A Hand Note on Physiology - · PDF filein to various sub-branches depending upon the system under study. For example, renal physiology deals with the ... A Hand Note on Physiology

A Hand Note on

Physiology

A Hand Note on Physiology

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A Hand Note on

Physiology

Veterinary & Animal Science

bdvets.wordpress.com

Composed & Designed by

Md. Arifur Rahman

A big thanks to

Nur Ahmed

Resources www.wikipedia.org

physiology.org

physiology.ucla.edu

physiology.case.edu



Physiology

Physiology is a biological science which deals with the normal function and phenomena of living organism.

Cellular physiology

Cellular physiology is the branch of physiology which deals with the natural function and phenomena of live cell.

The basic theme of physiology is the interaction between a living organism and it’s environment.

Major Branches of Physiology

Some major branches of physiology are as follow:

Cell Physiology/Cytophysiology

This branch deals with the functioning of a cell. It includes the study of growth, maintenance, regulation and division of a cell and interaction between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. It may be further divided according to the particular organelle we are studying. For example, in membrane physiology we study the functioning of cell membranes.

General Physiology

In general physiology, those functions and vital processes are focused which are common to all living organisms.

Special (or Organ) Physiology

In this branch, functioning of a particular organ is studied.

System Physiology

In this branch, functional aspects of a particular system of the body are studied. System physiology can be divided in to various sub-branches depending upon the system under study. For example, renal physiology deals with the functioning of the kidneys, endocrinology deals with the functioning of the endocrine system (consisting of hormones and endocrine glands), immune physiology deals with the functioning of the immune system, etc.

Pathophysiology/Morbid Physiology

In this branch, disordered functions or functions in diseased tissues are studied.

Developmental Physiology

In this branch, physiological processes are studied in relation to their embryonic development.

Comparative Physiology

In this branch, physiological processes of different species are compared with one another.

Environmental Physiology

In this branch, physiological processes occurring in living organisms are studied in relation to their environment. It includes the study of adaptations that occur in organisms under different evironmental stresses.

Exercise Physiology

In this branch of physiology, we study different processes and changes that occur in body during exercise. It also includes the study of long lasting effects of exercise on the body and the beneficial or adverse effects of exercise in various pathological conditions.

Space Physiology

Physiology

Basic theme of Physiology

Branches of Physiology



In this branch, physiological processes and changes are studied in relation to the space, that is, in astronauts.

Aviation Physiology

In this branch, physiological processes and changes are studied in relation to the aircraft pilots.

High Altitude Physiology

This branch deals with the study of physiological processes and adaptations taking place in the people living at high altitudes.

Deep Sea Physiology

In this branch, physiological processes and changes are studied in the people who have to go deep in the sea. These people include professional divers and navy submarine crew.

Cell

Cell defined as structural & functional unit of the living organism.

Cell organelles chronologically

1. Cell membrane

2. Cytoplasm

Mitochondria

Endoplasmic reticulum

Ribosome

Golgi bodies

Lysosome

Chromosome

3. Nucleus

Nuclear membrane

Nucleoplasm

Nuclelous

Chromatin

Biological cell

Biological cell is called especial for life because it is the structural and functional unit of the living organism.

Basic characteristics of Biological cell

1. It needs energy to function.

2. Every cell generates it’s own energy. 3. Most of the cell have the capability to reproduce it’s own species.

Cell membrane

Cell membrane is a thin elastic structure composed of lipid bi-layer interposed with sandwitch of protein that

envelops the cell. The lipid bi-layers are phospholipid and cholesterol.

The phospholipid have a phosphate radical that is hydrophilic (water soluble) and a fatty acid radical that is

hydrophobic (fat soluble). The cholesterol has hydroxyl (OH-) radical and sterol radical. The membrane protein is

mainly glycoprotein.

Function

1. Maintains the shape of the cell.

Physiology of Cell



2. Regulates cell-cell interaction.

3. Separates and protects the nucleus and cytoplasm.

4. Acts as a selective barrier that control the passage of certain materials into and out of the cell.

5. It can recognize certain signals due the presence of cell surface receptor.

Mitochondria

1. It produces DNA, RNA, Sperm & Ovum.

2. It controls Creb’s Cycle.

3. It produces ATP & heat by means of oxidative phosphorylation. For this reason it is called power house

of cell.

4. Mitochondria contains DNA & hence these are involved in the synthesis of RNA and protein.

Ribosome

1. Ribosome plays an important role in protein synthesis.

2. It helps in metabolism of fat materials.

3. Free ribosomes are involved in the synthesis of protein for intra-cellular.

ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)

There are two types of ER. They are-

1. Rough ER &

2. Smooth ER.

Function of RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum)

1. The synthesis of phospholipid.

2. Helps in synthesis of protein.

3. The assembly of multi chain proteins.

Function of SER (smooth endoplasmic reticulum)

1. Participates in lipid synthesis

2. Participates in contraction process of muscles.

3. Participates in metabolism of lipid, certain fat(?) in Liver Cell.

Golgi body

1. Helps in secretion of hormones.

2. Helps in the making of acrosome of sperm.

3. Modification of protein, synthesized RER, packaging and placing of these proteins to the specific sites

within the cell.

Lysosome

1. Helps in Mitosis Cell Division.

2. Plays an important role the cell economy by acting as Intracellular Schavangers.

3. They digest foreign particles and unwanted cell organelles.



Membrane Transport

a) Non carrier mediated transport.

eg:

-Simple diffusion

-Osmosis

b) Carrier mediated transport.

eg:

-Facillated diffusion

-Active transport

-Co-transport

-Counter transport

-Endocytosis, Pinocytosis,

Phagocytosis.

Mechanism of membrane transport

Difference between Active transport and Facilitated Diffusion

SL Points Active Transport Facilitated Diffusion

01 Movement of molecule or ions

Movement of the molecule and/or ions from lower concentration to higher concentration.

Movement of the molecule or ions from higher concentration to lower concentration.

02 Energy Energy is utilized. No need of energy.

Carrier mediated transport

Four type of transportation are available-

1. Facilitated diffusion

Movement of the molecule and/or ion from higher concentration to lower concentration by binding with carrier protein in the cell membrane is called facilitated diffusion.

eg: - Absorption of fructose from the gut.

- Glucose or amino acid is transported from cell to extra cellular fluid.

Criteria of facilitated diffusion:

1. Carrier is needed. 2. No need of energy. 3. Molecule or ions move from higher concentration to lower concentration.

2. Active transport

Movement of the molecule and/or ions against concentration and electrochemical gradient by binding with carrier protein and utilization of energy (ATP).

Membrane transport system



eg:

- Na+-k+ pump in almost all cells in the body.

- H+-K+ pump or proton pump in gastric cell.

- Na+-H+ exchanges in renal tube.

Criteria of active transport

1. Carrier is needed.

2. Energy is utilized. 3. Transport of substance against concentration gradient and electrochemical gradient (Lower to higher).

3.Co-transportation

Movement of two substances in the same direction across the membrane by carrier protein is called sys-port or co-transport.

eg: Glucose entry with Na+-k- pump.

4.Counter-transportation

Movement of two substances in opposite direction across the membrane by a currier protein is called counter-transport or antiport.

eg. Na+-K+ pump.

We also found two types of carrier mediated transport systems. These are-

1.Endocytosis

It is an energy dependant process by which the cell membrane engulf particulate matter or extracellular fluid along with content. It is biologically important for the uptake into cell of substance of large molecular weight such as protein which can’t otherwise cross the plasma membrane.

It has two forms-

Pinocytosis (cell drinking): Endocytic uptake of soluble materials into cells.

Phagocytosis: It refers to the engulfing the particles by the cell. eg. Bacteria and virus neutrophil.

2.Exocytosis

Release of intracellular substances into the extracellular fluid by fusion or intracellular vesicles with the plasma membrane is called exocytosis. eg. Release of peptide hormone and secretion of exocrine gland in the gut.

Basic difference between ECF and ICF

SL Points Extra Cellular Fluid Intracellular Fluid

01 Definition The fluid which is present outside of the cell is called Extra cellular fluid.

The fluid which is present inside the cell is called intracellular fluid.

02 Contains less protein. Contains high protein.

03 In the extra cellular fluid the amount of Na+, Cl- ,HCO3

- is very high. In the intracellular fluid the amount of Amino acid K+, Mg++ is very high.



Na+-K+ pump

It is one of the most important active transport mechanism in the body. It also one of the major energy using process in the body.

Movement of 3Na+ ions from inside to outside the cell with simultaneous movement of 2K+ ions from outside to inside by splitting ATP is called Na+-K+ pulp.

Function

1. Responsible for membrane potential. 2. Control of cell volume. 3. Basis of nerve function. 4. There is a link between Na+ and K+ transport and

metabolism.

The greater rate of pumping the more ADP is formed. The supply of ADP determines the rate at which ATP is formed by oxidative phosphorylation.

Related Question:

Q. Mention the most important active transport process in the body with their function.

Physiological importance of Na+-K+ pump in preventing cell bursting.

One of the most important functions of the Na+-K+ pump is to control the volume of the cells, without function of

this pump, most cell of the body will swell until they burst. If a cell begins to swell for any reason, this device pumps three Na+ ions from inside to the outside the cell with simultaneous movement of 2K+ ions from outside to inside by splitting ATP. Also the membrane is far permeable to sodium ions than potassium ions. So, once the sodium ions are on the outside, They have a strong tendency to stay there. Thus this represents a continual net loss of ions out of the cell as well. So, in this way Na+-K+ prevents the cell volume from bursting.

Figure: Na+-K+ Pump

Na+-K+ pump

The process of moving sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrance is an active transport process involving the hydrolysis of ATP to provide the necessary energy. It involves an enzyme referred to as Na+/K+-ATPase. This process is responsible for maintaining the large excess of Na+ outside the cell and the large excess of K+ ions on the inside. It accomplishes the transport of three Na+ to the outside of the cell and the transport of two K+ ions to the inside. This unbalanced charge transfer contributes to the separation of charge across the membrane. The sodium-potassium pump is an

important contributer to action potential produced by nerve cells. This pump is called a P-type ion pump because the ATP interactions phosphorylates the transport protein and causes a change in its conformation.

Na+-K+ cv¤c

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Na+-K+ pump



Blood

Definition

Blood is a specialized type of liquid connective tissue composed of fluid portion “Plasma” and cellular elements circulating through the cardiovascular system and carrying substances essential for living.

Composition Blood composed of mainly two compounds-

1. A cellular fluid portion or plasma – 55% 2. Cellular elements or formed elements – 45%

Special feature of blood

Color: i) Red due to hemoglobin (Hb), ii) Arterial blood is bright red due to oxyhemoglobin, iii) venous blood is dark red due to carboxyhemoglobin.

Specific quality: 1.050-1.060.

pH: 7.4 average.

Reaction: Alkaline.

Volume: 5-6 L.

Osmotic pressure: 25-30 mmHg.

Temperature: 37º average.

Function of blood

Blood performs mainly two major functions-

1. Transport

2. Defense of the body against infection 1. Transport

i. Transport of respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) RBC carries O2 by binding with hemoglobin fromlung to tissue and carries CO2 from the tissue to lung.

ii. Transport of nutrients from GIT to tissue. iii. Transport metabolic waste products to the site elimination.

2. Defense of the body against infection 3. Blood act as a vehicle for hormones and other agents. That regulates cell function. 4. Blood carries antibody for immunity of the body. 5. Blood contains buffer system. These contributing the regulation of acid-base balance in the body. 6. It also maintains water balance. 7. Blood regulates body temperature.

Hematopoiesis

It is a process by which blood cells are produced under normal physiological condition from blood forming organ i.e: bone marrow with the action of growth factor.

Growth factors of Hemopoiesis

1. Erythropoietin 2. Interleukins 3. Thrombopoietn 4. Colony stimulating factor

1. Erythropoietin

Proliferation and differentiation of erythrocytes.

2. Interleukins

Proliferation and differentiation of lymphoid progenitors.

Physiology of Blood



Plasma

Solid 10%

Inorganic

Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3

-, CL-, Mn, Iron, Copper etc.

Organic

Plasma protein

-Albumen: Colloidal

-Globulin: Defense

-Fibrinogen: Blood clot

Various enzymes

Blood clotting factors

Antibody

Hormones

NPN as Urea, Uric acid, Creatinine

Neutral fat, phospholipid, cholesterol, glucose, amino acid

Antitoxin

Water 90%

3. Thrombopoietin

Stimulates the production of megakaryocytes.

4. Colony stimulating factor

Proliferation and differentiation of myeloid progenitors (eosinophil, neutrophil, basophil).

These all types of growth factors are produced from T-lymphocyte, monocyte, endothelial cells, fibroblast cells and kidney.

Plasma Plasma is the fluid portion of the blood which is a vasculareable(?) solution containing water and immense number of ions, organic and inorganic substances is called plasma.

Physical and biological features of plasma

Amount: 55% of blood. Color: Yellowish.

Chemical nature: Colloidal solution.

pH: 7.33-7.51 over 7.4

Sp. gravity: 1.026

Composition

Plasma

Figure : Megakaryocyte



Serum Serum is what remains after the formation of fibrin clot. (The fluid portion of blood after removal of clot of coagulated blood).

Basic difference between plasma and serum

SL Points Plasma Serum

01 Definition Fluid portion of blood, containing Acellular and blood clotting factor. (Acellular fluid portion of blood)

Serum is what remains after the formation of fibrinogen clot. (The fluid portion of blood after removal of clot of coagulated blood.

02 Fibrinogen Contain fibrinogen. No fibrinogen in serum, No prothrombin, factor v and viii.

03 Serotonin Serotonin content is low. Serotonin content is high.

04 Clotting factor Plasma does not contain any degradative product of clotting factor.

Contain some degradation product of clotting factor.

05 Color is not characteristic. Straw is color.

Difference between blood and plasma.

SL Points Blood Plasma

01 Definition Blood is a specialized type of liquid connective tissue.

Plasma is the a cellular fluid portion of the blood.

02 Color Color is red due to presence of hemoglobin (HB).

Color is yellowish due to the absence of hemoglobin (HB).

Serum

i³im (Plasma)

i³im nj i‡³i GKwU ¸i“Z¡c~Y© Dcv`vb| GwU nvjKv njy`vf Zij hv mvaviYZ †`‡ni wewfbœ cÖKvi i³‡Kvl aviY K‡i| gvbe †`‡ni kZKiv cÖvq 55 fvMB nj i³im| i³im g~jZ †Kvlc`©vi evB‡ii i³MnŸ‡ii ga¨Kvi Zij c`v_©| Gi 95 kZvsk nj cvwb Ges 6-8% kZvsk wewfbœcÖKvi Avwgl (A¨vjeywgb, †Mveywjb, dvBweª‡bv‡Rb), M“‡KvR, †K¬vwUs Dcv`vb, B‡j‡±ªv‡cU (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO-

3,

Cl-, BZ¨vw`), ni‡gvb Ges Kve©b WvBA·vBW (i³im wecvKxq msenbZ‡š¿i g~j gva¨g)| i³im gvbe‡`‡ni Avwgl msi¶‡Yi KvRI K‡i _v‡K| GwU i³MnŸ‡ii AwfmªeY cÖwµqv AUzU iv‡L hv‡Z i‡³ wewfbœ B‡j‡±ªvjvBU h_vbycv‡Z we`¨gvb _v‡K Ges gvbe‡`n RxevYy msµgY I wewea i³‰eKj¨ †_‡K gy³ _v‡K| i³im‡K ˆZwi Kiv nq †mw›UªwdD‡R A¨vw›U‡Kv¸‡j‡›Uavix weï× i‡³i bj‡K w¯cwbs K‡i; hZ¶Y bv i³‡Kvl b‡ji wb‡P c‡o hvq| Gici i³im Ab¨ GKwU cv‡Î †X‡j c„_K Kiv nq| i³i‡mi NbZ¡ cÖvq 1025 †KwR/wgUvi3, ev 1.025 MÖvg/wgwjwjUvi3 i³ wmivg nj †K¬vwUs Dcv`vb e¨ZxZ GKai‡Yi i³im|) cvRgv‡d‡iwmm nj GKai‡Yi †gwW‡Kj †_ivwc hvi g‡a¨ Av‡Q i³im G·‡UªKkb, wPwKrmv Ges wiBbwU‡MÖkb|

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Erythrocyte/RBC

Erythrocyte is a circular biconcave disc with a mean corpuscular diameter of 7.2 m. erythrocyte contains no nucleus and no cytoplasmic organelles. Most part if the mature RBC contains Hemoglobin.

Life span of blood cells

SL Blood Cells Life Span

01 RBC 120 days

02

WBC

Granulocytes

Neutrophil 2-4 days

Eosinophil 8-12 days

Basophil Basophil 12-15 days

Agranulocytes

Monocytes

10-20 hours in the blood. As tissue macrophages , can live for month unless destroyed which performing phagocytic function

Lymphocytes ___week or months that life span depends on the body’s need for this cells.

03 Platelets About 8-10 days/10 days

Ref. Guyton 423 page

Cellular part of Blood

How to get cell free blood

If we centrifuge the blood with the 2500-3000 rpm then it is divided into three layers, the cellular

portion of the blood let down in the lower portion of the tube. After aparting (mwi‡q †djv) the upper

two portion we get the cell free blood. N O

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Serum

Serum is the liquid portion of the blood obtained after a serum sample tube has been allowed to clot and is centrifuged. The serum tube may or may not contain a separator gel. The tubes that contain separator gel are commonly called Serum Separator

Tubes (SST®). For those tests requiring serum, please use the following procedure:

Use a tube with no anticoagulant (i.e. red-top tube, marbled-top tube or SST®).

Invert the tube 5 or 6 times after drawing to hasten the clotting process. Do not shake the tube. Shaking may cause hemolysis and result in specimen rejection.

Allow the specimen to clot in an upright position for 30 minutes, then centrifuge for 10-15 minutes at 2500-3000 RPM.

Serum must be removed from the clot within 45-60 minutes after collection. Transfer the required amount of serum to a plastic transfer tube and cap securely. When removing the serum, be sure not to aspirate any blood cells. If the blood was collected in a SST®, transferring the serum into a plastic transfer tube after centrifugation is not necessary.

Please label the plastic transfer tube with the patient's full name (first and last), collection date, and the requested test(s). wmivg wmivg m¨v¤cj wUD‡e i³ RgvU evuav‡bvi c‡i †mw›UªwdDRW (‡mw›UªwdDR †gwkb Øviv cÖ‡mwms) Kivi ci cvIqv Zij Ask | wmivg wUD‡e †mcv‡iUi †Rj (c„_KxKiY †Rj) eënvi Kiv n‡ZI cv‡i bvI n‡Z cv‡i | wmivg wUD‡e †mcv‡iUi †Rj eënvi Ki‡j Zv‡K "wmivg †mcv‡iUi wUDe" e‡j | wmivg ˆZwii c×wZt Gw›U‡Kv¸‡j›U wenxb GKwU †U÷wUDe wb‡Z nq | i³ RgvU evuav Z¡ivwš^Z Ki‡Z †U÷wUDewU‡K 5-6 evi Dëv-cvëv Ki‡Z nq | wUDewU‡K SvuKv‡Z

nqbv †h‡bv wn‡gvjvBwmm bv N‡U Ges bgybv bó bv n‡q hvq | bgybvwU Dc‡ii As‡k RgvU nIqvi Rb¨ 30wgwbU A‡c¶v Ki‡Z nq Ges c‡i 2500-3000 RPM (ivDÛ cvi

wgwbU) G 10-15wgwbU mgq a‡i †mw›UªwdDR Kiv nq | 45-60wgwb‡Ui g‡a¨ Aek¨B wmivg‡K RgvU Ask †_‡K c„_K Ki‡Z n‡e | cwiwgZ cwigvY wmivg GKwU

cvw÷K UªvÝdvi wUD‡e ¯’vbvš—i Kiv nq Ges fvjfv‡e wUD‡ei gyL eÜ Ki‡Z nq | wmivg c„_KxKi‡Yi mgq mZK© _vK‡Z nq †hb G‡Z †Kv‡bv i³KwYKv hy³ bv _v‡K | hw` i³ wmivg †mcv‡iUi wUD‡e (SST) msMÖn Kiv nq Zvn‡j Zv †mw›UªwdDR Kivi ci cvw÷K UªvÝdvi wUD‡e ¯’vbvš—i Ki‡Z nq bv |

cvw÷K UªvÝdvi wUDe †ivMxi c~Y© bvg, i³ msMÖ‡ni ZvwiL Ges cÖ‡qvRbxq †U‡÷i bvgmn fv‡jvfv‡e †j‡ewjs Ki‡Z nq |

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Erythropoiesis Formation of mature red cell under normal physiologic condition is called erythropoiesis.

Factors that are essential for RBC maturation.

1. Vitamin B12 : Nuclear division and metabolism of DNA synthesis. 2. Folic acid, Vitamin C, Vitamin E: Act as a catalyst of DNA synthesis. 3. Riboflavin: Normal erythropoiesis.

4. Amino acid: Globin synthesis. 5. Iron + pyridoxin: Heme synthesis.

Regulating factors of Erythropoiesis

1. Hypoxia

Hypoxia means decrease of tissue O2 which occurs in high altitudes, anaema, cardiac, pulmonary disease. Hypoxia stimulates erythropoiesis by erythropoietin ( a local hormone secreted by kidney and liver is response to tissue hypoxia).

2. Erythropoietin

In response to tissue hypoxia kidney release a horemone erythropoietin that on bone marrow and stimulates. Erythropoietin is a local hormone mainly secreted by kidney (90%) and liver (10%) is response to tissue Hypoxia.

3. Endocrine gland

Gonad, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal gland exerts a secondary modifying influence on erythropoiesis.

4. Miscellaneous

Vitamin, bile salt, diet-amino acid etc.

Development of RBC



Erythropoietin stimulates

Increase proliferation

of RBC

Maturaion of RBC

Increase production

Increase Hb concentration

Increase tissue O2

No hypoxia

(-)ve feedback to

kidney

Feedback mechanism of Erythropoiesis.

Relation between Hypoxia, Erythropoietin in Erythropoiesis

Figure: Feedback mechanism of Erythropoiesis

Decrease arterial O2 content

Hypoxia developed

Erythropoietin realease from kidney

Hypoxia

Hypoxia



Stem cell

Mature RBC. Life span 120 days

Passing through RE system

(Spleen, Liver)

Destruction of RBC

Others Hb

Heme

Re-utilized further

Biliverdin

Liver

GIT reduced by bacteria

Urobilinogen

Pass through kidney

Urobilinogen

Gives the color of urine

Through feces

Stercobilinogen

Gives color of feces

Globuline

Re-utilize

Fate of RBC Donation of blood after 120 days is scientifically correct. Because, after 120 days RBC are destroyed ultimately.

Figure: Fate of RBC

Fate of RBC



Related Questions:

Q. Do you think donation of blood after 120 days is scientifically correct? Please explain in relation to fate of RBC.

FAQ1. Which solution between Colloid and Crystalloid therapy is more practical in severe blood loss condition? Explain with justification.

Colloid solution is more practical than crystalloid’s in severe blood loss condition. This type of solution contains protein is colloid. If the severe blood loss occur colloid solution must be added.

eg. Blood is a colloid solution.

If the severe blood loss occur colloid solution should be used because, colloids are better than crystalloids at expanding the circulatory volume, because there larger molecules are retained more easily in the intravascular space and increase osmotic pressure.

FAQ2. Which solution between colloid and crystalloid therapy is more practical in severe dehydration? Explain with justification.

Crystalloid solution is more practical than colloid in severe dehydration. Because this solution passes freely through cell membranes and vascular system walls. They flow out of the vascular system rather quickly. So, the use of crystalloid solution is more scientific than the use of colloidal solution.

Or, this type of solution contains small molecules that passes freely through the semi permeable membrane and vascular system walls and it spreads all the whole body very rapidly.

FAQ3. Why hypoxia beneficial for RBC. Explain this.

If hypoxia occur, it stimulates erythropoiesis by erythropoietin. In response to tissue hypoxia kidney release hormone erythropoietin that act on bone marrow and increases the proliferation of RBC.

So, Hypoxia is beneficial for RBC production or Erythropoiesis.

Hypoxia

This hormone act on bone

marrow (Red)

RBC production occur

Erythropoietin Hormone

Hypoxia Kidney release

FAQ- Frequently Asked Questions



FAQ4. Mention the development of RBC.

RBC is developed in certain exclusive part of the body. Those are as follows-

1. Mesoblastic

RBC developed in mesoderm of yolk sac (Up to 8 week of life).

2. Hepatic

RBC developed in liver up to 1 month before birth.

3. Myeloid

RBC developed in bone marrow.

Blood coagulation Blood coagulation means the conversion of fluid blood to a solid gel or clot by conversion of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin.

Remaining as fluid of blood in the blood vessel

Due to-

1. Blood remain separated from the activator factor by the intact endothelium. 2. Presence of natural anticoagulant (Heparin) in the circulation. (Protein S, Protein C). 3. By the balancing action of prostocycline (PGR and thromboxane)

In case of:

Why blood clot do not occur within the normal vascular system? The answer of question mentions above.

Figure : Remaining fluid of blood in the blood vessel

Prostocycline is synthesized by the endothelial cell

Thus prevent platelets

aggregation on the normal

vessel wall

Thus blood remain fluid within

the vessel

It produce vasodilution

Opposes the action of

thromboxane

Blood Coagulation



NB:

Some essential knowledge about different types of coagulants

SL Name of anticoagulant Origin and function

01 Heparin -Produced by the Mast cell and Basophil cell granules -It inhibits the thrombin formation

02 Protein C -It is synthesized by liver -It is a Vit-K dependent protein.

03 Protein S Synthesized by liver

Fibrinolysis

1. Streptokinase 2. Heparin 3. Hirudin

Anticoagulant

Anticoagulant are the chemical agent which prevent or hamper the coagulation process.

eg: Natural anticoagulant prevent clot formation inside the vessel.

Types of anticoagulant

There are two types of anticoagulant

1. Natural anticoagulant. 2. Artificial anticoagulant.

SL Natural anticoagulant Artificial anticoagulant

01 eg. -Antithrombin iii -Heparin -Protein C and Protein S -Other macro

eg. -EDTA -H-Na cytrate -Sodium oxalate

Difference between Natural anticoagulant and Artificial anticoagulant

SL Point Natural anticoagulant Artificial anticoagulant

01 Location They are naturally found in the vascular system.

This type of coagulant are made artificially by chemical agent.

02 Composition

Natural anticoagulant are produced by many different cells of the body, but especially large quantities are formed by the basophilic mast

cells located in the pericapillary connective tissue throughout the body.

It is artificially prepared by chemical substances.

Related Questions:

Q1. Define Blood Coagulation. Why blood remain fluid within the blood vessel?

Q2. Define Anticoagulant with their example.

g¨v‡jwiqv n‡j kix‡ii ZvcgvÎv †e‡o hvq †Kb?

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Mechanism of coagulation process of blood

Source: Wikipedia; modified

Related Questions:

Q. Mention the mechanism of how blood is coagulated during an external cut.

FAQ1. Compare the extrinsic and intrinsic pathway of blood coagulation.

SL Traits Extrinsic Pathway Intrinsic Pathway

01 Initiasion

Begins with the trauma of blood vessel or exposure of blood to extravascular tissue.

Begins with trauma to blood itself or exposure of blood to subendothelial matrix.

02 Clotting factors involve in prothrombin

activation

Factor III,IV,V,VII,X Factor IV,V,VIII,IX,X,XI,XII

03 Duration Rapid process. Slower process.

FAQ- Frequently Asked Questions



Disorder of Hemostatis

1. Bleeding time

It is the time between bleeds, starts and stoppage of bleeding.

Bleeding time: 3-10 min.

2. Clotting time

It is the time between withdrawal of blood and clot formation.

Clotting time: 5-11 min.

3. Prothrombin time

Prothrombin time is measured by adding tissue thromboplastin, Ca to patient’s plasma.

Prothrombin time: 16-18 sec.

FAQ2. How does Vit-K helps in coagulation?

Maximum coagulation factor synthesis in the liver by the help of vit-K. Here, vit-K acts as a catalyst. Vit-K can’t help directly in blood coagulation, but it helps indirectly in blood coagulation.

Vit-K

FAQ3. How the coagulation process is hampered due to the damage of liver? Is Vit-K deficiency causes hamper of coagulation process? If it is true, explain.

The coagulation process is due to the damage of liver because the liver is the main organ for the synthesis of various coagulation factors. So, if any damage occur in liver or hepatocyte, the liver or hepatocyte incapable to synthesis the coagulation factor. Ultimately the coagulation factor is hampered.

Otherwise the deficiency of Vit-K or lack of Vit-K also hampers the coagulation process. Because, Vit-k acts as a catalyst when the coagulation factors are synthesized from the liver. So, Vit-K deficiency or lacking causes

hamper of coagulation factors synthesis.

Liver

Coagulation occur

Coagulation fact or synthesis

Figure: Function of Vit-K in blood coagulation



Hypoxia

Hypoxia means decrease of tissue O2 which occurs in high altitudes, anaema, cardiac, pulmonary disease. Hypoxia stimulates erythropoiesis by erythropoietin ( a local hormone secreted by kidney and liver is response to tissue hypoxia).

Effect if Iron during Hypoxia

Figure: Effect of Iron in the Hypoxia

Related Questions: Q. Why Iron containing food should be supplied during Hypoxia?

During Hypoxia

Hemoglobin composed of

Heme and Globuline

Hemoglobin can’t carry O2 to

the tissue

Iron containing food increase

the amount of Heme (Fe++) in

the blood

The hemoglobin increases

Carry the O2 to the tissue

Ultimately Hypoxia (recover)



Acidosis A decrease in the pH of Arterial plasma below 7.4 due to excessive acid accumulation, the loss of base is called acidosis. Or, Acidosis is a condition in which the acidity of body fluid and tissue abnormally great. i.e: when body pH fall below the normal value of 7.4. A pH of below 7.0 is considered life threatening.

There are two types of acidosis 1. Respiratory acidosis

It occurs as a consequence of hypoventilation when CO2 accumulates in the body as Carbonic acid.

2. Metabolic acidosis

It is caused by various changes in the body’s metabolism.

Acidosis is characterized by

1. HCO3- / S.P(?) CO2 ratio becomes less than 20:1.

2. pH falls i.e(?) H+ increased. 3. Negative base excess. 4. Hyperkalacmia (cellular K+ enter. ECF and H+ enter into cell).

Alcalosis A condition in which the alkalinity of body fluids and tissues is abnormally high. Alcalosis may be associated with loss of through vomiting or with excessive NaHCO3 administration.

Or, an increase in the pH of arterial plasma abnormal (?) 7.4 due to acumulation of base or the loss of acid is called alcalosis or alcalomia.

Alcalosis is characterized by

1. HCO3- /SP(?) CO2 ratio becomes more than 20:1

2. pH rise ie: H+ concentration decrease.

3. Positive base excess. 4. Hypokalacmia

Buffer A solution containing weak acid and it’s salt of strong base having capacity to resist change of ppH when moderate amount of acids or bases are added to it is called a buffer system.

Some important Buffer system Physiological buffer system in the body

1. Bicarbonate buffer system 2. Phosphate buffer system 3. Protein buffer system. 4. Hemoglobin buffer system.

1) Bi carbonate buffer system will contain HCO3- when a base is added it will liberate the H+ and produce water

combining with OH- ion of the base there for reducing the effect of the base and when an acid is added it will accept the H+ ion and for H2CO3 therefore the effect of the acid will be nullified.

2)Phosphates are H2O4- or HPO4

2- and it will also have the functions as mentioned in the above.

3)Proteins have an NH2 group and well as a COOH group both attached to the same molecule. Therefore when acid is added the NH2 group will neutralize it and when a base is added COOH group will neutralize it reducing the alkalinity.

Therefore all these chemicals found in the blood and other body tissue will maintain the blood pH level at a constant level acting as natural buffers.

Polycythaemia Polycythaemia is defined as an increase of hemoglobin (Hb), PCV and red cell count above the normal reference range. PCV is more reliable indicator for polycythaemia than Hb.

Types of polycythaemia

1. Primary polycythemia (polycythaemia vera): when there is pathological proliferation of red cells without Erythropoietin stimulation, then it is called polycythaemia vera. Due to

Bone marrow tumor



X-ray radiation.

2. Secondary polycythaemia (physiological variety): When there is a physiological response pathological stimulus as in hypoxia in which the production of erythropoietin is increased. So, red cell is increased from secondary(?) to hypoxia. Due to-

Hypoxia

Pulmonary disease

Renal disease

Stress

Dehydration

Burn

Abnormal hemoglobin which has high O2

Affinity.

Related Questions:

Q. Define with example Acidosis, Alkalosis, Buffer and Polycythemia.

FAQ1. Why after severe vomiting Alkalosis occurs?

After severe vomiting the body losses excessive amount of acid or due to the accumulation of base after the vomiting.

During severe vomiting

Blood pH is increased

Body losses excessive amount

of acidic fluid

Alkalosis occurs

FAQ



FAQ2. Why after severe diarrhoea Acidosis occurs?

After the severe diarrhoea, the body loss excessive amount of basic fluid. For this reason the rate of blood pH decreases then acidosis occurs.

Hemoglobin Hemoglobin is a complex globular protein molecule in the RBC consists of a red pigment heme and globulin or globin.

Types of Hemoglobin

1. Oxyhemoglobin

Oxyhemoglobin of hemoglobin is called oxyhemoglobin. It is dissoluble hemoglobin-oxygen complex. One molecule of Hb can carry 4 molecule of O2 due to presence of 4 heme unite in 1 molecule Hb.

Iron remaining requires Fe++ state in oxyhemeglobin. Hb bind loosly and reversly with O2.

2. Methehemoglobin

Oxidation of Hb is called methemoglobin or Ferrihemoglobin. Here Iron remains in Fe+++ (Feric) state.

3. Carboxyhemoglobin

Combination of CO with Hb forms carboxyhenoglobin. The affinity of CO for Hb is much more higher than O2.

The color of HbCO is cherry red.

4. Carbonylhemoglobin

The Hb-CO2 complex is designated as carbonylhemoglobin.

Function of Hb.

Transport of respiratory gas

Hb plays an important role in carrying O2 from lung to tissue in the forms of oxyhemoglobin and returning CO2

from tissue to lung.

Acts as a buffer

Human Hb molecule contains 36 histidine residue with pK value near pH=7 makes the Hb an excellent buffer in the physiological pH range. Then it contributes in acid-base balance.

During severe diarrhoea

Blood pH is decreased

Body losses excessive amount

of basic fluid

Acidosis occurs

Hemoglobin



Synthesis of Hemoglobin

Hb starts to synthesis in the intermediated normoblast stage of RBC development. Heme synthesis ocurs in the mitochondria of developing RBC. The major rate limiting step is the conversion of Glycine and Succinyle CoA

to α-amino laevuilic acid (ALA) witth the help of ALA synthetase. Then a series of synthetic steps are occurred

and forms Pyrrole molecules. Then 4 pyrrole molecules combine to form/to produce protoporphyrins. Finally iron

is inserted into the mitochondria to form heme. Heme is then inserted into the globin chain to form hemoglobin.

Step 1

Succenyl CoA + Glycine Pyrrole molecule

Step 2

4 Pyrrole molecule Protoporphyrin

Step 3

Protoporphyrin + Iron (Fe) Heme

Step 4

4 Heme + Glubin Hemoglobin

Factors for Hemoglobin synthesis

Globin

Iron

Cobalt (RBC maturation)

Related Questions:

Q. Write down the synthesis of Hemoglobin with mentioning the four exclusive steps and associated factors.

Anaemia Qualitative and quantitative deficiency of the hemoglobin or RBC in the circulation in respect of age and sex of the individual is called anaemia.

Anaemia is not a disease but it is a sign of disease.

Types of anaemia

1. Deficiency anaemia: Due to deficiency of Iron, Vit-B12 and folic acid.

Heme synthesis



2. Aplastic anaemia: Due to depression of bone marrow function. 3. Hemolytic anaemia: Due to excessive red cell destruction. 4. Sickle cell anaemia: Due to abnormality in the Hb structure.

Thalassemia It is an inherited impairment of Hb production in which there is a partial or complete failure to synthesis a specific type of globin chain.

FAQ1. Write down the advantages or importance of Encasing (residing) the Hemoglobin within the RBC.

Incase of RBC, the Hb will float free and invite some hazards-

1. The freely floating Hb will greatly increase the osmotic tension of plasma. High osmotic tension of plasma is dangerous. So, to remain alive, in this setup, the volume of plasma shall have to be great.

This means our blood volume shall have to be tremendous and our body size unmanageable.

2. A small fraction of free hemoglobin would be filtered through the kidney. This camn block the kidney tubules under suitable condition.

FAQ2. Write down the advantages or importance of Biconcavity of RBC.

Importance of Biconcavity of RBC

1. Because of the biconcavity, the thickness of the RBC at it’s center is only flattened. The oxygen from plasma has to travel to a very small distance to reach the Hb.

2. The presence biconcavity increases the surface area of the RBC, so that the oxygen gets a bigger area for diffusion and the diffusion is facilitated.

3. Because of the biconcavity, the RBC can squeeze itself in a narrow capillary more easily.

Advantages of absence of nucleus in RBC

1. Provides some extra spaces for the storage of large amount of hemoglobin within the RBC. 2. No –nucleated state of RBC also facilitates its movement in the way that it provides special ability to

change it’s shape avoiding creation of any extra tension on the membrane while passing through narrow capillaries.

FAQ3. How we can separate Crystalloid solution from Colloid solution through a semipermeable membrane?

Crystalloid solution passes easily through the membrane but the colloid solution cannot pass through the membrane. Because the crystalloid solution contains small molecules. So, it can easily pass through the semipermeable membrane, on the other hand, the colloid solution contains very complex and larger molecules. So, it can not pass through the membrane.

FAQ4. Why stomach is called hemopoietic organ?

Stomach produces intrinsic factor that carries Vit-B12. This Vit-B12 is essential for RBC maturation. For this reason stomach is called hemopoietic organ.

FAQ5. Why peptic ulcerate man shows Anaemia?

Peptic means – Stomach;

Ulcer – Sore, wound.

We know that stomach is a hemopoietic organ. So, when ulceration occurred in the stomach, the stomach can not produce intrinsic factor, no carrying of Vit-B12. Ultimately RBc maturation do not occur. So, the peptic ulcerate

man shows anaemia.

FAQ



FAQ6. How kidney disease causes anaemia?

FAQ7. Why kidney is called Endocrine gland?

Kidney is called endocrine gland because it secrets erythropoietin hormone. This hormone directly goes into the circulation and acts on the bone marrow and produces red blood cell. So the kidney is called endocrine gland.

Kidney disease occurs

The low amount of erythropoietin

stimulate low amount of bone

marrow

Kidney produces low amount of

Erythropoietin hormone

Low amount of RBC produced

Anaemia occurs

Kidney

Produces erythropoietin hormone

Enters/goes into the circulation directly

Acts on bone marrow (Red)

Produces RBC



Pituitary gland

Erythropoietis or RBC production

Exerts(?) a secondary modified

influence on

FAQ8. Why Edema is formed during pregnancy?

During pregnancy protein passes from mother to fetus through placental blood for fetus development. As a result, protein decreases in mother’s blood, that means hypoproteinemia develops. For hypoprotinemia osmotic pressure decreases in blood. As aresult water comes to the tissue from bloods and accumulates within the interstitial space. So, edema developed.

FAQ9. Write down the basic step of Coagulation process.

Step-1

Generation of prothrombin by extrinsic and intrinsic pathway

Step-2

Conversion of prothrombin to thrombin by prothrombin activator.

Step-3

Formation of fibrin clot.

FAQ10. Is there any co-relation between RBC, Hb and PCV?

Yes, there is a positive co-relation between RBC, Hb and PCV. i.e. If RBC number increases, there is increase amount of hemoglobin and PCV or vice versa.

FAQ11. What are the causes of PCV variation?

Increased PCV: Polycythemia, Dehydration, High PCV.

Low PCV: Anaemia, Pregnancy.

FAQ12. Why Gonad- (Ovary/Testes), Pituitary, Thyroid and Adrenal gland are called erythropoietic organ?

/ RBC

/ Hb

/PCV



FAQ13. Why energy is needed for active transport and why energy isn’t needed for facilitated by diffusion?

In active transport system the movement of molecules against concentration and electro chemical gradient by binding with carrier protein. Due to the movement of molecules against concentration in above transport system if need energy.

And on the other hand, due the movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration.

FAQ14. Why Oxyhemoglobin is better Methemoglobin?

Because, oxyhemoglobin easily bind with O2. on the other hand the Methemoglobin losses it’s capacity to bind with. For this reason it can’t transport O2.

FAQ15. Why one molecule of Hemoglobin can carry 4 molecule of O2?

1 molecule of hemoglobin contain 4 heme unit. For this reason 1 molecule of hemoglobin can carry 4 molecule of

O2. Another reason is, the hemoglobin contain pyrrole ring. This pyrrole ring is responsible for carrying of 4 molecule of O2.

FAQ16. How you can collect anticoagulant free blood?

Or, How you can collect acellular blood?

Or, How you can collect coagulation factor containing blood?

At first the collected blood is mixed with anticoagulant. Then the blood is centrifused by Centrifuse machine. The separated portion of the blood in the test tube is called acellular blood or cell less blood. This is also known as plasma.

FAQ17. How will collect the serum for immediate use?

Or, how you will collect blood clotting factor free blood?

In a test tube the blood without anticoagulant is coagulated for about 1 to 2 hours at 37ºC. Then it is transferred to a refrigerator at 4ºC overnight. The following fluid out after clot retraction which is known as serum.

FAQ18. Write down the causes of anaemia.

Causes of anaemia

1. Excessive destruction of RBC. 2. Blood loss from whatever cause. 3. Decreased formation of RBC. 4. Faulty construction of RBC. 5.

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Content of WBC

Content Amount (%)

Neutrophil 40-75%

Eosinophil 1-6%

Basophil 0-1%

Lymphocyte 20-45%

Monocyte 2-10%

General properties of WBC

Diapedesis

Neutrophil and monocyte can squeeze the pores of the blood vessels. They first adhere to the endothelium and then institute through gap between two adjacent endothelial cell. This is called “Diapedesis”.

Amoeboid Motion

Neutrophils and macrophages move through the tissue by amoeboid motion.

Chemotaxis

A purposeful & unidirectional movement of neutrophil and macrophage towards the site of injury or inflammation is called “Chemotaxis”. Chemotaxix occurs due to release of chemo-attachments at the site of infection or inflammation.

Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis means cell eating, ingestion of invading microorganisms by WBC is called phagocytosis. Neutrophil is the most specialized microbial phagocyte. These cells are extensively released during acute inflammation or tissue damage.

Phagocytosis involves three steps-

1. Requirement (recognition and attachment of foreign particles). 2. Engulfment (endocytosis of foreign particles). 3. Killing or destroying of phagocytic materials.

Recruitment

Powerful chemoattractant are released at sites of infection or inflammation. This chemoattractant cause migration of neutrophil to the site of infection by two processes-

1. Increased migration and adhesion of neutrophil to the vascular endothelium. 2. Stimulating neutrophil chemotaxis, cell passes through endothelium into tissue by diapedesis.

Engulfment

Phagocytosis occurs by the formation of pseudopodia around the organism or particle to be ingested. Due to fluidity of the cell membrane the tips eventually fused to form a membrane bound vesicle phagosome. The phagosome fused with the neutrophil cytoplasmic granules to form a phagolysosome. Within this localized environment killing occurs. Ingestion of organism is much effective if the particle is first coated or opsonized with specific antibody.

Killing

Within the phagolysosome enzymatic destruction of organism occurred by two major mechanisms-

1. O2 dependent response

In which there is production of reactive O2 metabolites such as H2O2, OH- via reduction of O2 by an NADPH-oxidase enzyme.

2. O2 independent response

Due to toxic actionof preformed antionic protein enzyme continued within the neutrophilic cytoplasm.

WBC



Pluripotential Stem cell

CFU

CFU-GEMM

CFU-baso

Basophil

(2-5 lobes)

CFU-GMEO

CFU-GM

Neutrophil

(2-5 lobes)

Monocyte

(mono nucleur)

CFU-EO

Eosinophil

(bi-lobed)

Lymphoid stem cell

T cell

T-helper cell

T-supressor cell

N K cell

B cell

Plasma cell

The super oxidase ions are discharged to the inside of the cell or into phagolysosome. Where it encounters ingested bacteria. Killing of bacteria depends on combind action of elevated pH, super oxide ion or oxygen derivatives, H2O2, OH- present in neutrophil.

Granulopoiesis ( Development of WBC) The production of granulocyte under normal physiological condition is called Granulolpoiesis. All peripheral blood cell are produced or derived from pluripotential Stem cells by a differentiation step. The earliest detectable colony forming unit CFU gives rise to CFU-GEMM that produces-

Granulocyte

Erythrocyte

Monocyte

Megakaryocyte

Stem cells also produce lymphocyte cell through lymphoid stem cells.

From CFU-GEMM the following cell groups are developed-

CFU-GMEO

CFU-baso

From CFU-GMEO Monocyte, Neutrophil and Eosinophil are produced and Basophil is produced from CFU-baso.

Figure: Granulopoiesis



Speciality WBC cell

Diapedesis

Amoeboid motion

Kemotoxic

Phagocytosis

i. Requirement ii. Engulfment

iii. Killing

Related Questions:

Q. What is Granulopoiesis? Explain briefly. Mention the speciality of WBC cell.

Fate of Neutrophil. After phagocytosis and killing-

Necrosis and disintegration

Apoptosis formation

Macrophage ingestion.

Opsonization Optionization means “Made ready to eat”. Some pathogens have protective coats. So, phagocytes can never destroy them. Ingestion or killing of these organisms are much more effective if the particles are first coated or opsonized with specific antibody. Serum containing natural antibody opsonin which coats the particles and make

the particles acceptable to the phagocytes. This is called optonization.

Monocyte or tissue macrophage Macrophages are derived from the bone marrow precursor (Monocyte).when monocyte is in the tissue it differentiates into macrophage. Mature macrophage forms Reticulo-endothelial system (RE) in the tissue.

Macrophage like other polymerphs are capable of phagocytic and killing of microorganiss. They also secret some important products-

Cytokinage and growth factor- Interferon, IL, TNF.

Enzymes. eg. Elastase, collagenase, phospholypase.

Enzyme inhibitors. eg. α-antitrypsin, α2-macroglobin.

Lipids. eg. Leukotriens, PGE etc.

Coagulation factors. eg.Tissue factor, thromboplastin factor: α,IX,V. Function

1. Secretory function: Monocyte and macrophage secret around 100 substances.

2. Ingestion and killing of microorganisms and waste particles. 3. Regulation of hemopoiesis via the effect of 12TNF, CSF, erithropoietin. 4. Lymphocyte activation via antigen(?) presentation. 5. Killing of tumor cell via the TNF (Tumor Nacrosis? Factoer) 6. Tissue repairing and remodeling.



Lymphocyte Lymphocytes are two types-

1. T-lymphocyte 2. B-lymphocyte

T-lymphocyte Lymphocytes derived from the thymus are called T-lymphocyte. T-lymphocyte comprises about 75% of the lymphoid population. Immature T-cell (developed from bone marrow) enter into thymus where maturation of T-lymphocytes occur by the influence of thymic epethelial hormone “Thymosin”. Finally, T-lymphocyte is divided

into four groups-

1. Helper T-cell: Immunoregulatory function stimulate B-cell for antibody production. 2. Suppressor T-cell: Reduces the immunoactivity by releasing soluble factor or messenger. 3. Cytotoxic T-cell: Killing of the cell. 4. T-cell: That mediates delayed type of hyper sensitivity reaction.

Function of T-lymphocyte

Responsible for cellular immunity by-

1. Antigen recognition- Stimulates B-lymphocyte for antibody production and capable of cell killing. 2. Produces lymphs which results delayed type of hyper sensitivity reaction.

3. Responsible for graft rejection reaction.

Immunoglobulin (Ig)

Immunoglobulins are γ-globulin fractions of plasma protein. They are glycoproteins that are produced by a highly

specific response to an antigenic challenge.

Types of immunoglobulins

Ig G Humoral antibody

Ig A Galiva, RT secration, GIT secratin

Ig M Intravascular pool

Ig D Surface of B-lymphocyte

Ig E Mast cell and basophil cell

Immune system in the health

Two types of immunities-

1. Innate immunity: A non-specific immediate response. The main component of innate immunity-

Phagocyte: Neutrophil, Monocyte, macrophage.

Other inflammatory cell: Basophil, eosinophil.

Complement system.

Acute phase reactant such as: C-protein.

2. Specific immunity: It is the hallmark of immuno system. T & B-lymphocyts are responcible for this immuno system.

Humoral immunity: This immunity is produced by B-lymphocyte that ultimately produces plasma cell and memory cell. It is the major defense against soluble antigens.

Cellular immunity: It is performed by T-lymphocyte. It is responsible for delayed allergic reaction

and rejection of transplant of foreign tissue.

B-lymphocyte Early stage of B-lymphocytes are found in the bone marrow and then enter into bursa of Fabricious or Lymphnode and completed their maturation within this. These cells produce antibody.

Mechanism of Antibody production

B-cells are capable of producing specific antibody to a given antigen. In this process, once B-cell has been exposed to specific antigen (which is recognized through immunoglobulin molecule located in the B-cell) and in

Lymphocyte



the presence of cytokins (IL-1,6). It is activated and divided. This is called clonal expansion following this expansion step B-lymphocyte is differentiated to become plasma cell. Which produces larger amount of antibody. Plasma cells have unique features.

1. Morphologically plasma cells are distinguished by a cytoplasm containing large amount of ER (endoplasmic reticulum).

2. Have relatively short haft(?) life. 3. Finally, they die autonomously(?).

Clonal expansion of B-cell production and production of Antibody

Antigen ‘X’

B-lymphocyte (activated & divided)

Clonal expansion

Differentiation into plasma cell

Antibody Production (reactivated specifically with

Antigen ‘X’)



Different cell of immune system

Osmosis Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane

(like a cell membrane) from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration is known as osmosis.

Membrane potentials Potential developing across the membrane due to-

Na+-K+ pump.

Resting state membrane is 50-100 times more permeable to K+ than Na+.

Donnan effect is known as membrane potential effect.

There are two types of membrane potential-

Resting membrane potential (RMP)

It is the potential difference across the membrane in resting state with the inside of the cell negative to the exterior. In the resting state, membrane is maintained in a polarized state with the outside positive relative to the inside.

Causes

Unequal distribution of diffusible ions across the membrane is due to-

Na+-K+ pump.

Bone marrow lymphatic precursor

Thymus, liver, spleen

T-lymphocyte

Cytotoxic or killer cell

Helper T-cell

Suppressor T-cell

Memory T-cell

Lymphnode or bursa of

Fabricious

B-lymphocyte

Plasma cell

Immunoglobuline

Memory B-cell

Solution



K+ permeability is greater than Na+ in the resting state.

Donnan effect.

Action potential

When a muscle or nerve fiber is stimulated by the threshold stimulus the excitable tissues (muscles, nerves) exhibits a sequence of depolarization and repolarization of the membrane which travel along the entire length of the fiber without any change in the size. This change in the membrane potential is called action potential.

Depolarization

Upon threshold stimulus the membrane suddenly becomes very much permeable to sodium ion (Na+) ie. Potential changes to positive direction. This is called depolarization.

Repolarization

Just after depolarization Na+ channel gradually closes and K+ channel gradually opens. This causes outflux of K+

and reestablished negativity inside the cell is called repolarization.

Donnan effect When a non diffusible Anion (A-) is present on one

side of membrane. It causes an unequal distribution diffusible ions to the opposite side of thermometer. That is called Donnan effect.

The Gibbs–Donnan effect (also known as the Donnan's effect, Donnan law, Donnan equilibrium, or Gibbs–Donnan equilibrium) is a name for the behavior of charged particles near a semi-permeable membrane that sometimes fail to distribute evenly across the two sides of the membrane. The usual cause is the presence of a different charged substance that is unable to pass

through the membrane and thus creates an uneven electrical charge. For example, the large anionic proteins in blood plasma are not permeable to capillary walls. Because small cation are attracted, but are not bound to the proteins, small anions will cross capillary walls away from the anionic proteins more readily than small cations.

Donnan Effect

Action potential

In physiology, an action potential is a short-lasting event in which the electrical membrane potential of a cell rapidly rises and falls, following a consistent trajectory. Action potentials occur in several types of animal cells, called excitable cells, which include neurons, muscle cells, and endocrine cells, as well as in some plant cells. In neurons, they play a central role in cell-to-cell communication. In other types of cells, their main function is to activate intracellular processes. In muscle cells, for example, an action potential is the first step in the chain of events leading to contraction. In beta cells of the pancreas, they provoke release of insulin. Action potentials in neurons are also known as "nerve impulses" or "spikes", and the temporal

sequence of action potentials generated by a neuron is called its "spike train". A neuron that emits an action potential is often said to "fire".

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Source: Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ions

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-permeable_membrane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_charge

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_plasma

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary



Crystalloid solution

Crystalloid solutions contain small molecules that pass freely through cell membranes and vascular system walls. These solutions are useful as fluid expenders and are stored at room temperature. The crystalloid solutions are a useful source for fluid volume. They flow out of the vascular system rather quickly. Lactated Ringer’s is an example of crystalloid solutions.

Normal saline (0.9% NaCl solution)

Hartman’s solution

Ringer’s solution.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantage of crystalloid fluid resuscitation is that volume has not only been lost from the intravascular space, but also extracellular water has been drawn to the intravascular space by oncotic pressure.

Solutions with lower sodiun concentrations distribute more evenly throughout the total body water. This means that crystalloid solutions with higher sodiun concentrations are more effective as plasma expenders (Platt & Wade, 2002). Crystalloid therapy may, however, adversely effect microcirculatory blood flow and oxygenation when used in cases of shock, resulting hypoxia even after resuscitation (Krau, 1998).

The main disadvantage of using a crystalloid of fluid is that excessive use will cause peripheral and pulmonary oedema (Bradley, 2001).

Colloid solution The colloid solution contains molecules that are frequently very complex and much larger than those in the crystalloid solution. A solution that contains protein is colloidal. The colloidal solutions are needed when a solution is requerd to remain in the vascular system. Colloid solutions generally require refrigeration and can be stored for a limited period. Whole human blood U.S.P. and Hetastarch are examples of colloidal solutions.

Gelatins

Hetastarch

Albumin

Plasma protein fraction

Dextran.

Advantages and disadvantages

Colloids are better than crystalloids at expanding the circulatory volume, because their larger molecules are retained more easily in the intravascular space (Kwan et al, 2003) and increased osmotic pressure (Breadley, 2001).

However, excessive use of colloids can precipitate cardiac failure, pulmonary and peripheral oedema (O’Neill, 2001). Although the pulmonary oedema caused by excessive use of colloids is delayed in comparison with the caused by crystalloids, it is more sustained (Breadley, 2001).

FAQ1. What is Isotonic, Hypotonic, Hypertonic solution? Describe with example.

Isotonic solution

The solutions having osmotic pressure similar as plasma are known as isotonic solution.

eg. 0.9% NaCl solution.

Hypotonic solution

The solutions having osmotic pressure less than plasma are known as hypotonic solution.

eg. 0.45% NaCl solution.

Hypertonic solution

The dolution having osmotic pressure more than plasma are known as hypertonic solution.

eg. 3% NaCl solution.

FAQ



FAQ2. What happens when RBC is suspended in Isotonic, Hypotonic and Hypertonic solution.

The following changes occur

In isotonic solution

No change occurs

In Hypotonic solution

Osmosis of fluid occurs from the solution to RBC RBC Swells Ultimately bursts (hemolysis).

In Hypertonic solution

Osmosis of fluid occurs from RBC to the solution RBC shrinks.

FAQ3. Mention the basic difference between Diffusion and Ultra filtration.

SL Points Diffusion Ultra filtration

01 Transformation

Solvent/water moves from higher concentration to lower concentration.

Solution moves from higher pressure to lower pressure.

02 Necessity of pressure No need Need

FAQ4. Mention the Diffusion and Osmosis.

SL Points Diffusion Osmosis

01 Transformation Solvent moves from higher concentration to lower concentration.

Solvent moves from lower concentration to higher concentration.

02 Necessity of pressure Diffusion is not a special type os

Osmosis.

Osmosis is the special type of

Diffusion.

03 Medium Diffusion occurs in both solvent and solute.

Osmosis occurs in only solvent.

04 Necessity of permeable membrane

Selectively permeable membrane may be or may not be needed.

Selectively permeable membrane must be needed.

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