason for a behavior. Given these thoughts, it is understandable why

there are a number of motivation theories that shed light on buyer behavior and the

21

decision process (Hawkins et al., 2001). The critical point is that motivation is an all-

pervading internal psychological force that not only helps initiate behavior, but one that

also drives and directs behavior to some end response. Where emotion is involved in the

process, the motivated goal-oriented or goal-seeking behavior may carry a valenced state

may affect the process, the outcome, or future stimulus-based action (Cohen and Areni,

1991).

In looking at its derivation, for some scholars, motivation comes from a hierarchy of needs,

ever present and replaced by other needs on the hierarchy once lower needs are met.

Consumers are constantly being motivated by internal and/or external stimuli to do

something for themselves or those around them. Some people push themselves to even

higher levels of need gratification, ultimately to self-actualization, at the top of the

pyramid, producing more desirable subjective results, i.e. more profound happiness,

serenity, and richness of the inner life (Maslow, 1948).

One of the extensions of this theory is achievement motivation which is the result of two

opposing tendencies as a multiplicative function of the motivation to achieve or not

achieve success (or more simply, task completion or noncompletion). Even in terms of

Freudian theory, there are more types of motivation than just sexual motivation, where all

motivations are "ego instincts related to self-preservation and molded to conform to

reality.... [and are] important determinants of man's behavior in his requirement for an

orderly and coherent view of his relations to his world" (Deutsch and Krauss, 1965).

The Atkinson-McClelland model further demonstrates the achievement motivation concept

by showing that in the course of socialization people acquire two achievement-related

emotion-tagged motives: the motives (pride and/or self-satisfaction) to achieve success and

the motives (shame and/or rejection) to avoid failure. When applied to product

consumption, motivation becomes a "strong driving force resulting from some underlying

process of interaction that specifically leads a consumer toward brand X more than toward

any other brand”. Basic needs are innate; they motivate us to survive. Eventually, all

humans develop a hierarchy of needs which guides their motivation to consume beyond

basic survival as they come of age, are educated, and perhaps become more sophisticated

to levels of need fulfillment and the products that can satisfy those needs.

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Building on recent psychological research, McGuire (1976) details sixteen basic human

motives as aspects of human personality which may be generalized into cognitive and

affective components, with response behavior as an outcome. The cognitive-directed

motives include the need for environmental orientation and for deriving some sense of

meaning from that orientation. Affective-directed motives include emotional balance

and/or goals of tension-reduction, autonomy, consistency, assertion, reinforcement, and

modeling.

More specifically, both the cognitive-directed and the affective-directed motivational

generalizations can be decomposed into twelve critical needs. These needs are the need to

categorize, the need for cues, the need for independence, the need for self-expression, the

need for ego-defense, the need for reinforcement, the need for affiliation, the need for

modeling, the need for novelty, and the need for assertion (McGuire, 1976). The

fulfillment of these needs and the motivational force behind their attainment are seen in a

number of theories that believe humans are driven by both expectations and values in their

decision-making process leads to their force-directed choice of some action.

With further study of the motivation concepts, scholars are reassessing the conventional

wisdom of rational and social-normative motivation as being contradictory. This is in favor

of a more complex environment where the two forces may be more complementary than

not or in harmony with each other for some mutual interaction (Spencer, 2002). Numerous

examples exist of this complementary or harmonious environment emerging from the

effects of the combined rational and social-normative motivations, or as the tangible and

the intangible, or more importantly for consumer decision-making, as the emotional and

the attribute-based in disciplines inside and outside the traditional marketing environment.

Until recently, the main stream of thinking relative to consumer choice revolved around the

consideration of the category or brand attributes. In this context, given all the alternatives,

consumers will make rational choices based on some form of maximum utility (Meyer and

Kahn, 1991). Even Howard and Sheth (1991) saw motivation as attribute-based in their

model, reflecting the tangible needs of the buyer as shown by the choice features in a

category or specific product. Research on motivation, affective systems, and attitude

formation has progressed at the same time with attribute-based choice research, but these

activities have been in parallel rather than in integration. Perhaps if more had been done in

23

considering the benefits to the consumers of the attributes, more would have emerged in

considering and including the nontangible or emotional side of why people buy something.

Where it can be seen that the motivation to buy something is a tangibly-driven, attribute-

based force, it can now be seen that the buying motivation can also be a nontangible,

emotion-driven force, or as a combination of both. While it is beyond the scope of this

document to delve further into the motivational aspects of choice, more needs to be done in

this area to ensure consideration and inclusion of its inexorable effect in the choice

process. At the very least, consumers' motivation is a consciously or unconsciously innate,

undeniable force, derived from the consumers need to survive tags or marks every human

buying decision fix a drive to decide to consume or not consume.

The tagging is psychological and it would attach logically to consumers' internal influences

in the buying process. This is seen in category or product perceptions and attitudes and

more specifically in consumers' emotions and feelings of the attitudinal subset of the

affective system. There is some justification for the emotional tagging or marking, as seen

in the recent work regarding neural networks in the amygdala of the brain and the

pathways formed through the human reaction to the outside stimuli of emotional events

and their long term brain storage and recall ability.

Damasio's (1994) discovery of the presence and role of emotional neurobiological somatic

markers in the amygdala shows direct biological connection to emotional retention and

experience development in the brain. While more needs to be done here, it seems likely

that since motivation is linked to attitude, it can therefore manifest itself as part of a

conscious, rational, cognitive act as well as in a tagged or marked emotional response,

helping to form an attitude about a category or class of products or a brand itself. Scholars

may disagree which comes first and if there is indeed any order to motivation activating

emotion or vice versa. At the very least, Damasio's work is promising in showing the

physical existence of an emotional marking in the brain in response to external events. The

somatic marking then forms a physical, neural emotional connection to any attitudes

formed, now or in the future; where emotion will be shown, is an integral part of attitude in

the affective system.

As a result, the formation of a covariant duality of attitude and attribute, driven by

24

motivations in both areas, may begin to help explain some of the nontangible aspects of

buyer behavior and choice. What better way is there to help explain and integrate the

external and internal influences into a modem model of buyer behavior except through

such a duality, otherwise such influences would not be influences in reality. How else

would the nonproduct-specific attributes, or latent variables, surrounding emotion and

feeling for a brand be included in future discrete choice models, buyer behavior

explanations, and more precise, purchase predictions?

If the current discrete choice models were truly all encompassing, then they would be able

to completely explain and predict all consumer choice, at the discrete or at the aggregate

levels is not currently the situation. Some would say such as the proponents of maximum

utility theory that not all alternatives have been expressed empirically. Others would

counter that this is expressly why the nonproduct-specific alternatives or latent variables

must be studied further and definitely included in the empirical model.

While much is known regarding the choice process itself, some scholars still question what

is known about "how consumers 'decide to decide'" (Meyer & Kahn, 1991). Inclusion of

motivation and attitude in such models may be the way to better explain and predict such

behavior. However, more needs to be done with specific recognition and inclusion of all

the aspects of the various consumer motivations in these models is currently lacking. While

scaled survey response is one way of obtaining appropriate data for such efforts, the

"validity of direct self-reports of motivational forces for task performance levels" (Tubbs

& Trusty, 2001) may still be in question. As a result, other means of measurement may be

necessary, such as observational experiments in a laboratory setting.

Given this background, and understanding that motivational forces are at work in forming

consumer perceptions, possibly leading to specific individual brand attitudes, a review is

necessary of what constitutes consumer attitude and how it is formed. It is important to the

discrete choice discussion to find a precedent for and confirm its inclusion in the choice

process as a possible covariant or independent variable for the attribute-based models.

2.4.1. McClelland’s Model: trio of needs

American David Clarence McClelland (1917-98) achieved his doctorate in psychology at

Yale in 1941 and became professor at Wesleyan University. He then taught and lectured,

25

including a spell at Harvard from 1956, where with colleagues for twenty years he studied

particularly motivation and the achievement need. He began his McBer consultancy in

1963, helping industry assess and train staff, and later taught at Boston University, from

1987 until his death. McClelland is chiefly known for his work on achievement motivation,

but his research interests extended to personality and consciousness. David McClelland

pioneered workplace motivational thinking, developing achievement-based motivational

theory and models, and promoted improvements in employee assessment methods,

advocating competency-based assessments and tests, arguing them to be better than

traditional IQ and personality-based tests. His ideas have since been widely adopted in

many organizations, and relate closely to the theory of Frederick Herzberg.

David McClelland is most noted for describing three types of motivational need, which he

identified in his 1961 book, The Achieving Society:

• achievement motivation (n-ach)

• authority/power motivation (n-pow)

• affiliation motivation (n-affil)

These needs are found to varying degrees in all workers and managers, and this mix of

motivational needs characterizes a person's or manager's style and behavior, both in terms

of being motivated, and in the management and motivation others.

The need for achievement (n-ach)

The n-ach person is 'achievement motivated' and therefore seeks achievement, attainment

of realistic but challenging goals, and advancement in the job. There is a strong need for

feedback as to achievement and progress, and a need for a sense of accomplishment.

The need for authority and power (n-pow)

The n-pow person is 'authority motivated'. This driver produces a need to be influential,

effective and to make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to

prevail. There is also motivation and need towards increasing personal status and prestige.

26

The need for affiliation (n-affil)

The n-affil person is 'affiliation motivated', and has a need for friendly relationships and is

motivated towards interaction with other people. The affiliation driver produces motivation

and need to be liked and held in popular regard. These people are team players.

McClelland said that most people possess and exhibit a combination of these

characteristics. Some people exhibit a strong bias to a particular motivational need, and

this motivational or needs 'mix' consequently affects their behavior and working/managing

style. Mcclelland suggested that a strong n-affil 'affiliation-motivation' undermines a

manager's objectivity, because of their need to be liked, and that this affects a manager's

decision-making capability. A strong n-pow 'authority-motivation' will produce a

determined work ethic and commitment to the organization, and while n-pow people are

attracted to the leadership role, they may not possess the required flexibility and people-

centered skills. McClelland argues that n-ach people with strong 'achievement motivation'

make the best leaders, although there can be a tendency to demand too much of their staff

in the belief that they are all similarly and highly achievement-focused and results driven,

which of course most people are not.

McClelland's particular fascination was for achievement motivation, and this laboratory

experiment illustrates one aspect of his theory about the affect of achievement on people's

motivation. McClelland asserted via this experiment that while most people do not possess

a strong achievement-based motivation, those who do, display a consistent behavior in

setting goals:

Volunteers were asked to throw rings over pegs rather like the fairground game; no

distance was stipulated, and most people seemed to throw from arbitrary, random

distances, sometimes close, sometimes farther away. However a small group of volunteers,

whom McClelland suggested were strongly achievement-motivated, took some care to

measure and test distances to produce an ideal challenge - not too easy, and not impossible.

Interestingly a parallel exists in biology, known as the 'overload principle', which is

commonly applied to fitness and exercising, i.e., in order to develop fitness and/or strength

the exercise must be sufficiently demanding to increase existing levels, but not so

demanding as to cause damage or strain. McClelland identified the same need for a

27

'balanced challenge' in the approach of achievement-motivated people.

Interesting comparisons and relationships can be drawn between McClelland's motivation

types, and the characteristics defined in other behavioral models, eg:

John Adair's Action-Centered Leadership model: Achievement-motivated managers are

firmly focused on the Task, often to the detriment of the Individual and the Team.

Affiliation-motivation people are Team and Individual centered. (Note that John Adair's

Action-Centered leadership model is ©John Adair.)

Katherine Benziger's Thinking Styles model: Achievement-motivation is a double-frontal

brain mode style; affiliation-motivation is right basal (rear); authority-motivation is

arguably left basal (rear).

DISC (Inscape, Thomas International, etc) system: Achievement-motivated people are 'D'

profiles - results-driven, decisive, dominant, etc. Affiliation-motivated people are I

(proactive) and S (reactive) profiles. Authority-motivated people are S and C profiles.

Hersey/Blanchard's Situational Leadership® model: Achievement-motivated people tend

to favor the styles of the first and second modes ('telling' and 'selling'); affiliation-

motivated people tend to favor the third mode ('participating'); and the authority-motivated

people tend to favor the style of mode four ('delegating'). Please note that Situational

Leadership® is protected intellectual property: Situational Leadership® is a trademark of

the Centre for Leadership Studies. Situational Leadership II® is a trademark of The Ken

Blanchard Companies. Use of material relating to Situational Leadership® and/or

Situational Leadership II® requires license and agreement from the respective companies.

McGregor XY Theory: Achievement-motivated people tend towards X-Theory style, due to

their high task focus; there are plenty of exceptions however, and training definitely helps

the n-ach manager to see the value of employing Theory Y style. N-pow managers are

definitely Theory X. n-affil are typically Theory Y and if not can relatively easily be

trained to be so.

Herzberg motivators and hygiene factors: n-ach people are more responsive to the

Herzberg motivators (especially achievement obviously) than n-affil and n-pow people.

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2.5. Enneagram: Nine Perspectives of Life

2.5.1. Origin of Enneagram

The Enneagram is an ancient esoteric teaching that describes nine different personality

types. There is much debate as to the exact history, but it is known that it comes from

many different sources. There are also separate histories for the symbol of the Enneagram

and the personality system of the Enneagram. The symbol and the system only came

together in recent times to form what we now know as the Enneagram (Riso and Hudson,

1999).

The symbol is said to be ancient, but its exact origins are unknown. However, it is rooted

in Western tradition that gave rise to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (Riso and Hudson,

1999). The mathematical theories that gave rise to the symbol are rooted in classical Greek

thought as seen in the work of Pythagoras and Plato (Riso and Hudson, 1999).

The Enneagram symbol made its first public appearance in the West in Europe around the

turn of the 20th century through the teachings of G.L Gurdjieff (Palmer, 1988). Gurdjieff

teamed the system through oral teachings at an ancient mystical school. However,

Gurdjieif taught the Enneagram as a living symbol (Riso and Hudson, 1999).

The people generally credited for the Enneagram known today are the Chilean psychiatrist

Claudio Naranjo and his teacher Oscar Ichazo. Naranjo (2003) characterizes himself as the

Mother of the Enneagram and Ichazo as the Father. He believes he received the seed of the

Enneagram from Ichazo, and as the Mother gave birth to it. Naranjo also credits a Western

prophetic tradition that gave rise to the knowledge of the Enneagram as learned by Ichazo.

This group gave Ichazo a seed knowledge, and also influenced some of the founders of the

Sufi school that is commonly credited as the source.

Naranjo (2003) credits Ichazo with giving him the key to the system, but believes he

discovered the heart of it during a revelatory period in the Arica desert in Chile. Naranjo

then integrated the spiritual Enneagram with modem psychology and brought it to the

United States (Almaas, 1998). Ichazo credits Naranjo with "excellent psychological

insights into the passions and the fixations, and their relationship to the -entire psyche"

(Ichazo, 1998). Today, there are many important teachers who are adding to the body of

29

knowledge about the Enneagram, such as Helen Palmer (1988), David Daniels (2004),

Don Riso and Russ Hudson (1999), and A. H. Almaas (1998).

The Enneagram is said to reveal unconscious personality patterns that are habitual ways of

acting in the world. Knowledge of the patterns allows people to work with their fixated

ego concerns. However, the theory claims that the Enneagram goes beyond the level of the

personality. The Enneagram is part of a teaching tradition that views personality

preoccupations as teachers, or indicators of latent abilities that unfold during the

development of higher consciousness" (Palmer, 1988). According to theory, each

Enneagram point has an underlying Holy Idea that represents the true nature of reality

(Almaas, 1998). People are born in contact with one of the Holy Ideas. They slowly lose

their feeling of connection with their Holy Idea and replace it with their ego structure. The

ego is only an imitation of the Holy Idea. The Enneagram describes the nine different

personality styles that the ego takes on to replace this felt loss of contact with Essence. It is

believed that through working with the Enneagram fixation, people can reconnect with

their Holy Idea (Maitri, 2000).

The symbol of the Enneagram is a nine-pointed figure with a circle around it (Appendix

2.1). The Enneagram of personality has nine basic types. Each occupies one of the points

on the symbol. The Enneagram type is the primary way people filter their experience by

habitual patterns of attention (Palmer, 1988). (See Appendix 2.2).

2.5.2. Descriptions of the nine points

The following short descriptions of each of the nine points are based on Palmer's

descriptions (1988).

Point One: The Perfectionist

Perfectionists are convinced there is an absolute moral code. They follow the rules and feel

ethically superior. They focus their attention on the correct thing to be done rather than on

their own personal desire.

Point Two: The Helper

The Helper gives to others what they need in exchange for love, affection, and appreciation.

30

They can be genuinely caring and supportive.

Point Three: The Achiever

They seek to be loved for their achievements. They can be workaholics. They always present

a wonderful appearance and are very competitive.

Point Four: The Tragic Romantic

They are very sensitive and artistic. Fours like to live in the intensity of human experience

and feel special in their extreme ranges of feeling. They are attracted to the unavailable

lover.

Point Five: The Observer

Fives maintain emotional distance from others. They feel drained by other people's

needs. They are analytical and objective.

Point Six: The Devil's Advocate

Sixes are loyal and identify with the underdog. They question authority and are plagued by

fear. Phobic Sixes give in to their fear, whereas counter phobic Sixes go against their fear in

an aggressive way.

Point Seven: The Epicure

Sevens are eternally young and light-hearted. They like adventure. They are charming but

have a hard time with commitment.

Point Eight: The Boss

Eights are direct and assertive. They can be aggressive and controlling. They protect family

and friends. They are known for their excesses in food, sex, and drink.

Point Nine: The Mediator

Nines can see all points of view and have a hard time finding their own opinion. They

narcoticize their real feelings and desires through such distractions as food, TV, and drink.

They do not show direct anger and avoid confrontation.

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According to theory, knowledge of Enneagram type can help people navigate through their

inner realms (Palmer, 1988). The Enneagram helps to provide a map of the territory.

Similarly, by working with the Psychographic Segmentation researchers can have insight

into the consumers’ unconscious consumption-possession-personality traits.

2.5.3. Enneagram insight

2.5.3.1. Basic Enneagram personality type (www.enneagraminstitute.com)

From one point of view, the Enneagram can be seen as a set of nine distinct personality

types, with each number on the Enneagram denoting one type. It is common to find a little

of yourself in all nine of the types, although one of them should stand out as being closest to

oneself. This is the basic personality type.

Everyone emerges from childhood with one of the nine types dominating their personality,

with inborn temperament and other pre-natal factors being the main determinants of our

type. This is one area where most all of the major Enneagram authors agree—we all are

born with a dominant type. Subsequently, this inborn orientation largely determines the

ways in which we learn to adapt to our early childhood environment. It also seems to lead

to certain unconscious orientations toward our parental figures, but why this is so, we still

do not know. In any case, by the time children are four or five years old, their

consciousness has developed sufficiently to have a separate sense of self. Although their

identity is still very fluid, at this age children begin to establish themselves and find ways of

fitting into the world on their own.

Thus, the overall orientation of our personality reflects the totality of all childhood factors

(including genetics) that influenced its development.

Several more points can be made about the basic type itself.

• People do not change from one basic personality type to another.

• The descriptions of the personality types are universal and apply equally to males

and females, since no type is inherently masculine or feminine.

• Not everything in the description of your basic type will apply to you all the time

because you fluctuate constantly among the healthy, average, and unhealthy traits

32

that make up your personality type.

• The Enneagram uses numbers to designate each of the types because numbers are

value neutral— they imply the whole range of attitudes and behaviors of each type

without specifying anything either positive or negative. Unlike the labels used in

psychiatry, numbers provide an unbiased, shorthand way of indicating a lot about a

person without being pejorative.

• The numerical ranking of the types is not significant. A larger number is no better

than a smaller number; it is not better to be a Nine than a Two because nine is a

bigger number.

• No type is inherently better or worse than any other. While all the personality types

have unique assets and liabilities, some types are often more desirable than others in

any given culture or group. Furthermore, for one reason or another, you may not be

happy being a particular type. You may feel that your type is "handicapped" in some

way. As you learn more about all the types, you will see that just as each has unique

capacities, each has different limitations. If some types are more esteemed in

Western society than others, it is because of the qualities that society rewards, not

because of any superior value of those types. The ideal is to become your best self,

not to imitate the assets of another type.

2.5.3.2. The triads (www.enneagraminstitute.com)

The Enneagram is a 3 x 3 arrangement of nine personality types in three Triads. There are

three types in the Instinctive Triad, three in the Feeling Triad, and three in the Thinking

Triad, as shown below. Each Triad consists of three personality types that have in common

the assets and liabilities of that Triad. For example, personality type Four has unique

strengths and liabilities involving its feelings, which is why it is in the Feeling Triad.

Likewise, the Eight's assets and liabilities involve its relationship to its instinctual drives,

which is why it is in the Instinctive Triad, and so forth for all nine personality types. (See

Appendix 2.3)

The inclusion of each type in its Triad is not arbitrary. Each type results from a particular

relationship with a cluster of issues that characterize that Triad. Most simply, these issues

33

revolve around a powerful, largely unconscious emotional response to the loss of contact

with the core of the self. In the Instinctive Triad, the emotion is Anger or Rage. In the

Feeling Triad, the emotion is Shame, and in the Thinking Triad, it is Anxiety or Dread. Of

course, all nine types contain all three of these emotions, but in each Triad, the

personalities of the types are particularly affected by that Triad's emotional theme. (See

Appendix 2.4)

Thus, each type has a particular way of coping with the dominant emotion of its Triad. We

can briefly see what this means by examining each type, Triad by Triad.

In the Instinctive Triad, Eights act out their anger and instinctual energies. In other words,

when Eights feel anger building in them, they immediately respond to it in some physical

way, raising their voices, moving more forcefully. Others can clearly see that Eights are

angry because they give themselves permission to express their anger physically.

Nines deny their anger and instinctual energies as if to say, "What anger? I am not a person

who gets angry." Nines are the type most out of touch with their anger and instinctual

energies, often feeling threatened by them. Of course, Nines get angry like everyone else,

but try to stay out of their darker feelings by focusing on idealizations of their relationships

and their world.

Ones attempt to control or repress their anger and instinctual energy. They feel that they

must stay in control of themselves, especially of their instinctual impulses and angry

feelings at all times. They would like to direct these energies according to the dictates of

their highly developed inner critic (superego), the source of their strictures on themselves

and others.

In the Feeling Triad, Twos attempt to control their shame by getting other people to like

them and to think of them as good people. They also want to convince themselves that they

are good, loving people by focusing on their positive feelings for others while repressing

their negative feelings (such as anger and resentment at not being appreciated enough). As

long as Twos can get positive emotional responses from others, they feel wanted and are

able to control feelings of shame.

Threes try to deny their shame, and are potentially the most out of touch with underlying

34

feelings of inadequacy. Threes learn to cope with shame by trying to become what they

believe a valuable, successful person is like. Thus, Threes learn to perform well, to be

acceptable, even outstanding and are often driven relentlessly in their pursuit of success as

a way of staving off feelings of shame and fears of failure.

Fours attempt to control their shame by focusing on how unique and special their

particular talents, feelings, and personal characteristics are. Fours highlight their

individuality and creativity as a way of dealing with their shameful feelings, although

Fours are the type most likely to succumb to feelings of inadequacy. Fours also manage

their shame by cultivating a rich, romantic fantasy life in which they do not have to deal

with whatever in their life seems drab or uninteresting to them.

In the Thinking Triad, Fives have anxiety about the outer world and about their capacity to

cope with it. Thus, they cope with their fear by withdrawing from the world. Fives become

secretive, isolated loners who use their minds to penetrate into the nature of the world.

Fives hope that eventually, as they understand reality on their own terms, they will be able

to rejoin the world and participate in it, but they never feel they know enough to participate

with total confidence. Instead, they involve themselves with increasingly complex inner

worlds.

Sixes are the most anxious type, and the most out of touch with their own sense of inner

knowing and confidence. Unlike Fives, Sixes have trouble trusting their own minds, so

they are constantly looking outside themselves for something to make them feel sure of

themselves. They might turn to philosophies, beliefs, relationships, jobs, savings,

authorities, or any combination of the above. But no matter how many security structures

they create, Sixes still feel doubtful and anxious. They may even begin to doubt the very

people and beliefs that they have turned to for reassurance. Sixes may also respond to their

anxiety by impulsively confronting it— defying their fear in the effort to be free of it.

Sevens have anxiety about their inner world. There are feelings of pain, loss, deprivation,

and general anxiety that Sevens would like to stay clear of as much as possible. To cope

with these feelings, Sevens keep their minds occupied with exciting possibilities and

options— as long as they have something stimulating to anticipate, Sevens feel that they

can distract themselves from their fears. Sevens, in most cases, do not stop merely at

35

thinking about these options, however. As much as possible they attempt to actually do as

many of their options as they can. Thus, Sevens can be found staying on the go, pursuing

one experience after another, and keeping themselves entertained and engaged with their

many ideas and activities.

2.5.3.3. The wings (www.enneagraminstitute.com)

No one is a pure personality type: everyone is a unique mixture of his or her basic type and

usually one of the two types adjacent to it on the circumference of the Enneagram. One of

the two types adjacent to your basic type is called your wing.

Your basic type dominates your overall personality, while the wing complements it and

adds important, sometimes contradictory, elements to your total personality. Your wing is

the "second side" of your personality, and it must be taken into consideration to better

understand yourself or someone else. For example, if you are a personality type Nine, you

will have likely have either a One-wing or an Eight-wing, and your personality as a whole

can best be understood by considering the traits of the Nine as they uniquely blend with the

traits of either the One or the Eight. In our teaching experience over the years, we have also

encountered some individuals who seem to have both wings, while others are strongly

influenced by their basic type and show little of either wing.

There is disagreement among the various traditions of the Enneagram about whether

individuals have one or two wings. Strictly speaking, everyone has two wings—in the

restricted sense that both of the types adjacent to your basic type are operative in your

personality since each person possesses the potentials of all nine types. However, this is

not what is usually meant by "having two wings," and proponents of the so-called two-

wing theory believe that both wings operate more or less equally in everyone's personality.

(For example, they believe that a Nine would have roughly equal amounts of his or her

Eight and One wings.)

Observation of people leads us to conclude that while the two-wing theory applies to some

individuals, most people have a dominant wing. In the vast majority of people, while the

so-called second wing always remains operative to some degree, the dominant wing is far

more important. (For example, Twos with Three-wings are noticeably different from Twos

with One-wings, and while Twos with Three-wings have a One-wing, it is not nearly as

36

important as the Three-wing.) It is therefore clearer to refer simply to a type's "wing" as

opposed to its "dominant wing," since the two terms represent the same concept.

It is, of course, necessary to identify your basic type before you can assess which wing you

have.

2.5.3.4. The levels of development (www.enneagraminstitute.com)

There is an internal structure within each personality type. That structure is the continuum

of behaviors, attitudes, defenses, and motivations formed by the nine Levels of

Development which makes up the personality type itself. This discovery (and the working

out of all the traits that comprise each type) was made by Don Riso in 1977, and has been

subsequently developed with Russ Hudson in the last ten years. They are the only

Enneagram teachers to include this important factor in their treatment of the Enneagram.

The Levels are an important contribution not only to the Enneagram but to ego psychology

— and the personality types of the Enneagram cannot be adequately explained without

them. The Levels account for differences between people of the same type as well as how

people change both for better or worse. Thus, they can also help therapists and counselors

pinpoint what is actually going on with clients and suggest solutions to the problems they

are having.

The Levels of Development provide a framework for seeing how all of the different traits

that comprise each type fit into a large whole; they are a way of conceptualizing the

underlying "skeletal" structure of each type. Without the Levels, the types can seem to be

an arbitrary collection of unrelated traits, with contradictory behaviors and attitudes often

part of the picture. But by understanding the Levels for each type, one can see how all of

the traits are interrelated—and how healthy traits can deteriorate into average traits and

possibly into unhealthy ones. As pioneering consciousness philosopher Ken Wilber has

noted, without the Levels, the Enneagram is reduced to a "horizontal" set of nine discrete

categories. By including the Levels, however, a "vertical" dimension is added that not only

reflects the complexity of human nature, but goes far in explaining many different,

important elements within personality.

Further, with the Levels, a dynamic element is introduced that reflects the changing nature

of the personality patterns themselves. You have probably noticed that people change

37

constantly—sometimes they are clearer, more free, grounded, and emotionally available,

while at other times they are more anxious, resistant, reactive, emotionally volatile and less

free. Understanding the Levels makes it clear that when people change states within their

personality, they are shifting within the spectrum of motivations, traits, and defenses that

make up their personality type.

To understand an individual accurately, it is necessary to perceive where the person lies

along the continuum of Levels of his or her type at a given time. In other words, one must

assess whether a person is in their healthy, average, or unhealthy range of functioning. This

is important because, for example, two people of the same personality type and wing will

differ significantly if one is healthy and the other unhealthy. (In relationships and in the

business world, understanding this distinction is crucial.)

The continuum is comprised of nine internal Levels of Development—briefly, there are

three Levels in the healthy section, three Levels in the average section, and three Levels in

the unhealthy section. It may help you to think of the continuum of Levels as a

photographer's gray scale which has gradations from pure white to pure black with many

shades of gray in between. On the continuum, the healthiest traits appear first, at the top, so

to speak. As we move down the continuum in a spiral pattern, we progressively pass

through each Level of Development marking a distinct shift in the personality's

deterioration to the pure black of psychological breakdown at the bottom. The continuum

for each of the personality types can be seen in Appendix 2.5.

At each Level, significant psychological shifts occur as is indicated by the title we have

given to it. For example, at Level 5, the Level of Interpersonal Control, the person is trying

to manipulate himself and others to get his or her psychological needs met. This invariably

creates interpersonal conflicts. By this Level, the person has also fully identified with the

ego and does not see himself as anything more than that: the ego must therefore be

increasingly defended and inflated for the person to feel safe and to keep their identity in

tact. If this activity does not satisfy the person, and anxiety increases, he or she may

deteriorate to the next state, Level 6, the Level of Overcompensation, where their behavior

will become more intrusive and aggressive as they continue to purse their ego-agenda.

Anxiety is increasing, and the person is increasingly disruptive, and focused on getting his

needs met, regardless of the impact on people around them.

38

One of the most profound ways of understanding the Levels is as a measure of our capacity

to be present. The more we move down the Levels, the more identified we are with our ego

and its increasingly negative and restrictive patterns. Our personality becomes more

defensive, reactive, and automatic— and we consequently have less and less real freedom

and less real consciousness. As we move down the Levels, we become caught in more

compulsive, destructive actions which are ultimately self-defeating.

By contrast, the movement toward health, up the Levels, is simultaneous with being more

present and awake in our minds, hearts, and bodies. As we become more present, we

become less fixated in the defensive structures of our personality and are more attuned and

open to ourselves and our environment. We see our personality objectively in action rather

than "falling asleep" to our automatic personality patterns. There is therefore the possibility

of "not doing" our personality and of gaining some real distance the negative consequences

of getting caught in it.

As we become more present, we see our personality traits more objectively and the Levels

become a continuous guide to self-observation, a map that we can use to chart where we

are in our psycho-spiritual development at any given time. As we move "up" the Levels,

we discover that we are freer and less driven by compulsive, unconscious drives and

therefore able to act more effectively in all areas of our lives, including in our

relationships. When we are less identified with our personality, we find that we respond as

needed to whatever life presents, actualizing the positive potentials in all nine types,

bringing real peace, creativity, strength, joy, compassion, and other positive qualities to

whatever we are doing.

2.5.3.5. Directions of integration (growth) and disintegration (stress) (www.

enneagraminstitute.com)

As we have seen with the Levels of Development, the nine personality types of the

Enneagram are not static categories: they reflect our change over time. Further, the

sequence of the types and the arrangement of the inner lines of the symbol are not

arbitrary. The inner lines of the Enneagram connect the types in a sequence that denotes

what each type will do under different conditions. There are two lines connected to each

type, and they connect with two other types. One line connects with a type that represents

39

how a person of the first type behaves when they are moving toward health and growth.

This is called the Direction of Integration or Growth. The other line goes to another type

that represents how the person is likely to act out if they are under increased stress and

pressure—when they feel they are not in control of the situation. This second line is called

the Direction of Stress or Disintegration. In other words, different situations will evoke

different kinds of responses from your personality. You will respond our adapt in different

directions, as indicated by the lines of the Enneagram from your basic type. Again, we see

the flexibility and dynamism of the Enneagram.

The Direction of Stress or Disintegration for each type is indicated by the sequence of

numbers 1-4-2-8-5-7-1. This means that an average to unhealthy One under stress will

eventually behave like an average to unhealthy Four; an average to unhealthy Four will act

out their stress like an average to unhealthy Two; an average to unhealthy Two will act out

under stress like an Eight, an Eight will act out under stress like a Five, a Five will act out

like a Seven, and a Seven will act our like a One. (An easy way to remember the sequence

is to realize that 1-4 or 14 doubles to 28, and that doubles to 57—or almost so. Thus, 1-4-

2-8-5-7—and the sequence returns to 1 and begins again.) Likewise, on the equilateral

triangle, the sequence is 9-6-3-9: a stressed out Nine will act out like a Six, a stressed out

Six will act out like a Three, and a stressed out Three will act out like a Nine. (You can

remember this sequence if you think of the numerical values diminishing as the types

become more stressed and reactive. You can see how this works by following the direction

of the arrows in Appendix 2.6.

The Direction of Integration or Growth is indicated for each type by the reverse of the

sequences for disintegration. Each type moves toward integration in a direction that is the

opposite of its unhealthy direction. Thus, the sequence for the Direction of Integration is 1-

7-5-8-2-4-1: an integrating One goes to Seven, an integrating Seven goes to Five, an

integrating Five goes to Eight, an integrating Eight goes to Two, an integrating Two goes

to Four, and an integrating Four goes to One. On the equilateral triangle, the sequence is 9-

3-6-9: an integrating Nine will go to Three, an integrating Three will go to Six, and an

integrating Six will go to Nine. You can see how this works by following the direction of

the arrows in Appendix 2.7.

No matter which personality type you are, the types in both your Direction of Integration

40

and your Direction of Stress or Disintegration are important influences. To obtain a

complete picture of yourself (or of someone else), you must take into consideration the

basic type and wing as well as the two types in the Directions of Integration and

Disintegration. The factors represented by those four types blend into your total personality

and provide the framework for understanding the influences operating in you. For example,

no one is simply a personality type Two. A Two has either a One-wing or a Three-wing,

and the Two's Direction of Disintegration (Eight) and its Direction of Integration (Four)

also play important parts in his or her overall personality.

Ultimately, the goal is for each of us to "move around" the Enneagram, integrating what

each type symbolizes and acquiring the healthy potentials of all the types. The ideal is to

become a balanced, fully functioning person who can draw on the power (or from the

Latin, "virtue") of each as needed. Each of the types of the Enneagram symbolizes

different important aspects of what we need to achieve this end. The personality type we

begin life with is therefore less important ultimately than how well (or badly) we use our

type as the beginning point for our self-development and self-realization.

2.5.3.6. The three instincts (www.enneagraminstitute.com)

The three Instincts (often erroneously called "the subtypes") are a third set of distinctions

that are extremely important for understanding personality. A major aspect of human

nature lies in our instinctual "hard wiring" as biological beings. We each are endowed with

specific instinctual intelligences that are necessary for our survival as individuals and as a

species. We each have a self-preservation instinct (for preserving the body and its life and

functioning), a sexual instinct (for extending ourselves in the environment and through the

generations), and a social instinct (for getting along with others and forming secure social

bonds).

While we have all three Instincts in us, one of them is the dominant focus of our attention

and behavior - the set of attitudes and values that we are most attracted to and comfortable

with. We each also have a second Instinct that is used to support the dominant Instinct, as

well as a third Instinct that is the least developed - a real blind spot in our personality and

our values. Which Instinct is in each of these three places - most, middle, and least

developed - produces what we call our "Instinctual Stack" (like a three-layer cake) with

41

your dominant Instinct on top, the next most developed Instinct in the middle, and the least

developed on the bottom).

These instinctual drives profoundly influence our personalities, and at the same time, our

personalities largely determine how each person prioritizes these instinctual needs. Thus,

while every human being has all three of these instincts operating in him or her, our

personality causes us to be more concerned with one of these instincts than the other two.

We call this instinct our dominant instinct. This tends to be our first priority - the area of

life we attend to first. But when we are more caught up in the defenses of our personality -

further down the Levels of Development - our personality most interferes with our

dominant instinct.

Further, our Enneagram type flavors the way in which we approach our dominant

instinctual need. Combining our Enneagram type with our dominant instinct yields a much

more specific portrait of the workings of our personality. When we apply the distinctions

of these three instincts to the nine Enneagram types they create 27 unique combinations of

type and dominant instinct that account for differences and variability within the types.

These combinations are called the Instinctual Variants.

Self preservation instinct

People who have this as their dominant instinct are preoccupied with the safety, comfort,

health, energy, and well-being of the physical body. In a word, they are concerned with

having enough resources to meet life's demands. Identification with the body is a

fundamental focus for all humans, and we need our body to function well in order to be

alive and active in the world. Most people in contemporary cultures are not faced life or

death "survival" in the strictest sense; thus, Self-Preservation types tend to be concerned

with food, money, housing, medical matters, and physical comfort. Moreover, those

primarily focused on self-preservation, by extension, are usually interested in maintaining

these resources for others as well. Their focus of attention naturally goes towards things

related to these areas such as clothes, temperature, shopping, decorating, and the like,

particularly if they are not satisfied in these areas or have a feeling of deficiency due to

their childhoods. Self-Pres types tend to be more grounded, practical, serious, and

introverted than the other two instinctual types. They might have active social lives and a

42

satisfying intimate relationship, but if they feel that their self-preservation needs are not

being met, still tend not to be happy or at ease. In their primary relationships, these people

are "nesters"—they seek domestic tranquility and security with a stable, reliable partner.

Sexual (aka "Attraction") instinct

Many people originally identify themselves as this type because they have learned that the

Sexual types are interested in "one-on-one relationships." But all three instinctual types are

interested in one-on-one relationships for different reasons, so this does not distinguish

them. The key element in Sexual types is an intense drive for intimacy and a constant

awareness of the "chemistry" between themselves and others. Sexual types are

immediately aware of the attraction, or lack thereof, between themselves and other people.

Further, while the basis of this instinct is related to sexuality, it is not necessarily about

people engaging in the sexual act. There are many people that we are excited to be around

for reasons of personal chemistry that we have no intention of "getting involved with."

Nonetheless, we might be aware that we feel stimulated in certain people's company and

less so in others. The sexual type is constantly moving toward that sense of intense

stimulation and intimacy in their relationships and in their activities. They are the most

"energized" of the three instinctual types, and tend to be more aggressive, competitive,

charged, and emotionally intense than the Self-Pres or Social types. Sexual types need to

have deep intimacy in their primary relationships or else they remain unsatisfied. They

enjoy being intensely involved—even merged—with others, and can become disenchanted

with partners who are unable to meet their need for intense energetic union. Losing

yourself in a "fusion" of being is the ideal here, and Sexual types are always looking for

this state with others and with stimulating objects in their world.

Social (aka "Adaptive") instinct

Just as many people tend to misidentify themselves as Sexual types because they want one-

on-one relationships, many people fail to recognize themselves as Social types because

they get the (false) idea that this means always being involved in groups, meetings, and

parties. If Self-Preservation types are interested in adjusting the environment to make

themselves more secure and comfortable, Social types adapt themselves to serve the needs

of the social situation they find themselves in. Thus, Social types are highly aware of other

43

people, whether they are in intimate situations or in groups. They are also aware of how

their actions and attitudes are affecting those around them. Moreover, Sexual types seek

intimacy, Social types seek personal connection: they want to stay in long-term contact

with people and to be involved in their world. Social types are the most concerned with

doing things that will have some impact on their community, or even broader domains.

They tend to be warmer, more open, engaging, and socially responsible than the other two

types. In their primary relationships, they seek partners with whom they can share social

activities, wanting their intimates to get involved in projects and events with them.

Paradoxically, they actually tend to avoid long periods of exclusive intimacy and quiet

solitude, seeing both as potentially limiting. Social types lose their sense of identity and

meaning when they are not involved with others in activities that transcend their individual

interests.

2.6. Enneagram and Other Lifestyle Instruments

Enneagram has a unique style of personality classification, it does not follow a pattern of

ascending or descending but follows a circular pattern. This signifies that an individual

does not have to cross the steps before reaching some higher state. He or she can achieve

or try to achieve that particular status by being in the present status itself. This is in stark

contrast to both Maslow (1954) and VALS2 that portray that an individual has to

successfully graduate from one lower step to move on to a higher step. Although VALS

was initially praised in the press as ‘revolutionary’ (Atlas 1984, Dougherty 1981), by the

mid 1980s, marketers were disillusioned. VALS ran into problems because its originator,

Arnold Mitchell (1983), made a crucial research mistake (Heath 1995). He embraced

Maslow’s needs hierarchy and designed a study to prove the theory. This is unfortunate

because the basic purpose of research is to discover whatever truth exists in the data or

population but not to impose some preconceived ideas on the data set. To counter the

criticism VALS2 with eight groups was introduced. The top group is termed actualizers,

who are successful consumers with many resources (Heath 1996). The next three groups

also have sufficient resources but differ in their outlooks on life (Riche 1989). Fulfillers,

Achievers and Experiencers The next four groups have fewer resources. They are:

Believers, Strivers, Makers and Strugglers. Such diversity is the order of any consumer

market, the Enneagram allows viewing diversity in all its richness. It provides a truly

44

versatile set of tools with which to classify and segment. An Enneagram literate marketing

manager will be able to spot the pattern of association, integration and disintegration of the

customer segments and if needed take appropriate action at the opportune moment.

One interesting fact to note is that, although widely used in commercial applications, the

values and lifestyle systems (VALS) has rarely been investigated in academic settings

(Novak, MacEvoy 1990). Whereas the list of values (Kahle 1983) that gained widespread

popularity in the academia is rarely used in the commercial settings. In fact, most of the

consumer behavior textbooks do not even mention the LOV. The nine values (self-respect,

being well respected, warm relationships with others, a sense of belonging, fun and

enjoyment in life, excitement, self-fulfillment, a sense of accomplishment, security) were

developed from a theoretical base of Feather’s (1975), Maslow’s (1954) and Rokeach’s

(1973) work on values in order to assess adaptation to various roles through value

fulfillment (Kahle 1983).

Though the authors of LOV claim it to be superior to VALS, there are some shortcomings

in this segmentation. Firstly, just the list of values as such is not an accurate segmentation

basis. If the LOV is combined with the demographic data, then the LOV and demographics

together become superior compared to just the VALS. Whereas VALS alone is more useful

than the LOV alone. The proponents of LOV claim that it is simpler to administer

compared to VALS but this simplicity pales in comparison with the Enneagram.

Enneagram doesn’t take a uni-dimensional approach to personality classification, it takes a

multi-dimensional approach. The inherent drawback of LOV is that it classified consumers

based only on their value preferences.

Both VALS and LOV have been carefully considered within the context of lifespan

development psychology. Though even Enneagram has this in an underlying manner it is

not pronounced. Both LOV and VALS have identified an inner-outer distinction. In VALS

the distinction is called outer-directed v/s inner directed, but it derives from Reisman et

al.(1950) concept of ‘other directed’ (Holman 1984). In the LOV research, the distinction is

between internal v/s external locus of control (Rotter 1966). LOV also notes the

importance of people in value fulfillment. All this gives an impression that both these

theories can act as perfect background for Enneagram. Though Enneagram doesn’t follow

the inner-outer classification, it attempts to picture a person as possessing both the inner

45

and outer orientations. Through the wings, a person with one set of traits embraces another

set of traits. Though LOV moves away from VALS it nevertheless fails to give an in-depth

understanding of the personality type. On the other hand Enneagram gives a better

description of consumer profile even without a thorough integration of the demographics.

Unlike PRIZM, Potential rating by Zip market, (Claritas Inc.) Enneagram is not country

specific or culture specific and can be used in any country. Though PRIZM is the third

popular typology in psychographic segmentation (Weiss 1988, Valle 1994) it tends to

predict broad product category and not brands (Cooper 1988). Enneagram doesn’t suffer

from such inherent drawbacks, of course if the pace with which several US based firms are

embracing the Enneagram is any indication then in the very near future there will be an

abundance of theory linking Enneagram as the segmentation descriptor influencing the

decision of the firm.

2.7. Reliability Issues

The Riso-Hudson Enneagram Type Indicator (RHETI) is the most widely used instrument

for assessing Enneagram types. Newgent, et al. (2004) have empirically researched the

reliability and validity properties of this instrument. The authors report an adequate degree

of internal consistency for RHETI and a strong support for its heuristic value. Brown and

Bartram (2005) found that the nine personality types of the Enneagram are "real and

objective," and that they stand on a par psychometrically with the Myers-Briggs system,

the Big Five, and other well-known, accepted psychological systems. While these are

encouraging results, more work is needed to establish the Enneagram as a

psychometrically solid instrument along the lines of NEO PI-R.

2.8. Purpose and Objective of the Study

Upon an explorative research, it has been realized that there is a lack of behavioral

instruments beneficial in this manner to measure the customers’ behavioral patterns, to

gather meaningful results and more clearly explain consumers’ attitudes under certain

circumstances. Among the people contacted Selim Uzunoğlu, Ass. Prof. at Celal Bayar

University and has books on Enneagram, Yusuf Karabulut, a Ph.D. candidate and a

Psychologist who wrote a foreword to Enneagram Institute’s book in Turkey, Fahri

Karakaş a Ph.D. candidate and researcher in the Faculty of Management at Canada McGill

46

University having research on Team Management and Leadership utilizing Enneagram,

have summarized that the research made by the agencies are somehow ignoring the

individual differences but instead caring the general cultural tendencies of a group of

people while conducting a survey.

In this research the aim is to illustrate how the ancient and mystical technique of the

Enneagram can be effectively used as a base for psychographic segmentation. With the

Enneagram finding ever-increasing applications in strategic management and human

resource development, it is only fitting that scholar in marketing harness the diagnostic and

predictive power of the Enneagram. However, adoption of the Enneagram for marketing

purposes will require further conceptual development and empirical analysis.

More specifically, the applications of the Enneagram theory in psychographic

segmentation have been discussed. Toward these ends, this research has four objectives:

(1) to provide a broad understanding of the importance of personality in market

segmentation; (2) to briefly discuss the commonly used personality tools in market

segmentation and compatibility of these tools with Enneagram and its origins and with the

nine main personality types inherent in the Enneagram theory; (3) to illustrate how the nine

personality types can be used in psychographic segmentation; and (4) to highlight research

needs that would facilitate adoption of the Enneagram in the marketing literature.

2.9. Significance of the Study

The Enneagram is an ancient technique of personality classification that dates back at least

two thousand five hundred years. Practitioners of the Enneagram (pronounced any-a-gram)

regard it as a vital link between the psyche and the spirit. Figuratively, the Enneagram is a

circle enclosing nine equidistant points connected by nine intersecting lines. The nine

points represent the different ways in which the nine underlying personalities constituting

the Enneagram perceive and defend their "mental models" or realities. Peter Senge (1990)

observes that the mental model each of us possesses determines not only how we make

sense of the world, but also how we take action. Understandably, scholars and practitioners

of management and human relations are exploring ways in which the richness and the

dynamic power of the Enneagram can be utilized to understand human behavior. Oddly

enough, the Enneagram has received no attention in the marketing literature whatsoever.

47

This research makes a case for inclusion of the Enneagram in the repertoire of tools and

techniques currently used to analyze consumer behavior.

Generally, geographic, demographic, psychographic and behavioral variables form the

base for segmentation in almost all of the consumer segmentation (Kotler et al 1998, Miller

and Layton 2000, McCarthy, Perreault and Quester 1999). Though there are different ways

of segmenting a market, it has to be kept in mind that not all segments are effective or

practical. The nine points on an Enneagram clearly demarcate the segments and the

marketing strategy can be devised based on the size and potential yield of each type of

segment. Enneagram attempts to segment the customers based on the personality types, so

this type of segmentation will have its own advantages and limitations. The market

segments should ideally be homogenous, heterogeneous, substantial and operational

(McCarthy, Perreault and Quester 1999). This means that the customers in a market

segment should be as similar as possible in terms of their responses to certain marketing

mix variables. At the same time customers in different segments should be as different as

possible to the other customers in the other segments. The segment should be large enough,

so that it yields substantial return on investments and also the segmenting dimensions

should be useful for deciding the marketing mix variables. Kotler et al (1998) also refer to

the same criteria, but they name them as measurability, accessibility, substantiality and

actionability. As in the case of any segmentation, even Enneagram might throw up

segments that are not measurable or substantial. In such cases it is up to the marketers to

make a proper judgment. In general, the Enneagram typology definitely meets the basic

criteria set forth for any effective segmentation.

CHAPTER.3.

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Scope of the Research

This research will attempt to make a modeling that correlate Enneagram types with the

requirements of psychographic segmentation, personality theories and personality-

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consumption-possession traits. A possible outcome of this research will be a holistic and

beneficial tool for every sector in terms of market segmentation.

Additionally, if it is possible to gather similar results for the modeling from the sources

that we will obtain information from then this typology can be worthy for targeting

fragmented market segments in economies of time.

3.2. Research Design

As shown in the Appendix 3.1 in this research, market segmentation and segmentation

bases will be covered again to emphasize the importance of the personality and the

psychographic segmentation among other segmentation bases. Enneagram will be

introduced more in detail. With a comprehensive understanding of Enneagram

Personalities an interview protocol containing tables of compatibility of Enneagram

Typologies with some examples of personality-consumption-possession traits and theories

and constructs of these traits is designed. (See appendix 3.2). Also this protocol consists of

open ended questions in accordance with qualitative research techniques leading the

interviewees nurture our expected result of conformity of Ennegram utilization for

psychographic segmentation. With that design we aim to achieve two major results. First a

proper interview protocol that will be constructed to be conducted as a questionnaire in our

qualitative interviews with the Enneagram experts. Second, after analysis of the proposed

compatibility tables inside the interview protocol that will serve as an appropriate tool for a

further quantitative research.

3.3. Statement of the Study: Enneagram Typologies Covering the Other Theories and

Models Utilized In Psychographic Segmentation

Theories of personalities and other personality-consumption-possesion traits existing in

consumer behavior research each has played prominent role in the study of relationship

between consumer behavior and personality. When the traits created by the researchers

through these theories are examined once more from the perspective of Enneagram

personalities it can be observed that there are certain similarities between the traits created

and the constructs of these traits.

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality is a cornerstone of modern

49

psychology. This theory was built on the premise that unconscious needs or drives,

especially sexual and other biological drives, are at the heart of human motivation and

personality. Researchers who apply Freud’s psychoanalytic theory to the study of

consumer personality believe that human drives are largely unconscious and that

consumers are primarily unaware of their true reasons for buying what they buy

(Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). “Snack Foods and Personality Traits” depicted in interview

protocol as an example of Freudian-like approach to consumer behavior. When observed in

depth each snack food eater trait reflects exactly one of the Enneagram personality.

Enneagram seems to cover the items in Freudian approach of consumer behavior research.

Several of Freud’s colleagues disagreed with his contention that personality is primarily

instinctual and sexual in nature. Instead, these neo-Freudians believed that social

relationships are fundamental to the formation and development of personality. For

instance a neo-Freudian researcher Karen Horney stressed that people continuously attempt

to establish significant and rewarding relationships with others. She focused on the impact

of child-parent relationships and the individual’s desire to conquer feelings of anxiety.

Horney proposed that individuals be classified into three personality groups: Compliant,

aggressive, and detached.

1.Compliant individuals are those who move toward others.

2.Aggressive individuals are those move against others.

3.Detached individuals are those who move away from others. (Schiffman and Kanuk,

2007)

The essential point related to Horney’s theory is each personality belonging to one triad of

Enneagram has a communication and image type just like summarized above. So

Enneagram again has a relationship with this Neo-Freudian approach. And besides, like

Neo-Freudians’ approach Enneagram has a wide view of explaining social interactions.

Trait theory constitutes a major departure from the qualitative measures that typify the

Freudian and Neo-Freudian movements. The orientation of trait theory is primarily

quantitative and empirical; it focuses on the measurement of personality in terms of

specific psychological characteristics, called traits. A trait is defined as “any

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distinguishing, relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another. Trait

researchers have found that it is generally more realistic to expect personality to be linked

to how consumers make their choices and to the purchase or consumption of a broad

product category rather than a specific brand (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). Market

mavenism scale is examined in the interview protocol an example of Trait Theory

approach to consumer behavior. Again Enneagram seems to cover the items in Trait

Theory approach of consumer behavior research.

3.4.Data Collection Method

The data in this study was collected from the primary sources through face to face

interviews with the Enneagram experts Selim Uzunoğlu, Yusuf Karabulut, and Fahri

Karakaş. The first part of the interviews will be consisting of double checking the data

regarding Enneagram that are gathered from the secondary sources like limited number of

books and websites bringing Enneagram and Market Research together. In the second part

of the interview the interview protocol that has already been created with the aid of

secondary sources and the scales of the topics regarding some examples of personality-

consumption-possession traits consisting in the table is reviewed. The target respondents

will all be interviewed for 1-2 hours about their understanding of Enneagram and their

perceptions of the presently existing personality-consumption-possession traits and

theories and constructs of these traits on market segmentation, their individual comments

on the compatibility tables.

3.5. Data Analysis:

A qualitative investigation allows us to explore the richness and depth of individual

perceptions, experiences, aspirations and values. Our investigation here seeks to examine

carefully how existing consumer behavior models relates to Enneagram personality

typologies. What we want to learn is how various dimensions of consumption-possession-

personality traits converge and diverge to Enneagram Typologies. Greater understanding

of these relations could lead to new theoretical insights about market segmentation. It

would also help the practitioners to increase the fit between task requirements and the

individual styles. In other words, we want to provide a more complete picture and a thick

description of psychographic view of market segmentation.

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The interviews will be conducted varied in between 1 to 2 hours in length. The researcher

asks questions and quickly takes notes using symbols and abbreviations. These notes are

transcribed as full sentences just after the interview by the investigator.

For purposes of the study reported here, a grounded theory approach (Glaser and Strauss,

1967) will be used in data analysis, with a focus on material specifically related to

consumer behavior context. The interview transcripts will be read to extract data on how

these experts’ thoughts and perceptions about the explained theories and Enneagram.

Three methods provided by Kuzel and Like (1991) were utilized to enhance the validity or

trustworthiness of qualitative data collected with interview method in this study.

Kuzel and Like (1991) summarize four techniques that researchers can utilize during data

collection and may increase the validity or trustworthiness of research findings.

Additionally, a critical reader of a qualitative study can also look for the following

characteristics in a final report, article, or book:

1. Member checking. During the interview, member checking consists of the researcher

restating, summarizing, or paraphrasing the information received from a respondent to

ensure that what was heard or written down is in fact correct. Following data collection,

member checking consists of reporting back preliminary findings to respondents or

participants, asking for critical commentary on the findings, and potentially incorporating

these critiques into the findings. Both forms of member checking may add accuracy and

richness to a final report.

2. Disconfirming Evidence. This is a procedure whereby a researcher actively seeks

accounts from other respondents that differ from the main or consensus accounts in critical

ways. The inclusion of complementary and conflicting data may strengthen the validity of

the data collected. If the researcher cannot uncover disconfirming evidence, then the

findings may be relatively stronger and more convincing.

3. Triangulation. Triangulation is an approach that utilizes multiple data sources (e.g.

archival, interview, video), multiple informants (e.g., various key informants), and multiple

methods (e.g., participant observation, focus groups), in order to confirm or validate

research findings. A primary goal of triangulation is to gather multiple perspectives so as

52

to gain a more complete understanding of phenomena.

4. Thick Description. Thick description refers to a detailed description of a phenomenon

that includes the researcher’s interpretation in addition to the observed context and

processes. It may also include providing a thorough accounting of the methods and

procedures followed during and after data collection.

The first method "member checking" tries to tackle the pitfall of unchecked interpretation.

During the interview; restating, summarizing or paraphrasing the information from the

respondent were used to make sure that it is still considered correct. The investigator enters

into a dialogue with the respondents and gave them the opportunity to confirm, clarify,

challenge, critique, or correct the researcher's construction of reality. This process

enhances the likelihood that the results of the inquiry really represent the point of view of

the respondent. The fourth method "thick description" is used secondly in order to make

the respondents felt themselves comfortable and gave a lot of details about the inner

workings of their minds regarding their area of expertise. The second and the third

methods are utilized for the aim the results of the interviews to be analyzed and the

qualitative responses are checked and cross-validated according to these test results.

CHAPTER.4.

RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.1. Enneagram’s Compatibility with Other Frameworks

This chapter contains the qualitative findings obtained in conclusion of the interviews

realized with Enneagram experts. From a general perspective it may not be a mistake to

emphasize that the resemblance and compatibility of Enneagram with the selected theories

and models in market segmentation concluded after each interview seems to be quite

similar in some particular points. Only the common implications are asserted below.

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4.1.1. Enneagram and McClelland’s trio of needs

When the similar answers of the interviewees consolidated it has been seen that there is

rigid bound between McClelland’s theory and Enneagram. The table in Appendix 4.1.

asserts the common conclusions.

According to these common conclusions Enneagram Types 2, 3, 4 which are all in feeling

triadic group are concluded as having resemblance with Need for Affiliation motive. The

strange disorder seems to happen in thinking and instinctive triadic groups of Enneagram.

There is also an order within this disorder, because each of three motives of triadic groups

follows the path of having resemblance with Need for Power, Need for Affiliation, Need

for Achievement. That is 5, 6, 7 of thinking triadic group’s members have resemblance

with Need for Power, Need for Affiliation, Need for Achievement respectively, 8, 9, and 1

of instinctive triadic group’s members have also resemblance again with Need for Power,

Need for Affiliation, Need for Achievement respectively.

4.1.2. Enneagram and snack food traits

When the similar answers of the interviewees consolidated it has been seen that there is

rigid bound between Snack Food Traits and Enneagram. See table in Appendix 4.2.

asserting that there is a 100% agreement among the interviewees. It is emphasized that

there is strong and clear link between each of Snack Food Trait and each of Enneagram

type and this is unanimously approved. That is:

Enneagram type one has resemblance with Tortilla Chips eaters’ Personality traits.

Enneagram type three has resemblance with Potato Chips eaters’ Personality traits.

Enneagram type four has resemblance with Popcorn eaters’ Personality traits.

Enneagram type five has resemblance with Snack Crackers eaters’ Personality traits.

Enneagram type six has resemblance with Cheese Curls eaters’ Personality traits.

Enneagram type seven has resemblance with Pretzels eaters’ Personality traits.

Enneagram type eight has resemblance with Meat Snacks eaters’ Personality traits.

54

Enneagram type nine has resemblance with Nuts eaters’ Personality traits.

Only the Enneagram type that has no clear resemblance with Snack Food Eaters’ Traits is

Enneagram type two.

4.1.3. Enneagram and Karen Horney’s CAD scale

There are a number of ways to cluster the nine types into groups of three based upon some

similar personality dynamics. The table in Appendix 4.3. asserts the common conclusions

on making an alternative triadic cluster of the nine types through Karen Horney’s Social

Style Types.

Here, the 9 types are clustered into three groups of three types each, based upon their

resemblance with Karen Horney’s Social Style Types:

Karen Horney’s Assertive Types has resemblance with Enneagram types 3, 7 and 8. The

common redefinitions and examples from the speeches of these types by the interviewees

according to Karen Horney’s Assertive Types are summarized below:

Enneagram type three

• Self-assured, attractive, charming

• Can be status-conscious, competitive and highly driven for personal achievement

“I deal with challenges by deciding that there must be an efficient solution to this - I (or

you) just need to get to work on it.”

“Sometimes I would like to be able to take a break and just relax, but then I feel that I have

to be the best I can be—no matter what. So I get back on the treadmill and make the best of

it.”

Enneagram type seven:

• Versatile, spontaneous, gregarious

• Can be overextended, scattered and undisciplined

“When there is a challenge to deal with, I recognize that a problem may exist, but it doesn't

55

seem to have anything to do with me. I easily make lemonade out of lemons.”

“I know that I sometimes live my life in excess. I can easily accumulate too many things

that I never use, or schedule myself to go to too many places.”

Enneagram type eight

• Strong, powerful, assertive, a force to be reckoned with

• Can be domineering, confrontational and intimidating

“I deal with challenges by letting people know just how I feel. I might get angry for a

moment, but then it passes.”

“I don't think I even realize how intensely I live. But when I think about it, I find myself

pushing and pushing. I'm good at keeping people at an emotional distance from me.”

Karen Horney’s Compliant Types has resemblance with Enneagram types 1, 2 and 6. The

common redefinitions and examples from the speeches of these types by the interviewees

according to Karen Horney’s Assertive Types are summarized below:

Enneagram type one:

• Ethical, conscientious, strong sense of right and wrong

• Can be critical and perfectionistic

“I deal with challenges by taking a mature, responsible and sensible approach with an

emphasis on consequences”

“I feel more comfortable if I know the "rules." I can feel frustrated by the behavior and

activities of others. I have high standards, and I can be pretty judgmental of myself and

others.”

Enneagram type two:

• Empathetic, sincere, warm-hearted

• Can be sentimental, flattering, and people-pleasing

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“I deal with challenges by figuring out how I can help others. They need it more than I do.”

“Sometimes others tell me to "take care of myself," but that sounds selfish to me. I do feel

secretly a bit resentful when my efforts and good intentions aren't recognized, though.”

Enneagram type six:

• Reliable, hardworking and responsible

• Can be pessimistic, overly concerned with safety and highly anxious

“I experience challenges around being pulled into too many directions. When the pressure

builds-up, I can go on the offensive or be defensive.”

“I sometimes don't feel confident about a direction to take, and ask others their opinions.

I've had a tendency to put others on a pedestal, and then can feel disappointed. I sometimes

question who or what to trust.”

Karen Horney’s Withdrawn Types has resemblance with Enneagram types 4, 5 and 9. The

common redefinitions and examples from the speeches of these types by the interviewees

according to Karen Horney’s Assertive Types are summarized below:

Enneagram type four:

• Self-aware, reserved, quiet

• Can be moody, self-conscious, feels misunderstood

I deal with challenges by feeling my emotions. I generally need to express my hurt, and

want someone to genuinely acknowledge my feelings.

I sometimes look at others and wonder how their lives can be so good when I have so

many disappointments. It's not unusual for me to even feel depressed. I'm not sure anyone

else can understand my depth of feeling.

Enneagram type five:

• Insightful, alert, cerebral

• Can be preoccupied with their thoughts, reclusive and detached

57

“I deal with challenges by thinking through all the possible issues and ramifications. I

sometimes need to withdraw to have enough space to think it through.”

“I don't need a lot of "things" in my life. I might be considered a minimalist.”

“I need to make sure that I'm mentally prepared for whatever the demands from others are -

sometimes it seems they want too much.”

Enneagram type nine:

• Good-natured, supportive, self-effacing

• Can be complacent, stuck in comfortableness and "missing in action"

“I deal with challenges by downplaying it or reframing it in a positive light. Sometimes

others see things as problems that I don't think are a problem at all.”

“I often feel vague or cloudy in my thinking. I find it hard to know what my priorities are,

and find myself busy doing a lot of things without seeming to get anywhere. Sometimes

my energy is very low. It's easy for me to 'check-out.'”

4.1.4. Enneagram and market mavenism

Market mavens may be influenced by both a responsiveness to feelings of obligation or

responsibility and an anticipation of social exchanges or interactions. These underlying

aspects of Market Mavenism suggest relationships with two of the global types of

Enneagram. Enneagram type two, essentially a positive social trait, should be related

directly with the inclination to anticipate and seek social interactions. Enneagram type

three, the tendency to be responsible, dependable and organized, should relate to

responsiveness to perceived obligations. Accordingly, it is proposed that Enneagram type 4

5 and 8 are scored showing the least tendency to be a Market Maven. But it is clearly

stated by all of the interviewees’ that being a Market Maven concept can also change

through selected sector or selected product. An Enneagram type who has less tendency to

be a Market Maven may as well display behaviors like Market Mavens depending on their

interest on the selected sector or product. So we asked the interviewees on which sectors or

products may strongly evaluated as of interest to which Enneagram types. Very similar or

common answers to this question is summarized next as well as in Appendix 4.4.

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4.1.4.1. Related sectors or products of the Enneagram types

Enneagram type one:

Personal care, general cleaning products, standard, classical products.

Enneagram type two:

Giftware, textile, fashion wear, cosmetics, colorful, brilliant, imposing items, curios,

trinkets, ice-cream, dried fruits.

Enneagram type three:

Textile, footwear, automobile, products giving status, wrist watch, pen, professional

products, products with logo, brandmarks, favorite products, elite, excellent products.

Enneagram type four:

Original products, artistic products, design products, exotic products, decorative articles,

interesting and niche articles, boutique, excessively expensive, rare or unique articles.

Enneagram type five:

Technological products, books, informative items, deep professional items, functional

products, products related to internet, computers and information technologies.

Enneagram type six:

Informative, life expediting products, telecommunication products, security products,

comfortable products, practical, original products, refreshing, progressive items,

sophisticated.

Enneagram type seven:

Original, colorful, sophisticated, fashionable, challenging, interesting, refreshing, advanced

technological products.

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Enneagram type eight:

Excessively expensive, luxury, products giving power or status, powerful brands,

automobile, machinery.

Enneagram type nine:

Technological, functional products, products related to internet, informative products.

4.1.5. Enneagram and Kahle’s List of Values

When the similar answers of the interviewees consolidated it has been seen that there is

rigid correlation between Kahle’s List of Values and Enneagram. The table in Appendix

4.5. asserts the common conclusions or clusters of common answers. According to the

common answers of the interviewees it can be stated that there is a similarity between the

Kahle’s list of values and Enneagram types’ particular sense of values. Also it seems that it

is possible to make an order of priority relationship between these values and Enneagram

type that more has the sense of that value.

4.1.6. Propositions derived from the interview regarding utilizing Enneagram in

psychographic market segmentation

4.1.6.1. What do each Enneagram type want from a product?

In this part the similar words from the answers of the interviewees are combed out and

consolidated in order to constitute a holistic perspective of Enneagram types’ desires,

expectations from a product and also what features of products are within their interest

area are depicted.

Enneagram type one:

Quality, total quality, trust, brands that they are used to, valid brandmarks, low risky

products, name-stream, main player in the market, perfect product, perfection, care, high

service quality, attentive service, hygiene, order, they care about the content, expiration

dates, economical, comparable, they compares a lot, accuracy, no mistakes, serious,

elegance, courtesy, experience, well-mannered, content, certificated quality, courtesy,

delicacy, hygiene.

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Enneagram type two:

Easy, image building, cute, pretty, bright, colorful, related to family, related to friendship,

love message, ornamental, decorative, apportionable services or products, advised,

advisable, commonly approvable, brandmarks, well-assorted, humanistic, emotional, gift,

customized, personalized, appliances, accessory, cosmetic.

Enneagram type three:

Brandmarks, logo, status, professional, occupational, piece of jewellery, apparatus,

detailed, decorative, technological, cool, best, best quality, special brandmark, snob,

prestigious, elite, high class, elegance, success symbolizing, rating, commonly appreciated,

advised products, popularity, favorite, desirable, cosmetic.

Enneagram type four:

Special, niche, unique, unpopularity, excessive expensive, excessively personalized,

meaningful, special meaning, luxury, face-to-face, self-respect, nice odour, cosmetic,

decorative, ambience, rare, uncommon, exotic, artistic, self-expressive, original, different,

stylish, fashion leader, divergent, authentic, line, attractive, high product personality,

aesthetic, romantic, intellectual.

Enneagram type five:

Informative, specialism, excellence, expert, professional, alternative, functional, content,

collector’s item, up-to-date, futuristic, economical, sophisticated, intelligent, satisfying in

terms of knowledge, online, specialist comment, serious, comparisons.

Enneagram type six:

Inspiring confidence, quality certificate, certificated quality, prestigious, traditional, well-

known, fundamental, habitual, prudent innovation, technical features, informative,

respecting to consumer rights, brandmark, name-stream, delicate, economical, rational,

practical, comfortable, guarantee, relationship quality, serious, brand loyalty, after sales

service.

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Enneagram type seven:

Easy consumer, no matter economical or not, spontaneous, different, original, attractive,

colorful, enjoyable, entertaining, innovative, technological, new brands, no brand loyalty,

variations, luxury, smart, design, aesthetic, modernity, novelty, exciting, exploitative,

adventure, lust, fashion, cool, niche, apportionable, emotional satisfaction, intellectual,

media, young, dynamic, energetic, positive, sportive, sexual.

Enneagram type eight:

Power, comfort, luxury, contradictory, sexual, related to body, habitual, expensive

brandmark, satisfactory, respected, status, economical, high class, best brand, vip, A class,

independent, guarantee, best service, best product, exotic, energetic, physical, gift,

relationship quality, serious, after sales service.

Enneagram type nine:

Online consuming, alternative, well-assorted, consistent, easy accessible, brandmark,

relationship quality, independent, traditional, routine, comfort, automatic, customer

comments, comparisons, courtesy, delicacy, polite, well-mannered, technological,

innovative, entertaining, recreative.

4.1.6.2. How wings in Enneagram effect consumers' behavior and how can we make a

segmentation regarding wings?

“In addition to the basic personality type and the triads, one more concept is vital to

understanding the Enneagram. This is the concept of ‘wing’. One of the two types next to

your basic type is your wing”. While basic type describes one’s dominant personality the

wing complements it, adding other, sometimes contradictory, elements to personality. For

example, some one with type nine will have either a one-wing or an eight wing.”

“Just as the Enneagram personality types can be shortened down into three triads, they can

be elaborated into 18 types also. It is very essential that a wing is taken into consideration

when the personality of an individual is being assessed. In a way, the wing gives a second

side to the personality. From a marketing angle, it is very useful to analyze the wing

because it gives out a different perspective of the consumers’ personality. A customer who

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normally doesn’t purchase certain products can be and will be induced to buy them on

some occasions and this can be understood from the wing of that person. Therefore, to get

a good idea of the wing of any person, it is imperative that the two types adjacent to that

type are studied in depth as well.”

“The presence of these three categories in Enneagram makes it quite flexible. By not

confining into nine rigid types, the Enneagram clearly stands out from the other typologies.

This is the only typology that studies personality as a continuum. It is quite common for

individuals to change for the better or for the worse. So Enneagram gives ample leeway for

this change in the individuals. It is also interesting from a marketing angle because for ease

of convenience it is better to just use the three triads as segments whereas to follow the

criteria of measurability, actionability and sustainability it is probably advisable to use the

wings as segments. It is this flexibility that makes the Enneagram more appealing from a

marketing angle. The Enneagram shares several key principles with recent thinking on

integrative management and marketing. Both are designed to achieve transformation,

transformation of the system and the person to the best holistic self In the end of the day,

both the consumer and the marketer should walk away with a feeling that they had a good

transaction, i.e. win-win situation. This is where Enneagram fits the bill, it provides the

wherewithal with which to accomplish win-win situation by empowering both the seller

and the buyer to appreciate the frames of reference in which a good/service is being

provided or being consumed. Each pattern of the Enneagram represents a very strong drive

that is ingrained in one’s self concept and that exercises great influence over one’s

behavior. From these words it is clear that one’s behavior is influenced by the pattern on

the number into which they fall. This is of high importance to marketers when the same

behavior is analyzed from a consumption angle and that’s exactly the point in favor of

employing Enneagram as a typology of psychographic segmentation in consumer

behavior.”

4.1.6.3. How triads of Enneagram effect consumers' behavior and how can we make a

segmentation regarding triads?

“In Enneagram theory, each type develops a specific psychological strategy or defense

mechanism early in life to cushion emotional discomfort. This defense mechanism or

‘vice’ becomes increasingly unnecessary as a person matures and may prevent him/her

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from being as happy or effective as they should be. It may also hinder their relationship

with others. Though at first glance the Enneagram looks confusing and complicated, on

closer observation it becomes pretty simple to comprehend. One of the interesting features

of Enneagram is that it can be analyzed or used in three different ways. Though the basic

figure looks at nine types it can be broken up into three categories. They are; the triad

category, the nine types and the eighteen types characterized by the wings.”

“The Triad: Broken down to the basic level, the Enneagram is an arrangement of nine

types in three triads. So, there are three personality types each in the feeling, doing and

relating triad. In each of these triads there are three personality types that symbolize the

assets and liabilities of the triad. In other words, a particular personality type has either

strengths or weaknesses attributed to feeling, doing or relating. For example, personality

type two finds a place in the feeling triad because its assets and liabilities pertain to the

feelings. In a similar manner, the sevens’ pros and cons involve doing so it is in the doing

triad. However, it has to be kept in mind that the personality types of each triad are not

arbitrary. In a typical triad, one of the types overdevelops the characteristics of the triad,

the other under-develops the characteristics and the third one is most out of touch. For

example, in the feeling triad, the two has overdeveloped its feelings, expressing only its

positive emotions while repressing the negative ones. Whereas, three is completely or

mostly out of touch with its feelings and the fours have under-developed feelings.”

“In the same manner, the types in the doing and relating triad have underdeveloped,

overdeveloped or out of touch capacity to do or relate. In the feeling triad there are twos,

three and fours. The doing triad has fives, sixes and sevens, whereas the relating triad has

eights, nines and ones. Another interpretation of the triad is that on the circle of

Enneagram, there is an equilateral triangle with threes, sixes and nines as the three sides of

the triangle. These three can be called as the primary personality types because they have

the most trouble with feelings, doing or relating. All the other six types follow these

primary types.”

“So there is a link in terms of emotions between these triadic group. Briefly it can be said

that the reactions of these triadic groups to a particular product, to a marketing campaign

etc. will display definite similarities

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4.2. Revised Model of Enneagram Psychographic Segmentation: what kind of customer

each Enneagram type is?

All the existing studies have two common qualities: they add an extra dimension of

psychology and/ or lifestyles to a demographic inquiry, and they use quantitative survey

techniques. In a nutshell, psychographic segmentation can be used in a variety of ways: To

define the target market, to create a new view of the market, to position the product, to

better communicate product attributes (Rice 1988), to develop overall strategy and to

market social and political issues (Lastovicka et al 1987). Enneagram and the lifestyle

analyses are closely linked to each other. In an economic sense, one’s lifestyle represents

the way one has elected to allocate income, both in terms of relative allocation to different

products and services and to specific alternatives within these categories (Zablocki, Canter

1976). Enneagram helps in analyzing why these customers choose to lead such lifestyles.

The use of Enneagram will be better appreciated if each of the nine types is described in

detail from a marketing angle based on the many descriptions given earlier in the research:

Ones: Idealistic perfectionists (Goldberg 1996)—They are very particular that rules,

standards and procedures are strictly adhered to. As customers ones want to know that an

organization or marketer has guidelines and directives and that they are being followed.

They don’t want the firm to take shortcuts, if found cutting corners they will sharply

criticize the firm. They want to know that the seller cares about getting things right as

much as they do. Neatness i.e. a clean shop and a clean waiting room counts in this case.

Marketers have to act and present themselves to be ethical and honorable. Ones are

impressed if the organization’s mission statement is displayed and frequently referred to.

Added to all the above it is crucial that the organization ensures that a very orderly and

polite face is presented.

Most Important: The Organization follows the procedures and it’s fair.

Ideal Organization: Weight Watchers

Twos: Open hearted helpers (Goldberg, Fomalont 2000)- personal relationships are of

paramount importance to twos. They are eager to have a friendly customer relationship

with the seller. A rough, impolite and cold seller will put off twos and they will start

scouting for other places to give their business. It is important that the seller recognizes

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twos and makes it personal. It is important that the service provider takes additional steps

like knowing the customer’s name and also providing a warm and personal service. The

twos will be most impressed if they know that certain rule have been altered to specially

favor them.

Most Important: Personal service, flattery and cajoling.

Ideal Organization: Mary Kay Cosmetics

Threes: Hard-driving Performers (Hardin 1995)- want to finish the job quickly and

efficiently, irrespective of who or what is in the way. “Just Do It”, the slogan of Nike

targets the threes and customers who want to be threes. This tends to be the motto of

threes. Getting a good deal and a quick turnaround as customers is very important to threes.

They want to do business with a company that’s successful and with a good reputation, a

winner. It will be advantageous to show these customers newspaper clippings of the

company’s success and also positive customer feed back. The marketer should be efficient,

very responsive and make an effort to give special time slots to the threes. They should be

told how the price they are receiving is the best in the market and it is being done specially

for them. It is advantageous to let them know that firm put its best foot forward.

Most Important: That the organization is competent and successful and looks that way.

Ideal Organization: McDonalds

Fours: Aesthetic Connoisseurs (Naranjo 1990)-They have a passion for aesthetic appeal

like quality and beautiful presentation. As customers they will be concerned that the

organization listens carefully to their particular problems. Their concerns have to be tackled

and honored with special care, uniqueness and style. Marketers should lay special

emphasis and acknowledge the fours’ distinctive personal needs and problems. Special

concessions like out of the way delivery or late night delivery will go a long way in

impressing the fours. Packaging and handling the goods has special importance in the case

of fours. The packaging should be done in such a manner as to impress their aesthetic

sense. The physical surroundings of the transaction should also be plush and comfortable.

Most Important: That the organization respects their ‘unique’ problem. Ideal

Organization: Sak’s 5th Avenue

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Fives: Thoughtful Sages (Riso, Hudson 1996)- Fives are very smart experts of the latest and

best technical know-how in their field. They usually prefer working alone as they tend to

be dispassionate about other people. As customers they are very keen to know whether the

firm selling to them has the most up-to-date equipment and information. They are

impressed when the manufacturer or a trade group certifies people or service providers.

They want simple customer procedures that are not bothersome, in fact they will be very

happy if a firm gives them something free of cost. In the case of fives the marketers should

forget the small talk and get straight to the heart of the problem. Personal information and

complex relationships are irrelevant here. Extra information about the product and service

is always appreciated here. Pamphlets, manuals and do-it-yourself kits will impress the

fives and they ought to be given out as free gifts.

Most Important: Written complaints, E-mail, the facts, numbers and details.

Ideal Organization: Anything.com

Sixes: Prudent Trouble shooters (Naranjo 1994)- They are on the lookout for something to

go wrong and also for some trust worthy sources. Complaints and protests can surely be

expected if something goes wrong. They are great to analyze some tough technical

problems. As customers, they will want to know if the marketer is competent or if he/she is

trying to cheat them like everybody else. It is crucial that the firm keeps everything above

board and also sticks to the commitment made. It is imperative that the selling organization

builds up trust and sticks to its promised word and does exactly what was supposed to be

done. A very patient hearing should be given to the complaints and they have to be treated

in all seriousness. Transparency is highly appreciated by the sixes and this transparency

should reveal the work and the costs. Detailed explanations are necessary and all the

problems, real and potential, ought to be clearly presented to the customer. How these

problems are being tackled and who is tackling them is also very important to the sixes.

Most Important: What will go wrong and whether they can trust the organization

Ideal Organization: CIA

Sevens: Up beat visionaries (Goldberg, Fomalont 2000)- They are big picture planners

who focus on all the great events and changes that are going to happen. They’re smart, and

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they get excited, but they may struggle with staying focused on one thing until the end. As

customers, they want the experience to be fun, up beat and hassle-free. The firm has to

keep in mind that instant gratification has to be given to these customers whenever

possible. They have to be presented with new and interesting and latest add ones. It is

important that the marketer looks comfortable and in control and is able to handle all the

details at the same time keeping pace with the customer requirements.

Most Important: That it is a pleasure dealing with them.

Ideal Organization: Virgin Air, Ben and Jerry’s

Eights: Take-charge Top dogs (Tilsner 1995)- Eights want to be the ones in power,

ordering others about. They want their own way. As customers, in most cases, they can be

blunt, confrontational and vengeful. Eights are a bit tough to handle for any marketer. The

simple rule in this case is to ensure not to be bullied and a firm adherence to agreements is

advocated. Limits have to be rigidly set and defined because eights have a tendency to

always press for more. It is futile to counter argue with them and it is always advisable to be

direct and to the point. It is crucial that the marketer stands his/her ground and clearly

defines what service or product will be provided.

Most Important: That they feel in control and that their complaints will shake up things.

Ideal Organization: Microsoft

Nines: Easygoing Mediators (Riso 1987)- slow and steady, intention is to keep

proceedings calm and everybody functioning as a team. As customers it is most likely that

they will not indulge in direct outbursts of anger but they will go about in a very circuitous

manner in letting out what they want. It will be advantageous if the firm listens to what they

don’t want, because they give a lot of clues through this method. Marketers should give

nines plenty of time and space and should never make the mistake of underestimating

them. It is advantageous if they are made to understand that by providing a good or service

to them their life will be made easy and comfortable.

Most Important: Predictable habit and routine and long stories of procedures.

Ideal Organization: Post Office

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CHAPTER.5.

CONCLUSION

5.1. Limitations and Directions for future Research

The personality types in the Enneagram have to be approached with a note of caution. First,

no style reflects higher capability than any other. Second, one’s overt personality may not

be totally subsumed by a particular type description. Variations based on life experience,

degree of emotional health, and parental Enneagram styles do powerfully impact the

manifestations of personality (Riso, 1999).

This paper attempts to answer a call for research that identifies a typology of consumption

lifestyles. Though the Enneagram at this stage looks abstract it attempts to analyze the

consumption patterns in an in depth manner rather than values, attitudes, interests or

demographics believed to support such a pattern. The basic premise of this paper is that

Enneagram will improve the manner in which psychographic segmentation is done, it will

bring a multi-dimensional approach. However, the use and impact of Enneagram in

psychographic segmentation has yet to be conclusively established. Future research in both

the Enneagram and psychographic segmentation needs to validate the point up to which

Enneagram can be employed. The next logical step after this paper is to undertake empirical

research on a scale comparable to that of personality intruments commonly utilized in

market research and validate the resourcefulness of Enneagram. This is not an easy task, as

data collection especially for such a complex construct is always ridden with logistic and

methodological concerns. However the eventual benefits resulting from an empirical study

will far exceed the final costs.

The Enneagram shares several key principles with recent thinking on integrative marketing.

The globalization scenario in the world requires a much stronger emphasis on integrative

marketing. The global market place requires integrated marketing solutions that combine

advertising with direct mail, channel and trade management. And such strategies can be

devised only if the market itself is thoroughly understood, which requires stronger market

research. For the purpose of this research, Enneagram comes into the picture. With the help

69

of Enneagram, the market can be thoroughly understood and later segmented to suit the

marketer’s needs.

A key area of research at this stage is to assess the adequacy of Enneagram and test this

framework in relation to other competing typologies of psychographic segmentation. The

task for researchers in marketing and consumer behavior is to use the Enneagram

framework as a starting point, at this stage, with which to design a research of wider

context.

It is particularly exciting to visualize the role of Enneagram in marketing. This has not yet

been done and it is definitely a very interesting introduction. At this stage Enneagram has

already been extensively used and widely researched, moreover it is a very simple and

straightforward test to administer. Don Richard Riso, has designed a questionnaire. It is

understandable, non-threatening and easy to administer. It has already been used in diverse

contexts such as project management and implementation, interpersonal relationships and

communications, recruitment and training, personality assessment and self development.

Across each of these contexts, Enneagram has exhibited tremendous diagnostic and

predictive abilities. A reasonable appreciation to this typology is it helps understanding of

different types and thus lead to the improvement of customer service, product positioning

and target marketing that are so crucial to successful marketing. Another question that is

worth of attention is the degree of differences that are visible among the nine types across

countries. This means that it will be interesting and advantageous in the long run to apply

Enneagram in a cross cultural context also. Enneagram will follow the premise that there

are common segments in every country and these segments have consumers who intend to

have more control on their lives and consumption.

5.2. Implications and Conclusion

The Enneagram personality types is a tool that offers practical means of aiding people

discover their inner selves and advance their understanding of others. Exploration of human

evolution, including the evaluation of consciousness and development can be based on the

Enneagram figure. Each character type is its own composite of qualities, defenses and

attitudes that belie a single unconscious motivation. The types described in the Enneagram

are drastically different in core values, worldview, personal and work relationships and in

70

their relationship to the environment. Each type has its own way of falling into imbalance

and ascending toward self-actualization. Understanding of the Enneagram types helps

individuals to relate better with their own conflicting selves and with others in all aspects of

their lives.

The problem of successfully segmenting markets is one of the very complex tasks in

marketing. This is because consumers operate on several levels and they are difficult to

comprehend due to the multiplicity of responses or variations in the response patterns. The

existing typologies for psychographic segmentation appeared inadequate and to a certain

extent uni-dimensional. Hence a new typology that is quite different from the ones in vogue

at present is put forth. This typology, Enneagram, draws from evidence in several fields of

management, psychology and sociology. The complete adequacy and success of the

Enneagram in marketing is not yet proved. Also in the immediate future, the objective of

the researcher is to conduct a quantitative research correlating Enneagram Personality

Types with the existing personality-consumption-possession traits. Difficulty in analyzing

the accumulated data and in obtaining scientific references about the Enneagram Personality

classification as well as the lack of any research about the appropriate and reliable

methodology to test them kept the researcher from studying the comparative study

mentioned above.

However this study will be a motivation to realize the desire of the researcher to introduce

Enneagram Personality Types into the world of consumer behavior research. Hence, it is

hoped that the framework, Enneagram, that is proposed here will yield a number of thought

provoking issues and a vigorous debate on the relative merits of the various typologies. It is

believed that despite the obvious constraints involving consumer research and

psychographic research, sustained efforts by way of far reaching conceptualization and

empirical analysis will advance theory development in this crucial area. The Enneagram

typology is just a starting step in that direction.

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APPENDICES

72

APPENDIX 1.1. A MODEL OF CONSUMER DECISION MAKING

73

APPENDIX 2.1. ENNEAGRAM CIRCLE

74

APPENDIX 2.2. ENNEAGRAM TYPOLOGIES SUMMARY

(Compiled from Riso, 1987, 1990, 1995)

TYPE CHARACTERISTICS MANAGERIAL ORIENTATION

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

One: Reformer, Perfectionist, Idealist

Wise Realist, Reasonable, A Principled Teacher

By the Book, Leads by Example, High Standards

Idealism, Reasonableness, Objectivity

Intolerance, Obsessiveness, Punitiveness

Two: Helper, Giver, Mentor

Disinterested Altruist, Caring, Nurturing Helper

Cheerleader, Appreciators, Management by Encouraging Others

Disinterestedness, Empathy, Generosity

Manipulation, Coercion, Feeling Victimised

Three: Motivator, Performer, Producer

Authentic, Self-assured Person, Outstanding Paragon

Task Oriented, Belief in Meritocracy, High Profile, Autocratic

Inner-directed, Adaptability, Ambitious

Opportunism, Duplicity, Vindictiveness

Four: Artist, Romantic, Innovator

Inspired Creator, Self-Aware, Intuitive, Self-revealing

Intuitive, Bold Uncompromising

Creativity, Self-awareness, Individualist

Self-inhibition, Self-torment, Self-destructiveness

Five: Thinker, Observer, Sage

Pioneering Visionary, Perceptive, Knowledgeable

Philosophical, Well-informed, Detached

Understanding, Involvement, Expertise

Rejection, Distortion, Derangement

Six: Loyalist, Trooper, Partner

Self-affirming, Engaging Committed Loyalist

Reckless, Protective of Inner Circle, Ally

Self-Affirmation, Engagement, Cooperation

Inferiority, Over -reaction, Masochism

Seven: Generalist, Visionary, Futurist

Ecstatic Appreciator, Enthusiastic, Accomplished Generalist

Management by Juggling, Walking Around and Networking

Gratitude, Enthusiasm, Productiveness

Dissipation, Compulsiveness, Gluttony

Eight: Leader, Advocate, Boss

Magnanimous Hero, Self-confident, Constructive

Autocratic, Blunt, Confrontational

Self-Restraint, Self-Confidence, Influential

Ruthlessness, Recklessness, Destructiveness

Nine: Peacemaker, Mediator, Diplomat

Self-Possessed, Receptive Supportive Peacemaker

Participatory, Inclusive, Sharing-orientation

Autonomy, Non-aggressiveness, Supportive

Neglect, Dissociation, Self-abandonment

75

APPENDIX 2.3. THE TRIADS OF ENNEAGRAM

APPENDIX 2.4. DOMINANT EMOTIONS OF THE TRIADS OF ENNEAGRAM

76

Level 1 The Level of Liberation

Healthy Level 2 The Level of Psychological Capacity

Level 3 The Level of Social Value

Level 4 The Level of Imbalance/ Social Role

Average Level 5 The Level of Interpersonal Control

Level 6 The Level of Overcompensation

Level 7 The Level of Violation

Unhealthy Level 8 The Level of Obsession and Compulsion

Level 9 The Level of Pathological Destructiveness

APPENDIX 2.5. THE CONTINUUM OF THE LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT

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APPENDIX 2.6. THE DIRECTION OF DISINTEGRATION

1-4-2-8-5-7-1

9-6-3-9

APPENDIX 2.7. THE DIRECTION OF INTEGRATION

1-7-5-8-2-4-1

9-3-6-9

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APPENDIX 3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN

ENNEAGRAM

PSYCHOGRAPHIC

ENNEAGRAM

PERSONALITY TRAITS

MARKET

SEGMENTATION BASES

POSSESSION TRAITS

CONSUMPTION TRAITS

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APPENDIX 3.2. INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

* The questions will be read within order.

** Related information for each question will be read. (i1,….,i14)

*** The answer sheet related to each question will be filled in. (a1,….,a14)

Questions Information (i1,….,i10) Answer Sheet

(a1,….,a10)

1 How do you reclassify the enneagram personalities relating them with David Clarence McClelland's theory of needs?

i1:McClelland's theory of needs

a1:Enneagram and David Clarence Mcclelland's Theory Of Needs Compatibility

2 How do you reclassify the enneagram personalities relating them with Dr. Alan Hirsch's Snack Foods and Personality Traits?

i2:Dr. Alan Hirsch's Snack Foods and Personality Traits

a2:Enneagram and Dr. Alan Hirsch's Snack Foods and Personality Traits Compatibility

3 How do you reclassify the enneagram personalities relating them with Karen Horney's personality groups?

i3:Karen Horney's Personality Groups

a3:Enneagram and Karen Horney's Personality Groups Compatibility

4 Taking into consideration the market mavenim scale in which sectors or for what type of products which enneagram personality motives can most agree with the questions?

i4:Market Mavenism a4:Enneagram and Market Maven Scale Compatibility

5 Taking into consideration the list of values (Kahle 1983) context which value is the most important for which enneagram personality?

i5:List of Values (Kahle 1983)

a5:Enneagram and List of Values (Kahle 1983) Compatibility

6 What do each enneagram type want from a product? a6:

7 How wings in enneagram effect consumers' behavior and how can we make a segmentation regarding wings?

a7:

8 How triads in enneagram effect consumers' behavior and how can we make a segmentation regarding triads?

a8:

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i1: Information 1

McClelland's Theory of Needs

McClelland proposes that each of us have three fundamental needs that exist in different balances. These affect both how we are motivated and how we attempt to motivate others.

In his acquired-needs theory, which draws on Murray's model, David McClelland proposed that an individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's early life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as either achievement, affiliation, or power. A person's motivation and effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three needs. McClelland's theory sometimes is referred to as the three need theory or as the learned needs theory. Later work indicated that motives are actually quite stable over long periods of time.

1 Achievement

Seeks achievement, attainment of goals and advancement. Strong need for feedback, sense of accomplishment and progres.

People with a high need for achievement (nAch) seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. Predominantly Achievement-motivated individuals avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk projects, the Achievement-motivated see the outcome as one of chance rather than one's own effort. High nAch individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of success, ideally a 50% chance. Achievement-motivated individuals need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their achievements. They prefer either to work alone or with others like themselves.

2 Affiliation

Need for friendships, interaction and to be liked.

Those with a high need for affiliation (nAffil) need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. High nAff individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. They enjoy being part of groups and when not anxious make excellent team members, though sometimes are distractible into social interaction. They can perform well in customer service and client interaction situations.

3 Power

Authority motivated needs to influence and make an impact. Strong need to lead and to increase personal status and prestige.

A person's need for power (nPow) can be one of two types - personal and institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization. Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be more effective than those with a high need for personal power. Work by Abigail Stewart indicated that this motive can interact with emotional maturity; at Stage I, one feels powerful by being associated with the powerful, whereas at Stage IV one sees oneself as a channel to empower others.

Source: http://www.arrod.co.uk/archive/article_motivational_needs.php

81

a1: Answer Sheet 1

Enneagram and David Clarence Mcclelland's Theory Of Needs Compatibility

Instructions:

*

Please give rates "1", "2" and "3" inside the boxes which means "1: has the most resemblance", "2:comparatively less resemblance than 1" and "3:comparatively the least resemblance" respectively where do you think that compatible item has a resemblance with related Enneagram Personality

McClelland's Motives

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation Need for Power

Enneagram Types

Seeks achievement, attainment of goals and advancement. Strong need for feedback, sense of accomplishment and progress

Need for friendships, interaction and to be liked.

Authority motivated needs to influence and make an impact. Strong need to lead and to increase personal status and prestige.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

82

i2: Information 2

Snack Food and Personality Traits

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality is a cornerstone of modern psychology. This theory was built on the premise that unconscious needs or drives, especially sexual and other biological drives, are at the heart of human motivation and personality. Researchers who apply Freud’s psychoanalytic theory to the study of consumer personality believe that human drives are largely unconscious and that consumers are primarily unaware of their true reasons for buying what they buy (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). “Snack Foods and Personality Traits” depicted below is an example of Freudian-like approach to consumer behavior.

Snack Food and Personality Traits

SNACK FOODS PERSONALITY TRAITS

1 Potato Chips Ambitious, successful, high achiever, impatient with less than the best.

2 Tortilla Chips Perfectionist, high expectations, punctual, conservative, responsible.

3 Pretzels Lively, easily bored with same old routine, flirtatious, intuitive, may overcommit to projects.

4 Snack Crackers Rational, logical, contemplative, shy, prefers time alone.

5 Cheese Curls Conscientious, principled, proper, fair, may appear rigid but has great integrity, plans ahead, loves order.

6 Nuts Easygoing, empathetic, understanding, calm, even-tempered.

7 Popcorn Takes charge, pitches in often, modest, self-confident but not a show off.

8 Meat Snacks Gregarious, generous, trustworthy, tends to be overly trusting.

Source: From What Flavor is Your Personality?Discover Who You Are by Looking at What You Eat, by Dr. Alan Hirsch, (Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2001).

83

a2: Answer Sheet 2

Enneagram and Dr. Alan Hirsch's Snack Foods and Personality Traits Compatibility

Instructions:

* Please relate each snack food with 4 Enneagram personlity rating them from 1 to 4 where 1means the most resemblance and 4 means comparatively the least resemblance".

Snack Foods and Personality Traits

Enneagram Types

SNACK FOODS

PERSONALITY TRAITS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 Potato Chips Ambitious, successful, high achiever, impatient with less than the best.

2 Tortilla Chips Perfectionist, high expectations, punctual, conservative, responsible.

3 Pretzels Lively, easily bored with same old routine, flirtatious, intuitive, may overcommit to projects.

4 Snack Crackers

Rational, logical, contemplative, shy, prefers time alone.

5 Cheese Curls Conscientious, principled, proper, fair, may appear rigid but has great integrity, plans ahead, loves order.

6 Nuts Easygoing, empathetic, understanding, calm, even-tempered.

7 Popcorn Takes charge, pitches in often, modest, self-confident but not a show off.

8 Meat Snacks Gregarious, generous, trustworthy, tends to be overly trusting.

84

i3: Information 3

Karen Horney's Personality Groups

Several of Freud’s colleagues disagreed with his contention that personality is primarily instinctual and sexual in nature. Instead, these neo-Freudians believed that social relationships are fundamental to the formation and development of personality. For instance a neo-Freudian researcher Karen Horney stressed that people continuously attempt to establish significant and rewarding relationships with others. She focused on the impact of child-parent relationships and the individual’s desire to conquer feelings of anxiety. Horney proposed that individuals be classified into three personality groups: Compliant, aggressive, and detached.

Moving Toward People

Compliant Personality Type

Needs that move you towards others. These neurotic needs cause individuals to seek affirmation and acceptance.

Moving Against People

Aggressive Personality Type

Needs that move you against others. These neurotic needs result in hostility and a need to control other people. These individuals are often described as difficult, domineering, and unkind.

Moving Away From Others

Detached (Withdrawn) Personality Type

Needs that move you away from others. These neurotic needs create hostility and antisocial behavior. These individuals are often described as cold, indifferent, and aloof.

Source 1: From Schiffman L.G. and Kanuk L.L. 2008, Consumer Behaviour, (9th ed), Prentice-Hall, NY.

Source 2: http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/neuroticneeds.htm

85

a3: Answer Sheet 3

Enneagram and Karen Horney's Personality Groups Compatibility

Instructions:

*

Please relate each Enneagram type with all of the Karen Horney's personality rating them from 1 to 3 where 1 means the most relation and 3 means comparatively the least.

Karen Horney's Personality Groups

Compliant Aggressive Detached (Withdrawn)

Enneagram Types

Compliant individuals are those who move toward others (they desire to be loved, wanted and

appreciated.)

Aggressive individuals are those who move against others (they desire to excel and win admiration)

Detached individuals are those who move away from others (they desire independence, self-reliance,

self-sufficiency, and individualism or freedom from obligations.)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

86

i4: Information 4

Market Mavenism

Market mavens are consumers who are highly involved in the marketplace and represent an important source of marketplace information to other consumers. Because of their influence on other consumers across a wide range of product domains, market mavens are particularly interesting to retailers

Market Maven Scale (Six-point Agree/Disagree Response Format)

1 I like introducing new brands and products to my friends.

2 I like helping people by providing them with information about many kinds of products.

3 People ask me for information about products, places to shop, or sales.

4 If someone asked where to get the best buy on several products, I could tell him or her where to shop.

5 My friends think of me as a good source of information when it comes to new products or sales.

6 Think about a person who has information about a variety of products and likes to share this information with others. This person knows about new products,sales, stores, and so on, but does not necessarily feel he or she is an expert on one particular product. How well would you say that this description fit you?

Source: Ronald E. Goldsmith, Leisa R. Flynn, and Elizabeth B. Goldsmith, "Innovation Consumers and Market Mavens." Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice 11 (Fall 2003):58.

87

a4: Answer Sheet 4

Enneagram and Market Maven Scale Compatibility

Instructions:

*

Please put an "SA", "A", "N", "D", "SD" meaning "SA:Strongly agree", "A:Agree", "N:Neutral", "D:Disagree", "SD:Strongly disagree" in the boxes below where do you think that one question of the scale is of interest to one Enneagram Personality or not.

Market Maven Scale (Six-point Agree/Disagree Response Format)

Product or Sector 1 2 3 4 5 6

Enneagram Types

Define Products or Sectors that you think will be of interest to the related Enneagram Personality.

I like introducing new brands and products to my friends.

I like helping people by providing them with information about many kinds of products.

People ask me for information about products, places to shop, or sales.

If someone asked where to get the best buy on several products, I could tell him or her where to shop.

My friends think of me as a good source of information when it comes to new products or sales.

Think about a person who has information about a variety of products and likes to share this information with others. This person knows about new products,sales, stores, and so on, but does not necessarily feel he or she is an expert on one particular product. How well would you say that this description fit you?

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

88

i5: Information 5

List of Values

The list of values is a list of things that some people look for or want out of life.

List of Values (Kahle 1983)

1 Sense of Belonging

2 Excitement

3 Warm Relationships with others

4 Sef-fullfillment

5 Being well respected

6 Fun and enjoyment of life

7 Security

8 Self-respect

9 A sense of accompolishment

Source: Kahle, Lynn R. (1983). Social Values and Social Change: Adaptation of Life in America. New York: Praeger.

89

a5: Answer Sheet 5

Enneagram and List of Values (Kahle 1983) Compatibility

Instructions:

**

Please relate each value with 4 of the Enneagram personlity rating them from 1 to 4 where 1means the most relation and 4 means comparatively the least.

Enneagram Types

List of Values (Kahle 1983) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 Sense of Belonging

2 Excitement

3 Warm Relationships with others

4 Sef-fullfillment

5 Being well respected

6 Fun and enjoyment of life

7 Security

8 Self-respect

9 A sense of accompolishment

90

a6: Answer Sheet 6

What do each enneagram type want from a product?

Instructions:

* Please summarize your opinion to the boxes below

Enneagram Types

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

91

a7: Answer Sheet 7

How wings in enneagram effect consumers' behavior and how can we make a segmentation regarding wings?

Instructions:

* Please summarize your opinion to the boxes below

92

a8: Answer Sheet 8

How triads of enneagram effect consumers' behavior and how can we make a segmentation regarding triads?

Instructions:

* Please summarize your opinion to the boxes below

93

APPENDIX 4.1. ENNEAGRAM AND DAVID CLARENCE MCCLELLAND'S

THEORY OF NEEDS COMPATIBILITY

a1: Answer Sheet 1

Enneagram and David Clarence Mcclelland's Theory Of Needs Compatibility

Instructions:

*

Please give rates "1", "2" and "3" inside the boxes which means "1: has the most resemblance", "2:comparatively less resemblance than 1" and "3:comparatively the least resemblance" respectively where do you think that compatible item has a resemblance with related Enneagram Personality

McClelland's Motives

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation Need for Power

Enneagram Types

Seeks achievement, attainment of goals and advancement. Strong need for feedback, sense of accomplishment and

progress

Need for friendships, interaction and to be liked.

Authority motivated needs to influence and make an impact. Strong need to lead and to increase personal status

and prestige.

1 1 2 3

2 3 1 2

3 2 1 3

4 Not agreed 1 Not agreed

5 2 3 1

6 3 1 2

7 1 2 3

8 2 3 1

9 3 1 2

1 1 2 3

94

APPENDIX 4.2. ENNEAGRAM AND DR. ALAN HIRSCH'S SNACK FOODS AND

PERSONALITY TRAITS COMPATIBILITY

a2: Answer Sheet 2

Enneagram and Dr. Alan Hirsch's Snack Foods and Personality Traits Compatibility Instructions:

*

Please relate each snack food with 4 Enneagram personlity rating them from 1 to 4 where 1means the most resemblance and 4 means comparatively the least resemblance".

Snack Foods and Personality Traits Enneagram Types

SNACK FOODS PERSONALITY TRAITS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 Potato Chips

Ambitious, successful, high achiever, impatient with less than the best. 1 2

2 Tortilla Chips

Perfectionist, high expectations, punctual, conservative, responsible. 1 2

3 Pretzels Lively, easily bored with same old routine, flirtatious, intuitive, may overcommit to projects. 1

4 Snack Crackers

Rational, logical, contemplative, shy, prefers time alone.

1

5 Cheese Curls

Conscientious, principled, proper, fair, may appear rigid but has great integrity, plans ahead, loves order.

1

6 Nuts Easygoing, empathetic, understanding, calm, even-tempered. 2 1

7 Popcorn Takes charge, pitches in often, modest, self-confident but not a show off. 1 2

8 Meat Snacks

Gregarious, generous, trustworthy, tends to be overly trusting. 1

95

APPENDIX 4.3. ENNEAGRAM AND KAREN HORNEY'S PERSONALITY GROUPS

COMPATIBILITY

a3: Answer Sheet 3

Enneagram and Karen Horney's Personality Groups Compatibility

Instructions:

*

Please relate each Enneagram type with all of the Karen Horney's personality rating them from 1 to 3 where 1 means the most relation and 3 means comparatively the least.

Karen Horney's Personality Groups

Compliant Aggressive Detached (Withdrawn)

Enneagram Types

Compliant individuals are those who move toward

others (they desire to be loved, wanted and appreciated.)

Aggressive individuals are those who move against

others (they desire to excel and win admiration)

Detached individuals are those who move away from

others (they desire independence, self-reliance, self-sufficiency, and individualism or freedom from obligations.)

1 1

2 1

3 1

4 1

5 1

6 1

7 1

8 1

9 1

96

APPENDIX 4.4. A. ENNEAGRAM AND MARKET MAVEN SCALE COMPATIBILITY

a4: Answer Sheet 4

Enneagram and Market Maven Scale Compatibility

Instructions:

*

Please put an "SA", "A", "N", "D", "SD" meaning "SA:Strongly agree", "A:Agree", "N:Neutral", "D:Disagree", "SD:Strongly disagree" in the boxes below where do you think that one question of the scale is of interest to one Enneagram Personality or not.

Market Maven Scale (Six-point Agree/Disagree Response Format)

Product or Sector 1 2 3 4 5 6

Enneagram Types

Define Products or Sectors that you think will be of interest to the related Enneagram Personality.

1

Personal care, general cleaning products, standard, classical products.

2

Giftware, textile, fashion wear, cosmetics, colorful, brilliant, imposing items, curios, trinkets, ice-cream, dried fruits.

3

Textile, footwear, automobile, products giving status, wrist watch, pen, professional products, products with logo, brandmarks, favorite products, elite, excellent products.

4

Original products, artistic products, design products, exotic products, decorative articles, interesting and niche articles, boutique, excessively expensive, rare or unique articles.

5

Technological products, books, informative items, deep professional items, functional products, products related to internet, computers and information technologies.

6

Informative, life expediting products, telecommunication products, security products, comfortable products, practical, original products, refreshing, progressive items, sophisticated.

7

Original, colorful, sophisticated, fashionable, challenging, interesting, refreshing, advanced technological products.

8

Excessively expensive, luxury, products giving power or status, powerful brands, automobile, machinery.

9

Technological, functional products, products related to internet, informative products.

97

APPENDIX 4.4.B. ENNEAGRAM AND MARKET MAVEN SCALE COMPATIBILITY

a4: Answer Sheet 4

Enneagram and Market Maven Scale Compatibility

Instructions:

*

Please put an "SA", "A", "N", "D", "SD" meaning "SA:Strongly agree", "A:Agree", "N:Neutral", "D:Disagree", "SD:Strongly disagree" in the boxes below where do you think that one question of the scale is of interest to one Enneagram Personality or not.

Market Maven Scale (Six-point Agree/Disagree Response Format)

Product or Sector 1 2 3 4 5 6

Enneagram Types

Define Products or Sectors that you think will be of interest to the related Enneagram Personality.

I like introducing new brands and products to my friends.

I like helping people by providing them with information about many kinds of products.

People ask me for information about products, places to shop, or sales.

If someone asked where to get the best buy on several products, I could tell him or her where to shop.

My friends think of me as a good source of information when it comes to new products or sales.

Think about a person who has information about a variety of products and likes to share this information with others. This person knows about new products,sales, stores, and so on, but does not necessarily feel he or she is an expert on one particular product. How well would you say that this description fit you?

1 A

2 SA SA SA SA SA SA

3 A A A SA A A

4 SD SD SD N N SD

5 SD SD SD N N D

6 N A

7 A N A A A A

8 SD SD SD A SD SD

9 A A N

98

APPENDIX 4.5. ENNEAGRAM AND LIST OF VALUES (KAHLE 1983)

COMPATIBILITY

a5: Answer Sheet 5

Enneagram and List of Values (Kahle 1983) Compatibility

Instructions:

**

Please relate each value with 4 of the Enneagram personlity rating them from 1 to 4 where 1means the most relation and 4 means comparatively the least.

Enneagram Types

List of Values (Kahle 1983) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 Sense of Belonging 1 2

2 Excitement 1

3 Warm Relationships

with others 1

4 Sef-fullfillment 1

5 Being well respected 2 1

6 Fun and enjoyment

of life 2 3 1 4

7 Security 1 1

8 Self-respect 1 2

9 A sense of

accompolishment 1 2

99

APPENDIX 4.6. WHAT DO EACH ENNEAGRAM TYPE WANT FROM A

PRODUCT?

a6: Answer Sheet 6

What do each enneagram type want from a product?

Instructions:

* Please summarize your opinion to the boxes below

Enneagram Types

1

Quality, total quality, trust, brands that they are used to, valid brandmarks, low risky products, name-stream, main player in the market, perfect product, perfection, care, high service quality, attentive service, hygiene, order, they care about the content, expiration dates, economical, comparable, they compares a lot, accuracy, no mistakes, serious, elegance, courtesy, experience, well-mannered, content, certificated quality, courtesy, delicacy, hygiene.

2

Easy, image building, cute, pretty, bright, colorful, related to family, related to friendship, love message, ornamental, decorative, apportionable services or products, advised, advisable, commonly approvable, brandmarks, well-assorted, humanistic, emotional, gift, customized, personalized, appliances, accessory, cosmetic

3

Brandmarks, logo, status, professional, occupational, piece of jewellery, apparatus, detailed, decorative, technological, cool, best, best quality, special brandmark, snob, prestigious, elite, high class, elegance, success symbolizing, rating, commonly appreciated, advised products, popularity, favorite, desirable, cosmetic.

4

Special, niche, unique, unpopularity, excessive expensive, excessively personalized, meaningful, special meaning, luxury, face-to-face, self-respect, nice odour, cosmetic, decorative, ambience, rare, uncommon, exotic, artistic, self-expressive, original, different, stylish, fashion leader, divergent, authentic, line, attractive, high product personality, aesthetic, romantic, intellectual.

5 Informative, specialism, excellence, expert, professional, alternative, functional, content, collector’s item, up-to-date, futuristic, economical, sophisticated, intelligent, satisfying in terms of knowledge, online, specialist comment, serious, comparisons.

6

Inspiring confidence, quality certificate, certificated quality, prestigious, traditional, well-known, fundamental, habitual, prudent innovation, technical features, informative, respecting to consumer rights, brandmark, name-stream, delicate, economical, rational, practical, comfortable, guarantee, relationship quality, serious, brand loyalty, after sales service

7

Easy consumer, no matter economical or not, spontaneous, different, original, attractive, colorful, enjoyable, entertaining, innovative, technological, new brands, no brand loyalty, variations, luxury, smart, design, aesthetic, modernity, novelty, exciting, exploitative, adventure, lust, fashion, cool, niche, apportionable, emotional satisfaction, intellectual, media, young, dynamic, energetic, positive, sportive, sexual.

8

Power, comfort, luxury, contradictory, sexual, related to body, habitual, expensive brandmark, satisfactory, respected, status, economical, high class, best brand, vip, A class, independent, guarantee, best service, best product, exotic, energetic, physical, gift, relationship quality, serious, after sales service.

9

Online consuming, alternative, well-assorted, consistent, easy accessible, brandmark, relationship quality, independent, traditional, routine, comfort, automatic, customer comments, comparisons, courtesy, delicacy, polite, well-mannered, technological, innovative, entertaining, recreative.

100

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CV

Mehmet Fatih Karakaya Personal Information

Date of Birth September 02, 1978 Place of Birth Erzincan Marital Status Married

Education 1989-1996 High School Meram Anatolian High School. 1996-2000 Undergraduate Middle East Technical University, Electronics and Electrical Engineering. Professional Life 1998-2000 Founder of a Consulting Company, franchise of CM Expert Italy. 2000-2004 Consultant and Trainer in INKA Consulting Company 2004-2005 Sales Manager in Airfel Company, SANKO Holding. 2005-Still Executive Assistant to the Chairman, BIM Birleşik Mağazalar A.Ş. Seminars and Courses Taken Prof. Dr. Tanıl Kılınç, “Yönetsel Liderlik” Prof. Dr. Tanıl Kılınç, “Karar verme ve Problem Çözme” Prof. Dr. İsmet Barutçugil, “Performans Yönetimi” Prof. Dr. İsmet Barutçugil, “Yönetim ve Liderlik” Prof. Dr. Canan Çetin. “İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi” Philip Kotler, “Marketing” Wall Street Instıtute, “Milestone Level English Course” Ilmenau Teknik Üniversitesi, Almanya, “Know Thyself” Pecs Üniversitesi, Macaristan, “Human Dynamics” Doç. Dr. Selim Uzunoğlu, “Enneagram Personalities” Sertification Baltaş-Eksen, “Hogan Kişilik Ölçümü” MediaCat Workshopları; “Kurum Kimliği” Güngören Gebze Sanayici ve İşadamları Derneği; “Dış Ticaret” Hazine Müsteşarlığı Bilgilendirme Programı. Jülide Gülizar, “Diksiyon-Fonetik” Özkan Kaymak, “Satış Tenikleri” Özkan Kaymak, “Her Şikayet Bir Armağandır” Ahmet Şerif İzgören, “Beden Dili” Acar Baltaş, “Beden Dili” Birten Gökyay, “Halkla İlişkiler” Prof. Dr. Nuri Tortop, “Yönetici Asistanlığı” Nihat Aytürk, “Protokol ve Nezaket Kuralları” Taner Özdeş, “Pazarlamanın Yeni Psikolojisi”

110

Personal Portfolio 1999 “Globalizing World, Globalizing Human” conference handout, ISWI 99, International Student's Week of İlmenau,

Ilmenau Technical University, Germany 2002 “Kişilik ve Kariyer”, conference handout, Kariyer Günleri, Atılım Üniversitesi 2002 “Ekip Çalışması ve Enneagram Kişilikleri”, seminar notes, 52 pages 2003 “Yöneticinin Vizyonu”, seminar notes, 80 pages 2003 “Satışta Müşteri İlişkileri”, seminar notes, 60 pages 2003 “Bayi Yönetimi ve Kampanya Teknikleri”, seminar notes, 45 pages 2004 “Aile Şirketlerinde Kurumsallaşma”, article

AİK’04, 1. Aile İşletmeleri Kongresi Kongre Kitabı, Kültür Üniversitesi

2005 “İştevizyon Eğitim Seti, 3 VCDs”, visual instruction media.