A Guide to Arson Investigation

A Guide to Arson Investigation

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ARSON is the crime of burning property

- the burning of a building or other property for a criminal or malicious reason.

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The Fire Tetrahedron

• The “triangle” illustrates the rule that in order to ignite and burn, a fire requires three elements — heat, fuel, and oxygen.

• A fire is caused by the convergence of FUEL, O2, HEAT, & an uninhibited chemical chain rxn.

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The Chemistry of Fire

• A liquid burns when the temperature is high enough to vaporize it (flash point), while a solid must be hot enough to decompose into gaseous products (pyrolysis).

• Glowing combustion or smoldering is burning at the fuel-air interface, such as a cigarette.

• Spontaneous combustion, which is rare, is the result of a natural heat-producing process in poorly ventilated containers or areas. 4

The Chemistry of Fire

• Fire is a combustion process during which oxygen (min. req. is 15%) is united with some fuel to produce noticeable quantities of heat and light (flame) and releases Carbon or CO, carbon monixde, a toxic gas, and water vapor.

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• Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic (gives off heat or light) chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames.

Flames

Heat

Fuels

Oxygen

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Heat Production:

• Chemically, through rapid oxidation• Mechanically, as the result of friction• Electrically, due to an electrical malfunction• Kinetically, in a compressed gas because

molecular activity is great increased• Nuclearly, through the splitting of atomic

particles.

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• Conduction – direct contact• Convection – super heated gases• Radiation – invisible waves that travel at

the same speed as visible light. Radiant heat travel in a direct line from the source until it strikes the object.

TransferenceOf Heat

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• Fires expand horizontally & vertically from the point of origin

• They follow the path of least resistance – through ceilings, doorways, windows, stairways & other openings

• Fires start when the minimum temperature needed to spontaneously ignite fuel, (ignition temperature), is reached.

• The heat evolved when a substance burns-heat of combustion. 10

1. Incipient Stage-Earliest stage. Duration may be a fraction of a second to hours, depending on the fuel available & ignition source

2. Emergent Stage-Combustion activity increases

3. Free Burning-The intensity of the fire increases. The intensity of the heat doubles with each 18°F temperature rise.

4. Oxygen-Regulated Smoldering-O2 enriched air in an area or room is depleted causing combustion to cease. Temp may exceed 1000°F. If O2 is re-introduced to the fire, a backdraft (explosive ignition) may occur.

Stages of A Fire;Grow & Spread in 4 Stages:

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STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES

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• Origin and Cause

Determination• Patterns –

How does fire burn?

Ignitable Liquids• “Sniffers” –

Portable vapor detectors• Make Determination-

Accidental vs. Incendiary

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Searching the Fire Scene

The causes of fire- 4 categories:

1.Natural (e.g., lightning)

2.Accidental (e.g., unintentional or negligent, but explainable human action)

3. Incendiary (e.g., intentional)

4.Undetermined (unknown)

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Searching the Fire Scene

Origin and Causes• Windows blown away from structure• Evidence of forced entry• Missing inventory (warehouses, etc.)• Missing personal items such as photos,

bibles, yearbooks, weapons, jewelry (homes)• Evidence of a previous fire• Unkempt yard "For sale" signs• Fuel cans• Fire extending beyond the perimeter of the structure

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Looking forOrigin and Cause

• Large amount of damage• Low burning• Unidentifiable point of origin• No "V" burn patterns present • Lack of accidental causes• Separate and unconnected fires• Unusual burn patterns and high heat stress

continue

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Origin and Cause(continued)

Be aware of fire movement Fire generally move upward Origin located closest to lowest point of

most intense burning Drafts & winds Secondary fires Stairways, holes, elevator shafts Flammable liquids flow down

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Origin and Cause(continued)

“V” patterns 18

COLLECTION &PRESERVATION Of Arson Of Arson

EvidenceEvidence

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• Metal cans and glass bottles

Used containers must be kept sealed

Only 1/2 to 2/3 of the containers are filled,to allow material sufficient air to breathe 20

Tools of theTrade

Tools and Equipment• Safety and common sense

are important• Tools: shovels, rakes, hoes, brooms, sifting

screen

Protective clothing

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Protection of the Scene

• The area around the scene needs to be secluded, not only for security reasons, but for protection of evidence

First responders need to recognize items that may have evidentiary value. To any subsequent investigations and take preventative measures to ensureEvidence is not damaged in the fire or rescuing process

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FirsT responders are crucial to preservation of evidence

Scene Investigation

Fire scenes are considered the hardest of any investigations because evidence is always destroyed. 2-3

Quarts of ash and soot debris must be collected at the point of origin of a fire in any arson case

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• The person who collects and

processes the evidence is to take all responsibility for handling of the evidence

• Proper records and files must be kept of who and where has handled the evidence

• Mostly all evidence in arson investigations are subject to analysis

• Preserving the evidence so that it is court admissible is one of the most important tasks

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Chain of Custody

FIRE INVESTIGATION

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•Fire investigation is one of the most difficult of the forensic sciences to practice.

•In most forensic disciplines, even the basic question of whether a crime has been committed is normally obvious.

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• After firefighters extinguish a fire, an investigation is launched to determine the origin and cause of the fire or explosion. Investigations of such incidents are done using a systematic approach and knowledge of basic fire science.

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Origin and Cause of Investigation

•During a fire investigation, an entire process must be undertaken just to determine if the case involves arson or not. The difficulty of determining whether an arson fire has occurred or not arises because fires destroy evidence.

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•Fires can be caused by or involve most things people see or use. For this reason, fire investigators need to know not only basic science of fire behavior, but knowledge of many different areas of study (including construction, electricity, human behavior, vehicles etc) is helpful.

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Categories of fires

Accidental Fire Cause

Natural Fire Cause

Incendiary Fire Cause

Undetermined Fire Cause

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Accidental

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Accidental

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Accidental

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Accidental

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ACCIDENTAl

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Incendiary

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Incendiary

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Incendiary

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Incendiary

• Revenge – 14%• Vandalism - 60%• Crime Concealment - 7%• Insurance Claims - 16%• Excitement & Pyromaniacs - 3%

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Types of Arsonists

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Types of Arsonists

• The leading cause of church fires is arson • Motives of the 100 people arrested in those

fires included racial hatred, but juvenile vandalism, insurance fraud and thrill-seeking were also factors.

• Churches are also targets because they are unoccupied at night and for long periods of time during the day.

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Church Arson

• Result of arguments, hatred or jealousy• Victims are usually family, friends or

other familiar people• Hate groups may not know victims• Often intoxicated at the time of their

offense• Typically use matches and gasoline• Easily detected because they do not

cover their tracks43

Revenge

• Destroy property for fun or sport• Sometimes revenge is motivation• Usually have one or more accomplice• Half of all arson arrests are white males

under age 18• Tend to set fires at night

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Vandalism

• Usually burglary, often murder• Use fire to cover traces of the original

crime or the criminal• Often set at night

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Crime Concealment

• Arson for Profit• Arsonist needs money, so they will set fire to

their own property to collect on the insurance • “Fire Strippers” who set fires and then search

the burned remains for plumbing, electrical and other construction materials

• Usually do not set fire to property that has people in it

• Generally, fires are set in the day time46

InsuranceClaims

• Set fires because they are entertained• Some like the sight of fire burning• Others enjoy watching the firefighters

using their equipment• Usually intoxicated at the time of the fire• Do not set fire to inhabited property

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Excitement

• “Pathological Fire setters”• They get a sensual satisfaction watching

fire destroy

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Pyromaniacs

• Fires set intentionally can also go hand in hand with violence

• Mob violence fires • Occurs where the median income is

below the poverty line• Fire-setters have the least to lose in

personal property49

Arson & Violence

• Arson is the #1 crime committed by juveniles. • 1/3 of all children killed by fire set the fire

themselves. • Left untreated 81% of fire setters will repeat

their dangerous actions.

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Little known Facts:

Did you know that?

• Fire is the only object of mass destruction to which young people have access.

• Fire setters are not arsonists or pyromaniacs. • Fire setting evaluation, education and

intervention services work.

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Little known Facts:

Did you know that?

• Arsonists intentionally set fires that destroyed $879 million in insured property in 2004, including factories, residential buildings, churches and motor vehicles.

• The number of civilians killed in arson fires in buildings in 2004 totaled 320. Only 17% of cases ended in arrests in 2004.

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Little known Facts:

Did you know that?

• Children are responsible for almost half of the arson fires set in the United States.

• Arson committed at night is usually deemed as being more serious than t hat committed during daytime.

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Little known Facts:

Did you know that?

• Investigating the scene alone:– Fire scene examinations should not be

undertaken alone• A minimum of 2 individuals should be

present to ensure that assistance is at hand if an investigator should become trapped or injured

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Hazards & DangersOf Investigation

• Structural stability– By their nature, most structures that have

been involved in fires or explosions are structurally weakened.

– Roofs, ceilings, partitions, load bearing walls, and floors may have been compromised by the fire or explosion

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• Investigator Fatigue– It is common for investigators to put in long

periods of strenuous personal labor during an incident scene investigation.

– This may result in fatigue, which can adversely influence an investigators physical coordination, strength, judgment to recognize or respond to hazardous conditions or situations.

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• Status of suppression– If the investigator is going to enter parts of

the structure before the fire is completely extinguished, he or she should receive permission from the fire ground commander.

– The investigator should keep the fire ground commander advised of the areas into which he or she will be entering and working. 57


• Standing water– Standing water can pose a variety of

dangers to the investigator.– Puddles of water in the presence of

energized electrical systems can be lethal if the investigator should touch an energized wire while standing in a puddle.

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• Safety of fire scene atmosphere– Fire and explosions often generate toxic or

noxious gases. The presence of hazardous materials in this structure is certain. • Homes: chemicals in the kitchen, bath, and garage

that can create great risk to the investigator if they are exposed to them.

• Commercial business structures are generally more organized in the storage of hazardous materials, but investigator can’t assume that the risk is less. 59


• Fires present a major social and economic problem.

• Arson in particular costs the community an enormous amount of money each year.

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Conclusion

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• Arson can be used to destroy personal property, collect insurance or to cover up other crimes.

• Fires may destroy items that are irreplaceable due to their historical or sentimental value.

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Conclusion

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• All arson fires are incendiary, however not all incendiary fires are arson.

• In order for a fire to be considered arson, it must have been caused by someone through the use of an accelerant.

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Conclusion

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• Crime prevention programs are used and more resources are dedicated to improving the sophistication of the investigation of suspected arson.

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Conclusion

EXPLOSIVES

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• 1995 – Murrah Federal Building, Oklahoma City, OK– Tim McVeigh– Terry Nichols

• 1998 – The Unabomber (20 yrs)– Ted Kaczynski

• 1988 – Pan Am Flight

103, Lockerbie, Scotland

• 2005 – London Underground Train Bombings (4 simultaneous explosions/1 on bus)

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Recent Bombings in the News

• There are 3 places to look for evidence in a bombing:

– The target

– The materials damaged by the blast

– The area outside the bombing crime scene

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Where to look For evidence

1. Explosions leaving a crater – Recoverable evidence may be caught in

the hole or nearby the crater

2. Explosions leaving a hole– Only explosive residue is generally left

behind.

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Where to look For evidence

• Explosives are substances that undergo a rapid oxidation reaction with the production of large quantities of gases.

• It is this sudden buildup of gas pressure that constitutes the nature of an explosion.

• The speed at which explosives decompose and release their gases permits their classification as high or low explosives.

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What is an Explosive

• Third World Countries

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Explosives

• The most widely used explosives in the low-explosive group are black powder and smokeless powder.

• Black powder is a mixture of potassium or sodium nitrate, charcoal, and sulfur.

• Smokeless powder consists of nitrated cotton (nitrocellulose) or nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose.

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Types of Explosives:Low Explosives

Primary explosives

• Ultrasensitive to heat, shock, or friction and provide the major ingredients found in blasting caps or primers used to detonate other explosives.

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Types of Explosives:HIGH Explosives

Secondary explosives are relatively insensitive to heat, shock, or friction and will normally burn rather than detonate if ignited in small quantities in the open air.

• This group comprises the majority of commercial (Dynamite) and military blasting, such as TNT, PETN, and RDX.

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Explosives

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• First high explosive with a commercial application was Nitroglycerin (NG) – 1850’s

• In recent years, NG-based dynamite has all but disappeared from the industrial explosive market and has been replaced by ammonium nitrate-(AN) based explosives (i.e., water gels, emulsions, and ANFO explosives).

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Explosives

• Suitability of an explosive for military use is determined by:

1.Can it be produced from cheap raw materials that are not strategic [SIMPLE]

2.Are they available in GREAT quantity [CHEAP]

3.Density must be as high as possible [SAFE]

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Military Explosives

• TNT first used in WWI. TNT + AN used in WWII by Germany for V-2 rockets in the bombing of London. Blast velocity of 6825 m/s

• RDX is the most popular and powerful of the military explosives, often encountered in the form of pliable plastic known as C-4. Blast velocity of 8050 m/s

• HMX – 30% more powerful than TNT. Blast velocity of 9124 m/s

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Military Explosives

TNT-It is valued because of its insensitivity to shock and friction, which reduces the risk of accidental detonation. TNT

Time

RDX TNT Bomb

RDX- possesses greater explosive power than TNT used in the WW I. Requires no new raw materials for its manufacture 77

Explosives

• C-4

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Explosive’s market

C4 is made up of explosives, plastic binder, plasticizer and, usually, marker or odorizing taggant chemicals such as 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-dinitrobutane (DMDNB) to help detect the explosive and identify its source. As with many plastic explosives, the explosive in C4 is RDX.

• In many countries outside the United States, the accessibility of military high explosives to terrorist organizations makes them very common constituents of homemade bombs.

• IED’s – Improvised Explosives/3 common types 1. KNO3 w/sugar & aluminum

2. Sulfur/Charcoal, KClO3 & sugar

3. KClO4, sugar & aluminum

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Military Explosives

High Explosive IED’s

• TATP – preferred by terrorists because it does not have a nitrogen atom in its structure

• Presumptive tests for explosives are made to identify or respond to a reactive nitrogen atom in the residue tested

• Easer to past airport and other bomb detectors

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Military Explosives

• Presumptive Field Tests

IMS – ion mobility spectrometer

Detects a wide range of explosives including plastic & military explosives, even at trace levels

Portable Hydrocarbon Detectors – detects explosive residues on objects or people

Chemical reagents – Greiss reagent tests for presence of nitrates

Specially trained dogs can also detect hydrocarbon residues *Offcrs. Meade & Lucky

Evidence Collection

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• Testing procedures include color spot tests, thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

• Confirmatory identification tests may be performed on unexploded materials by either infrared spectrophotometry or X-ray diffraction.

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Back at the Lab

The Station Night Club Fire

February 2003

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• Background and Cause(s) of a fire and ongoing investigation

• NFPA Response• Incident hits close to home• NFPA Fire Codes/OSHA Compliance• Case update

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A Case StudyOf a Fire

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The Aftermath

• Location: West Warwick, RI

15 miles from Providence• Building Type: one story wooden structure• Fully engulfed within 3 minutes• Business was too small to require a

sprinkler system• Occupancy limit: 300 with furniture / 404

without

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Fire Details

• 99 people perished (4 out of 16 club employees)

• Over 180 people injured• Greatest loss of life due to a fire since the

1995 Branch Davidian • Compound, where 80 people died

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Fire Details

• Pyrotechnics were used (without a permit), ignited wall behind stage

• Fire spread to ceiling, despite band member trying to extinguish with water

• There were three fire exits besides the main doors

• Most tried to escape through the main doors, but thick smoke quickly obstructed the means of egress 88

Causes/Investigation

• Due to neighbor complaints, sound proofing was installed in 2000

• Sound proofing was made up of an egg-crate type foam material (cost - $575) made out of polyurethane, which burns like gasoline – smoke emitted contained carbon monoxide, cyanide, and other toxic gases

• Rhode Island law prohibits using flammable acoustic material on the walls of gathering places like bars 89


• Attorney for the club’s owners stated they were not aware this foam was dangerous

• Club passed most recent fire inspection, and this material was not documented

• Issues from last inspection– Burned out light bulbs– Improperly installed fire extinguishers

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– Exit door near the stage swung inward, therefore, a violation of the fire code

– Town manager (Wolfgang Bauer) states this door was taken down to pass inspection, and then put back up

• Town could be held liable due to the overlooking of the foam sound proofing

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• Jim Shannon (President) interviewed by 60 Minutes II March 5, 2003– NFPA code development process– Organization’s position on sprinklers– Cause of West Warwick tragedy

• NFPA fire codes have reduced fire in buildings by nearly 50% over the last 25 years

• Interact with victim’s families/learn from these tragedies

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NFPA Response

“One of the most frustrating things about the Rhode Island nightclub fire is that this tragedy could have been prevented. If NFPA code had been followed, there would have been no fire.”

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NFPA Response

• Strong advocates of sprinkler systems in most structures.

• As a result of this tragedy, a public assembly occupancy committee was held to address all of the issues and details pertaining to this tragedy – codes may need to be updated

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NFPA Response

NFPA methodology:

“The level of Safety provided is not the result of any single safety system or feature, but rather is achieved through the combination of multiple safeguards that are provided”

ex: NFPA 1, Fire Prevention Code95

NFPA Response

• Life Safety Code• NFPA 101 - Life Safety Code - 1994 (1997)*• Governs life safety - egress requirements,

protection of occupants.• Divided by occupancy classification -

different occupancies have different code requirements.

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NFPA/Rhode IslandFire Code

What is a Means of Egress?• A continuous and unobstructed way of

exit travel from any point in a three separate and distinct parts:(a) the exit access(b) the exit(c) the exit discharge

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Fire Codes

• A means of egress comprises the vertical and horizontal travel and shall include intervening room spaces, doorways, hallway, corridors, passageways, balconies, ramps, stairs, enclosures, lobbies, escalators, horizontal exits, courts, and yards.

Egress Doors - shall be arranged to be opened readily from the egress side whenever the building is occupied.

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Fire Codes

• Locks, if provided, shall not require the use of a key, tool or special knowledge, or effort for operation from the inside of the building.

Where are Exit Devices Required?

In a means of egress where:Occupancy load is 100 people or more

Occupancy type is for Education or Assembly99

Fire Codes

(1) Educational

Buildings or parts of buildings which are used by more than 5 people at one time for educational purposes, with a total occupancy load of greater than 50 people, for kindergarten through 12th grade or day care centers for children over 2 years and 9 months of age.

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Fire Codes

(2) Assembly

Buildings or parts of buildings which are used or designed for the gathering together of persons for purposes such as civic, social, or religious functions, recreation, food or drink consumption, or awaiting transportation, which will accommodate 50 or more occupants 10

1

Fire Codes

CFR 1910.38 Employee Emergency Plan

Purpose:

Shall cover those designated actions employers and employees must take to ensure employee safety from fire and other emergencies

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OSHARegulations

Contents:

(i) Emergency escape procedures and emergency escape route assignments

(ii) Procedures to be followed by employees who remain to operate critical plant operations before they evacuate

(iii) Procedures to account for all employees after emergency evacuation has been completed

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OSHARegulations

(iv) Rescue and medical duties for those employees who are able to perform them

(v) The preferred means of reporting fires

and other emergencies

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OSHARegulations

Other requirements:

1) Fully operational alarm system

2) Training – Employer must train a sufficient number of

persons to assist in the action plan• when plan is formulated• when employee’s responsibilities or

designated actions change• when plan is changed 10

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OSHARegulations

Evacuation ProceduresStore Management

Makes announcement for all associates and customers to evacuate the store using

the nearest EXIT

Dept. SupervisorsAssist associates and

customers in evacuating the store using the nearest EXIT

All AssociatesEvacuate the store using the nearest

EXIT

Assist associates and customers in evacuating the store using the nearest EXIT

Search assigned area for any customers/associates

that are left in the store

Meet at end of parking lot in front of the store

Search assigned area for any customers/associates

that are left in the store

Evacuate store using the nearest EXIT

Meet at end of parking lot in front

of store

Meet at end of parking lot in front of store

Evacuate store using the nearest EXIT

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• Sprinklers were not installed due to an exemption in this older venue (exact date of when became mandatory unknown)

• Sprinklers would have reduced the impact of the fire, but not necessarily saved more lives

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OSHARegulations

April 4:

Foam soundproofing found to be spray-painted, and glitter present on surface

April 9:

Contract w/band found amongst the rubble. Document revealed that the owner’s promoted the event for 550 people, as they did with prior concerts.

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RI CaseUpdate

• Litigation– 2 civil lawsuits from 3 victim's families– 3 additional attorneys representing 30

survivors (no formal charges yet)– Currently, there are no criminal charges filed

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RI CaseUpdate

April 9: Providence, Rhode Island Committee Bans Pyrotechnics

A legislative committee approved a ban on pyrotechnics in nightclubs April 8. Rep. Norman Landroche, Jr. is a co-sponsor of the bill. The bill, passed unanimously by the Corporations Committee, would ban pyrotechnics in places licensed to serve liquor that have a capacity of up to 1,000 people, and would eliminate an exemption that has allowed older venues like The Station to operate without installing sprinklers. 11

0

RI CaseUpdate

April 10: Owners fined $1 million for not carrying W/C for their associates ($1,000/day x 3 years)

*Fan pieces were also found. Fans were mounted to the wall, and if they were running, may have possibly accelerated the fire

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RI Case UpdateFinal Outcome

Documents

A Guide to Arson Investigation