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Precambrian Research 264 (2015) 1–10

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Precambrian Research

jo ur nal homep ag e: www.elsev ier .com/ locate /precamres

hort communication

possible buried Paleoproterozoic collisional orogen beneath centralouth China: Evidence from seismic-reflection profiling

.W. Donga,∗, Y.Q. Zhanga, R. Gaoa, J.B. Sua, M. Liub, J.H. Lia

Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100081, ChinaDepartment of Geological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 25 November 2014eceived in revised form 13 March 2015ccepted 2 April 2015vailable online 13 April 2015

eywords:outh China

a b s t r a c t

The South China Craton consisting of the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks has figured importantly in theNeoproterozoic supercontinent of Rodinia. However, its lack of Grenville-age structures and metamor-phism and the presence of Paleoproterozoic high-grade metamorphism and S-type magmatism raisequestions about the timing and nature of the Yangtze–Cathaysia collision. Here we present results of a400-km-long high-resolution seismic reflection profile across the purported suture between the Yangtzeand Cathaysia Blocks. The seismic profile reveals folded and thrust-imbricated seismic reflectors whichwe interpret to represent the relics of the Yangtze–Cathaysia collisional orogen. The inferred orogen was

eismic reflection profilealeoproterozoicollisional orogenolumbia

extended in the Neoproterozoic, resulting in its burial by Neoproterozoic flysch strata. Geochronologicaldata suggest that this buried orogen was formed in the Paleoproterozoic (∼2.0–1.9 Ga), likely associatedwith the assembling of the Columbia supercontinent. These results call for major revision of the modelsfor the formation of the South China craton and its role in the assembling of the Rodinia and the Columbiasupercontinents.

© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

. Introduction

The South China Craton is traditionally considered to haveesulted from the amalgamation of the Yangtze and Cathaysialocks (Li et al., 2002, 2007), as part of the global Grenvillian con-inental collision that assembled the supercontinent Rodinia (e.g.,hu et al., 2011), which is expressed by the development of the1200 km Xuefeng–Jiangnan fold-thrust belt in central South ChinaFig. 1). The evidence for associating the formation of the Southhina Craton with the Neoproterozoic Grenvillian orogeny includes1) the Neoproterozoic stratigraphic unconformity in the Xuefeng

ountain belt (Wang et al., 2007a,b), (2) the 1.0–0.9 Ga ophio-ites and blue schists east of the Xuefeng Mountain belt (Chent al., 1991), (3) the 1.3–1.0 Ga greenschist-facies metamorphismn both sides of the orogen (Li et al., 2002, 2007), and (4) Neopro-erozoic foreland-basin deposits on the Yangtze side sourced fromhe Cathaysia Block (Li et al., 2002). This Neoproterozoic collision

odel, however, fails to explain several observations such as (1)he low-grade (green-schist facies) metamorphism along the pro-osed suture zone, contrasting to the high-grade metamorphism in

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 01068999606.E-mail address: swdong@cags.ac.cn (S.W. Dong).

ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2015.04.003301-9268/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

typical Grenvillian orogenic belts (e.g., Johansson et al., 1991), (2)the lack of anatexis in the inferred collisional orogenic belt, (3) theyoung age (ca. 900–800 Ma, e.g., Wang and Li, 2003) of the angularunconformity thought to mark the time of the Yangtze–Cathaysiacollision, which differs from the ∼1.3–1.0 Ga global Grenvillianorogeny (e.g., Hoffman, 1989).

Recent studies in South China have recognized Paleoproterozoicgranulite- to amphibolite-facies metamorphism and S-type mag-matic activity (e.g., Yu et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2014a,b), raisingthe question of whether the formation of the coherent South ChinaCraton was accomplished in the Paleoproterozoic, possibly duringthe assembling of the Columbia supercontinent. The question ofwhether the formation of the South China craton was associatedwith the assembling of the Rodinia supercontinent or the Columbiasupercontinent is important to the reconstructions of Proterozoiccontinents, but testing these different models is hampered by thesparse exposure of Paleoproterozoic rocks in South China.

Subsurface geology can provide important insight into crustalarchitecture and tectonic history of collisional orogen (Lucaset al., 1993). Here we report results of a high-resolution seismic-

reflection profile across a segment of the Xuefeng–Jiangnanfold-thrust belt (Fig. 1). The seismic images reveal a buried oro-gen in the middle crust possibly achieved by the Yangtze–Cathaysiacollision. In conjunction with analysis of regional stratigraphy and

2 S.W. Dong et al. / Precambrian Research 264 (2015) 1–10

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ig. 1. Simplified geological map showing the Precambrian geology of South China

–B. Inset shows the major Precambrian blocks in China.

eochronology, we propose that the South China craton was formedy Paleoproterozoic continental collision and modified by Neopro-erozoic rifting.

. Regional geology

The South China Craton consists of the Yangtze Block in theorthwest and the Cathaysia block in the southeast (Fig. 1). Theangtze Block is an ancient terrane bearing Archean continen-al nucleus that underwent Paleoproterozoic and Neoproterozoiceworking, as evidenced by abundant 3.8–3.2 Ga TTG rocks (Zhangt al., 2006a), 2.0–1.9 Ga high-grade metamorphism and migma-ization in the Kongling complex (Zhang et al., 2006b), andidespread 820–750 Ma magmatism (Zhang and Zheng, 2013). Theature of the Cathaysia block is hotly debated, with controversiesxisting over whether this so-called block is a Precambrian “oldand” (Grabau, 1924; Shui, 1987), or a Paleozoic “orogenic belt”Guo et al., 1989). This block underwent episodic metamorphismnd rifting in the Proterozoic, as evidenced by the developmentf ∼1.9 Ga amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks (Yu et al., 2012;an et al., 2007), ∼1.8 Ga post-orogenic A-type granitoids (Yu

t al., 2009a,b), and ∼860–800 Ma mafic gabbroic intrusions (Shut al., 2011). The Xuefeng–Jiangnan fold-thrust belt is tradition-lly considered the collisional orogen marking the formation ofhe South China craton from the collision between the Yangtzend Cathaysia Blocks (e.g., Charvet et al., 1996; Cawood et al.,013). This event is marked by the angular unconformity sepa-ating two low-grade metamorphic sequences (Wang et al., 2008).bove this unconformity is the Banxi or Danzhou Group, composed

f Neoproterozoic (820–750 Ma) sandstone, conglomerate, pelite,late and lesser volcano-clastic rocks (Wang and Li, 2003). Belowhe unconformity is the Lengjiaxi or Fangjingshan Group, com-osed of 860–820 Ma (e.g., Wang and Li, 2003) schist, sandstone,

fied after Zhao and Cawood, 2012) and the location of the seismic reflection profile

siltstone interbedded with minor tuff, spilite and mafic-ultramaficsills, and shows depositional features of flysch turbidites (Wanget al., 2007a,b). This sequence is characterized by tight linear, isocli-nal and overturned folds, contrasting to the open folds in the BanxiGroup above the unconformity (e.g., Wang et al., 2007a,b). Coevalwith deposition of the Lengjiaxi and Banxi Groups was magmatismthat generated 860–700 Ma granitoids, gabbros, bimodal volcanicrocks and lesser komatiitic basalts in the Xuefeng–Jiangnan fold-thrust belt (e.g., Wang et al., 2007a). The magmatism is consideredanorogenic in an intra-continental rifting setting, related to man-tle plume activity causing breakup of Rodinia (Li et al., 1999),continental-margin arc development (Zhou et al., 2002), or meltingof a juvenile arc during orogenic collapse and lithospheric extension(Zheng et al., 2008). Notably, the Neoproterozoic flysch turbidites,together with the anorogenic magmatic rocks, constitute a huge riftbasin termed as the Nanhua Rift. The rift initiated coevally with thedeposition of the Banxi Group (at ca. 820 Ma) that developed upona folded basement composed of the Lengjiaxi Group and its equiv-alents, which underwent several episodes of rifting events duringthe period 820–690 Ma (Wang and Li, 2003). This rift was evolvedinto a foreland basin during the Paleozoic intra-continental orogenyand eventually closed by the end of this orogeny, as indicated by aregional angular unconformity at the base of Upper Devonian (e.g.,Shu et al., 2008; Li et al., 2010; Charvet et al., 2010). And in turn,the newly created Paleozoic intra-continental orogenic belt wasoverprinted by alternative episodes of compressional and exten-sional events in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic times (e.g., Li et al.,2013, 2014a,b; Zhang et al., 2012).

3. Seismic-reflection data

We obtained a 400-km-long high-resolution seismic-reflection profile across the central South China including the

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uefeng–Jiangnan thrust belt, as part of China’s SinoProbe projectFig. 1) (Dong et al., 2013a). The two-way travel time of the profiles up to 8 s, equivalent to a depth of ∼24 km. Data acquisition androcessing methods are given below.

.1. Data acquisition

The 400-km seismic reflection profile of the Xuefeng–Jiangnanold-thrust belt was completed in 2010. The seismic data werecquired by using French Sercel SN408XL 24-bit digital seismicecorders with 1600 channels. Dynamite sources of 40 kg nom-nal for normal shots and 200 kg nominal for large shots werered with a spacing of 160 m and 5000 m, respectively. Shot spac-

ng was reduced to 80 m across the mountainous regions of theuefeng–Jiangnan fold-thrust belt. Dynamite for 40-kg sources waslaced in single holes at depth of 22–24 m. Dynamite for 200-kgources were detonated in 25-m deep 5-hole arrays. SM-24 geo-hones were used with a dominant frequency of 10-Hz in a grouppace of 40 m. Seismic data were recorded for 30 s at a sampling ratef 2 million seconds. We expect imaging the crust at shallow levels0–6 s) at least 60 (in basin)/120 (in orogen) folds and at deep levels6–30 s) at least 30 folds. The acquisition parameters are listed inppendix Table A1.

.2. Data processing

.2.1. Routine processingBy combining the advantages of Grisys, Omega and CGG sys-

ems, seismic data processing was first conducted following atandard procedure generally practiced in the petroleum indus-ries (Appendix Table A2). These include the key steps using theollowing software packages: demultiplex, geometry definition,ecord and trace edition, stacking area element parameters cho-en (for crooked lines), editing/muting, gain recovery, elevationtatic, spectral analysis, bandpass filtering, velocity analysis, nor-al moveout correction (NMO), residual static correction, and

tacking and migration.Muting was accomplished by first applying a fixed amplitude

ecovery (spherical divergence and balance) designed to keep therace amplitudes roughly constant with time and across the shotecords. In this way, any traces contaminated by environmentaloise (wind, cattle, traffic) stood out and are expressed as high-mplitude traces at depth. This is because the recorded amplitudef the noise is more or less constant with time (whereas the ampli-udes of the seismic reflections decrease rapidly with time) and thepherical divergence correction (designed to even out the seismicignal) greatly amplifies the noise. Once this was done, it becametraightforward to mute the noise signals from the shot recordssing an interactive display.

A replacement velocity of 4000 m/s and a reference elevation of200 m have been used to calculate the elevation and static correc-ions. First breaks were picked manually. Effective reflectivity has

bandwidth of 5–45 Hz and dominant frequency of 22 Hz. A widerass-band was used for the pre-stack data. For the top 2.5 s TWThe filter specifications were (8–12–65–70 Hz). In addition, filterpecifications 2.5–5.0 s and below 5.0 s were (6, 10, 45, 50) and (5,, 40, 45) respectively.

After band-pass filtering and a CMP gather, elevation and sta-ics were applied. For uplifting signal–noise ratio, pre-stack F-Kltering and Wiener deconvolution were tested but found noto improve the data significantly, and so were not applied tohe data. Velocity analyses were performed, but below 6 s the

ormal moveout correction is almost senseless for the velocityariation. Surface-consistent residual statics were calculated byTACK-POWER method interactively with the velocity analyses.utomatic gain control, F-K filter to attenuate steeply dipping

esearch 264 (2015) 1–10 3

events and pre-stack time migration was performed. The sectionsare plotted with no vertical exaggeration for a velocity of 6 km/s.

3.2.2. Special processing proceduresTraditional refraction methods usually provided satisfactory

static correction results for simple layered structures near surface.However, the first arrivals of shot data may be highly distorteddue to severe topography and rapidly variable near-surface struc-tures. Refraction static and ray-tracing tomography methods weretested but they did not help improve the data quality. Instead, weapply the TSCWR technique that solves nonlinear wave equationsusing a finite-difference method. This method was combined withthe first wave’s stability and the flexibility of rotary to avoid theshadow effect behind high-velocity bodies. TSCWR performance isfaster and better in static correction than refraction and ray-tracingtomography for same shot data.

For data with low signal–noise ratios, velocity panels were per-formed to the CMP sets with 4% proportion (distance 1000 m,CMP 100 channels) in the varied-density section to find sig-nificant reflection. For the part of the seismic line with severetopography, highly variable near-surface structures, such as alongCDP8000-13000 of 07-1 line across the southern front of theXuefeng–Jiangnan fold-thrust belt, the velocity intervals are at50–20 m. The common pre-stack processing of commercial soft-ware packages (e.g., CGG and PROMAX) and wave-equation andline-migration techniques were attempted on the seismic dataacquired from the mountainous areas but the results show lowsignal-to-noise ratios. This problem was overcome by applying animproved algorithm of Kirchhoff Pre-Stack Time Migration in roughEarth surface (KPSTM), which is pending for a patent in China.

3.3. Seismic-reflection interpretation

The original high-resolution seismic profile and its interpreta-tion are shown in Fig. 2A. Along the northwestern part of the profile,strong and folded reflectors are imaged in the upper crust of theYangtze Block (Fig. 2A). These reflectors are interpreted to repre-sent a thin-skinned fold-thrust system developed during the LateJurassic (Yan et al., 2003). This fold system consists of chevrontype anticline and syncline zones separated by the Qiyueshanfault; these folds were produced by multiple detachment faul-ting along various stratigraphic layers in the Cambrian-Ordovicianstrata (Fig. 2A). The middle crust of the Yangtze Block is almost seis-mically transparent, with sporadic reflectors displaying flat-ramptrajectory and possibly representing deep shear zones or decolle-ments within the Precambrian basement (e.g., reflector sequencesA and B in Fig. 2A), consistent with that inferred by Chu et al.(2012). Separated from the Yangtze Block by the Dayong fault, theXuefeng–Jiangnan fold-thrust belt displays a distinctly differentcrustal structure as detailed below.

3.3.1. Shallow reflections (<∼6 km)Shallow reflectors are gently folded and offset by interpreted

faults with minor displacements (Fig. 2B). These reflectors are inter-preted as representing the Neoproterozoic to Mesozoic strata basedon correlation with regional stratigraphy and surface geology (Liet al., 2012). Folding and thrusting of these strata might have hap-pened in the Jurassic time, as seismically evidenced by (1) the thrustjuxtaposition between interpreted Jurassic and Paleozoic strataalong the eastern margin of Yuanma Basin (i.e., the reflector regionC in Fig. 2C), and (2) the interpreted southeast-directed thrusts (i.e.,reflector sequences D in Fig. 2C) truncating Neoproterozoic strata

(Pt3b) were unconformably overlain by the Cretaceous strata in thecenter of the Yuanma Basin. These interpretations were supportedby surface structural observations within and around the YuanmaBasin (Li et al., 2012). The lowermost rock unit (Pt3b), marked in

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Fig. 2. (A) Interpreted seismic profile across the central South China including the Xuefeng–Jiangnan fold-thrust belt. (B, C) Uninterpreted and interpreted seismic profile across the Xuefeng–Jiangnan fold-thrust belt. (D) Fieldsection across the Fanjingshan antiform showing the unconformity between the Banxi and Lengjiaxi Groups. (E) Geological features corresponding to seismic reflections, including the stratigraphy, lithology, and tectonic events.

S.W. Dong et al. / Precambrian Research 264 (2015) 1–10 5

Fig. 3. (A) Field view to show the flat-lying Banxi Group slate at the top of the Fangjingshan antiform; (B) field macroscopic view showing the stratigraphic unconformitybetween the flat-lying Banxi Group conglomerate and tightly folded Lengjiaxi Group slate; (C) field close-up view showing the Banxi Group conglomerate resting on theu elow t

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lue in Fig. 2C, corresponds to the interpreted Banxi Group (Fig. 2E).ur field mapping in the Fanjingshan antiform shows that this rocknit is generally flat-lying in outcrops that testifies to weak short-ning (Fig. 3A). At the bottom of this rock unit develops a traceableonglomerate layer (Fig. 3B, C), which unconformably lies on theightly folded Lengjiaxi Group slate (Fig. 3C, D).

.3.2. Upper-crustal reflections (∼6–12 km)The upper crust at ∼6–12 km depth is mostly seismically trans-

arent, with sparse reflectors beneath the Cretaceous Yuanmaasin (Fig. 2C). At the southern segment of the profile, the cul-ination of the transparent zone is exposed at the surface, which

s tightly folded (Fig. 3D) and corresponds to the 860–820 Ma fly-ch sequence of the Lengjiaxi Group in the core of the Fanjingshanntiform (Fig. 2D, E). The thickness of this transparent zone variesignificantly from ∼3 km to >10 km, with the maximal thickness of12 km being developed in the Fanjingshan area (Fig. 2C). Such a

hickness is much thicker than the common thickness (∼3–5 km) ofhe Lengjiaxi Group (Wang et al., 2007a,b), possibly resulting from1) localized contractional deformation associated with remarkablehrusting and folding, and/or (2) the transparent zone compriseswo or more rock units. Notably, the oldest sedimentary strataeneath the Lengjiaxi Group are termed as the Tieshajie Group thatutcrop in the central Jiangnan Orogen, which have similar lithol-gy to the Lengjiaxi Group (Gao et al., 2013) and thus would displaydentically transparent reflection in the seismic profile. Its depo-itional age of ∼1.1 Ga (Gao et al., 2013) might have provided anstimate on the lower time limit of this transparent zone (Fig. 2E).

.3.3. Mid-crustal reflections (∼12–21 km)The middle crust displays strong reflections, marked by folded

eflectors that are truncated by northwest- and southeast-dipping

he unconformity.

faults with several kilometers of offsets, delineating a stronglyreworked crustal architecture (Fig. 2B). Some reflectors displaycurvilinear geometry in cross section view reminiscent of ramp-flatthrust geometry (e.g., reflector sequences E in Fig. 2C). The overallgeometry of the middle crust indicates crustal-scale imbrications,with thrust sheets stacked above a major detachment climbingfrom >21 km depth. In most places along the profile, thrust struc-tures can be traced from relatively shallow depths (3–4 s) to deepercrustal levels (>7 s), where they appear to flatten and sole into sig-nificantly less reflective lower crust (Fig. 2C). This reworked middlecrustal architecture sharply contrasts to the seismically transparentmiddle crust of the Yangtze Block, as the latter reveals a nonde-structive, crystallized basement beneath a stable craton (Fig. 2A).By considering the central position of the Xuefeng Mountain beltbetween the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks, we interpret these mid-dle crustal fold-and-fault structures as being part of a regional,southeast-verging thrust belt, probably resulted from the collisionbetween the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks. This crustal architec-ture is geometrically similar to other ancient buried orogens, suchas the east Alberta orogen (Ross et al., 1995) and Trans-Hudsonorogen (Lucas et al., 1993) in Canada.

Apart from the collision-related contractional structures, arraysof normal faults (i.e., faults F-I in Fig. 2C) can be traced seismi-cally via truncated reflectors, which produced several graben andhalf-graben structures geometrically similar to that shown by theseismic profile of the Daba Shan in the northern Yangtze Block(Dong et al., 2013b). The inferred fault traces except fault I ter-minate upward at the seismically transparent region (Fig. 2C),

indicating that related fault activities occurred during or soon afterthe deposition of the Lengjiaxi and Tieshajie Groups. The normalfault I can be traced upward with the surface exposed Xupu riftfault that was responsible for Cretaceous subsidence of the Xupu

6 S.W. Dong et al. / Precambrian Research 264 (2015) 1–10

Fig. 4. A synthesis of geochronological data based on Proterozoic metamorphic and magmatic rocks in South China. Their locations, petrologies, ages, dating methods, andreferences are listed in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1Summary of zircon U–Pb ages related to Paleoproterozoic magmatism in South China.

Area Locality/strata Rock type Analytical method Age (Ma) Reference

Yangtze BlockHubei Kongling Trondhjemitic gneiss SIMS concordia point 1992 ± 16 Qiu et al. (2000)Hubei Kongling Metapelite SIMS concordia point 1933 ± 50 Qiu et al. (2000)Hubei Quanyishang K-feldspar granite LA-ICPMS concordia point 1854 ± 17 Xiong et al. (2009)Hubei Quanyishang A-type granite LA-ICPMS concordia point 1851 ± 14 Peng et al. (2012)Hubei Quanyishang A-type granite LA-ICPMS concordia point 1846 ± 13 Peng et al. (2012)Hubei Kongling Dolerite dyke LA-ICPMS concordia point 1852 ± 11 Peng et al. (2009)Hubei Shennongjia Andesite LA-ICPMS concordant 1895 ± 43 Qiu et al. (2011)Hubei Zhongxiang A-type granite LA-ICPMS concordia point 1851 ± 18 Zhang et al. (2011)Sulu Rongcheng Eclogite SIMS discordia intercept 1838 ± 41 Tang et al. (2008)Sulu Wulian Mesozoic granite LA-ICPMS concordia point 1873 ± 54 (n = 6) Huang et al. (2006)Sulu Wulian Mesozoic granite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1999 ± 280 Huang et al. (2006)Sichuan Hekou Goup Dolerite SIMS concordia point 1710 ± 8 Guan et al. (2011)Sichuan Hekou Goup Volcanic SIMS concordia point 1680 ± 13 Zhou et al. (2011)Yunnan Dahongshan Group Tuffaceous schist SHRIMP concordia point 1675 ± 8 Greentree and Li (2008)Yunnan Dahongshan Group Volcanic rock LA-ICPMS 1681 ± 13 Zhao and Zhou (2011)Yunnan Dahongshan Group Dolerite dyke LA-ICPMS 1659 ± 16 Zhao and Zhou (2011)Yunnan Dongchuan Group Tuff LA-ICPMS concordant 1742 ± 13 (n = 23) Zhao et al. (2010)

Cathaysia BlockZhejiang Daojiuwan Fm. of the

Chencai ComplexMeta-gabbro SHRIMP upper intercept 1781 ± 21 Li et al. (2010)

Zhejiang Danzhu Granodiorite LA-ICPMS intercept age 1875 ± 33 Wang et al. (2008)Zhejiang Sanzhishu Gneissic granite LA-ICPMS concordia point 1860 ± 13 Liu et al. (2009)Zhejiang Danzhu in Longquan Amphibolite LA-ICPMS concordia point 1815 ± 31 Xiang et al. (2008)Zhejiang Danzhu Amphibolite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1850 ± 9 Xiang et al. (2008)Zhejiang Xikou Biotite gneiss LA-ICPMS discordia upper intercept 1867 ± 10 Yu et al. (2009a)Zhejiang Danzhu Biotite monzogranite LA-ICPMS discordia upper intercept 1855 ± 9 Yu et al. (2009a)Zhejiang Wangyu Biotite gneiss LA-ICPMS discordia upper intercept 1869 ± 10 Yu et al. (2009a)Zhejiang Tianhou Biotite granodiorite LA-ICPMS discordia upper intercept 1853 ± 12 Yu et al. (2009a)Zhejiang Xiaji Monzogranite LA-ICPMS discordia upper intercept 1888 ± 7 Yu et al. (2009a)Zhejiang Lizhuang Biotite granite LA-ICPMS discordia upper intercept 1875 ± 9 Yu et al. (2009a)Zhejiang Jingju K-feldspar granite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1861 ± 35 Xia et al. (2012)Zhejiang Jingju K-feldspar granite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1849 ± 30 Xia et al. (2012)Zhejiang Jinluohou Gneissic granite SHRIMP discordia intercept 1877 ± 10 Xia et al. (2012)Zhejiang Jinluohou Garnet-bearing biotite

graniteSHRIMP and LA-ICPMS discordiaintercept

1878 ± 28 Xia et al. (2012)

Zhejiang Badu Group Charnockite LA-ICPMS zircon U–Pb 1858 Zhao et al. (2014b)Zhejiang Badu Group Charnockite LA-ICPMS zircon U–Pb 1848 Zhao et al. (2014b)Zhejiang Badu Group Gneissic granodiorite LA-ICPMS zircon U–Pb 1886 Zhao et al. (2014b)NE Fujian Mayuan Group Biotite gneiss SHRIMP concordant 1841 ± 94 (n = 3) Wan et al. (2007)NW Fujian Pucheng Gneissic granite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1851 ± 21, 1857 ± 29 Li et al. (2011)North Fujian North Wuyi Leucosome in

migmatiteLA-ICPMS concordia point 1719 ± 33 Wang et al. (2011)

Fujian Zhenghe Gabbro SIMS concordia point on xenocryst 1964 ± 8 Shu et al. (2011)West Fujian Tianjingping Fm. Biotite gneiss SHRIMP concordant 1790 ± 19 Wan et al. (2007)West Fujian Doushui Lamprophyre LA-ICPMS discordia upper intercept 1859 ± 19 Yu et al. (2009b)Guangdong Longchuan Gneiss LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1720 ± 21 Yu et al. (2006)Guangdong Guzhai at Longchuan Granodiorite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1718 ± 80 Ding et al. (2005)Guangdong Yunkai Pyroxenite SHRIMP concordant 1817 ± 36 Qin et al. (2006)Guangdong Yunkai Garnet pyroxenite SHRIMP concordant 1894 ± 17 Qin et al. (2006)Guangdong Yunkai Garnet pyroxenite SHRIMP concordant 1847 ± 59 Qin et al. (2006)

rian Research 264 (2015) 1–10 7

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S.W. Dong et al. / Precamb

raben (Fig. 2C). This fault causes a ∼8 km dip-slip offset of thenterpreted pre-1.1 Ga strata but only ∼3 km offset of the inter-reted Banxi Group (Fig. 2C), requiring the fault to have slipped at5 km prior to the deposition of the Banxi Group. It is thus likely

hat this fault initiated coevally with normal faults F-H that allesulted from an identical rifting event during the Neoproterozoic.s revealed by the seismic profile, this regional rifting event largelyhaped the gross middle crustal architecture, partly destroying thelder, collision-related structures (Fig. 2C).

. Discussion

.1. Age of the buried orogen beneath the Xuefeng Mountain Belt

How to preciously constrain the age of collisional orogenys a key but puzzling issue because we cannot collect samplesrom this buried orogen to directly date its age. We attempt toddress this issue by integrating contact relationships shown inhe seismic profile and geochronological evidences from regional

etamorphism and magmatism. Our seismic profile reveals thathe collision-related folds and thrusts are unconformably overlainy the transparent region interpreted as the Tieshajie Group (e.g.,he reflector region J in Fig. 2C), indicating that this mid-crustal con-raction predated the deposition of the Tieshajie Group (∼1.1 Ga).iven that this continental collision might have induced large-cale metamorphism and magmatism which should be widelyocumented and not only restricted in the Xuefeng Mountainelt, we complied all published zircon ages related to pre-1.1 Gaetamorphism and magmatism in South China, aiming at pro-

iding further constraints on the age of the buried orogen. Theesults are summarized in Fig. 4 and listed in Tables 1 and 2. Aotal of 72 high-precision U–Pb zircon ages suggest that both theangtze and Cathaysia Blocks (1) experienced amphibolite to gran-lite facies metamorphism and deformation in the period of ca..05–1.86 Ga (e.g., Yu et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2006a), and (2)nderwent intense crustal anatexis at ca. 2.0–1.85 Ga that gener-ted numerous syn-orogenic S-type granitoid bodies (e.g., Yu et al.,009a,b). These geochronological data indicate this buried colli-ional orogeny to have occurred ca. 2.0–1.86 Ga, coeval with thessembling of the supercontinent Columbia (Zhao et al., 2002).oreover, these data imply that the protoliths of metamorphic

ocks and anatexis magmas should be older than 2.0 Ga, possiblyorresponding to the Paleoproterozoic Badu Group (2.5–2.0 Ga, Yut al., 2012) and its equivalents exposed elsewhere in South ChinaFig. 1). Such interpretation requires the buried Paleoproterozoicrogen to have been directly overlain by the Tieshajie Group dur-ng the Stenian (∼1.1 Ga), with the absence of the Calymmian toctasian (1.6–1.2 Ga) rocks. This is consistent with surface expo-ures and regional geology, as a growing number of studies haveonfirmed that (1) the existence of Paleoproterozoic high-gradeetamorphic rocks beneath Neoproterozoic flysch turbidites (e.g.,

hao et al., 2014a,b; Yu et al., 2012), and (2) the general absence ofesoproterozoic rocks with the exception of the Hainan Island in

he Cathaysia Block (e.g., Zhao and Cawood, 2012; Li et al., 2002).e argue that the buried orogen imaged in the seismic profile pos-

ibly reflects reworking of the Paleoproterozoic crust of centralouth China in response to the assembling of the supercontinentolumbia.

.2. A new model for Paleoproterozoic assembling andeoproterozoic rifting of the South China craton

Crustal structures imaged by our seismic-refection profiling doot support assembling of the South China craton in the Neo-roterozoic, because such models would require the seismically

Ru-1 from the Cathaysia Block (location in Fig. 1). Note the absence of Mesoprotero-zoic (1.4–1.0 Ga) magmas.

transparent zone to represent seismic reflections indicative ofcontinental collisional orogen. Alternatively, the strong seismicreflectors below the transparent zone, with prominent crustal-scale thrust imbrications and folding, more likely represent thecollisional orogen. Our seismic data, consistent with stratigraphicand geochronological data presented here, suggest that the buriedorogen developed in the Paleoproterozoic (∼2.0–1.86 Ga) and wassubsequently modified by Neoproterozoic crustal rifting. This newmodel would explain (1) ∼2.0–1.86 Ga high-grade metamorphismand crustal anatexis in both the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks (e.g.,Yu et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2014a,b), and (2) widespread occurrenceof Neoproterozoic (∼850–700 Ma) anorogenic magmatism in SouthChina (e.g., Wang et al., 2007a,b; Shu et al., 2011). Furthermore,the contact relationship between the Neoproterozoic rift-relatedsequences and the Paleoproterozoic orogen could account for theabsence of Mesoproterozoic sedimentary strata, which are onlysporadically distributed along the western margin of the YangtzeBlock (Fig. 1). Such a prediction is further confirmed by the remark-able absence of Mesoproterozoic (1.4–1.0 Ga) magmas, as revealedby our new U–Pb ages of inherited zircons from one gabbroic dykesample (Ru-1) in the Cathaysia Block (Fig. 5, see Fig. 1 for the samplelocation).

Our new model would help address a number of problemsassociated with the previous models of the Neoproterozoic amal-gamation of the South China craton. For example, recent studieshave emphasized the existences of Neoproterozoic arc magmas,although their occurrence times varied significantly from 970 Mato 810 Ma and their presences indicate different subduction polar-ities (i.e., Zhao, 2015; Zhou et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2013; Wanget al., 2013). It is of note that, these magmas occurred spatiallyas minor, discrete bodies rather than a huge chain of volcanoes,implying that they probably resulted from opening and subsequentclosure of locally distributed, limited oceans. We thus argue thatthe Neoproterozoic rifting has led to the opening of several dis-crete, limited intervening oceans within the vast Xuefeng–Jiangnanfold-thrust belt, and subsequent subduction led to the closure ofthese oceans that could have created these discrete volcanic arcs(e.g., the Shuangxiwu Arc, see Fig. 1 for its location). This inter-pretation is consistent with the significant absence of synchronousNeoproterozoic ophiolites in most regions of the Xuefeng–Jiangnan

orogens expect its eastern segment (Zhao and Cawood, 2012). It islikely that the folding of the Lengjiaxi Group represents rather anintra-continental tectonic inversion event than a continental col-lisional orogeny during the Neoproterozoic, as lithologies therein

8 S.W. Dong et al. / Precambrian Research 264 (2015) 1–10

Table 2Summary of zircon U–Pb ages related to Paleoproterozoic metamorphism in South China.

Area Locality/strata Rock type Analytical method Age (Ma) Reference

Yangtze BlockHubei Kongling Migmatite SIMS concordia point 2013 ± 20 Zhang et al. (2006a)Hubei Kongling Migmatite LA-ICPMS concordia point 1980 ± 72 Zhang et al. (2006a)Hubei Kongling Metapelite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1948 ± 46 Zhang et al. (2006b)Hubei Kongling Metapelite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1979 ± 22 Zhang et al. (2006b)Hubei Kongling Amphibolite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1943 ± 44 Zhang et al. (2006b)Hubei Kongling Metapelite LA-ICPMS concordia point 2003 ± 10 Wu et al. (2009)Hubei Kongling Garnet amphibolite LA-ICPMS concordia point 2015 ± 9 Wu et al. (2009)Hubei Kongling Granodioritic gneiss LA-ICPMS concordia point 1981 ± 16 Gao et al. (2011)Hubei Kongling Metasediments LA-ICPMS concordia point 1889 ± 21 Gao et al. (2011)Hubei Huangling Granite LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1997 ± 45 Zhang et al. (2009)Dabie Huangtuling Granulite SIMS discordia intercept 2052 ± 100 Wu et al. (2002)Dabie Huangtuling Granulite LA-ICPMS concordia point 2025 ± 9 Wu et al. (2008)Dabie Huangtuling Gneiss SIMS-207/206 Age 1982 ± 14 Wu et al. (2008)Dabie Huangtuling Granulite SHRIMP concordia point 1991 ± 43 Sun et al. (2008)Dabie Shuanghe in Qianshan Jade quartzite SIMS discordia intercept 1921 ± 23 Ayers et al. (2002)Dabie Wumiao in Taihu Eclogite SIMS-207/206 Age 1861 ± 32 Maruyama et al. (1998)Dabie Huangzhen Eclogite SIMS discordia intercept 1817 ± 102 Li et al. (2004)Sulu Weihai Eclogite SIMS discordia intercept 1822 ± 25 Yang et al. (2003)

Cathaysia BlockZhejiang Badu Complex Metamorphic rocks LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1886 ± 22 Yu et al. (2012)Zhejiang Badu Complex Metamorphic rocks LA-ICPMS discordia intercept 1882 ± 8 Yu et al. (2012)Zhejiang Xikou in Longyou Biotite gneiss LA-ICPMS discordia upper intercept 1868 ± 8 Yu et al. (2009a)Fujian Mayuan Group Grt-bearing Sil-Bt gneiss LA-ICPMS upper intercept 1873 Zhao et al. (2014a)Zhejiang Badu Group Grt-bearing Sil-Bt gneiss LA-ICPMS upper intercept 1894 Zhao et al. (2014a)Fujian Mayuan Group Sil-bearing Bt gneiss LA-ICPMS upper intercept 1860 Zhao et al. (2014a)Zhejiang Badu Group Garnet-bearing granite LA-ICPMS upper intercept 1872 Zhao et al. (2014b)

wlt

5

tmocPatras

A

0TtZtm

A

Table A1Acquisition parameters.

Shot interval 160 m nominal for normal shots (basin)80 m nominal for normal shots (orogen)5000 m nominal for large shots

Source DynamiteCharge size 40 kg nominal for normal shots

200 kg nominal for large shotsShot depth 22 m × 2 for normal shots (40 kg)

25 m × 5 for large shots (200 kg)Nominal fold 60 (basin)

120 (orogen)Geophone type SM24-10 HzNumber of groups 480Group interval 40 mGeophone array 12 geophones in 11-m linear arrayNear offset 20 m (normal shots)

140 m (large shots)Far offset 9580 m (normal shots)

19,300 m (large shots)Spread Symmetric split (normal shots)

End-on (large shots)Sample rate 2 msRecord length 30 sLow-cut filter 15 HzHigh-cut filter 250 HzNotch filters OutLayout type 9580-20-40-20-9580 (normal shots)

0-0-40-140-19300 (large shots)

Table A2

ere metamorphosed only in green-schist facies. Moreover, theack of collision-related crustal anatexis is inconsistent with it beinghe products of Neoproterozoic continental collision.

. Conclusions

Our high-resolution seismic reflection data, together with struc-ural, stratigraphic, and geochronological analyses, support the

odel that the Yangtze–Cathaysia collision, hence the formationf the South China craton, occurred in the Paleoproterozoic, asso-iated with the assembling of the Colombian supercontinent. Thisaleoproterozoic orogen was significantly modified by a remark-ble Neoproterozoic crustal rifting event possibly associated withhe breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent. These results wouldewrite the history of continental evolution in South China, andffect global reconstructions of the Columbia and the Rodiniaupercontinents.

cknowledgements

This study was financed by the Program of the SinoProbe 08-1. We are grateful to Prof. An Yin, Liangshu Shu, Guowei Zhang,ingdong Li, and Shu Sun for constructive discussions and inspira-ion during writing this manuscript. We thank the Editor Prof. G.C.

hao, and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive sugges-ions that have improved both the quality and the clarity of the

anuscript.

ppendix A.

See Tables A1 and A2.

Reflection data processing sequence.

Data preparationSEG-Y inputLine geometry definitionDemultiplexRecord and trace editionShot delay correction + 20 ms to header staticsSignal processingCoherent noise attenuationWave equation multiple rejection

S.W. Dong et al. / Precambrian R

Table A2 (Continued )

True amplitude recoveryNormal moveout correction (forward)F-K filter power exponentNormal moveout correction (inverse)Surface consistent decon spiking mode operator length 200 msBandpass filterTrace equalizationRadon filter (parabolic subtract mode)Stacking velocity analysis using velocity spectraNMO correctionTrace muting (top and bottom)Common offset F-K DMOStolt or phase shift 2D migration (Stolt migrate mode)CDP/ensemble stackTV spectral whiteningStolt or phase shift 2D migration (Stolt inverse mode)Implicit FD time migrationPostmigration processingF-K filter power exponentSpiking/predictive decon predictive modeBandpass filterCoherency filter

R

A

C

C

C

C

C

D

D

D

G

G

G

G

G

G

H

H

Sulu orogen, China. Precambrian Res. 161, 389–418.

Trace equalization

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