A. OBJECTIVES -TLWDTAT;

Describe the history of education finance Illustrate policy issues and operating

practices that support the emergence of “modern’ education finance

Specify what distinguishes “modern” finance from past paradigms

THREE THINGS WILL BECOME APPARENT AS WE LOOK AT THE HISTORY OF

EDUCATION

1. SCHOOLS HAVE INCREASINGLY TAKEN OVER ROLES THAT WERE ONCE THOSE OF THE FAMILY, CHURCH AND COMMUNITY

2. THE SCHOOL CONTINUES TO SERVE AS A FOCAL POINT FOR LARGER ISSUES OF SOCIETAL NEEDS.

3. THERE IS LITTLE CONSENSUS ON THE MOTIVES AND METHODS FOR SCHOOL REFORMS.

3 Peabody College Series. Copyright ©

Allyn & Bacon 2009

Education Finance’s Three Historic Phases

Phase 1: Building a School System Phase 2: Building a Scholarly Base Phase 3: Seeking Equality

COLONIAL ERA

OLD WORLD INFLUENCE 1. EDUCATION OF ARISTOCRACY ONLY

2. MANY WENT TO EUROPE FOR COLLEGE

3. INCREASINGLY BEGAN TO STAY IN US AS COLLEGES OPENED

• HARVARD 1636, RUTGERS 1766, PRINCETON 1746

• MODELED AFTER OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE

Getting Started: the colonial models - New England

Purpose of schooling – Achieve literacy for comprehension and

interpretation of biblical scripture– Preserve law & order– Benefit industry and the economy– Further the Declaration of Independence’s call

for equality and equity

New England

Massachusetts act of 1642– Required parents and masters to tend to the educational

requirements of the colony’s sons.

– “The child is to be educated, not to advance his personal interest, but because the state will suffer if he is not educated.”

– Selectmen were to ascertain if parents and masters were attending to “training in learning and labor and other employment”

– _All between 10 and 16 had to be schooled in “ye exercise of arms as small guns, halfe pikes, bows and arrows”

– Girls stayed at home and learned household tasks and embroidery

– Fines could be imposed

– Law failed after 5 years

New England cont’d

Formalized, legislated commitment to providing education to citizens– Massachusetts’ Ye Olde Deluder Satan Act

(1647)• Settlement of > 50 required to hire a reading and

writing teacher and pay him what compensation the citizens deemed appropriate

• Settlement of > 100 required to establish and support a grammar school

New England cont’d

Schools – Compulsory– Lay controlled– Financed by levied property taxes

• Property was considered a valid measure of wealth

– Education for public good is foundation of the system

Precedents Set

The right of the state to require communities to establish and maintain schools

The right to tax citizens to provide public education

LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS

A. NOT COEDUCATIONAL

B. SONS OF ELITE

C. ENTERED AT EIGHT

D. STUDIED CLASSICS

AFRICAN AMERICAN EDUCATION

A. INFERIOR QUALITY

B. SEPARATE FROM MAINSTREAM PUBLIC SCHOOLS

C. ROBERTS V. CITY OF BOSTON1. 1846

2. SCHOOL COMMITTEE HAD THE RIGHT TO ESTABLISH SEPARATE EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES - PRECEDENT

MIDDLE COLONIES

MUCH MORE DIVERSE AND EDUCATION REFLECTED THAT DIVERSITY

A. QUAKERS - HUMANE EDUCATION

B. BEN FRANKLIN1. UTILITARIAN & SECULAR

2. PEOPLE SHOULD BETTER THEMSELVES THROUGH EDUCATION

3. HIS IDEAS FOR THE ACADEMY BECAME THE PROTOTYPE FOR PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE MID 19TH CENTURY

Colonial Models

The Middle Colonies Purpose of schooling:

– Develop a leadership class– Gifted receive education on the backs of the

public through levied taxes

Middle Colonies cont’d

Formalized, legislated commitment to providing education for some of its citizens– 1779 Bill for the More General Diffusion of

Knowledge• Gifted are educated through public monies from

grammar to university level

SOUTHERN COLONIES – EDUCATION WAS FOR THE UPPER CLASS

1. TOOK PLACE AT HOME ON THE PLANTATION

2. TUTORS

3. CLASSICAL STUDIES FOR BOYS

4. MUSIC AND DANCING FOR GIRLS

5. SONS WERE OFTEN SENT TO EUROPE OR NORTHERN COLLEGES TO FINISH THEIR EDUCATION

6. SLAVES WERE NOT EDUCATED – IT WAS A CRIME TO DO SO AFTER NAT TURNER’S REVOLT

THOMAS JEFFERSON

1. PARTICIPATION IN GOVERNMENT

2. PROPOSED FOR VA. FREE PUBLIC EDUCATION FOR THREE YEARS FOLLOWED BY FURTHER SUPPORTED EDUCATION FOR THE MOST ABLE

3. HIS PROPOSALS WERE REJECTED AND EDUCATION REMAINED A PRIVATE MATTER FOR YEARS IN THE SOUTH

Federal Funding

Land Ordinance of 1785 – a part of the each new township in the Western Territories (16th section) to be sold to fund education.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also provided land grants for education and called for each state to support education

INDUSTRIALIZATION

1. 1820

2. LITTLE EDUCATION FOR THE MASSES

3. HIGH LEVEL OF ILLITERACY

HORACE MANN

A. MASS., 1837

B. LOBBIED FOR STATE BOARD OF ED.

C. THE FIRST SECRETARY

D. WORKED FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FREE PUBLIC EDUCATION

E. ESTABLISHED FIRST NORMAL SCHOOL

OPPOSITION

1. PEOPLE WITHOUT CHILDREN

2. PRIVATE SCHOOL PARENTS

3. CATHOLICS THOUGHT THEY WERE PROTESTANT PLOT – STARTED THEIR OWN

– BY 1860 SUPPORT FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY BECAME PREVALENT

– SECONDARY WAS FOR PRIVATE ACADEMIES

– EDUCATION FOR GIRLS WAS BECOMING MORE PREVALENT

Morrill Act - 1862

Authorized states to use public land grants to establish agricultural and mechanical colleges

28 yrs. Later Morrill Act II supported college teaching

USDOE – established in 1867 Downgraded to the Office of Education –

1868 OE became part of HEW in 1953 Became a Department again in 1979 Reagan tried to downgrade it again

Post WWI

Smith-Hughes Act – 1917– Provided the states with funds for vocational

education

– Vocational Rehabilitation Act to help returning soldiers

PROGRESSIVE IMPETUS ( 1900 – 1914)

1. JOHN DEWEYA. MEANINGFUL, INTERESTING

LEARNING

B. ACTIVE LEARNING – HANDS ON

C. INTEGRATION OF SUBJECT MATTER

D. TEACHER AS FACILITATOR OF LEARNING

G. STANLEY HALL

A. CHILD CENTERED REFORM

B. EDUCATION MUST TEND TO THE NEEDS AND INTERESTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD

3. EDWARD L. THORNDIKE

A. SOCIAL ENGINEERING REFORM

B. DETERMINE ABILITIES AND TALENTS THEN DEVELOP THEM

THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL

1. PRIOR TO 1875 RELATIVELY FEW STUDENTS ATTENDED PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL MOST IN PRIVATE ACADEMIES

2. COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAWS AND THE RIGHT TO LEVY SCHOOL TAXES LED TO A PROLIFERATION OF PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS BY TURN OF CENTURY

3. PROBLEM OF WHAT TO TEACH

A. CLASSICS Vs. MODERN SUBJECTSB. COLLEGE ENTRANCE

REQUIREMENTS DIFFEREDC. PREPARATION FOR LIFE Vs.

TRADITIONAL EDUCATIOND. CORE Vs. INDIVIDUALIZED

CURRICULUM

4. COMMITTEE OF TEN –

A. FORMED BY NEA (1892)

B. CLARIFY THE PURPOSE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

C. CHAIRED BY CHARLES ELIOT – PRES. HARVARD

D. PURPOSE TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR THE DUTIES OF LIFE

E. MODERN ACADEMIC COURSES BE AWARDED SAME STATURE AS TRADITIONAL

4. COMMITTEE OF TEN

F. CREATED FIVE MODEL CURRICULA

1. CLASSICAL AND MODERN LANGUAGES

2. ENGLISH

3. MATHEMATICS

4. HISTORY

5. SCIENCE

4. COMMITTEE OF TEN

G. RECOMMENDATIONS ACCEPTED BY NEA’S COMMITTEE ON COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS – ALL STUDENTS SHOULD STUDY THIS CORE OF SUBJECTS

H. CARNEGIE FOUNDATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING - ADOPTED THE SAME CORE CURRICULUM – CARNEGIE UNITS

I. MISSING WAS ANY THOUGHT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.

5. CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (1918)

A. PROGRESSIVE RESPONSE TO COMMITTEE OF TEN

B. NEA’S COMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATIONMAIN GOALS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

1. HEALTH

2. COMMAND OF FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES

3. WORTHY HOME-MEMBERSHIP

4. VOCATION

5. CITIZENSHIP

6. WORTHY USE OF LEISURE

7. ETHICAL CHARACTER

CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION HELPED IN DESIGNING EDUCATIONAL

PROGRAMS FOR NON-COLLEGE BOUND

Agricultural Adjustment Act – 1935

Became the National School Lunch Program

POST WORLD WAR TWO

1. GI BILL OF RIGHTSA. PROVIDED 16 MILLION OPPORTUNITY

FOR HIGHER ED.

B. RESULTS OF ARMY TESTING

C. JUST REWARD

D. AVOID MASS UNEMPLOYMENT

E. OPENED UP HIGHER EDUCATION – ACCESS

F. CRITICS – STANDARDS WILL FALL

POST SPUTNIK (1957)

A. NATIONAL COMMITMENT TO IMPROVE EDUCATION PARTICULARLY SCIENCE AND MATH

B. NATIONAL DEFENSE EDUCATION ACT (NDEA - 1958)

C. RETURN TO EARLIER STANDARDS – IF THEY EVER EXISTED.

MID 1960’S

A. SHIFT BACK TO PROGRESSIVE

B. VIET NAM – EVERYTHING IN QUESTION

C. HIGHER ED CRISIS

D. PROLIFERATION OF ELECTIVES

MID 1960’S

E. SIGNIFICANT EXPERIMENTATION1. OPEN CLASSROOMS

2. NEW MATH

3. FLEX-MOD

4. STUDENT CENTERED EDUCATION

5. SUMMERHILL

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA, 1965)

– funded primary and secondary education, while explicitly forbidding the establishment of a national curriculum

– the funds were authorized for – professional development– instructional materials– resources to support educational programs, and– parental involvement

– Title 1– Provides supplemental school program grants for

children of low income families

CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

1. PLESSY V. FERGUSON - 1896A. LAW OF SEPARATE BUT EQUAL

B. REMAINED A GUIDING PRINCIPLE OF LAW UP THROUGH THE 1950’S

C. NAACP BEGAN TO FIGHT FOR INTEGRATION IN THE 1930’S

2. BROWN V. TOPEKA

3. OTHER CASES

4. DE FACTO V. DE JURE

Do These Inputs Matter?

Books in the Library Teacher salary Books in the library Number of computer stations Class Size Racial mix

Which hypothesis is correct?

There is a strong positive relationship between school quality and student achievement

Or There is a very weak relationship between

school characteristics and student outcomes» Sadovnik

Equality Of Educational Opportunity The Coleman Report 1966 SES mattered most Peer group associations matter Other inputs were weak

Top New Jersey High Schools 2008: By Rank http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_sc

hools/highschoolrankings/top-new-jersey-high-schools-by-rank.html

http://njmonthly.com/downloads/1527/download/tophighschools08.pdf

NJ Monthly -All High Schools.84

Scattergram

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High School Rank

DFG

NJ Monthly -Minus Magnets.89

Scattergram

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DO SCHOOLS MATTER?

1. EDMUNDS (1979)

A. EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS RESEARCH

B. CORRELATES

2. LAZOTTE

EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS RESEARCH

� SAFE ORDERLY ENVIRONMENT

� A CLEAR SCHOOL MISSION

� STRONG PRINCIPAL – INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

� CLIMATE OF HIGH EXPECTATIONS

� A CONCENTRATION ON INSTRUCTIONAL TASKS

� MONITORING OF STUDENT PROGRESS

� POSITIVE HOME SCHOOL RELATIONS

National Commission on Excellence in Education. A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform.(1983)

“… THE EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF OUR SOCIETY ARE PRESENTLY BEING ERODED BY A RISING TIDE OF MEDIOCRITY THAT THREATENS OUR VERY FUTURE AS A NATION AND A PEOPLE. WHAT WAS UNIMAGINABLE A GENERATION AGO HAS BEGUN TO HAPPEN – OTHERS ARE MATCHING AND SURPASSING OUR EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTS.

IF AN UNFRIENDLY POWER HAD ATTEMPTED TO IMPOSE ON AMERICA THE MEDIOCRE EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE THAT EXISTS TODAY, WE MIGHT WELL HAVE VIEWED IT AS AN ACT OF WAR. AS IT STANDS, WE HAVE ALLOWED THIS TO HAPPEN TO OURSELVES.”

First Wave of Reform (mid 1980’s) Top Down from states

– Raised graduation requirements– Increased teacher certification requirements– Increased length of school day and year– Competency testing (NJ)

• 1978-82 MBS - grades 3,6,9

• 1983- HSPT9 - Graduation requirement 1985-6

Second Wave of Reform (late 1980’s) School Based

– Capacity building through staff development– Change in governance - school management

teams– NJ Test

• 8th grade EWT (1988)

• HSPT9 becomes the HSPT11 (1991)

Third Wave of Reform (early1990’s) Establishment and monitoring of standards May 1996, the NJBOE adopted the Core

Curriculum Content Standards (CCCS) which enumerated what all New Jersey students should know and be able to do by the end of the fourth and eighth grades, and upon completion of a New Jersey public school education– ESPA– GEPA– HSPA

56

No Child Left Behind

The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA).

Signed by President George W. Bush on January 8, 2002.

Signified a clear shift in federal role toward policy maker and reformer.

57

NCLB (continued)

Three goals of NCLB:– Closing the achievement gap for disadvantaged students.– Improving the preparation of teachers and increasing their

compensation so as to have every classroom in America staffed by a “highly qualified” teacher by the end of the 2005–2006 school year.

– Instituting closely monitored systems of accountability for students, teachers, and schools.

NCLB mentions research 116 times, giving rise to controversy over the operational definition of scientifically-based research.

Current testing– NJ ASK grades 3-8– HSPA 11– Biology test?

Plans for high school assessment call for a transition from the HSPA to a range of end of course competency assessments in language arts literacy, biology, algebra, geometry, chemistry, physics, and environmental science.

NJBOE Link on history of testing

What will be the next Wave

Shift Happens