A level GeographyTectonic activity and

hazardsPowerPoint presentation by

Médecins Sans Frontières / Doctors Without Borders (MSF)UK

Schools Team: Mary Doherty and Severa von WentzelMarch 2013

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MSFGeography Working Group

MSF would like to thank the members of the working group for their contributions and help in developing these materials:

Janet Carlsson of Alleyn's School

Adam Thomas former MSF Logistician

Ed Jennings of Hayes School Bromley

John Lyon of the Geographical Association

Nicky Martin of Coloma Girls Convent School Croydon

Rick Vasconcellos of Acland Burghley School Camden

Jo Woolley of Dulwich College

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This PowerPoint• Tectonic Activity is presented as a PowerPoint Presentation

to facilitate use by teachers. The footer on many slides includes Note for teachers.

• It is anticipated that teachers will use slide sorter and select the slides appropriate to their students and their specifications and develop a customised slideshow.

• For teaching and learning, view as a slide show to benefit from animation

• When planning, teachers will find it helpful to start from the normal view which shows the footers and the Note for teachers.

• Teachers can click to videos, websites etc. directly from the slides when in the slide show mode.

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Guide to this presentation

References to teaching specifications. Definitions in violet Action for students Further info Video Direct quote Key Link to appendix A Back to contents Contents

Contents

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Organisation of this Presentation

.Presentation structurePART I

Introduction

Teaching specificationsYour research and writingExemplar slides for your case studies

PART IISection 1 Tectonic hazards and causes

Section 2 Tectonic hazards: physical impactsSection 3 Tectonic hazards: human impacts

Section 4 Responses to tectonic hazards

Appendix A Further info (Hyperlink)

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ContentsPART I

Organisation and guide to this presentationAwarding body specificationsYour research, case studies and writingExemplar slides for your researchStarting your case studies

PART II - Section OneTectonic hazards and causes Event, hazard or disaster?Defining tectonic events and hazardsSeismic wavesPrimary and secondary effects of earthquakesPlate tectonics, GPS

PART II - Section TwoTectonic Hazards: Physical impactsEvent ProfilesTectonic impactsMind map exercisePhysical factorsHuman factorsFault action

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Contents (cont’d)PART II - Section Three

Tectonic hazards: human impactsGeophysical and hydro-meteorological hazards and trends Why do people live in tectonically active areas?Dregg’s Disaster ModelDisaster Risk EquationSpecific hazard impacts: human and economic costsExemplar table for your research: hazard impacts over timeHaiti (2010) Earthquake Prediction

PART II - Section Four Responses to tectonic hazardsCoping with tectonic hazardHaiti housing crisis actionInsight into humanitarian workThe work of a MSF logisticianCholera and GISSocial MediaDisaster Risk ReductionEarly warning

Appendix International humanitarian SystemFurther Info on Haiti

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AQA Unit 3: SeismicityThe causes and main characteristics of earthquakes:• focus and epicentre; seismic waves and earthquake

measurement.• Tsunamis – characteristics and causes.

Two case studies of recent (ideally within the last 30 years) seismic events should be undertaken from contrasting areas of the world.

In each case, the following should be examined:•the nature of the seismic hazard;•the impact of the event;•management of the hazard and responses to the event.

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OCR A2 Geography: Global issues

What are the hazards associated with earthquake and volcanic activity? Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are caused by plate tectonics and bring distinctive impacts to an area and these vary from place to place.

Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have a range of environmental and social impacts on the areas affected, which create a range of human responses to the hazard. The study of an earthquake and of a volcanic eruption to illustrate the: • tectonic processes involved in creating these hazards; • scale and types of impacts (environmental, social and economic), together with the concept

of primary (initial impacts – destruction, casualties, landslides, fires) and secondary impacts (including disease, infrastructure problems, resettlement);

• human reaction in both the short term (emergency rescue) and long term (planning & management).

Why do the impacts on human activity of such hazards vary over time and location? The degree of impact on an area reflects its level of economic and technological development as well as the population density. Impacts can vary over time from immediate to long term. The study of contrasting examples to illustrate a: • contrast between countries at either end of the development continuum and between rural

and urban areas, to compare the impacts of, and reactions to, at least two contrasting types of earth hazards;

• comparison of impacts over short and long time periods for at least two contrasting types of earth hazards.

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OCR A2 Geography: Global issues

How can hazards be managed to reduce their impacts? There are various ways to manage or reduce the impacts of hazards. The study of different approaches to managing earth hazards to illustrate: • the extent to which earth hazards are predictable; • the management strategies used to reduce the possible impact of a hazard; • the effectiveness of managing earth hazards.

Key Concepts: • The nature of hazards varies with location. • The nature of hazards changes over time and space. • Earth hazards consist of a variety of interdependent and interconnected activities and processes. • Physical geography and human activity are interdependent and their interaction can produce hazards. • The impact of such hazards varies over time and given location.• Populations and environments respond in a variety of ways to hazards.• The management of hazards results in opportunities and challenges.

Associated Skills: • Research into hazard events • Analysis of a variety of types of image • Map work at a variety of scales, eg hazard mapping • Statistical analysis, eg analysing patterns and severity of hazard • Use and application of GIS and other modern technology, eg forecasting of earthquakes and eruptions

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Assessment objectives

.You will need to:A01 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the content,

concepts and processes.

A02 Analyse, interpret and evaluate geographical information, issues and viewpoints and apply understanding in unfamiliar contexts.

A03 Select and use variety of methods, skills and techniques (including the use of new technologies) to investigate questions and issues, reach conclusions and communicate findings.

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PART IYour research and writing

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Synoptic research unit with case studies

• This unit provides flexibility in your study of geography.

• You will learn subject content and develop your learning skills, particularly, selection and analytical skills.

• You will study this unit for several months.*

• This is a synoptic unit that stresses the interrelation of specific issues to overall themes in geography.

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Edexcel global synoptic content

Your investigation of tectonic hazards, challenges and responses will need to highlight:

• Places, people and powerand

• Risks, vulnerability and patterns. People

Power

Places

Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.http://www. hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf

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The synoptic element of each enquiry question

Distil big concepts, implications and influences of tectonic activity and geography by looking at social, economic, political and environmental factors. These factors help organize and evaluate information around people, places and power.

• Social – about people, quality of life, health, education and prosperity

• Economic – about money, work, industry, jobs and prospects

• Political – about power, different viewpoints, policy and associated decisions

• Environmental – about landscape, plants, animals, water, air and resources

Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.; http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf

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Synoptic content and MEDCs and LEDCs

To compare and contrast case studies from MEDCs and LEDCs (more and less economically developed countries), use pairs such as:

• Positive and negative• Primary and secondary• Direct and indirect• Short and long term• Human and physical• Micro and macro

Further info on more and less economically developed countries – contrasts in economic and human development, development indicators, statistics and correlations and indices:http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/development/contrasts_development_rev1.shtml

Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.; http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf

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Your researchAction for students:1. Start an “Earthquakes” folder for your research and

case studies.

2. Throughout your study extract the key information about the tectonic event and retain the findings and maps in your folder.

3. Remember to add references (sources) for the work of others and to add definitions for key terms by compiling a glossary of definitions in your folder.

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Case studies in this presentation

The Haiti Earthquake (2010) and Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011) will be the main point of comparison in your research.

Earthquakes such as Sichuan, China (2008), L’Aquila, Italy (2009) and Van, Turkey (2011) also

feature.

In this presentation exemplar slides in the introduction and information for your research in subsequent sectionswill guide you through the process, leaving the active research and case studies to you.

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Source: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/caribb/special/caribout.htm

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Action for students: Label the map to show Haiti, Dominican Republic, major towns and bodies of water

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Source: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/caribb/special/caribout.htmContents

Action for students: Label the map to show Japan, major towns, bodies of water and neighbouring countries.

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Your study, research, written notes and examination

Action for students:

Writing skills: • Plan and stick to your organisation with introduction, main body and conclusion linking back to the question.• Apply theories, models and graphs, for example, event profiles.• Include good definitions and sources.

Further info:The Geographical Association’s “A2 Examinations: Developing your skills in extended writing” http://www.slideserve.com/elsa/a2-examinations-developing-your-skills-in-extended-writingDunn, C. and K. Adams’ “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf

Do not describe only. Be clear what the command words expect you to do:• Discuss• Evaluate• Critically examine

You will need to include:• Role of plate margins• Causes, maps and case studies• Impacts on landscape• Impacts on people• Responses and issues

Get to know key words: • Factors• Impacts• Challenges

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Sources• Who is the author? How does the author’s role or job

such as academic, lobbyist, businessman, politician relate to the topic? Consider North Korea and Amnesty International presenting on the same issue, for example.

• Is it a primary or secondary source? How reliable is it?

• Does the website verify what it publishes or is it an open forum where anything can be posted? Who owns and contributes to it?

• Is the information up to date?Contents

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Question statistics

• Who collected the numbers? Using what method and for what reason?

• Simply because they are published doesn’t make them facts. Many are actually estimates.

• Location matters. Collecting statistics in remote rural areas of developing countries or densely populated urban settlements, for example, can be difficult if they have been collected at all. A hazard or disaster event adds complexity.

• Numbers can be political. There may advantages to overstating or understating numbers.

• Statistics need to be collected in the same way to be compared.

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Schemata for report writing

Your report Defining Introducing, defining topicResearch Research and methodologyAnalysis Analysis, application, understandingConclusion

Conclusion and evaluation

Quality Quality of written expression and sourcing

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Humanitarian information

Médecins Sans Frontières works in and Relief Web and Alert.net report on many emergencies, including ignored or forgotten ones.

Médecins Sans Frontières / Doctors Without Borders: http://www.msf.org.ukMSF is an independent international medical humanitarian organisation that provides emergency aid in more than 60 countries to people affected by armed conflict, epidemics, natural or man-made disasters or exclusion from healthcare.

Reliefweb: http://www.reliefweb.int“ReliefWeb is…source for timely, reliable and relevant humanitarian information and analysis…to help you make sense of humanitarian crises worldwide.”(reliefweb.int)

Alert.net: http://www.trust.org/alertnet/Humanitarian news website covering crises worldwide, including “hidden crises”

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PART IExemplar slides for your research

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Exemplar Slide on seismicity past to present:

Historical seismicity in Japan

The earthquake on March 11, 2011, marked with a gold star, took place around the same location as the the magnitude 7.2 earthquake on March

9, 2011, thus the earlier one was redefined as a foreshock. In the cluster, there were 3 earthquakes greater than magnitude 6 before the main shock and another 14 in the first 6 hours after. The aftershocks intensity decreased with time since the main shock and followed a predictable pattern.

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Since 1900March 2011

Further info on a detailed USGS poster on “Seismicity of the Earth 1900—2007, Japan and Vicinity” click on: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1083/d/

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: USGS

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Earthquake Location:Coordinates for Tohoku, Japan (2011)

Location: 130 km (80 miles) east of Sendai, Honshu, Japan and 373 km (231 miles) northeast of Tokyo, Japan.

Source: USGS

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Exemplar Country Profile:Japan (2011)

Country profile:• Island nation in East Asia in the Pacific

Ocean• Third largest economy in the world• Politically stable with world-class critical infrastructure: physical

assets that serve as foundation for effective governance*, economy and civil society.

• Capital: Tokyo• Population: 126.5 million (UN, 2011)• Very high life expectancy at birth, one of the oldest populations in

the world (CIA World Factbook)• Most structures built to resist earthquake shaking

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* Governance: security, civil service, public management, core infrastructure, corruption and legal and regulatory reforms.

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Exemplar Template:Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)

Date and time: Friday, 11 March 2011 at 5:46 UTC*Location: Japan, near northeast coast of HonshuEpicentre: 130km east of SendaiMagnitude: 9.0 on Richter scaleSpeed of Onset: Foreshocks and rapid main shock, aftershocksDuration: ShortAreal extent: Extremely large areaMap: USGS summary map on following slide Plates: Pacific plate subducting under Eurasian plate. Subduction zone very seismically active. Convergent margin, fairly high convergence rate. Earthquake shallow at the Japan trench.Earthquake: 4th largest in the world since 1900 and largest in Japan since recording began 130 years ago (USGS)History of Earthquakes: Japan trench subduction zone has had 9 events 7+ on the scale since 1973. 20% of world’s earthquakes take place in Japan.

Risk profile: Country ranked 1st worldwide for human and economic exposure to cyclones and earthquakes, 1st (economic) and 2nd (human) for tsunamis and very high for drought, flood and landslides (Prevention web)Key points: Tsunami, Fujinuma dam ruptured, Fukushima Daichii nuclear accident.

References: IRIS:http

://www.iris.edu/news/events/japan2011/BBC: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific14918801http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific12711226Prevention web:http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/sttistics/risk.php?iso=jpn Contents

*Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) – primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time, closely related successors to Greenwich (GMT) mean time and for most purposes synonymous with GMT. Unlike GMT, UTC is precisely scientifically defined.

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Annotated images:Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)

Some of the burning houses swallowed by tsunami in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture in eastern Japan.

Burning oil refinery in Ichihara, Chiba Prefecture.

New York Times

Los Angeles Times

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Offset ocean floor causes tsunami waves

Water and debris washed away houses in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture.

Waves crashes over Natori, Miyagi

Prefecture.

ContentsNew York Times

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PART IStarting your case studies

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Starting your Haiti case study

Action for students:Using the websites on the following slides:

1. Develop a template similar to the Japanese exemplar slides for your section on Haiti.

2. Haiti is situated near to two tectonic plates: record for your research the names of the plates and explain how these plates caused the earthquake.

3. Draw a sketch of Haiti’s location and the two plates.

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Haiti’s country profileand tectonics

COUNTRY PROFILE:• CIA World Factbook

http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Fpublications%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fgeos%2Fha.html&ei=UTF-8&fr=moz35

(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html)

• UNICEF Statisticshttp://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/haiti_statistics.html

• BBC Country Profile http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1202772.stm

HAITI TECTONICS:• “The Haiti Earthquake in Depth” http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100113/full/news.2010.10.html

• “Anatomy of a Caribbean Earthquake” http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122531261

• “Tectonics of the Haitian Earthquake” http://all-geo.org/highlyallochthonous/2010/01/tectonics-of-the-haitian-earthquake/

• BBC map: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8466385.stm

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USGS summary posters

Action for students: Print out the USGS summaryposters for Japan and Haiti for your folder.http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthqakes/eqarchives/poster/2010/2010112.PhpUSGS Earthquake map of Haiti:http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2010/eq_100112_rja6/neic_rja6_l.html

You will find multiple panels:• epicentral area• plate tectonic

environment, earthquake history

• generalized seismic hazard

USGS Summary Poster

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Japan and Haiti:Key data activity (1)

Action for students: 1. Based on the Japan exemplar slides

and your research, draw a table comparing Japan and Haiti with key information including:• GDP per capita• Population• Median population age• Population under the age of 15• High or low-income population• Population density• Urban population %• Maternal mortality rate

(deaths / 100,000 live births) World ranking

• Birth rate / 1,000 population• Death rate / 1,000 population• Availability of health care• Literacy, total population, %

2. Population pyramid: which age groups contain the largest number of people in Japan and Haiti? Does the population age structure diagram resemble a pyramid (A or B) or an inverted pyramid?

Source: http://geographyfieldwork.com/PopulationStructure.htm

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Japan and Haiti:Key data activity(2)

2. In what stage do Japan and Haiti’s birth rate, death rate and availability of health care place them on the demographic transition model?

Source: GCSE Bitesize population change and structure:http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/population/population_change_structure_rev4.shtml

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PART II: FOUR SECTIONS

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PART II - SECTION ONETECTONIC HAZARDS AND CAUSES

Tectonic activity, seismicity and tectonics

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Section OneTectonic hazards and causes

This section focuses briefly on the patterns

and processes of earthquakes and volcanic hazards* and how they are managed.

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Section OneTectonic hazards and causes

What are tectonic hazards and their causes?

Learning outcomeThis section will guide you in identifying, examining and understanding the:• Range of tectonic hazards and their causes;• Different profiles of tectonic hazards;• Link between tectonic hazards and plate tectonics;• Variation of tectonic hazards with the type of plate

margin.

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Event, hazard or disaster?

Action for students: Discuss what makes an event a hazard or disaster based on information in the images only.

Sources: 1 Water http://img.ehowcdn.com/article-new/ehow/images/a06/f9/r2/natural-hazards-disaster-management-800x800.jpg2 Internal displacement: http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpGraphics)/B303AB7D46DFD5ECC12578D2005B9C8E/$file/nd-01-big.jpg3 Haiti earthquake: http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=haiti+earthquake&view=detail&id=CE5C433C1836E995E6DF12FF00689F877DA2DF3F&FORM=IDFRIR4 Guatemala’s Volcano of Fire:http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=volcanic+eruption+diasaster&view=detail&id=D62AC286BAA6030CE1A08A8E7D78AFC1DB0139E2&FORM=IDFRIR5 Fault Rupture source: http://www.teara.govt.nz/files/p4411gns.jpg

1 2

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3

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Event, hazard or disaster definitions

• What is a natural event in an uninhabited place becomes a hazard in a populated one.

• A hazard is natural or human-made event that adversely affects human life, property or activity. A hazard involves people.

• “A disaster is an occurrence disrupting the normal conditions of existence and causing a level of suffering that exceeds the capacity of adjustment of the affected community.”(WHO/EHA 2002). There is no universally agreed numerical threshold for designating a hazard as a disaster. A matter of scale, a disaster is a lot bigger than a natural hazard.

• Capacity: A combination of all the strengths and resources available within a community, society or organization that can reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster.

Source: UN/ISDR, Words Into Action: A Guide for Implementing the Hyogo Framework, Switzerland, 2007Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions; http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf

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Perspectives on the Haiti earthquake experience

Action for students: 1. View and interact with the video on the experience of the Haiti earthquake from

the perspective of a survivor, an aid worker and a journalist: http://www.insidedisaster.com/experience/Main.html

2. Based on the video make a mind map about why the Haiti earthquake lead to disaster. See sample mind map for guidance.

Source: http://www.mind-mapping.co.uk/make-mind-map.htm

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What is a tectonic event?

• A tectonic event is a physical occurrence resulting from the movement or deformation of the Earth’s crust.

• Tectonic events are predominantly earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.

• Tectonic events become tectonic hazards when they have the potential to cause loss of life and damage to property.

• Not all tectonic events are hazardous. Contents

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Tectonic hazardsTectonic activity cause a very large range of hazard events. These are associated with the processes of earth movement and volcanism, and they are classified into primary and secondary

hazards.

Primary tectonic hazards include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,

pyroclastic flow, ash fall and volcanic gases.

Secondary tectonic hazards include tsunamis, landslides and lahars. A tsunami is a secondary hazard, because the flooding is caused by the earthquake at sea. Tsunamis like the Asian Tsunami (2004) are rare.

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What is an earthquake and tsunami?

Action for students: 1. Watch BBC News, “Animated Guide –

Earthquakes” and print out the PDF non-animated version. Retain in your research folder, as you will use it later: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7533950.stm

2. Watch National Geographic, “Earthquake 101”: http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/media/earthquakes-101/?ar_a=1&ar_r=999

Source:http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/earthquakes_rev1.shtml

3. Review BBC GCSE Bitesize, “What causes a Tsunami?”: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/tsunamis_rev1.shtml

And Japan Tsunami footage with explanations

http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/news/environment-news/japan-tsunami-2011-vin/

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Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1, Tectonic activity and hazards

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Defining earthquakesEarthquakes occur along fault lines and major plates lines.

The main shock in a cluster is the one with the largest magnitude. Foreshocks occur before the main shock. Not all main shocks have foreshocks. The main shock is always followed by aftershocks, which are smaller

than the main shock and can continue for weeks, months or years.

Each earthquake can provide new information: • If a subsequent event is larger than the one deemed a main shock, it

can be redefined as a foreshock, for example, Tohoku, Japan (2011). • Similarly, an aftershock may sometimes be reclassified as a foreshock.

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Foreshocks, Main shocks and aftershocks

sequence• .

Source: USGS

Tohoku, Japan (2011) Map:11 March - magnitude 9.0 main shock off Tohoku followed by 166 aftershocks of magnitude 5.5 and greater until May 20.

Aftershocks follow a statistically predictable manner. In common with almost all of the largest earthquakes, this one is on a subduction zone.

Warmer colour for more recent events Larger symbol for greater quake magnitude.

Action for students: Record in your glossary what is meant by a subduction zone . Explain why it causes 5000 earthquakes a year in Japan (one or more a day).

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Seismic waves Action for students: 1. Correctly label the image:• Surface waves • Rayleigh wave • Love wave • Body waves • P waves • S waves• Elliptical motion

2. Answer the questions about Love, P, S and Surface waves:• Which type of seismic wave travels fastest? • Which type causes rock particles to move together and apart in the same direction?

3. In order to determine how far from a seismograph station an earthquake occurred, one needs to look at the difference between:

• Seismic waves and elliptical motion• P & S waves• S & Love waves• P & love waves

4. Which one does not control the level of shaking:• Distance• Weather• Local Soils• Magnitude Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=S wave Contents

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Measuring shakingSeismologists use a seismograph: an instrument that registers the movement of the Earth's tectonic plates caused by seismic waves and produces seismograms such as this USGS one:

A short wiggly line that doesn’t wiggle very much means a small earthquake, and a long wiggly line

A long wiggly line (seismic wave) that wiggles a lot denotes a large earthquake; a short one that doesn’t wiggle a lot a small one. The length of the wiggle depends on the size of the fault and the size of the wiggle by the amount of slip.

At least three seismographs are needed to triangulate the location of an earthquake. Measurements are on thelogarithmic Richter scale from 1 – 10 with decimals.Source: http://www.online-education.net/articles/science/earthquake-studies.htmlUSGS http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/eqscience.php

Further info

On seismic monitors - Incorporated Research Institution for Seismology (IRIS): http://www.iris.edu/dms/seismon.htm On seismicity maps - USGS:http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/seismicity_maps/world.pdfOn seismograms – USGS:http://earthquake.usgs.gov/monitoring/helicorders/about.phpon seismographs and Richter scales:http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geophysics/question142.htm

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125 Global Seismographic stations, multi-use facilities, spaced worldwide, collectdata for scientific research, earthquake hazard mitigation, tsunami warning, education and the international monitoring system for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty. Source: IRIS

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World map of the threat of earthquake shaking

Global Seismic Hazard Program http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/static/gshap/

Dark red = large earthquakes most likelyWhite = least likely

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USGS Shake maps

Haiti Japan• .

KMercalli scale measures how much damage is caused by earthquakes based on observations.

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Map of case study countries and plate margins

Action for students: Draw an arrow to Japan, China, Haiti, Turkey and Italy on the map below and

add in the plate margins.

Source: Worldatlas Contents

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Primary and secondary effects of earthquakes

Earthquakes effects: primary and secondary

Primary effects happen immediately and occur as a direct result of the ground shaking like buildings collapsing.

Ground shaking Ground shaking is most direct effect with cracks in land and structures, falling masonry and / or collapse.animation: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/simulations/

Secondary effects occur as a result of the primary effects, for example, fires due to ruptured gas mains.

Ground displacement may not be life threatening; however, it impacts on buildings, bridges and roads.

Landslides are movements of masses of rock or debris down a slope. Slope failure can be triggered by, for example, earth tremors. Photo: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=landslide

Liquefaction occurs when the shaking of silts, sands and gravels causes them to lose their load bearing capacity. Buildings and other structures, may thus sink into the ground.Liquefaction Hazard Map: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/qmap/Liquefaction photo:http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/49488655AFEE6C258525773000766AF5-Full_Report.pdf

Tsunamis are ocean waves with extremely long wavelengths, generated by earthquake tremors. Graph: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=tsunami

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Plate tectonics How do earthquakes occur?

Action for students: 1. Use the pdf hard copy of the earthquake animation and

add in additional information from the following sources: • Animated version of the “Earth’s Tectonic Plates”,

http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/media/earths-tectonic-plates/?ar_a=1• Dr Iain Stewart explains how plate tectonics cause earthquakes:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/natural_disasters/earthquake#p00gtskq • British Geological Survey: http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk and

US Geological Survey (USGS): http://www.earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/neic/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/plate_tectonics/rift_man.php

2. Discuss these additions with a partner and compare. Critique your partner’s additions and ask them to critique yours.

3. In light of this critique amend your explanation and retain the document for revision and exam preparation.

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Tectonic platesAction for students:

1. Find a map of the global distribution of tectonic plates identify the convergent (destructive or collision), divergent and transform (conservative or transcurrent) plate margins.

2. Write a description of each type of margin. Include an example of each type of margin and also explain a collision plate margin with an example.

3. Compare and contrast the typical tectonic hazards experienced at one convergent and one divergent plate margin.

4. Research the two types of crust which make up the plates.Contents

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GPS: measuring plate motion

Global Positioning system (GPS) is one of various technologies used for studying earthquakes. Receivers placed along fault lines measures movements of the Earth's crust with a precision of one millimetre per year.

The length of the arrow indicates the extent of the movement.

Source: UNAVCO 2000 Further info on GPS and plate motion calculators for your records:http://www.unavco.org/community_science/science-support/crustal_motion/dxdt/model.html

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This GPS Slip model of Tohoku, Japan (2011) was produced with vertical GPS data.Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/japan/031111_M9.0prelim_geodetic_slip.php

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PART II – SECTION TWOTECTONIC HAZARDS: PHYSICAL IMPACTS

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Section TwoTectonic hazards: physical impacts

This section introduces impacts and then focuses on the physical impacts, such asdamage and destruction to homes and infrastructure and changeto the landscape.

Port au Prince after the earthquake

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Photo by Julie Remy/MSF

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Section Two Tectonic hazards: physical impacts

What impact does tectonic activity have on landscapes and why does this impact vary?

Learning outcomeBy the end of this section, you should beaware of the effects of earthquakes on the landscape.*

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Haiti before and after the earthquake

Juvenat: August 3, 2009

Further info on Haiti before 2010 in Appendix

Juvenat: February 13, 2010

Source:http://gfdrr.org/docs/

Haiti_MultiHazard_RiskAssessment_Report_EN.pdf

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Geological records• Historic records of earthquakes can be

incomplete and some countries have longer records than others.

• Where there are no written records of earthquakes geological and soil maps can be used to identify past earthquake activity.

• The geological record when understood can enable areas of high risk to be mapped.

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Event ProfilesEvent profiles can be drawn for any event and help illustrate the great variation in the nature of tectonic hazards. They are a common way to compare and contrast different hazards. The typical earthquake and volcanic profiles tend to differ most in terms of spatial predictability and frequency.

This profile compares factors of the Asian Tsunami (2004) with the continuous eruption ofKilauea on Hawaii since 1983.

Source: Edexcel Unit 4 Option 1 Tectonic Activity and Hazards

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Event profilesAction for students:1. Refer to the Exemplar slide for

Japan, Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)and construct one for Haiti Earthquake (2010). Keep in mind factors of an event profile: magnitude, speed of onset, duration, areal extent, spatial predictability and frequency.

2. Research and construct event profiles as presented on the previous slide for the Haiti (2010) and Tohoku, Japan (2011).

Further info: For a comprehensive presentation by a geophysicist on Haiti and Japan earthquakes click:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_WGi4mjVqbY

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Tectonic impactsTectonic hazards can be complex with multiple effects and impacts. Impacts can be physical, social or economic.

Impacts can be:• Direct or indirect, • Short or long-term,• Tangible or intangible,• Negative or positive.

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Factors affecting an earthquake: Mind map exercise

Action for students:1. Draw a mind map of physical factors affecting an

earthquake.

2. Draw another for human factors.

3. Compare your mind map with that of a partner,do you need to make amendments, do they need to make amendments

4. Complete your map for your folder by referring to the following slides.

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Physical factors affecting the impact of a tectonic

event Physical Factors:• Distance from epicentre• Richter Scale / Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): the higher on the scale, the more potentially

devastating• Duration of the hazard• Scale of the hazard• Frequency of the hazard• Magnitude of the hazard• Time of day• Time of year and climate• Geography of the area, accessibility Contents

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Human factors affecting the impact of a tectonic event

Human factors:• Social, political and economic conditions / level of development.• Population density: rural or urban area• Frequency and severity of hazards affecting the area• Experience from previous hazards in the area• Methods of coping with hazards• Accuracy in predicting the hazards• Effectiveness and response of hazard warning and evacuation

procedures• Speed and efficiency of local, national and international

emergency response teams and long-term reconstruction and development services

• Coordination and perception of the services • Presence of other humanitarian crisis

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Severity of impactsThe hazard and the capacity of people affected to prepare for and resist it determine the extent of the damage. Damage to the environment such as deforestation can make their impact worse. So the severity of impacts depends on both:

• Physical factors (attributes of nature) such as the magnitude of the event.

• Human factors determining human vulnerability to natural hazards such as population density.

Action for students:Discuss whether the impacts on places, people and power of volcanic hazards can be positive and negative, but for earthquakes only negative.

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Are impacts always negative?

Some economists have argued that a natural disasters can be a

brutal, but good stimulus for an economy by:

• pushing short-term growth;• Helping conflict resolution and community development;• building up-to-date infrastructure and technology in place

of outdated ones (in with the new, out with the old); and • focusing international attention and resources on the

country.

Further info: article on “how disasters help”:http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2008/07/06/how_disasters_help/?page=full

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Fault activityAction for students: 1. Label the faults as Dip slip, Strike-slip and Thrust. Mark with arrows to

indicate vertical or horizontal movement.

Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/?topicID=53&topic=Prediction

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2. Study the graph. Do bigger faults lead to smaller or bigger earthquakes?

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Effects of earthquakes on landscapes

Action for students:1. Research faults and draw diagrams of dip slip faults (normal, reverse

and thrust), strike slip faults (left or right-lateral) and oblique slip faults. You can refer to http://www.exploratorium.edu/faultline/basics/faults.html

Example diagram

3. Be clear about which faults are common at divergent plate margins and which occur at convergent plate margins.

4. Explain how rift valleys form and give an example.

Remember: a clear, simple diagram is worth a thousand words.Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1, Tectonic activity and hazards

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PART II – SECTION THREETECTONIC HAZARDS: HUMAN IMPACTS

Hazard TrendsWhy live in tectonically active areas?Prediction

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Section ThreeTectonic hazards: human impacts

This section is organised around risks, vulnerability and patterns of human impacts – social and economic.

• Social impacts refer to trauma and the disruption of everyday life and communities.

• Economic impacts can be damage to factories and commercial properties and disrupted transport networks.

Together with physical impacts, they determine how places, people and power are affected.

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Section ThreeTectonic hazard: human

impactsWhat impacts do tectonic hazards have on people and how do these impacts vary?

Learning outcomeBy the end of this section, you should:• Understand some of the reasons why people live in

tectonically active areas• Know the range of hazards associated with different types of

tectonic activity*• Be familiar with the specific impacts of a range of tectonic

hazards*• Be aware of trends in the frequency and impacts of tectonic

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PART II – SECTION THREETECTONIC HAZARDS: HUMAN IMPACTS

Hazard Trends

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Geophysical and hydro-meteorological graph activity

Action for students:

Look at the two graphs and mark them as appropriate to show:

• Rising trend of hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes and such•Fluctuating trend•Rapidly rising trend of flood

events• Increasingly widespread drought

affecting millions of people • Rare but devastating • Fluctuating trend usually linked to

other hazards

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Magnitude

Class Number

M ≥ 8 Great 1

M ≥ 7 Major 15

M ≥ 6 Large 134

M ≥ 5 Moderate 1,319

M ≥ 4 Small ~13,000

.Geophysical hazard is formed by tectonic/geological processes, for example, earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis. The number of geophysical hazards has stayed fairly constant.

Hydro-meteorological hazard is formed by hydrological (floods) and atmospheric (storms and droughts) processes. They make up most of the natural hazard events and have increased in number.

Geophysical versus meteorological hazards and trends

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Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf; USGS Earthquake statistics and Earthquakes and seismicity

EARTHQUAKES

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Natural hazard trends• Whilst better awareness, preparedness and technology has reduced the number of

deaths due to natural hazards, the number and frequency of natural hazards and the number of affected people has gone up.

• Whilst our capacity to deal with natural hazards and disasters has increased, socio-demographic, economic and technological factors has increased vulnerability further.

• The destructiveness of earthquakes has increased, because populations keep rising and more and more people have moved into earthquake risk zones - especially where earthquakes have been infrequent but violent.

• Buildings and infrastructure are increasingly expensive and vulnerable, and many people live in housing not been built to withstand earthquakes.

• As opposed to other natural disasters, earthquakes occur without warning and even moderate ones tend to affect a widespread area.

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Disaster hotspotsThe impact of natural hazards differsbetween and within countries and regions and countries. Asia is the most affected by natural hazards the Philippines, Japan, India,Bangladesh, China, Indonesia most hazard-prone.

Identifying a hot spot can have major implications for development and investment planning, disaster preparedness and loss prevention. Yet, long lists of priorities can be more immediate than risk management. Source: White, Philip, et al, Disaster risk reduction: a development concern, (DFID, 2004) 3.

A hazard hotspot is an area of multiple hazard zones. In large, rapidly growing urban areas in hazard prone areas, the potential for hazards to turn into disasters is great.

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Are Haiti and Japan disaster hotspots?

Action for students:Using the disaster websites such as:

• Prevention web for risk profile and disaster statistics: http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/risk.php?iso=hti

• Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, CRED (http://www.cred.be), for frequency, economic and human impact by disaster type and region: http://cred.be/sites/default/files/PressConference2010.pdf

1. List recent natural disasters for Japan and Haiti and discuss each countries capacity to deal with them. Consider location, tectonics, hurricane tracks, typhoons, tsunamis, population, economic development and the natural and built environment.

2. Compare risk rankings for Japan and Haiti.

3. Compare economic and human losses by disaster for Japan and Haiti. Try to explain why 2011 was the costliest year ever for natural disasters with Tohoku, Japan (2011) accounting for 55% of the total US$380 billion economic losses.

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PART II – SECTION THREETECTONIC HAZARDS: HUMAN IMPACTS

Why live in tectonically active areas?

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Why do people live in tectonically active areas?

Action for students:

1. Reflect on your own the reasons why people live in tectonically active areas, jot down your ideas.

2. Give examples, why do people continue to live in California, Japan or Haiti?

3. Consider: level of economic development, awareness of risks, risks versus benefits, past history of tectonic activity (magnitude, frequency, impact and dates).

4. Discuss with a partner their reasons and yours.

5. Join with another pair, discuss and record all the ideas why people live in tectonically active areas.

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Why risk living in a hazardous area?

There are far more people living in potentially hazardous area than you might expect.

Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1 Tectonic Activity and Hazards

Living in areas of tectonic

risk?

Ignorance of the risks and / or

underestimation of risk

Inertia; always lived there, roots

Nowhere else to go /

lack of alternatives

Choice e.g. Economic

opportunities like tourism, farming,

mining, geothermal power

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Many people may not have experienced earthquakes

Blue and mauve and yellow dotted lines show Haiti’s last earthquakes 57 and 64 years before the 2010 one. Risk is a probability: without living memory, people may underestimate the risk and consider preparing and planning less a priority.

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Dregg Disaster Model

Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1- tectonic activity and hazards. White, Philip, et al, Disaster risk reduction: a development concern, DFID, 2004, 3.Digby et al, Geography for Edexcel, Oxford University Press.

Risk = Vulnerability x Hazard

Dregg’s model (Earthquakes Venn Diagram) shows the overlap of natural hazard and human vulnerability.

The greater the scale of a earth process or event and the more vulnerable and exposed the people, the greater the scale of the natural hazards or disaster.

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“Disasters do not just happen – they result from failures of development which increase vulnerability to hazard events.” e.g., rapid urban growth leading to increased exposure to landslides, earthquakes or fire.” (White, Philip et al 2004, 3)

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World Risk IndexAction for students:Looking at the Dregg’s diagram and the world risk index, what places Haiti and Japan at risk?

The world risk index launched by the UN Institute in Bonn helps define the interaction between natural hazard and vulnerability.

Source: http://ihrrblog.org/2011/09/26/2011-un-world-risk-index/

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Disaster Risk Equation

People can be affected by natural disasters anywhere.However, the risk of disaster grows as global hazards and people’s vulnerability increases, while their capacity to cope decreases. The Disaster Risk Formula measures hazard vulnerability:

Factors that decrease risk include:• Effective warning and preparedness,• Better planning and building practices,• Development and insurance.Source: FAO, http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae080e/ae080e01.htm

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Vulnerability: class-quake

Vulnerability: • describes how susceptible a population or parts of a population are to the damage

of hazards, notably “the characteristics of a person or group and their situation that influence their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard.”(Wisner, Ben et al 2005, 11)

• is determined by processes in the natural environment and by places, people and power.

• tends to increase the lower the country’s economic development and socio-political stability because risks and vulnerability make the impact of natural hazards patterns worse.

Class-quake:The Guatemala earthquake 1976 made headlines as a ‘class-quake’, as it predominately affected the poor, excluded and vulnerable in slums while the urban middle and upper classes remained relatively unaffected.

Source: Wisner, Ben, et al, At Risk: Natural hazards, peoples vulnerability and disasters, 2nd ed, (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005) 11.

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Vulnerability and economic development

In less developed countries:

• A greater proportion of the population tends to be exposed to risk given population growth, land pressure and urbanisation. Moreover, the poorest tend to be disproportionately affected, often because they have migrated to hazard zones to search for work and may live in sub-standard and cramped conditions that collapse and crush them, the biggest cause of death.

• The financial resources, technical capacity, level of education and ability to cope with hazardous events also tend to be lower.

• The economies also tend to be driven by growth and tend to be less resilient in dealing with the disruption of the event.

• There are also more likely to be other humanitarian crises as well as other issues like weak governance and infrastructure.

Source: http://www.chinapost.com.tw/business/asia/other/2012/08/16/351184/Asia-economies.htmhttp://www.preventionweb.net/files/1070_drrscopingstudy.pdf

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Impact and Economic Development

The graph illustrates how the Kobe Earthquake (1995) was a huge economic disaster, while the Boxing Day Tsunami (2004) lead to far more deaths (like the Haiti 2010 earthquake).

Natural Disaster Cost by Year

Sources:World Bank (2006). Hazards of Nature, Risks to Development. An IEG Evaluation of World, Bank Assistance for Natural Disasters. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.Humanitarian Response to Natural Disasters: A synthesis of – Norad www.norad.no/en/tools-and-publications/.../107610?_...true...Graph by Robert Simmon, based on data courtesy EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database (www.em-dat.net) Université Catholique de Louvain—Brussels, Belgium

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Specific hazard impacts: Human costs

The costs of tectonic hazards can be classified broadly as human or economic. Human costs include primary, secondary and tertiary casualties. Over half of disaster deaths occur in LEDCs even though only 11% of people exposed to hazards live there.

Primary casualties: People killed or injured by an earthquake or volcano. Casualties tend to be much higher in less developed countries because of:• Limited preparedness,• Less effective warning systems,• Less effective search and rescue services.

Secondary casualties: People who survive initially but are injured or die because of insufficient resources and lack of emergency medical care especially in less developed countries

Tertiary casualties: People with pre-existing medical conditions aggravated by the hazard event. This includes people who become ill, or die as a result of the post-disaster environment.

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Specific hazard impacts: Economic costs

There are two types of economic costs:

• Direct costs: the immediate costs of repairing damage caused by the event. In the case of earthquakes this will often include demolishing buildings fractured by the shock waves and rebuilding from scratch.

• Indirect costs: loss of earnings caused by disruption to working life. Increasingly, major natural hazards are causing secondary technological and industrial accidents and emergencies for example, the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant in Japan.

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Exemplar table for your research: hazard impacts over

timeAction for students: Draw a table to organise and capture your

research foreach case study using the prompts in the table.Impacts Physical Social EconomicShort term Notable examples of natural and

human-built landscape destroyed. Fires due to gas pipe explosions and electrical damage? Landslides and flooding?

Numbers of killed and injured, noting those in essential service professionals like doctors and policemen injured. Lack of food and health supplies? Damage or loss of homes, transport, communications, health care facilities, energy and water supply systems?

Note tangible losses due to the direct impact of property damage like destruction to shops and trade damaged or disrupted. Also, indirect losses resulting from social economic disruption, trade impacted by loss of communication, transport and water and energy supply infrastructure. Looting?

Long term Intangible losses like the destruction of important natural and human landmarks and fertile lands.

Put here public health problems like disease (e.g., cholera due to contaminated water and lack of hygiene). Numbers of homeless and displaced people needing shelter and rehousing. Information on indirect impacts like stress and psychological damage.

Are settlements and shops being rebuilt and, if so, to higher standards? Settlements moved? People rehoused? Is there any positive impact in the form of aid, reconstruction and grants?

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