A GUIDE FOR ROUTE PLANNERS AND OPERATORS PROVINCIAL ... · In the context of this guideline, an off-road route is any road, route, trail or track, othe than proclaimed roads, which

Provincial Guidelines for the Western Cape: Planning and Managing Sustainable Off-road Routes Draft for Review

Table of Contents 08/10/06 i

Planning and Managing Sustainable Off-road Routes: A GUIDE FOR ROUTE PLANNERS AND OPERATORS

PROVINCIAL GUIDELINES FOR THE WESTERN CAPE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ VI

INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................1

Off-road Route Impacts.............................................................................................2 Purpose of the Guideline Series ..................................................................................5

PART 1: PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE OFF-ROAD ROUTES...............................................7

1.1. What is a Sustainable Off-road Route?..............................................................7 1.2. Principles and Best Management Practices.........................................................7

PART 2: KEY PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF OFF-ROAD ROUTES ...........................................9

PART 3: PLANNING OF SUSTAINABLE OFF-ROAD ROUTES...............................................11

3.1. Key Steps in the Establishment of Off-road Routes ...........................................11 3.2. Creating an Off-road Route Proposal ..............................................................11 3.3. Route Planning Resources.............................................................................13

3.3.1. Mapping information...............................................................................14 3.3.2. Soil Information.....................................................................................14 3.3.3. Wetland information ...............................................................................14 3.3.4. Information regarding Localised, Protected and Red Data Plant and Animal

Species ...........................................................................................................15 3.3.5. Planning Information ..............................................................................15 3.3.6. Landowner Management Fact Sheets ........................................................15

3.4. Route Planning Considerations.......................................................................15 3.4.1. Early Management Planning with the Environment in Mind ...........................17 3.4.2. Soils, slopes, drainage and erosion potential ..............................................18 3.4.3. The importance of watercourses and the areas they traverse........................21 3.4.4. Off-road Routes and their Zones of Influence .............................................24 3.4.5. Habitat Fragmentation and Biodiversity .....................................................26 3.4.6. How plants and animals respond to off-road routes and the people who use

them ...........................................................................................................28 3.4.7. Habitat Quality Variations........................................................................30 3.4.8. Species and Places of Special Concern ......................................................31


Table of Contents 08/10/06 ii

3.4.9. A Site’s Existing Impacts.........................................................................32 3.5. Locating the planned route on the ground .......................................................33 3.6. Develop a Construction Plan..........................................................................35

PART 4: ESTABLISHMENT OF SUSTAINABLE OFF-ROAD ROUTES......................................37

4.1. Clearing the Route Corridor...........................................................................37 4.2. Route foundation and grade specifications.......................................................38

4.2.1. The Route Travel Surface ........................................................................38 4.2.2. Excavation ............................................................................................40 4.2.3. Route Grade/Gradient.............................................................................41 4.2.4. Cross-slope...........................................................................................41

4.3. Slope Stabilisation and Stability of Cuts and Fills ..............................................42 4.4. Drainage Control .........................................................................................43

4.4.1. Rolling outslope .....................................................................................45 4.4.2. Waterbars.............................................................................................45 4.4.3. Rolling dips ...........................................................................................45 4.4.4. Culverts and Swales ...............................................................................47 4.4.5. Control at Inlets and Outlets of Cross-Drains..............................................48

4.5. Watercourse Crossings .................................................................................48 4.5.1. Low-level Crossings................................................................................50 4.5.2. Bridges.................................................................................................51 4.5.3. Wet or Seepage/Sponge Areas and Wetland Crossings and the Use of

Underdrains ........................................................................................................51 4.6. Erosion Control ...........................................................................................52

4.6.1. Sediment barriers ..................................................................................53 4.6.2. Filter strip .............................................................................................53 4.6.3. Stabilisation ..........................................................................................54 4.6.4. Gabions................................................................................................54

4.7. Climbing turns/switchbacks...........................................................................54 4.8. Signage .....................................................................................................55

4.8.1. Types of Route Signs..............................................................................56 A. Route Information Boards .................................................................56 B. Directional Signs..............................................................................56 C. Warning Signs.................................................................................56 D. Difficulty-level Signs ........................................................................56 E. Regulatory Signs..............................................................................56 F. Educational Signs.............................................................................57

4.8.2. Sign Materials .......................................................................................57 A. Plastics...........................................................................................57 B. Wood .............................................................................................57 C. Aluminium ......................................................................................57 D. Steel..............................................................................................57 E. Stone .............................................................................................57

4.9. Costs associated with off-road route construction.............................................58 4.10. Post-construction ........................................................................................58


Table of Contents 08/10/06 iii

PART 5: MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE OFF-ROAD ROUTES...............59

5.1. Operational Environmental Management Plan (EMP) .........................................60 5.2. Monitoring and Evaluation.............................................................................61

5.2.1. Assessing the Conditions of the Route.......................................................62 5.2.2. Create a Route Assessment and Repair Sheet ............................................63

5.3. Route Maintenance ......................................................................................63 5.3.1. Setting Priorities for Route Maintenance ....................................................64 5.3.2. Tread Repair .........................................................................................65 5.3.3. Slope Stabilisation .................................................................................65 5.3.4. Cleaning and Repairing Drainage Structures...............................................66 5.3.5. Bridge Maintenance................................................................................66 5.3.6. Management of persistent significant impacts, and longevity of the route.......66 5.3.7. Temporary Closure of Routes...................................................................67

5.4. Maintenance of Signage................................................................................68 5.5. Management of Fire Risk ..............................................................................68 5.6. Alien and Invasive Species Management .........................................................68 5.7. Compliance and Enforcement ........................................................................69 5.8. Closure and Rehabilitation ............................................................................70

5.8.1. Route Closure........................................................................................70 5.8.2. Rehabilitation and Restoration .................................................................72

A. Decompaction/Ripping......................................................................72 B. Soil Pitting ......................................................................................72 C. Soil Imprinting ................................................................................72 D. Waterbars.......................................................................................72 E. Planting Vegetation ..........................................................................72 F. Seeding ..........................................................................................72

PART 6: COMMON PROBLEMS AND A GUIDE TOWARDS DEVELOPING PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS

..............................................................................................................................73

PART 7: GLOSSARY OF USEFUL TERMS ........................................................................75

FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES ..........................................................................88

APPENDIX A: OFF-ROAD ROUTE RESOURCE IMPACTS ....................................................A1

APPENDIX B: KEY STEPS IN PLANNING AN OFF-ROAD ROUTE..........................................B1

APPENDIX C: LEGISLATION UNDER WHICH PERMITS MAY BE REQUIRED, CONTACT DETAILS

OF WESTERN CAPE REGULATING AUTHORITIES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES .............C1

APPENDIX D: WEINERT’S N-NUMBER .......................................................................... D1

APPENDIX E: EXAMPLE OF A ROUTE MONITORING SHEET...............................................E1


08/10/06 iv

Planning and Managing Sustainable Off-road Routes: A GUIDE FOR ROUTE PLANNERS AND OPERATORS

Issued by: Provincial Government of the Western Cape

Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning

Utilitas Building, 1 Dorp Street

Private Bag X9086

Cape Town, 8000

Prepared by: Savannah Environmental (Pty) Ltd

PO Box 148

Sunninghill, 2157

COPYRIGHT © Republic of South Africa, Provincial Government of the Western Cape,

Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning 2006. All rights reserved.

This Guideline should be sited as: Provincial Government of the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs and

Development Planning, 2006. Planning and Managing Sustainable Off-road Routes: A Guide

for Route Planners and Operators

The complete Guideline Series: 1. Planning and Managing Sustainable Off-Road Routes: A Guide for Route Planners and

Operators

2. Assessment and Evaluation of proposed and existing Off-Road Routes: A Guide for

Environmental Assessment Practitioners, Authorities and Route Planners

3. Environmental Ethics and Sustainable Use of Off-Road Routes and Trails: A Practical Guide

for Recreational Trail Users

Disclaimer The National Environmental Management Act (NEMA; Act No. 107 of 1998) and other

environmental legislation provide the overarching legal requirements for the development and

operation of off-road routes. Information contained in this document has been developed for

the guidance of off-road route owners, managers and users, and resource specialists within the

Western Cape to assist in the establishment and maintenance of better, more cost-effective

off-road routes, and routes that minimise adverse environmental impacts through erosion

control, water quality protection, the reduction of habitat degradation and potential impacts to

environmental resources. This document should be used as a guide in the planning,

establishment and management of off-road routes. The information provided is not intended

to be prescriptive, and the Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and

Development Planning (DEA&DP) cannot assume any responsibility for the misinterpretation of

this information.


Use of the Guideline Series 08/10/06 v

Use of Guideline Series during different stages of the offUse of Guideline Series during different stages of the off--road route development processroad route development process

Guidelines for Planning & Managing Sustainable Off-road Routes

Guidelines for Assessment & Evaluation of New & Existing Off-road Routes

Defining the governing principles and best managementpractices in planning, establishing and managing an

off-road route

Part 1: Principles ofSustainable Off-road Routes

Part 2: Key Physical Components ofOff-road Routes

Defining key components to develop a common understanding of terms

Part 3: Planning of Sustainable Off-road Routes

• Creating an off-road route proposal• Route planning resources• Route planning considerations• Locating the planned route on the ground• Develop a construction plan

Part 4: Establishment of Sustainable Off-road Routes

• Clearing the route corridor• Route foundation & grade specifications• Slope stabilisation & stability of cuts & fills• Drainage control• Watercourse crossings• Erosion control• Climbing turns/switchbacks• Signage• Costs associated with construction• Post-construction

Part 5: Monitoring & Management of Sustainable Off-road Routes

• Environmental Management Plan (EMP)• Monitoring & evaluation• Route maintenance• Enforcement• Closure & rehabilitation

Part 1: Assessment of new Off-road Route s by Environmental Assessment Practitioners

& Landowners

Investigation of potential impacts on the environment affected by new routes & management measures needed

to minimise impacts

Evaluation of the proposed route & conditions of approval

Part 2: Evaluation of new Off-road Routes by Regulating Authorities

Part 3: Assessment of Existing Off-road Routes

• Assessment, maintenance and management of existing impacts

• Management of persistent significant impacts & assessment of effectiveness of management measures over time

Part 6: Common Problems & a Guide towards developing Practical Solutions


Acknowledgements 08/10/06 vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Western Cape DEA&DP Project Management Team (PMT) Yakeen Atwaru (Western Cape DEA&DP)

Paul Hardcastle (Western Cape DEA&DP)

Zain Jumat (Western Cape DEA&DP)

Dennis Laidler (Western Cape DEA&DP)

Francois Naude (Western Cape DEA&DP)

Guy Palmer (CapeNature)

Danie Swanepoel (Western Cape DEA&DP)

Jaco Venter (CapeNature)

Stakeholders engaged in the guideline development process The guideline series was developed through a research-intensive and consultative process

initiated in March 2006. The guidelines draw on Best Practice expertise relating to the off-road

vehicle industry, and have benefited from the input and comments provided by key role-

players and organisations. Thanks are due to all who took the time to actively engage in this

guideline development process.

In particular, thanks are due to Francois Smit (SAROOF and NOW) for his valuable

contributions and for the provision of photographs. Glenn Foley (Dirt & Quad) is also thanked

for permitting the use of photographs.

Guideline drafting team The following parties are acknowledged for their contributions to the guideline development

process:

Jo-Anne Thomas (Savannah Environmental)

Karen Jodas (Savannah Environmental)

Mampiti Matsabu (Savannah Environmental)

Kathy Leslie

Mark Rynhoud (GES)

Peter Illgner

Nick Helme (Nick Helme Botanical Surveys)


Introduction 08/10/06 1

INTRODUCTION

Motorised off-road1 vehicles (which include 4x4s, 2x4s, all terrain vehicles, quadbikes and off-

road trailbikes) have become an integral part of the South African lifestyle, with the off-road

vehicle (ORV) industry having experienced phenomenal growth since the start of the 1990’s.

This has given rise to an increase in the development and use of off-road routes, 4x4 tracks

and trails in a range of environments throughout the country, with a particular focus on

tourism opportunities. Off-road routes are established for a particular purpose and built to suit

the local environment, either for landowner farming or management activities, access

purposes, or recreation (or a combination of these activities), as opposed to the predetermined

and strict design requirements and alignment of public roads. This highlights the need for off-

road routes to be developed and maintained in a sustainable manner, bearing the environment

in mind, in order to ensure continued benefits to the user and the regions within which they

occur.

1 In the context of these guidelines, the term ‘off-road’ is synonymous with the term ‘off highway’ which is being

adopted by the 4x4 industry.

PURPOSE AND STRUCTURE OF THESE GUIDELINES

This guideline was developed by the Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs

and Development Planning (DEA&DP), in collaboration with key stakeholders. This

guideline presents a conceptual framework for the planning, establishing and managing of

off-road routes in the Western Cape, bearing environmental management and

environmental protection in mind. The guideline highlights important issues for

consideration during off-road route planning, establishment, management and monitoring,

in order to guide route planners/owners in understanding what information will be valuable

to be sourced, and why. The guideline addresses the following key principles for the

planning, establishment and management of sustainable off-road routes:

• Part 1: Principles of Sustainable Off-Road Routes

• Part 2: Key Components of Off-Road Routes

• Part 3: Planning of Sustainable Off-Road Routes

• Part 4: Establishment of Sustainable Off-Road Routes

• Part 5: Monitoring and Management of Sustainable Off-Road Routes

• Part 6: Common Problems and a Guide towards Developing Practical Solutions

• Part 7: Glossary of Useful Terms

DEFINITION: OFF-ROAD ROUTE

In the context of this guideline, an off-road route is any road, route, trail or track, other

than proclaimed roads, which can be used by motorised vehicles, including 4x4s, 2x4s, all

terrain vehicles, quadbikes and off-road motorcycles for recreation or any other use. The

term “route” is used to encompass all kinds of off-road routes and trails on private or public

property, including graded roads used for management purposes and access, double tracks

(4x4, 2x4, and quadbike trails) and single-tracks (off-road trailbike tracks).



Off-road Route Impacts

The unsurfaced tread of an off-road route is susceptible to a variety of impacts, these being

influenced by the nature and level of use, the local environment within which the route is

located, as well as the planning and management actions implemented. Motorised ORVs,

including 2- and 4-wheel drive vehicles, all-terrain vehicles (including quadbikes) and

trailbikes, have a greater potential for environmental impact on unsurfaced routes than non-

motorised uses. Tyres spin at higher rates of speed and cause more substantial abrasion

damage to vegetation, roots and soils. The greater weight and ground pressure of vehicles

also cause greater soil compaction and displacement – actions that lead to soil rutting and

which may result in erosion.

Primary ecological changes arising from off-road routes are associated with their construction.

The principal challenge for route owners is, therefore, to minimise the potential for impacts

through a robust planning phase, and subsequently prevent further secondary (post-

construction) degradation and impacts arising from both use by ORVs, as well as from natural

processes (such as rainfall, water runoff and erosion). Control of water runoff is undoubtedly

the most important constraint to manage to ensure ecological sustainability and drivability of

the route. This does, however, require on-going maintenance as well as user education.

Poorly planned off-road routes can result in high maintenance and repair costs, contribute to

excessive environmental degradation, and fail to meet the needs of the users. Proper planning

and design, and minimising the need for maintenance are critical in avoiding environmental

degradation, and in minimising long-term expenses associated with constant rehabilitation and

rebuilding of degraded route sections.

The potential for environmental impact to result from actions or activities associated with off-

road routes and their use are summarised in Table 1. While the majority of these impacts are

limited to a linear disturbance corridor, some impacts, such as alterations in surface water

flow, sedimentation of watercourses, introduction of invasive plants, and disturbance of wildlife

can extend considerably further into natural landscapes. Even localised disturbance can harm

or damage sensitive resources, particularly in environments with slow recovery rates, such as

are prevalent in some areas of the Cape Floristic Region (CFR). More detail regarding the

summarised information in Table 1 is provided in Appendix A.



TABLE 1: Summary of the potential for environmental impact to result from actions or activities associated with off-road routes and their

use

Activity or Action Consequence of Activity Key resulting Impact to Environment

Reduction of vegetation cover Accelerated erosion and loss of soil;

Visual degradation

Alteration of habitat conditions and habitat

fragmentation

Clearing of route corridor

Alteration of habitats known to be sensitive to

disturbance and habitat fragmentation

Impacts on fauna and flora populations;

Alteration of the composition of species by damaging existing

plants, creating bare spots that favour exotic and alien

species, the seeds of which are introduced by route users and

their vehicles

Routes established on poorly drained

(cohesive) soils

Wet muddy patches along route Tread braiding and widening as users avoid mud holes;

Accelerated erosion and loss of soil, particularly where route

grades are steep

Routes established on fine and poorly

consolidated soils

Gravely and rough road surface;

Dust bowls in roadways

Accelerated erosion and loss of soil (usually by wind);

Tread incision;

Wash away of materials during wet periods;

Poor quality driving surface

Routes established on soils with a high

granular component but insufficient fines

Poor compaction;

Corrugated effect to the tread surface

Wash away of materials during wet periods;

Accelerated erosion and loss of soil;

Poor quality driving surface

Cut and fill on steep slopes Increase in the footprint of a route;

Increased velocity of runoff

Erosion potential increases with the steepness of slope and the

length of exposed slope;

Accelerated erosion and loss of soil;

Visual degradation

Channelling of water Increased water flow in a focussed area Accelerated erosion and loss of soil

Alteration of natural drainage patterns Surface water ponding;

Increased potential for the formation of headcuts and erosion

gullies

Alteration of surface and sub-surface

water flow

Development of mud holes along the route Tread braiding and widening as users avoid mud holes;

Deepening of mud holes where crossed by users



Activity or Action Consequence of Activity Key resulting Impact to Environment

Sedimentation of watercourses Increased turbidity, decreased water quality, and associated

impacts on aquatic fauna and flora

Alteration of in-channel habitat and loss of

riparian vegetation

Impounding of streams;

Alteration of flow patterns


gullies which can create a physical barrier to migration of

aquatic fauna;

Potential dewatering of adjacent wetlands and floodplains and

impacts on associated vegetation;

Potential threat to infrastructure upstream (e.g. farm dams,

causeways, etc);

Loss of in-stream habitat;

Channel widening & decreased bank stability

Eddying around engineered structures and

associated undercutting of structures, especially

where engineered solutions (such as bridges and

causeways) are not engineered directly onto

competent bedrock.

Alteration of channel flows at causeways

and bridge structures

Washing away of roadway at drainage crossing

during high intensity rain events (such as are

experienced in arid regions)


gullies;

Increased turbidity, decreased water quality, and associated

impacts on aquatic fauna and flora;

Visual degradation

Increased runoff and reduced infiltration Accelerated erosion and loss of soil Soil compaction

Increased sedimentation of watercourses

downstream

Increased turbidity, decreased water quality, and associated

impacts on aquatic fauna and flora

Soil displacement Deepening of tread over time Accelerated erosion and loss of soil;

Formation of ruts

Note: The purpose of the information presented in this table is to highlight why responsible management of off-road routes is needed to

minimise environmental impact. It should be remembered that every off-road route is unique and the important ecological issues to be

considered will vary widely according to the type of route, and the environment within which the route is established (i.e. consideration of local

habitats). Therefore, this summary may not present an exhaustive list of activities, consequences and impacts, but can serve as an initial

guide.



Effective management of off-road routes requires best practice for all aspects of route

planning, construction and maintenance. Many off-road routes have been constructed without

landowners and/or route owners having assessed the ideal layout of such a route in the

context of the local environment, without due consideration of the long-term financial

requirements associated with the maintenance of the route, and/or without having obtained

the necessary approvals in terms of the relevant environmental and planning legislation. Most

routes currently used for recreational purposes were originally developed as access routes to

private property; for harvesting, fire-fighting or alien species clearing; for game viewing; or

provided access to remote fishing, hunting, or camping sites. As a result of the unplanned

nature of such routes, many of them cross soils and sites poorly suited for the level of use

occurring on them today. In some instances this has resulted in irreversible damage to

sensitive environments and landscape features. The level of impact on the environment is not

always attributable to the level of use, but usually to the level of non-compliance by the route

developers and route users, as well as the adoption of inappropriate management measures.

In terms of Section 28 of the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA; Act No. 107 of

1998), landowners have a responsibility to ensure that any development on their property is

consistent with the ‘Duty of Care’ principle (i.e. that reasonable measures have been taken to

prevent significant environmental degradation). Landowners are therefore responsible and

accountable for the maintenance of any development on their property in the long-term. For

landowners and route managers, degraded routes are a significant environmental problem due

to their direct effects on vegetation, soils, erosion potential, and site hydrology. In addition,

degraded routes may have indirect effects on biodiversity, ecological functions, site aesthetics,

heritage sites, and sensitive environments such as rivers and wetlands. For route users,

degraded routes reduce the level of use of the route, and lead to a less enjoyable and

attractive recreational off-road experience. In addition, once degraded, a route can quickly

become impassable, resulting in increasing negative impacts if not repaired, or closed and

appropriately rehabilitated.

Purpose of the Guideline Series

The total number of off-road routes in South Africa and their locations is largely unknown.

Estimates indicate that there may be as many as 90 routes and trails for recreational use

located in the Western Cape alone. This, together with the sensitivity of the Western Cape

environment (largely due to highly diverse ecosystems, including the presence of the Cape

Floristic Region (CFR) and associated biodiversity) resulted in the Western Cape Department of

Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (DEA&DP) taking a particular interest in

guiding route planners and operators in sustainable off-road route establishment and

management, and in off-road route regulation. Only a small percentage of all off-road routes

in South Africa are currently regulated, with the vast majority being in contravention of

environmental and planning legislation to some degree.

At a national level, the off-road industry is developing self-regulation mechanisms which aim to

address concerns over the increasing impact of off-road activities on the South African

environment (a concern also expressed by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism in

April 2005).



The guideline series draws on industry best practice, as well as input from key role-players in

order to highlight the constraints associated with the planning, operation and management of

off-road routes, and to provide a checklist for evaluation and regulation of these routes. In

essence, the guideline series aims to:

• Provide guidance on the planning, design, establishment and on-going management of off-

road routes.

• Promote best practice, and give effect to relevant and applicable legislation and

regulations.

• Promote consistency of assessment, decision-making and management regarding off-road

routes amongst EIA practitioners and regulating authorities by promoting understanding of

off-road route construction and management goals.

• Provide guidance to route owners and users of off-road routes within the Western Cape to

promote responsible ORV use and environmental protection through the reduction of

habitat degradation and potential impacts to environmental resources.

These guidelines do not replace legislative requirements, but provide decision-making support

in the application of existing legislation.

The following form part of this series:

4. Planning and Managing Sustainable Off-Road Routes: A Guide for Route Planners and

Operators

5. Assessment and Evaluation of proposed and existing Off-Road Routes: A Guide for

Environmental Assessment Practitioners, Authorities and Route Planners

6. Environmental Ethics and Sustainable Use of Off-Road Routes and Trails: A Practical Guide

for Recreational Trail Users

In using this guideline series, it should be remembered that every off-road route is unique and

the important ecological issues to be considered will vary widely according to the type of route,

and the environment within which the route is established (i.e. consideration of local habitats).

The type of vehicle used on a route (i.e. 4x4 or 2x4 use vs. quadbike use vs. trailbike use) is

also a significant determinant of the nature and extent of impacts. In addition, behavioural

differences between users may in turn lead to, or exacerbate the extent of degradation on any

given route. As all of the detailed steps and questions in this guideline will not be relevant to

each project, it is important to adapt the steps and questions to suit individual situations.


PART 1: Principles of sustainable 08/10/06 off-road routes

7

PART 1: PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE OFF-ROAD ROUTES

1.1. What is a Sustainable Off-road Route?

A sustainable route balances environmental, social and economic elements with technical

viability. It does not result in unacceptable environmental impacts, and a) resists erosion

through appropriate and cost-effective design, establishment and maintenance practices,

b) blends in with the surrounding area, not impacting on the local sense of place, c) supports

other route uses and surrounding land uses, and supports and promotes eco-tourism, and

d) requires acceptable levels of maintenance.

In the process of establishing a new off-road route, the consideration of actions, activities or

decisions at each step of the process will contribute to the development of a sustainable off-

road route. That is, a sustainable off-road route is well-planned, located, designed,

constructed, and maintained, and considers all aspects for the good of the landowner and the

environment.

1.2. Principles and Best Management Practices

Off-route routes must be planned, established and managed in such a way that adverse

environmental impacts are avoided, minimised, or controlled. This is the over-arching

principle which governs sustainable off-road route development.

The principles of sustainable off-road routes should form the cornerstone of any proposed or

existing route. The principles address environmental, social and economic aspects through

governing what must be achieved in order for a route to be sustainable in the long-term.

Principles are supported by Best Management Practices (BMPs), which practically guide how

the governing Principles can be achieved.

Definition of Sustainable Development

The National Environmental Management Act (Act No. 107 of 1998) defines sustainable

development as: “the integration of social, economic and environmental factors into

planning, implementation and decision-making so as to ensure that development serves

present and future generations”.

Governing Principles of Sustainable Off-road Routes

1. The best strategy in planning, establishing and managing off-road routes is always to

avoid impacts to the environment. The next best is to minimise the impacts. The last

resort is to mitigate or control these impacts.

2. The local environment as well as the type and intensity of use must be considered in

planning, establishing and managing off-road routes.

3. The precautionary principle must be applied when planning, establishing and managing

off-road routes when there is insufficient information to determine with confidence the

consequences of an action


PART 1: Principles of sustainable 08/10/06 off-road routes

8

Best Management Practices (BMPs) are those practices that, when correctly applied in the

establishment of off-road routes, provide the most effective, practicable means of preventing

or reducing the likelihood of negative environmental impacts, and reduce the need for

extensive on-going route maintenance. In planning, establishing and managing an off-road

route, the following BMPs must be borne in mind and considered at each step, where

appropriate.

These Principles and BMPs form the basis of this guideline document, and are addressed in

terms of planning, establishment and management of off-road routes in the sections which

follow. These Principles and BMPs are given effect through the Rules of Thumb provided. This

information is applicable to low volume off-road routes and rural unsurfaced roads, but should

ideally be adapted for site-specific use. In determining the most appropriate site-specific use

of this guideline, it is recommended that specialist scientific and engineering advice be sought.

Best Management Practices for Sustainable Off-road Routes

1. Plan and establish routes in the context of the local environmental, social and economic

settings.

2. Plan and design safe, cost effective, and practical off-road routes that support and meet

the needs of the user and intensity of use.

3. Design for least maintenance and management.

4. Plan and manage routes in ways that result in user actions being regulated and

predictable, so as to minimise impacts on the surrounding environment.

5. Minimise route width and area of disturbance.

6. Ensure a stable, structurally sound route surface.

7. Avoid large-scale surface disturbance and earthworks (i.e. excavation or importing of

material) at all times, and avoid construction activities during periods of wet weather.

8. Protect sensitive areas and reduce ecosystem impacts.

9. Maintain an adequate separation distance from watercourses and riparian areas, and

minimising the number of crossings of watercourses

10. Avoid wet and unstable areas, or areas with excessively steep slopes, and apply special

techniques for stabilisation when crossing these areas.

11. Control erosion and protect exposed soil areas.

12. Control water on the route surface to minimise the potential for erosion and sediment

loading into water bodies.

13. Provide thorough, periodic route maintenance.

14. Allow sufficient funds for maintenance and management throughout the life cycle of the

route.

15. Close and rehabilitate routes when no longer used or needed.


PART 2: Key physical components of 08/10/06 off-road routes

9

PART 2: KEY PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF OFF-ROAD ROUTES

Understanding the components of off-road routes for motorised use is fundamental to route

planning, establishment and maintenance. How these components are defined by a route will

directly affect the quality of the trip (and in many instances the recreational experience), as

well as the ease (or difficulty) of management and maintenance. These components vary

depending on the desired route use as well as the route users.

• Tread Width is the width of the travelled portion of the route. Wider routes afford the route

user more opportunity to select a smoother, easier path of travel. The preferred tread

width varies according to the use of the route, as well as the type of user. In general2,

tread widths associated with trailbikes are generally less than 1 m in width, quadbikes are

approximately 1,5 m, and 4x4 and 2x4 vehicles vary between 1,5 m and 2 m. Depending

on the sensitivity of the environment, it may be necessary to limit the type of vehicle

permitted to utilise the route.

• Tread Surface is the physical condition of the tread, and equates to traction. The material

and stability of the tread surface is a determining factor in the difficulty of travel on the

route. Smooth routes that provide good traction are the easiest to drive. Rocks, roots,

logs, mud or anything that provides a rough or slippery surface increases the difficulty and

exposure of the route, and in most cases the erosion potential.

• Sideslope is the slope of the ground perpendicular to the direction of the route. As the

sideslope becomes steeper, the perception of difficulty increases.

• Cut-and-fill is a method of road construction in which a travel surface is built by cutting

into the hillside and spreading the spoil materials in adjacent low spots and as compacted

fill slope material along the route.

• Elements of Difficulty and Exposure on recreation routes should primarily be determined by

the environment. When elements of difficulty are created by a route developer,

management and maintenance issues play an essential role in sustaining the route. The

route should be planned and designed with the specific use and user in mind, as well as the

element of difficulty which would be desirable. This is where the provision of alternative

routes are important - offering a tough route that challenges the vehicle and drivers skill

levels for those route users seeking a more challenging experience; as well as an

alternative, easier alignment for other route users. Easier alignments would more often

than not have a lower impact on the environment (as a result of less wheel spinning,

gentler grades, etc.) than a tougher route. It is also important to provide ‘escape routes’

for users on difficult sections of the route, which can be used in the event of the user not

being able to effectively manoeuvre through a particular section of the route.

• Alignment is the configuration of the route in the horizontal plane which the user must

negotiate. The smaller the radius of the turns and the more frequent the curves, the more

difficult the route is to ride, particularly when coupled with steep grades, rough tread, etc.

• Grade is the slope of the route in the direction of travel. Maximum grade is defined as the

steepest section of the route; average grade is the steepness of the route over its entire

length. Steep grades can have a major effect on the difficulty of the route to ride. The

2 Tread widths generally vary according to the make of the vehicle, and thus an average width should be used as a

guideline


PART 2: Key physical components of 08/10/06 off-road routes

10

grade of the route affects erosion potential of the route. On average, moderate slope

grades are most desirable depending on constraints which may be imposed by the nature

of the surrounding environment and local soil conditions3. This will minimise potential

erosion and sedimentation problems. Steep slope grades increase the need for

maintenance and the potential for erosion.

• Clearing is undertaken within the route corridor, where vegetation or other obstacles are

removed for safe travel. Clearing may include the need for pruning of selected vegetation

alongside the route corridor that could obscure sight distance.

• Natural obstacles are physical objects that impair travel.

• Technical route features are objects that have been introduced to the route (recreational

routes) in order to increase the level of technical difficulty to the route.

• Off-road Route Capacity is the physical ability of a route to withstand use, or the rate at

which a route incurs wear that eventually results in the need for maintenance or

replacement. Through observation and measurement of relevant variables such as rainfall,

soil type, season of use, grade and number of users, it is possible to predict maintenance

cycles and tread replacement needs. Route capacity or user capacity also refers to the

maximum number of recreational users that may frequent a given length of route in a

given period of time (usually one day), while still meeting user expectations and route

limitations. Route capacity of routes to be utilised for recreational purposes bear heavily

on the design, location, size and number of points providing access, as well as the capacity

of rest areas. The route must be able to accommodate the intended use. Careful

consideration must be given to the physical capacity of the route system, its ability to

withstand very heavy use (i.e. is the route appropriately designed, constructed and

maintained), and need to limit levels of use to the time of year when the routes are least

susceptible to degradation.

Additional useful terms and components of off-road routes are defined in Part 7 – Glossary of

Useful Terms

3 For example, an unconsolidated sandy environment displays very different physical constraints (and by implication

management requirements) to competent bedrock substrate. The variables to consider include hard bedrock versus

soil (transported or completely weathered residual), cohesive soil versus granular soil, slope and moisture content,

and transported versus residual material. Vegetation cover is also frequently critical and cannot be ignored

Definition of Slope

Slopes of less than 3° can be classed as gentle, those of 3 to 7° as moderate, and those of

7-15° as steep. Slopes in excess of 15° can be classed as very steep.

Disclaimer: Grade classes supplied in the following sections are generally accepted

standards. Reference to grades should be regarded as a guide and not absolve route

planners from inspection of the site.


PART 3: Guidelines for the planning of 08/10/06 sustainable off-road routes

11

PART 3: PLANNING OF SUSTAINABLE OFF-ROAD ROUTES

3.1. Key Steps in the Establishment of Off-road Routes

Route planning and analysis are key to ensuring that a route minimises impacts to the

environment and to the people along the route, that it meets the needs of the user, that it is

not overbuilt, and that it considers the current and future needs of an area. For an off-road

route to be successful, each step of the route management process must be performed. The

basic steps are:

1. Project proposal – define the purpose of the project, and develop a project

proposal/business plan (refer to Part 3, section 3.2)

2. Planning and location – to meet the expectations of the route developer and route user

(refer to Part 3)

3. Survey and design - fit the route to the ground and ensure it will function appropriately

(refer to Part 3, section 3.5)

4. Establishment/construction – implementing the design and construction techniques with

some degree of quality control (refer to Part 4)

5. Maintenance - to keep the surface drivable and the drainage structures functioning (refer

to Part 5)

If any one of these steps is omitted, a route may cause environmental impacts, result in

unnecessarily high maintenance and have financial implications, may fail prematurely, or may

not adequately meet the needs of its users. An unsuccessful route may need to be

reconstructed or closed (decommissioned and rehabilitated) to eliminate unacceptable

problems.

3.2. Creating an Off-road Route Proposal

As a first step in the decision-making process regarding the development of an off-road route

on a property, the area identified for siting of a route should be considered holistically, and

should include consideration of the off-road route as well as any secondary or supporting

activities. As part of this initial step, a business plan should be developed, and must consider

the environmental, social, economic and technical aspects of the project.

Secondary Activities which may be Associated with Off-Road Routes

Rest camps and support facilities may be required to provide necessary services such as

ablution facilities, access to potable water, and demarcated areas for building fires, parking

vehicles and trailers (to unload quadbikes or trailbikes). Overnight camping facilities should

only be developed in appropriate areas.

The sustainable planning, design and management of these activities is required in order to

ensure the sustainability of the off-road route. Criteria for the planning, design and

management of these activities is guided by other relevant provincial legislation, policies

and guidelines, and are not repeated within this guideline document (refer to Appendix C).



12

The following are important steps in the business plan formulation process, and may require

specialist input to adequately address all aspects:

1. Define the purpose of the project a. Define the scope and purpose of the route (e.g. is it needed to provide access to unique

features in the landscape or is it needed for land-use management practises).

b. Define the need for the route in the context of the local environment (in terms of

ecological, social and economic factors).

c. Develop a preliminary vision and goal/s for the project which take environmental,

technical and economic considerations into account for all stages of the route, i.e. from

planning to decommissioning.

d. Define the target market, and the type and level of use of the route.

2. Determine statutory requirements associated with the route a. Environmental authorisation and permitting requirements.

Creating an OffCreating an Off--road Route Proposalroad Route Proposal

Long-term financial viability

Define the purpose of the project

Scope &purpose

Need for the route

Preliminaryvision & goal/s

Determine statutory

requirements

Environmental permitting

requirements

Planning requirements

Engineeringspecification requirements

Inputs from surrounding landowners

Determine preliminary design

parameters

Physical extent of the project

Define routecharacteristics

Identifyenvironmental

constraints

Consider alternative alignments

Environmental constraints

Develop management strategies

Long-term management

Long-term maintenance

Long-termmonitoring

Monitoring ofroute conditions

Develop management strategies

Long-term management

Long-term maintenance

Long-termmonitoring

Monitoring ofroute conditions

Detailed cost analysis

Costs – legislative& planning

requirements

Costs – effective route management

Cost efforts vsfinancial rewards

Partnerships

BUSINESS PLAN DEVELOPMENT

Partnerships –conservation/

tourism

Type & level of use

Permits and/or Authorisations

Obtain all necessary permits and/or authorisations before starting the route establishment

process. Non-compliance with laws and regulations will result in the project progress being

delayed, and you may be required to rehabilitate the area in the event that the impacts are

considered to be too significant, and permits and/or authorisations for the project may not

be issued. Details of statutory requirements which may be applicable are detailed within

Appendix C.



13

b. Planning requirements.

c. Regulated standards and engineering specification requirements.

d. Consider inputs from surrounding landowners and communities.

3. Determine preliminary design parameters a. Determine the physical extent of the project, and consider over what area the route

could extend.

b. Determine the desired route characteristics and need for associated infrastructure

based on the purpose of the route.

c. Undertake an environmental survey of the area in order to gain an understanding of the

environment within which the route is planned, and to identify environmental

constraints which should be kept in mind during design (e.g. sensitive areas, such as

wetlands, which should be avoided, potential land use conflicts, visual impacts, etc.).

d. Define route characteristics and project goals based on environmental parameters and

constraints. Specific details pertaining to desired average gradient, route width,

surface requirements, alignment and type and volume of traffic must be determined.

Alternative route alignments should be considered to address identified environmental

concerns. Guidance on the identification and assessment of alternatives can be

obtained from the DEA&DP’s Guideline on Alternatives compiled in terms of the NEMA

Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations.

e. Define specific restrictions which should be imposed on the route in terms of

environmental parameters and constraints (e.g. limited level of use, seasonal

restrictions, etc.).

4. Develop management strategies a. Consider how the route will be most appropriately managed, maintained, and monitored

in the long-term based on the environmental context of the route.

b. Consider partnerships with conservation organisations, tourism organisations and

authorities for the monitoring of route conditions.

5. Determine financial viability of the project in the long-term a. Undertake a detailed cost analysis of the proposed route to determine and plan for

(a) the costs to meet legislative and planning requirements to set up a new

route/authorise an existing route, and (b) maintain and manage a route effectively

within the recommendations contained in the guideline series

b. Consider the cost efforts and financial rewards from establishing/operating such a route

c. Consider partnerships with adjacent landowners as an option to improve viability and

attraction of the route

The above considerations can also be applied to existing routes for responsible on-going

utilisation and compliance. A detailed list of questions to consider in developing a business

plan is contained in Appendix B.

3.3. Route Planning Resources

In planning a route, use should be made of existing information regarding the local area, as far

as possible, in order to obtain an understanding of the current situation. Information is

available in various forms from planning authorities, academic and research institutions, and

from local communities and stakeholders. The level of detail of information does, however,



14

vary depending on the area under consideration. Information which is available and should be

sourced includes:

• Mapping information

• Soil information

• Information regarding the presence of wetlands in certain areas

• Information regarding localised, protected and red data plant and animal species

• Planning information regarding local and regional land use

• Landowner management fact sheets produced by CapeNature on fire management, soils,

biodiversity and alien plant species

3.3.1. Mapping information

Topographical maps and aerial photographs available from the Chief Director: Surveys and

Mapping situated in Mowbray are very useful and comprehensive reference tools for the

planning, establishment or maintenance of an off-road route. They provide valuable data

regarding elevation, contour, large wetlands areas, and existing routes. Typically, the maps

are scaled at 1:50 000. Orthophotos and aerial photography for areas may also be available

from the Surveyor General. These would typically be available at a 1:10 000 or smaller scale.

All of this information is also available from Surveys and Mapping in digital format.

3.3.2. Soil Information

Soil information, hydrologic data, and topographic and soil survey maps are valuable tools

which should be used to plan route construction. Soil maps developed by the Institute for

Soils Climate and Water (ISCW) at the Agricultural Research Council help to identify an area’s

predominant soil type. This data can be purchased in digital format. These maps can be

useful when attempting to identify appropriate areas to locate the route. Due to the scale on

which the maps are produced and the accuracy of soil boundaries, soil maps are useful for

planning but not for site-specific purposes. It may be necessary to approach a soil specialist

for an accurate survey of the soil types and conditions along the proposed route.

3.3.3. Wetland information

Various institutions and authorities (e.g. the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

(DEAT) and Working for Wetlands) are investigating, designating and mapping wetland areas

throughout the country. Maps delineating wetlands have been prepared for selected areas,

and have been used to assess and prioritise wetlands for rehabilitation as part of the Working

for Wetlands programme. As wetlands are not always indicated on maps, an on-site

survey/review would be required while planning route alignments. Information on the

conservation importance of a wetland is available through Working for Wetlands, or the

Western Cape Wetlands Forum at SANBI (Kirstenbosch). The Western Cape Wetlands Forum

(WCWF) is an excellent resource and contact base for wetland-related issues in the Western

Cape.

Relevant contact details for the Western Cape regulating authorities and information

sources are included in Appendix C.



15

3.3.4. Information regarding Localised, Protected and Red Data Plant and Animal

Species

Information on Red Data species can be obtained from geographical areas maps prepared by

DEA&DP. Information may also be available from the South African National Biodiversity

Institute (SANBI) and CapeNature. Information on distribution of specific listed flora and

fauna taxa may also be available from museums and local universities.

3.3.5. Planning Information

Information regarding local land use planning frameworks, land use zoning and development

planning can be obtained from DEA&DP (on a provincial scale), or from the relevant local

authority.

3.3.6. Landowner Management Fact Sheets

Landowner fact sheets have been produced by CapeNature, and include:

• A landowner’s guide to Fire Management

• A landowner’s guide to soils in Renosterveld areas

• A landowner’s guide to biodiversity in agricultural landscapes

• A landowner’s guide to alien grasses, and the prevention of their spread

These fact sheets are useful tools in land management practices.

3.4. Route Planning Considerations

Route location is key to ensuring that a route is placed in a desirable area, that it avoids

problematic features or areas where construction is very expensive, and that it best accesses

areas where needed or desired. As a first consideration, use existing routes. Where new

routes need to be established, these routes should blend with the landscape, and planning a

route should allow for the route to complement natural lines and processes. Routes that are

pleasing to the eye are usually friendly to the land. It is critical, from the outset, to locate

routes on stable ground, on moderate slopes, in dry areas away from drainage lines and other

problematic and difficult areas. Avoiding problem areas during planning can save major

design, construction and maintenance costs, and can minimise many undesirable

environmental impacts. Where difficult/challenging sections cannot be avoided, an easier

alternative route (escape route) should be provided for users who wish to avoid this difficult

section.

In general, route placement should be favoured in areas with:

• well-drained soils with minimal mitigating measures to counter erosion, or poorly drained

soils with significant erosion mitigating measures

• areas which do not contain sensitive fauna or flora species or ecological habitats

• features which support natural drainage, such as side slopes and gently rolling terrain

• contours, such as those along terraces

• safe crossings of public roads, railway lines, and power lines

• minimal conflict with existing land-use or management activities

• slopes/areas that are not visually exposed



16

The route planner must, therefore, have an understanding of the proposed use of the route, as

well as the land and surrounding environment. It is advantageous to take full benefit of the

natural features of the environment rather than transforming the landscape to meet the

proposed needs of the route. An inventory of information about the land and general area that

will assist in making decisions regarding the route development and its future management

must be compiled. The inventory should initially be of a general nature, with investigation

done to obtain site-specific data and requirements. The information should be plotted on a

map of suitable scale to encompass the entire area under consideration, and a visual

inspection of the area should be undertaken to obtain an overall understanding of the area and

its environment. For safety, environmental, and economic reasons route placement should

avoid:

• wet and flat areas constrained by poor drainage

• wetland areas

• locations requiring bridges or structures over/in water bodies

• areas of unstable, fragile, or erosive soils prone to mud or rock slides

• areas where there are steep slopes and abrupt elevation changes

• areas of steep grade requiring extensive climbing turns/switchbacks or retaining structures

for stability

• areas that include ridges and cliffs, except where included for their scenic beauty

• areas with protected, rare and sensitive habitats, vegetation or animals

• areas of dense vegetation requiring excessive clearing and periodic pruning and

maintenance

• places where users could have adverse effects on animal life or other resources

• cultural and archaeological sites, except where sufficient protection can be provided from

the route users

• public road and railway line crossings where sight distances are limited

The governing Principles and BMPs of sustainable off-road routes (refer to Part 1) must be

borne in mind during route planning. In order to ensure that the route will be sustainable in

the long-term, the following key concepts must be considered:

1. Early management planning with the environment in mind

2. Soils, slopes, drainage and erosion potential

3. The importance of watercourses and the areas they traverse

4. Off-road Routes and their zones of influence

5. Habitat fragmentation and biodiversity

6. How plants and animals respond to off-road routes and the people who use them

7. Habitat quality variations

8. Species and places of special concern

9. A site’s existing impacts



17

3.4.1. Early Management Planning with the Environment in Mind

While the specific activities associated with managing an off-road route come after it has been

established, an understanding of how a route will be managed must be part of planning phase.

In terms of Section 28 of NEMA, landowners have a responsibility to ensure that any

development on their property is consistent with the ‘Duty of Care’ principle (i.e. that

reasonable measures have been taken to prevent significant environmental degradation).

Off-road route management is most effective when planned from the outset, rather than later

as a corrective action for poor route location. As environmental conditions change along the

length of a route, it is often useful to identify distinct zones along the route where

management actions should reflect differences in habitat and recreation use. The

environmental assessment process should be used early in the project development process as

a planning and management tool. The assessment of potential impacts may require specialist

input. Broadly speaking, specialist involvement is needed when the environment could be

significantly affected by the proposed activity, where that environment is valued by, or

important to society, and/or where there is insufficient information to determine whether or

not unavoidable impacts would be significant. The requirement for and extent of specialist

input should be guided by DEA&DP’s guidelines series on the involvement of specialists in

environmental assessments.

Such an assessment would not only be restricted to the route tread width, but would also need

to consider the surrounding environment in order to assess the impacts associated with the

zone of influence of the route. Depending on the nature of the development and the

environment within which the development is proposed, reasonable measures to prevent

significant environmental degradation may include an assessment of the potential impacts

associated with the establishment, operation and maintenance of the route. In areas where

potentially significant environmental impacts may occur, alternatives4 should be considered.

When a route plan is approved by an environmental and/or planning authority, the route

alignment cannot be modified after the authorisation is granted. The alignment proposed

must, therefore, be feasible from a technical and economic perspective.

Rules of Thumb

A Prevention is better than cure Plan how to manage a route’s environmental issues before its alignment is set and route

establishment begins. Avoid waiting until a project is fully planned or problems develop

before doing environmental assessment. Do not depend on management to resolve

conflicts between the route and the environment that can rather be avoided by careful

alignment.

4 Alternatives are different means of meeting the general purpose and need of a proposed activity. Feasible

alternatives are those which are considered to be technically, economically and environmentally feasible.



18

B. Increased demands on management More careful management of resources will be required when a route passes through or

near sensitive habitats.

C. Protection of areas In order to protect areas of special, sensitive, or ecological interest near a recreational

route, avoid highlighting the area to users to reduce traffic to the site. Alternatively,

provide appropriate facilities, such as viewing areas and boardwalks for visitors to access

recreation areas (outside of their vehicle) to view sensitive areas or species with minimal

disturbance. These aspects should be considered at the planning stage in order to minimise

impacts during operation.

D. Adhere to statutory requirements The legal requirements as specified in terms of all relevant legislation must be followed. All

parties affected by the project should be involved, and the project information open to

public scrutiny.

3.4.2. Soils, slopes, drainage and erosion potential

Route planners must understand the role played by soil conditions, and study the relationship

between soil type, grade and planned route use. The grade, or slope, of the route is an

important factor in design and layout. The steeper the slope, the greater the potential for

erosion.

The establishment of a low maintenance route is most successful when located on terrain with

a moderate slope. Routes located on gentle slopes may suffer from drainage problems.

Gentle slopes are difficult to drain, and usually result in potholes, below grade travel surfaces

and high maintenance requirements. Routes located on steep to very steep slopes may suffer

from bank or fillslope failure.

The slope, coupled with the nature and properties of the soil affect the potential for soil

erosion. Soil type is largely characterised by texture, which is determined by the size of the

soil particles. There are three basic types of particles – sand (0,075 to 4,75 mm), silt (0,002

to 0,075 mm) and clay (less than 0,002 mm). Each differ in size and shape, and affect the

physical properties of the soils, such as its ability to drain. Typical soil properties and soils

behaviour relevant to off-road route construction are detailed within Appendix A.

The most important factors which affect the potential for soil erosion include:

• Environmental properties:

∗ slope length and steepness,

∗ soil particle size and compactibility,

∗ soil structure,

∗ soil permeability,

∗ percentage of organic content, and

∗ chemistry (dispersion-related erosion is dictated to by the ratio of cations to anions in

the soil).



19

• Human induced actions:

∗ compaction of soil,

∗ removal of vegetation and humus layers, and

∗ channelling of runoff

Several distinct soil varieties may be found within a single area, and therefore affect the route

in different ways. Anticipating the soil types to be encountered during the establishment of

the route will assist in developing a sustainable route. In addition, understanding the soils will

assist in determining the ability of the soils to withstand route use by ORVs. Soil maps

supplemented with a soil survey will provide information regarding the soils of the

area/identified route alignment, and provide information regarding the soil properties to

identify soil-related challenges.

An understanding of local drainage patterns, and the inclusion of appropriate drainage

measures in the project budget is essential in planning a route in order to minimise costs of

maintenance and repairs in the long-term. Good surface drainage and rolling road grades

should be provided so that water is dispersed off the route surface frequently and water

concentration is minimised (i.e. the channelling of surface water should be reduced to a

minimum and the interruption of sub-surface/groundwater flow prevented to avoid a situation

in which the route becomes an eroding ditch).

Good planning and design should assist in preventing many potential erosion problems.

Design features that minimise the potential for route erosion include appropriate grades, turn

radii, tread hardening, drainage control, and maintenance of vegetation cover.

Rules of Thumb

A. Consider local soil conditions and appropriate management measures during planning

A first approximation of the general landscape and where to locate routes can be achieved

through the use of aerial photos and topographic maps. The planning process begins as

desk-top planning, with an overview that encompasses soils, climate, vegetation,

groundwater, geology, soils, and slope. The best soils information available is required to

consider the possible effects of the establishment of a route on soils and their erosion

potential, understanding that this will be on-going management issue. This may require the

undertaking a soil survey of the area by a soil scientist. Locate and design a route with the

worst-case conditions in mind: heavy wear, high-intensity storms, and erosion. The best

chance for their longevity comes from good initial planning, thorough field investigation, and

thoughtful drainage design. Whenever possible, use vegetative means of erosion control.

Be cautious in planning the alignment of the route, carefully weighing the alternatives.

Multiple-use routes should be designed to the most limiting standard/maximum grade. The

best strategy in planning routes is always to avoid impacts to the environment. The next

best is to minimise the impacts. The last resort is to mitigate for impacts.

B. Consider route grade in planning Avoid creating long, sustained grades that can increase run-off rates and elevate erosion

potential, as well as be monotonous to users. Where steep grades are unavoidable, plan to



20

construct drainage structures (e.g. waterbars) to slow runoff flow and to avoid erosion.

Avoid planning the route perpendicular to a steep slope (i.e. more than 7 degrees). Rather

follow contours.

C. Slope position and risk of slope failure

Reduce risks of road or slope failure (and subsequent delivery of sediments to streams and

sensitive resources) as a result of the location of a route on an unstable or saturated slope

or floodplain.

D. The importance of vegetation Plants provide protective cover on the land and prevent soil erosion for the following

reasons:

• plants slow down water as it flows over the land (runoff) and this allows much of the

rain to soak into the ground;

• plant roots hold the soil in position and prevent it from being washed away;

• plants break the impact of a raindrop before it hits the soil, therefore reducing its ability

to erode;

• plants in wetlands and on the banks of rivers are of particular importance as they slow

down the flow of the water and their roots bind the soil, therefore preventing erosion.

The loss of a protective vegetation layer makes soil vulnerable to being swept away by wind

and water, resulting in the nutrient-rich layer of top-soil being removed first. Retain

vegetation and middle-mannetjie as far as possible.

E. Consider types and intensity of route use It is essential to integrate erosion control measures when planning, constructing, and

maintaining routes, and to assure the measures are appropriate for the type and intensity of

use the route receives.

F. Keeping users on routes In areas with soils prone to compaction, displacement and erosion, provide a well-designed

route with appropriate drainage and sustainable gradients to ensure users remain on the

route. Make use of signs, educational materials, or even barriers to encourage users to stay

on the route, as appropriate. Provide wider sections to facilitate safe passing.

G. Identify areas of special concern Pockets of different soil types in some areas may call for use of special tread protection

techniques to enable them to withstand ORV traffic. These areas should be identified, their

extent determined, and the costs for establishment and maintenance estimated.

H. Understand how sheet flow and groundwater will behave To avoid drainage surprises it is important to know the nature of the vegetative cover, the

slopes, and the soils. Is the vegetation continuous or sparse? How long are the slopes

above the proposed route? How deep is the soil? These factors need to be considered

together.

I. Minimise changes to natural drainage patterns Changes to natural drainage patterns or channels often result in either environmental

damage or failures. Drainage crossings are expensive and potentially problematic, so they

must be well-designed. Crossings of both perennial (year-round) and non-perennial



21

(intermittent flow) watercourses must be identified to determine engineering implications

and construction costs of the conditions.

J. Avoid cut and fill as far as possible

Use packed rock or gabions to contain fill in mountainous areas.

K. Identify Geologic Contact Zones The location and nature of geologic contact zones in the area will determine zones where

groundwater daylights in the form of midslope seeps and springs. Sometimes locally moist

conditions in these zones show up on topographic maps and aerial photos as dense lines of

vegetation. This moisture may intensify both chemical and physical weathering processes,

creating a local zone with potential for large and small mass movements of earth materials.

These materials may be saturated by both groundwater and surface water for a greater

period of time than areas farther away from the contact zone. All of these conditions can

result in the need for on-going maintenance and for construction methods and materials to

provide support, stability, and drainage for a route traversing such a zone. Sometimes it is

better to avoid these areas.

Geological contacts are best identified in the field by a change in vegetation, change in slope

or change in rock type. These features frequently form seeps or wetland gulley heads. Also

a mere change in lithology (e.g. from quartzite to shale) may trigger the above.

L. Avoid areas of flat ground where there is a high water table Areas characterised by wetlands, perched groundwater, seasonal sheet flow, or flat ground

in areas with a high water table should be identified (from the soil type present, and/or the

associated vegetation) and avoided at the earliest planning stage as the route will, at some

stage, experience drainage problems. A longer route may be required to avoid such areas,

but less long-term maintenance will required and the potential for environmental

degradation will be reduced.

M. Include natural disaster reduction plans Identify areas of historic or potential vulnerability, such as geologically unstable materials or

areas, areas subject to flooding, or areas of high seismic activity (high probability of slip

failures/slides). Avoid problematic areas and avoid road locations in areas of high natural

hazard risk, such as landslides, rock-fall areas, steep slopes, wet areas, saturated soils, etc.

3.4.3. The importance of watercourses and the areas they traverse

Watercourses5, particularly those in the upper reaches of a river catchment (i.e. in

mountainous areas), play an important role in ecosystem functioning. The supply of clean

water is fundamental to ecosystem health and survival.

5 The types of features included within the definition of a watercourse include:

• “…a river or spring…”

• “…a natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently…”

• “…a wetland, lake or dam into which, or from which, water flows…”

• “…any collection of water which the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to be a watercourse…”



22

Every watercourse crossing is important for two reasons:

• It is where a route has the most impact on water quality.

• It’s where water has the most potential to damage a route.

Watercourses and water bodies are associated with riparian areas (the banks and adjacent

areas associated with rivers and other bodies of water). The watercourses and vegetation of

riparian areas create areas of high biological importance and diversity. Although not all

riparian areas are high in habitat quality, these areas play an important role in bank stability,

erosion control and trapping sediment from overland flow, and therefore assist in protecting

water quality.

In order to avoid environmental and maintenance problems, routes should avoid riparian

zones, wetlands, watercourses and riverbanks. Surveying the route during wet months will

assist in determining the drainage patterns and the location of saturated/wetland soils. Where

watercourse and riparian area crossings are unavoidable, crossings should be appropriately

designed to minimise impacts on vegetation, minimise soil disturbance, and be placed at the

narrowest point of the river channel. At stream crossings, erosion can result in increased

levels of sedimentation and turbidity of the water, which may affect fish and other aquatic

species and habitats. Route design should balance the desire to be near water with

environmental protection by incorporating scenic viewpoints, vegetative buffer zones, and by

minimising the number of watercourse crossings.

Watercourse crossing designs must consider the potential for impact of water flow on the

route. Crossings must either be low-level crossings on stable riverbeds, channelled through a

culvert, or bridged. Not all watercourses are perennial, and many non-perennial streams occur

in the upper catchments. The location chosen will affect construction costs, maintenance

costs, as well as the riding experience. The use of culverts on off-road routes is limited by the

size of pipe that can be conveniently transported to the site, and must therefore be considered

in the planning process. In determining bridge locations, aspects such as the provision of

stable footing for abutments and adequate clearance for free passage of high water must be

considered. Natural drainage patterns should not be disrupted or diverted.

Prior to any disturbance to watercourses or wetland areas, all legislative requirements must be

determined (e.g. permits from the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) in terms

of the National Water Act; permit from DEA&DP in terms of the EIA Regulations published in

terms of NEMA).

Definition: Wetland

The National Water Act defines a wetland (including springs, temporary/ seasonal or

permanent wetlands, seeps, riparian areas, floodplains, overbank areas and levees, and/or

point bars) as an area with saturated soil in low depressions, secondary stream channels,

or in areas that “appear to feel wet.” In most cases, wetlands created by people are

subject to the same protection as naturally occurring wetlands. Wetland areas are of value

as fishery and wildlife habitat, potential habitat for endangered and threatened plants and

animals, stormwater control, nutrient/sediment/toxicant filtering, groundwater discharge

and recharge, and for aesthetics and recreation.



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Riparian vegetation should be safeguarded, as plants in riparian soils are especially vulnerable

to disturbance, as compacting soils damages and limits roots, reduces aeration, decreases soil

water, and destroys soil structure. A permit is required from the Department of Agriculture for

any disturbance to riparian vegetation in terms of the Conservation of Agricultural Resources

Act.

Rules of Thumb

A. Stream channel proximity and sediment delivery to water bodies and riparian areas

Routes should avoid interfering with direction, seasonal variation, or amount of surface

water flow. The route should not be too near a watercourse so as to allow erosion-related

sediments to be delivered into wetlands, lakes, or streams.

B. Watercourse floodlines and buffers Adequate buffering of rivers and drainage lines must be allowed to maintain natural

processes along a watercourse corridor. This buffer area must be wide enough to control

overland flows from the surrounding landscape, and provide a conduit for terrestrial species

to move within.

C. Stream crossings Minimise the number of times a route traverses a watercourse. Avoid the establishment of

watercourse crossings at river confluences (i.e. where two or more streams come together),

as these can be particularly important nodes for plants and animals.

D. Risk of road-stream crossing failure Seek advice regarding the anticipated flows of the watercourse, particularly high water

flows. Ensure that any constructed crossing structures offer adequate stream bank

protection.

E. Strategic entries into riparian zone For both habitat and maintenance reasons, it is preferred to align the route outside the

riparian area and only enter the riparian zone at strategic points, rather than to keep it

continuously close to a riparian area.

F. Delineation of wetland areas Wetlands should be delineated prior to planning for development. Wetland delineation and

assessment should take place during the wet season. Align routes around wetlands and

other areas where water pools.

G. Water bodies Routes aligned near a water body (pond or lake) should not completely encircle the body of

water. Some shoreline should be left without access by the route in order to allow water

birds and other animals the option of moving away from vehicles to the far side of the water

body. Roads could also provide a hazard to migrating fauna, such as frogs. Encircling a

wetland would heighten this risk. Be aware of where constraints associated with water

pooling occur, and close the route under adverse conditions.



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H. Habitat restoration Use the process of establishing a route as a catalyst to restore degraded stream corridors.

Whenever possible, use a route as a catalyst to restrict cattle and other stock from grazing

good quality riparian areas. Restore riparian areas near a route to expand cover, food, and

nesting opportunities, and provide tourist attraction sites on recreational routes.

3.4.4. Off-road Routes and their Zones of Influence

As with anything that is built in the landscape, the introduction of a route into an area changes

and impacts on the surroundings. Some of these changes are minor and temporary, while

other impacts have wider ramifications and duration. Collectively, these impacts or effects

define a zone of influence associated with the route, which varies along the route’s length due

to the environment’s natural variability. This zone is also the primary experience area for

recreationists using off-road routes.

A route’s zone of influence should be planned and managed as an integral part of the route.

This influence zone should provide recreationists with meaningful interactions with nature,

without infringing on sensitive habitat. In addition, rest camps and other route facilities

associated with recreation routes (such as parking areas, ablutions, view sites, etc.) have their

own characteristics and impacts on the surrounding environment, contribute to the extent of a

route’s zone of influence, and should not be forgotten in the route planning process.

How wide an area will be influenced by a route is determined by many variables in a complex

interaction.

Table 2: Variables affecting a route’s zone of influence

Variable Example interactions

Vegetation Some types of vegetation can visually screen routes, route users and

rest camp areas more than others.

Faunal species Some species are more sensitive to habitat disturbance and human

activities than others.

Season Certain times of the year, such as breeding season, may be more

sensitive than others for wildlife. Also, during dormant periods, some

plants may be less impacted.

Surrounding land use Route impacts may be less significant in an already disturbed area.

However, cumulative impacts must be considered as these can increase

the level of impact.

Aesthetic context and visual

exposure

The visual impact of routes may be less significant in an already

disturbed area. The route scar in natural or sensitive areas may have

far reaching impacts depending on the local topography and the

surrounding land use.

Intensity/level of use More intensive or higher levels of route use may have farther-reaching

impacts.

A route through a landscape will result in ecological edge effects. Edges attract more

generalist species at the expense of more specialist species, which have fewer options in

increasingly human-dominated landscapes. The specific edge effects of a route and the



25

associated widths depend on the characteristics of the route (i.e. how wide it is and its type of

users) and the sensitivity of the surrounding landscape.

Rules of Thumb

A. There will always be some impact The establishment of any route will have at least some negative impacts on the affected

environment. The focus of impacts associated with a route cannot be only on the narrow

width of the route’s tread, as the wider area which may be influenced by the route or the

use of the route must also be considered. Such impacts must be weighed against the

benefits of the route.

B. Sensitive vs. non-sensitive environments and the creation of an ecological edge The environment of the Western Cape Province is considered to be particularly sensitive,

and includes substantial parts of the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), Succulent Karoo and

Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany centres of plant diversity6.

The floral region of the CFR contains one of the highest densities of plant species in the

world, having over 9 000 plant species, with nearly 70% of these species being endemic

(i.e. occurring only within this region). The region also supports substantial animal

diversity, with more than 560 higher vertebrate species, many of these found in the more

remote areas. Invertebrates are less well-known but studies suggest high levels of unique

species. The hotspot is considered a High Priority Endemic Bird Area by BirdLife

International. Among the bird species unique to this area are the Cape sugarbird and

orange-breasted sunbird, which play a critical role in the ecosystem as pollinators of many

fynbos plants. The rich biodiversity of the CFR is due to an extensive and complex array of

habitat types derived from topographical and climatic diversity in the region’s rugged

mountains, fertile lowlands, semi-arid shrublands and coastal dunes.

6 Areas which are obviously species-rich (diverse) and/or known to contain a large number of endemic species.

EXAMPLE

Edge effects are evident along roads constructed through the Knysna Forest in the Western

Cape.

Cape Floristic Region

The significance of the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) is that it has an exceptionally high

species diversity for what is essentially a temperate flora. There are other tropical areas

with higher species diversity per area. The significance of the CFR is that species diversity

is highly variable from place to place, whereas this is not necessarily the case in tropical

areas such as the Amazon.

The most remarkable feature of fynbos diversity is the enormous variation in the same

habitats in different geographical locations - gamma diversity - that is unparalleled

elsewhere in the world. A good example is the comparison between the Kogelberg and the

Cape Peninsula, two regions which have a similar array of coastal and mountain habitats,

soil types and climates, are separated only by the sandy Cape Flats and the waters of False

Bay and yet have less than 50% similarity of species.



26

Route construction may negatively affect plant and animal species by altering specific

habitat conditions. However, if correctly managed, this impact can be limited.

The alignment of routes along or near an existing human-created ecological edge, rather

than bisecting undisturbed areas will assist to mitigate ecological edge effects. It is

desirable to keep a route, and its zone of influence, away from specific landscape features

or areas of known sensitive species, populations, or communities. Where appropriate and

unobtrusive, use glimpses of these areas as opportunities for educating route users.

C. Regional view Plan a route which is consistent with a regional- or landscape-wide plan that identifies

where routes should be established, and which areas should be conserved. Balance the

needs of the environment and route users with the larger perspective of the area in order to

ensure that the planned development is consistent with the current and planned use of the

broader area.

D. Corridor crossings Minimise the number of times prominent landscape corridors (such as riparian zones) are

crossed by a route. These corridors may serve as important conduits and habitats for

wildlife.

E. Degraded areas Site a route where there are already human-created disturbances or in areas of less

sensitive habitat. Seek out degraded areas that have the potential to be restored when

aligning a route, rather than creating an additional disturbed area.

F. Think thin In constructing or upgrading a route, disturb as narrow an area as possible to help minimise

the zone of influence.

G. Screening and visual intrusion Locate routes, rest camps and supporting facilities in areas where they can be screened and

separated from sensitive natural areas by the lie of the land (topography) or areas of

natural vegetation. As far as possible, locate rest camps and supporting facilities in one

area in order to minimise the footprint of the development. This approach is less disturbing

to wildlife, route users, and other observers.

3.4.5. Habitat Fragmentation and Biodiversity

In weighing impacts to the natural environment, attention is often given to effects on biological

diversity. Biodiversity is not equivalent to species diversity. It is more than just a count of

how many species occur in an area. Biodiversity is the variety of life and its processes. It

includes the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, the communities

and ecosystems in which they occur, and the ecological and evolutionary processes that keep

them functioning, yet ever changing and adapting. Although the presence of large numbers of

exotic species may boost the count of species in an area, their presence would indicate

declining biodiversity due to loss of native species. Alien invasive species frequently out-

compete natives and replace them.



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Habitat fragmentation is considered by many biologists to be the single greatest threat to

biological diversity, as it results in continuously reducing extents of land/areas not directly

impacted on or influenced by humans. Habitat fragmentation and land transformation are two

of the most significant threats to the biodiversity of the CFR. The distribution of the CFR’s

biodiversity is unusual in that many of the processes that sustain rare and endemic flora can

occur in very small patches of remnant vegetation. It has been determined that many

localised fynbos endemics persist in patches of approximately 4 – 15 hectares. It is therefore

important to recognise that each fragment of natural habitat in the CFR can be worthy of

conservation action.

The extent of the contribution of a route to the degradation of the biological diversity of an

area depends on several factors, including the type of habitat, the species present, and the

characteristics of the route, including the route’s carrying capacity. Habitat fragmentation is

not only affected by the route itself, but also by its associated zone of influence.

Fragmented habitats may see:

• an influx of plant and animal species (usually generalist or alien invasive species) that like

or tolerate the new conditions created by the route; and

• a decline of sensitive species that cannot tolerate these conditions or are adversely

impacted by the new species arriving in the route’s zone of influence.

New species may include weeds and other invasive plant species (exotic and indigenous), as

well as alien faunal species which may impact on the survival of the indigenous wildlife. This

will ultimately result in a decline in the biodiversity of the local area. These new conditions

and interactions can change the route’s zone of influence in ways that may not be obvious to

the casual observer. Protecting large, undisturbed areas of habitat should be a priority. The

impacts of a route on the biological diversity of a large area that has already been heavily

disturbed would not be as significant, and would result in reduced impacts associated with

habitat fragmentation.

Rules of Thumb

A. Avoid habitat fragmentation Avoid fragmentation of natural habitats and aim to maintain spatial components of

ecological processes (i.e. ecological corridors and vegetation boundaries) and biodiversity.

In particular:

• Avoid the removal and fragmentation of indigenous vegetation in the frontal dune area.

Biodiversity

In considering biodiversity, there are two main focus areas, i.e. pattern and process.

Pattern refers to “snapshot in time” of species, plant communities, vegetation types,

habitats (especially special habitats such as saltpans, silcrete outcrops, sand dunes, quartz

patches, vleis, wetlands, etc.) and ecosystems (especially threatened systems such as

renosterveld, sand fynbos, etc.). Process refers more to the driving forces of ecosystems

such as fire, pollination, natural grazing, migration etc.



28

• Avoid further fragmentation of unique of threatened vegetation types such as

Renosterveld or Lowland Fynbos habitats. Systems are already highly fragmented, so

connections between patches should be maintained. Where possible, habitat links could

be rehabilitated.

• Prevent further fragmentation of thicket, and where possible reconnect thicket.

B. Retain intact natural habitat areas Always seek to maximise the retention of intact natural habitat and ecosystem connectivity.

Identify and seek to protect all such areas when defining the route layout or alignment,

rather aligning routes around the edge of an area of undisturbed habitat than through its

centre. Avoid smaller, isolated patches of high quality habitat when laying out a route, as

these may be important areas of biodiversity.

C. Sensitive patches Avoid patches that are habitat for threatened, endangered, or other species of concern. In

particular:

• In the West Coast and Namaqualand regions, avoid all rocky outcrops and sensitive

coastal dunes.

• Conservation should attempt to preserve the habitats in representative spur, riparian

and flat-slope environments.

• Avoid areas of unique quartz patches and ridges, such as the gravel pavements of the

Namaqualand succulent karoo along the west coast.

• Limit development to disturbed environments such as old lands and heavily overgrazed

sites (succulent Karoo ecosystems).

• Any area where fynbos does or used to occur needs a fire management plan. Alien

clearing should also be prioritised.

D. Route density Keep the density of routes lower within and near pristine or other high quality areas in order

to reduce the contribution of routes to habitat fragmentation.

E. Involve conservation supporters Enlist the help of parties supporting conservation in planning routes. Find opportunities to

integrate routes and open space planning.

3.4.6. How plants and animals respond to off-road routes and the people who use

them

The construction of an off-road route directly impacts the habitat it displaces. Specifically,

vegetation removed in the process of establishing a route is no longer available for use by

animals either as a habitat or as a food source. Once a route is established through an area,

its physical presence can also change its surrounding environment. For example, the route

may have created a new ecological edge, prompting a shift in the composition of animal and

plant species, therefore altering biological diversity in the immediate vicinity of the route.

Impacts on plants and animal species associated with an off-road route are dependent on the

type and intensity of use. With increasing levels of use, there may be sufficient disturbance

along a route that some animal species may move away permanently. It is a typical



29

behavioural response for an animal to respond to a noise as soon as it hears it. Therefore,

noise/acoustic impact associated with motorised vehicles may affect animals at greater

distances than the immediate vicinity of the route.

Research has, however, shown that while noise is initially startling, animals generally adapt

very well under most circumstances. Unusually high levels of ORV use, however, may have an

effect on certain sensitive species, especially during breeding seasons. Where this is known to

be the case, short-term seasonal closure may be the only practical solution. Route alignments

in faunal hotspots areas must be of gentle slope in order to reduce noise generated by passing

vehicles to minimise disturbance to species.

Predictability can be a major factor in how much disturbance a route user causes. Research

has been shown that disturbance of wildlife species by vehicles is less than that by people on

foot. In addition, if users remain on a designated route, they are more likely to be perceived

by wildlife as acting in a predictable fashion and, therefore as less of a threat.

Cattle grids may need to be installed in order to control animal movement within the affected

area. The need for, and appropriate location of these must be established during the planning

phase.

Rules of Thumb

A. Seek information and advice Use the best information on local plants and animals available. Seek advice of a specialists,

where required. Consider the possible effects of human disturbance on animal populations;

be cautious in planning a route, carefully weighing the alternatives. Not only is it possible

for different species to respond differently to routes and users, different populations of the

same species may respond differently based on their location and previous encounters with

people.

B. Concentrate use It is a preferred option to concentrate recreational use rather than disperse it. If social

routes have developed in an area, it is probably better to consolidate them in order to

minimise the potential for dispersed impacts. Cumulative impacts will, however, need to be

considered in order to determine the best solution for route location.

C. Impacts vs. benefits Do not assume that all impacts on animals can be resolved through management. There

may be situations where the negative impacts of a route to wildlife outweigh the benefits to

recreational users, and a route should preferably take a different alignment.

D. Breeding areas Either avoid known breeding areas, or close routes through them during breeding seasons

when wildlife are most sensitive to human disturbance. If there would not be sufficient

resources to enforce a route closure during wildlife sensitive seasons, consider re-routing

the route through another area at the planning stage.



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E. Utilise appropriate construction techniques and equipment Plan to avoid the use of heavy equipment for route establishment whenever possible,

thereby reducing the amount of disturbances to the natural resources.

3.4.7. Habitat Quality Variations

A landscape comprises varying components, which function together in varying ways to create

an ecosystem. Landscape components and ecosystems can be dynamic, both in time and

space. Two major terrestrial environmental gradients occur within the Western Cape, i.e.:

• An increase in altitude and variation in topography from the coast inland, and

• A shift towards wetter and more temperate conditions east of Cape Town, and drier

conditions in the western and northern parts of the Province.

The CFR falls almost entirely within the Western Cape. Three major vegetation types are

represented in the CFR, i.e. the Cape Fynbos shrubland, Renosterveld shrubland and

associated grasslands, and patches of forest and thicket. Some areas in the interior of the

Province fall outside the CFR and comprise karroid vegetation, characterised by dry

shrublands. The following ecosystems are found within the Western Cape:

• Coastal ecosystems

• Lowland and Fynbos ecosystems

• Midland and mountain fynbos ecosystems

• Renosterveld ecosystems

• Succulent Karoo ecosystems

• Mainland thicket ecosystems

• Freshwater ecosystems

• Indigenous forest ecosystems (which are fully protected in terms of current legislation)

There is a strong correlation between vegetation type found within these ecosystems and the

underlying soil conditions. For example, very different vegetation communities are

characterised by the soils of the Cape Flats (deep sands), mountainous terrain (shallow rock)

and Stellenbosch valleys (thick clays).

Rules of Thumb

A. Habitat variability Even within a single type of habitat, some ecosystem elements may be of greater

importance to some plants and animals than to others. Avoid small patches of species-rich

habitats, or habitats with special characteristics (such as quartz or pebble patches, and

limestone (or calcrete) and granite outcrops).

B. Potential vs. actual species Determine which species of interest actually occur in the area under consideration.

Databases sometimes list species that potentially occur within a given habitat type - not all

of these species may actually be found there due to localised topographical and landscape



31

features, and/or historical modification of the local environment, and/or the natural

succession of plants after fire.

C. Screening Consider the physical characteristics of habitat types when planning a route. For example,

route users may be screened in some vegetation types.

3.4.8. Species and Places of Special Concern

Protected, localised/endemic7 and Red Data8 plant and animal species and habitats (such as

wetlands) have legal status that must be respected in the process of constructing a route. The

CFR has the greatest concentration of Threatened plant species in the world. In terms of

Section 62 of the Cape Nature and Environmental Conservation Ordinance, a permit is required

for the damage or destruction of any endangered flora within the Western Cape. Therefore, if

the planned route will impact on any endangered plant species, a permit must be obtained

from CapeNature. The assessment of potential impacts may require input from a biodiversity

specialist.

Archaeological and heritage resources may also be bound by legislation, depending on their

significance. The assessment of potential impacts may require input from a heritage specialist.

A permit will be required from Heritage Western Cape if any sites of cultural or heritage

significance are to be disturbed, damaged or destroyed as a result of the proposed route.

Other areas of special interest may deserve special attention because of the value placed on

them by a local community or due to the uniqueness of a natural feature. Areas to take note

of include:

• Natural areas of environmental concern which have been identified in terms of biodiversity,

flora, fauna, or ecological value (such as breeding sites, wetlands, rivers, and areas known

to be home to localised, protected or Red Data plant and animal species)

• Rivers, wetlands and riparian areas

• Ridges and mountainous areas

• Nature Reserves or proclaimed areas

• Significant archaeological, cultural or heritage sites

• Other officially protected areas, such as the listed biodiversity hotspots that are protected

under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act.

Extra care and research should be taken when proposing a route in any of these areas, or in

areas that may be of local concern.

7 A taxon limited in its range to a specific geographical area due to historical, ecological, or physiological reasons. 8 Species listed in terms of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List

of Threatened Species, and/or in terms of the South African Red Data list, and classified as being extinct, endangered,

vulnerable, rare, indeterminate, insufficiently known or not threatened.

Relevant contact details for the Western Cape regulating authorities and information

sources are included in Appendix C.



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Rules of Thumb

A. Avoid sensitive ecological areas Make sure that ecological impacts of routes are known during route planning. Generally

avoid specific areas where there are known species, populations, communities or habitats of

special interest and where potential impacts of a route would be uncertain or difficult to

predict. This is especially true of.

B. Avoid sensitive cultural/historical areas Make sure that impacts on areas of cultural and/or historical concern are known during

planning. Generally, these sites should be avoided as far as possible.

C. Keeping users on routes In areas with sensitive vegetation, provide a well-designed route to ensure users remain on

the route. Use of management measures should be made, including the use of signs,

educational materials, and barriers, as appropriate.

D. Provide side routes When it is appropriate to provide access to a more sensitive area, use a dead-end side route

instead of a through-route, as these tend to have lower volumes of traffic. This is as, given

a choice, travellers tend to stay on a through-route.

E. Improving existing routes To minimise ground disturbance and possible spread of weed or alien species, reconstruct

an existing route instead of establishing a new route elsewhere.

F. Expert advice Expert advice regarding the need for avoiding sensitive areas and/or the obtaining of

permits can be obtained from the planning and environmental authorities, academic and

research institutions, specialists and environmental practitioners. In addition, expert advice

regarding the design and establishment of the route can be obtained from engineering

specialists. The overall design of the route must be undertaken through expert advice.

G. User education Ensure that the route is planned to include signage in order to educate off-road route users

about the results of direct impacts to vegetation and indirect impacts to animal life.

3.4.9. A Site’s Existing Impacts

The site/area’s existing impacts (typically through human modification) must be considered, as

well as the extent of disturbance of the site (ranging from highly modified to pristine (few

modifications)). An ecological evaluation will provide an indication of the ecological condition

of the area. Trade-offs between the environment and the establishment of the route will partly

depend on how disturbed a site is. In heavily transformed landscapes, restoring habitats may

be a principal goal in order to make the area more attractive to visitors. In more pristine

settings, preservation of the environment and minimising impacts on undisturbed areas should

be of primary concern.



33

Understanding the existing modifications will assist in guiding route alignments. For example,

routes would be best placed to follow ecological edges created by historic roads or tracks. In

gauging how modified an area already is, there are some practical questions to ask:

• What is the level of transformation of the environment? Are there remnants of natural or

semi-natural habitats within transformed areas?

• In general, what kind of habitat is present, and what condition is it in?

• Are the plants and animals typically associated with that habitat actually present on the

site? Is the ecosystem already impoverished to some extent?

• What are/have been the human impacts to the environment in the area?

• What are the surrounding land uses and condition of habitat? How close is any nearby

development?

• What opportunities are there to improve habitats on the site?

The visual impact of routes may be less significant in an already disturbed area. The route

scar in natural or sensitive areas may have far reaching impacts depending on the local

topography and the surrounding land use. Therefore, it is important to consider the

surrounding land use and potential impacts on surrounding communities in the planning of the

route alignment such that visual impacts can be minimised.

Rules of Thumb

A. Patterns of disturbance The best route alignments work with the existing patterns of disturbance already in a

landscape, rather than imposing an entirely new set.

B. Restoring habitats Consider the degree to which an area has already been modified. The establishment of a

recreational route can act as a catalyst for restoring habitats and wetland areas, in order to

make the area more attractive to visitors.

C. Visual impacts Route planning must to take careful consideration of the visual impact of the proposed route

on the surrounding area. The degree of visual impact can be advised through visual

impacts of existing routes and route scars in natural and/or sensitive areas within the

surrounding environment.

3.5. Locating the planned route on the ground

Following the a) inventory collection process, b) the identification of the opportunities and

constraints posed by all identified landscape factors, as well as c) the development of a logical

route plan through gaining an understanding of the environment, candidate routes can be

plotted on maps and photos to a suitable scale. The route planner must visually inspect the

area and locate the planned route on the ground. A detailed reconnaissance and ground-

truthing exercise is required in order to confirm information acquired and mapped to date, as

well as physically survey the route. A site survey is required to accurately identify and define

the terrain features, such as drainage features, outcrops, and slopes.



34

This should include the:

• Inspection of any identified control points (i.e. identified points which influence where the

route would be aligned, for example a practical river crossing point)

• Confirmation of the average route grade and assessment of areas characterised by steep

grade to assess erosion potential and practical management options

• Confirmation of areas identified as requiring little terrain modifications in order to minimise

potential erosion and sedimentation problems during route establishment or later when the

route is in use

• Identification of potential obstacles or areas which would render the planned alignment

unviable

• Confirmation of the location of ‘wet and dry areas’. This survey should be undertaken in

dry and wet weather conditions.

Once the preliminary planning work is complete, and the route alignment verified and

authorised by the relevant planning and environmental authorities, the preliminary alignment

of the route should be marked with flagging tape to delineate the proposed corridor. Although

gradients between intermediate points can be estimated from desk-top research by taking

distances and elevations from topographic maps, it is essential to verify these in the field and

actually locate a preliminary route alignment on the ground.

Elements of design include roadway geometry, design speed, drainage, stream crossing

structures, slope stabilisation needs, materials types and use (including both natural in situ

material9 for use as the driving surface and/or imported material that may be required to

improve poor/unsuitable in situ material), and road grades (refer to Table 3). Construction

involves all aspects of implementation of the design and establishing of the off-road routes in

the field.

Table 3: Minimum road standards generally applicable to typical low-volume off-road

routes

Design Element Off-road route (recreational use) Rural Access Road

Design Speed 25-35 kph or slower, depending on route conditions 25-35 kph

Road Width Vehicle width – up to 2,5 m 3,5-4,5 m

Road Grade Irrelevant (need variability) 15% max

Curve Radius Irrelevant (need variability) 15 m min

Crown/Shape Moderate slope to clear run-off Moderate outslope/inslope

Surfacing Type Probably in situ material native or gravel

Rules of Thumb - General Design • Use minimum Road Standards required for safety and type and intensity of use (refer

Table 3 above).

• Design roads with appropriate grades in accordance with relevant engineering

guidelines. Specialist engineering advice may need to be sought in this regard.

9 In situ relates to being in the original location; not having been moved.



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• Design the off-road route only as wide as is required by its determined use. For ORV

routes provide a width to allow single vehicle traffic (dependent on user, i.e. approx. 1,5

– 2 m for 4x4 and 2x4 vehicles; approx. 1,5 m for ATV/quadbikes; <1 m for trailbikes).

Allow specific areas for safe passing of vehicles. For rural roads/access roads provide

adequate width to allow safe passing of traffic, in accordance with accepted engineering

specifications. Minimise the area of clearing associated with the route corridor.

• Design road curve radii to optimise visibility and user safety.

3.6. Develop a Construction Plan

A construction plan should be developed in order to:

• Define roles and responsibilities for route construction activities

• Define the route dimensions (including tread width)

• Define soil and slope stability and erosion control measures proposed

• Identify vegetation for removal and pruning

• Define the construction period or timeline

• Define construction methodology

• Estimate construction costs

The plan should be developed in consultation with appropriately experienced individuals

(including scientists and route engineers), landowners, communities and relevant authorities,

and must include standard plans and drawings (in accordance with relevant engineering

specifications) in order to ensure that construction is aligned with design.

In order to achieve best environmental management practices during route establishment, an

Environmental Management Plan (EMP) should be compiled for the construction phase. The

Construction EMP should include:

Incorporating Challenging Elements into Off-road Route Design

Throughout this guideline, the fundamentals of planning or establishing sustainable routes

are discussed. However, in planning and establishing a route, the needs of the user should

be borne in mind, while designing the route in the context of the local environment. With

regards to recreational routes, the skill requirements for users to test their skills on

obstacles within a particular section of a route is often a draw card, and cannot be excluded

from route design and establishment of recreational routes. Therefore, keeping the

fundamentals of sustainable route planning and establishment in mind, elements that will

provide challenging experiences for ORV route users can be added to the route, where

appropriate, at specific sections through engineering or through use of the natural features

of the area. The best recreational off-road route systems offer variety, challenging

sections, long distances and sustainability. They keep users on-route by providing

designed and engineered adventure features.



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• an action plan which sets out the rules for the construction process;

• measures to be taken to keep damage to a minimum during the construction phase,

including:

∗ protection of environmentally sensitive areas by temporary fencing and advisory signs

∗ indigenous vegetation and topsoil reservation prior to construction, for reuse later,

where possible

∗ construction activities restricted to a route corridor

∗ Minimisation of vegetation clearance to reduce the potential for soil erosion and

windblown sand

∗ replanting of vegetation on exposed areas as development proceeds

∗ regular weeding out of alien invasive plant seedlings before they establish; such

weeding to be continued through subsequent maintenance phases, and

• any other measures required to ensure that any damage necessitated by the building

process is properly rehabilitated afterwards.

Guidance on the compilation of an EMP can be obtained from the DEA&DP Specialist Guidelines

series – Guideline for Environmental Management Plans.

It may be necessary to appoint a suitably qualified environmental control officer (ECO) to

ensure that the development process is conducted in an environmentally responsible manner,

and that the specifications of the Construction EMP are successfully implemented. An ECO can

also assist the route developer in ensuring that all necessary environmental authorisation and

permits are obtained, and can be made responsible for on-going liaison with relevant

authorities and stakeholders.


PART 4: Guidelines for the establishment of 08/10/06 sustainable off-road routes

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PART 4: ESTABLISHMENT OF SUSTAINABLE OFF-ROAD ROUTES

The desired type and intensity of use will determine the nature of the off-road route to be

established, the width of the tread, the route travel surface and clearance heights, and to

some extent the use of specified construction techniques. Central to the aim of this guideline

is for the establishment of low maintenance off-road routes which do not degrade the

environment within which they are established. A low maintenance route should not, however,

be considered maintenance free.

The governing Principles and BMPs of sustainable off-road routes must be borne in mind during

route establishment. In order to ensure that the route will be sustainable in the long-term, the

following must be considered:

1. Clearing the Route Corridor

2. Route foundation and grade specifications

3. Slope Stabilisation and Stability of Cuts and Fills

4. Drainage Control

5. Watercourse Crossings

6. Erosion Control

7. Switchbacks and Climbing turns

8. Signage

9. Costs associated with off-road route construction

10. Post-construction

Route establishment should not begin until all relevant authorisations and permits have been

obtained and the whole route has been ground-truthed.

4.1. Clearing the Route Corridor

The need to clear vegetation from a route corridor will depend on the type of route to be

established, i.e. ORV recreational route, or a purpose-built gravel route. Design criteria specify

that less clearing will be done as routes become progressively more ‘primitive’. For example, a

sustainable ORV recreational route should ideally be established as a track, with vegetation

remaining between the treads (a ‘middle mannetjie’10), and may require the clearance or

trimming of specific vegetation within and alongside the route corridor for safety or vehicle

clearance purposes. Purpose-built unsurfaced roads will require clearance of all vegetation

within the route corridor in order to facilitate the construction of the desired travel surface.

Clearing of the route corridor is one of the first construction activities to take place in

vegetated terrain. Clearing should be kept to a minimum and not extend beyond the

boundaries of the route corridor. Where the route corridor intersects dense vegetation (or an

obstacle), the route should negotiate the vegetation directly in the route’s path, with

appropriate pruning of this vegetation rather than opting for total removal. Adjacent

10 The “middle mannetjie” is the vegetation naturally occurring in the centre of the route, such that the route appears

as a narrow two spoor track.



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vegetation should only be pruned where required to minimise risk or damage to the user or

their vehicle. It must be remembered that vegetation will need to be pruned periodically

during operation in order to maintain the desired route corridor width. Cleared vegetation

should be removed from the construction site and suitably disposed of in order to reduce the

risk of fire.

All hazards adjacent to the route which may impact on the safety of the user or their vehicle

must be cleared. Strategically located obstacles or large rocks should, however, be left in

place to slow vehicle speeds and add to the natural variety of the route.

Rules of Thumb • Avoid disturbing unnecessarily large areas. Keep vegetation clearing within the route

corridor to a minimum, based on the purpose and type of use of the route.

• Do not rush corridor clearing. Give it adequate consideration before beginning.

• Follow appropriate guidelines and advice regarding vegetation removal and pruning.

• Ensure that permits are obtained prior to the removal of localised, protected or

threatened plant species.

• A tighter corridor will slow route users, while an open corridor may invite more speed.

• Determine the frequency of corridor maintenance required during the establishment

phase. Put plans in place to clear/prune vegetation appropriately.

4.2. Route foundation and grade specifications

4.2.1. The Route Travel Surface

On routes in steep or rugged terrain, the travel surface may be required to be excavated into

the side of the hill to provide a slightly outsloped travel path to allow for drainage. This

typically requires bench construction. A bench is a section of the route tread cut across the

contour of the terrain.

Depending on the slope of the terrain, the amount of excavation required and the extent of the

use of the excavated material will vary. Large-scale earthworks to facilitate the establishment

of off-road routes (and in particular recreational routes) should be avoided. If large-scale

earthworks are unavoidable, an alternative alignment should be investigated as a first option.

Partial bench construction (part of the route on fill) would be required for moderate slopes,

however, full bench construction may be required on steep slopes. Soil excavated from the

area should only be re-used in the fillslope once thoroughly tested to determine suitability for

cut-to-fill construction techniques, as this soft material is likely to erode quickly and create

danger areas on the downhill edge of the route. Should the fill material be used, it should be

reinforced with retaining walls (as determined by a competent pavement civil engineer).

Full bench construction is more durable and require less maintenance over time than partial

bench construction. Full bench construction is, however, more costly to undertake due to the

extent of excavation required, which also results in a large backslope. The backslope is the

excavated and exposed area upslope of the tread. Backslopes must not be steeper than the



39

exposed material’s ability to remain stable during typical climatic conditions, and should not

exceed the parent material’s angle of repose. Should slope failure occur, the tread will be

blocked. A well-constructed retaining wall can be constructed to reduce the backslope and

ensure stability.

The importing of materials for road construction should be limited as far as possible. Where

imported material is required, this can be obtained from a commercial quarry (where available)

or from a permitted borrow pit area. Where new borrow pit areas are needed to be

established, a mining permit must be obtained from the Department of Minerals and Energy.

Rules of Thumb • Route width varies with intensity and type of use. The width of the route should be no

wider than necessary to accommodate the planned use/s.

• Assess the stability of the soil conditions.

• Ideal route establishment is in terrain with moderate slopes.

• Use full-bench construction on steep and very steep slopes. Where large-scale

earthworks are undertaken, unsuitable or excess excavation material must be removed

from the site in order to avoid water quality impacts or other adverse environmental

resource impacts.

• Large-scale earthworks to facilitate establishment of recreational off-road routes should

be avoided. If large-scale earthworks are unavoidable, an alternative alignment should

be investigated as a first option.

Excavated benchFill material

Section of tread consisting of soft fill materialExcavated bench

Illustration showing partial bench construction

Only a portion of the hillside is excavated, and the soil that is removed is placed at the lower edge of the tread to establish the desired tread width

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Excavated benchFill material

Section of tread consisting of soft fill materialExcavated bench

Illustration showing partial bench construction

Only a portion of the hillside is excavated, and the soil that is removed is placed at the lower edge of the tread to establish the desired tread width

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• Revegetate the slopes with a suitable indigenous vegetation mix.

• The outslope of the tread should only be a subtle downhill tilt in order to minimise

erosion potential.

• When creating an outslope, do not allow debris to gather along the route edge, as this

will create a berm which will interrupt sheet flow of water off the route surface and

cause water to collect and channel down the route surface. The ground beyond the

edge of the tread should slope away from the route surface.

• Large stable rocks are good for tread stabilisation and should not be removed unless

viewed as an unpassable obstacle.

• Compact the tread (subgrade material and surfacing materials) during route

establishment to avoid soil loss, particularly in sensitive areas. Compaction of the tread

should not only be left for the “route user”, particularly in wet climates. Compaction can

be undertaken by hand or with a mechanised tamper.

• When in doubt, create a gentler slope than may be necessary to improve stability and

revegetation efforts.

• Some route construction areas may need to be stabilised if heavy traffic is expected on

the route.

• Use road surface stabilisation measures, like aggregate, where needed and as often as

possible. Utilise durable materials that will not degrade to fine sediments under traffic.

Consider coarse porous material in marshy areas such that seepage can migrate

beneath the roadway, and consider Weinert’s N-number (refer to Appendix D) to

ascertain durability of material under certain climatic conditions.

4.2.2. Excavation

Excavation, particularly on steep slopes, is the most time-consuming operation in route

establishment. To some degree the amount of excavation will vary with route width, soil

strength and side slope. For recreational off-road routes, use should be made of the natural

topographic profile as the driving surface wherever possible. Excavation should be a last

resort, as it results in significant and permanent impacts, and requires a high level of

maintenance.

Breaking ground and excavation can make use of both manual and mechanised construction

methods. The use of hand tools and labour to establish a route can be time consuming, but

highly effective in areas difficult to access (without significant damage to the environment), or

in sensitive areas. Mechanised tools, such as earthmovers, allow the establishment of route or

maintenance work to routes to be undertaken in less time, particularly where significant

amounts of earth are required to be moved or excavated, but their use can also be destructive

to the environment if not used appropriately or accurately. For example, earthmovers may

cause considerable damage wider than the proposed route width. The tool’s impact on the

environment is largely dependant on the proficiency of its operator.

Issues for consideration prior to use of such machinery:

• What is the desired tread surface and width of the route?

• Is the environment suitable for mechanised tool use?



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• What are the soil and sub-surface conditions, and do they favour manual or mechanised

tool use?

• Will the use of mechanised tools result in the type of route proposed to be established,

which will meet the needs of the users?

• Will an appropriately skilled operator operate the tool to minimise unacceptable damage to

the environment?

• Will there be adequate funds for the maintenance of the tools/vehicles?

4.2.3. Route Grade/Gradient

Grade is the slope of the route. Route grade is critical to the stability of the tread. Routes

which require the least maintenance are typically constructed at gentle to moderate grades.

Routes with a moderate grade can be well-maintained for short stretches if adequate drainage

is installed.

Routes with gentle to flat grades can result in water accumulation and the development of

potholes on the route surface (especially in depressions and dips), or water being channelled in

ruts. These ruts can capture and transport water for significant distances along a route, even

when the travel surface is outsloped, therefore increasing the erosion risk.

The grade, or slope of the route is a critical factor in design and layout. The grade of the route

influences the length of the route, level of difficulty, and drainage and maintenance

requirements. Where steep grades are constructed, install appropriate erosion protection

structures to slow runoff flow and to avoid erosion. Where steep slopes prevail and erosion is

unavoidable then the travel surface may need to be constructed with a surface hardening

substance (such as concrete).

Rules of Thumb • Avoid long sustained grades that concentrate flows, or have regular cut-off trenches or

water bars. Totally flat grades should also be avoided. Always use gentle to moderate

grades to provide for drainage.

• Construct travel surfaces with rolling grades to minimise concentration of water.

• Gentle to moderate grades require the least maintenance.

• Moderate to steep grades require well-designed and adequate drainage.

• Avoid steep grades. It is very difficult and expensive to correctly control drainage on

steep grades, and will require on-going maintenance to ensure that the drainage

functions adequately.

• Building routes that are too steep for the site will result in expensive maintenance costs

and may force the route to be closed. Excessive grade is a frequent cause of route

failure.

4.2.4. Cross-slope

Routes which require the least maintenance are characterised by cross-slopes of moderate

grade. A travel surface with adequate cross-slope sheds water quickly, avoiding erosive water

concentrations that can remove surface material and create ruts.



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Rules of Thumb • Routes established with a gradual to moderate cross slope require the least

maintenance.

• Ideal cross-slope characteristics for construction should be determined in accordance

with relevant engineering specifications. This may require consultation with suitably

qualified engineers.

4.3. Slope Stabilisation and Stability of Cuts and Fills

The need for and extent of slope stabilisation and stabilisation of cut and fill slopes is

dependent on the type of route being constructed. The need for these mechanisms is

generally less for low use recreational off-road routes, but is important for engineered off-road

routes, such as roads for access purposes.

The objectives of cuts and fills are a) to remain stable over time, b) to not be a source of

sediment, and c) to minimise long-term maintenance costs. Failed cut-and-fill slopes or

landslides can be a major source of sediment, require major repair work, and greatly increase

maintenance costs. Slope failures typically occur where a slope is over-steep, where fill

material is not compacted, or where cuts in in-situ soils encounter groundwater or zones of

weak material. When failures do occur, the slide area should be stabilised, the slope flattened,

and appropriate drainage added.

Slope stability is extremely variable depending on cut depth, angle of cut, material

characteristics, intended usage (types of vehicles and frequency), climate, and

management/rehabilitation. Local conditions can vary greatly, so determination of stable

slopes should be based upon local experience and judgment. Groundwater is the major cause

of slope failures. Methods to secure a cut embankment will be site-specific, and should be

determined during route establishment. Both cut and fill slopes should be constructed so that

they can be vegetated for stability and to minimise the visual impact associated with these

areas. However, cut slopes in dense, sterile soils or rocky material are often difficult to

vegetate, and cut-and-fill in these areas should be minimised. Generally, gentle to moderate

slopes can be successfully vegetated to improve slope stability naturally. Steeper slopes do

not revegetated easily and may require specific engineering solutions. In most excavation and

embankment work, relatively flat slopes, good compaction, and adding needed drainage will

typically eliminate most routine instability problems.

Designs are typically site-specific and may require input from geotechnical/traffic engineers

and engineering geologists.

Retaining structures are used to provide stability and strength to the edge of a route.

Retaining structures are relatively expensive but necessary in steep, narrow areas to gain

roadway space or to support the route surface on a steep slope, rather than make a large cut

into the hillside. They can also be used for slope stabilisation. These structures are

appropriate for use on unstable slopes where space is limited and the route would be lost if the

slope collapsed, when a slope is too steep to establish and maintain vegetation, and where

loosely structured soils are encountered, such as sands or gravel.



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Rules of Thumb • Use balanced cut-and-fill construction in most terrain to minimise earthwork.

• On steep ground use full-bench construction for stability.

• Vertical cut slopes should not be used unless the cut is in rock or very well cemented

soils.

• Make use of materials testing and analysis to determine the stable cut slope angle in a

particular soil type.

• Direct concentrated surface water (runoff) away from cut and fill slopes.

• Dispose of unsuitable or excess excavation material in locations that will not cause water

quality degradation or other resource damage.

• Construct fills with a moderate fill slope. In most soils, a gentle to moderate fill slope

ratio will promote vegetative growth after rehabilitation. Avoid placing fill materials on

steep to very steep natural ground slopes.

• Compact fill slopes in sensitive areas or when the fill is constructed with erosive or weak

soils.

• Use physical slope stabilisation measures, such as retaining structures, as needed to

achieve stable slopes.

• Place retaining structures only upon good foundation materials, such as bedrock or firm

soils.

• Avoid areas of natural or known instability.

• Avoid leaving cut and fill slopes barren and exposed to erosion. Rehabilitate and

revegetate exposed areas as soon as possible after route establishment. Vegetation

should be selected for good growth properties, hardiness, dense ground cover and deep

roots for slope stabilisation. Only local indigenous species should be used.

• Install erosion control measures as each road section is completed. Apply erosion

control measures before the wet season begins and after each season of construction,

preferably immediately following construction. Maintain and reapply erosion control

measures until vegetation is successfully established.

• Install sediment control structures where needed to slow or redirect runoff and trap

sediment until vegetation is established.

4.4. Drainage Control

The off-road route tread surface must be shaped to disperse water and move it off the road

quickly and as frequently as possible. Water concentrated in potholes or ruts will weaken the

tread structure and accelerate erosion damage. Steep route grades cause surface water to

move rapidly, which accelerates erosion unless surfaces are armoured (with for example rocks)

or water is dispersed or removed at frequent intervals.

Drainage includes controlling surface water, and adequately passing water under the routes in

natural channels. The best drainage measures are those installed during the establishment of

the route. Drainage conditions and patterns must be observed during wet periods to

determine how the surface water will move, where it will concentrate, what damage it may

cause, and what management measures are required to prevent damage and keep the

drainage systems functioning adequately in the long-term. This will ensure that drainage

measures follow natural drainage patterns as far as possible.



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In addition, drainage structure size should be based on some reasonable design flow, as well

as site characteristics and environmental considerations (including in-stream habitats and

biota). Determining a correct or reasonable design flow for any engineered drainage structure

is critically important, both for the structure to perform adequately, and to prevent failure of

the structure. Most flow determination methods require that the drainage area be defined or

estimated. This work is typically accomplished by delineating the area of the watershed on a

topographic map, and may require the assistance of a specialist. In general, the following best

management practises apply to route drainage:

• Proper drainage will carry the water either over the tread (causeways), under the route

surface (culverts), or will intercept the water before it crosses the route.

• Cross-drainage techniques, such as culverts and water bars, can be utilised to divert water

off of the route.

• Surface runoff which is intercepted by erosion-control measures must be collected by

drains and discharged to stabilised areas.

• Attempts should always be made to maintain natural drainage patterns.

• The drier the terrain, the more stable the route, which keeps potential erosion problems at

a minimum.

Sufficient drainage structures must be installed on off-road routes to move water off the tread

to avoid water accumulation over distance and the resulting development of channelling and

ruts. A cross-drain/drainage structure should be installed wherever a natural drainage feature

(such as a drainage channel, wetland or watercourse) is crossed. In addition, utilising natural

drainage features in the land surface for the location of drainage structures assists in routing

water on its natural course, therefore reducing the potential for erosion. When choices are

available, areas that are well-vegetated or have rocky soils with low erosion potential should

be selected as spill areas. Energy dissipaters may be required to reduce erosion potential from

concentrated water flow.

Rules of Thumb • Design and construct routes so that they will move water rapidly off the route surface to

keep the surface well drained and structurally sound.

• Construct ditches only when necessary. An outsloped road without ditches disturbs less

ground and is less expensive to construct.

• Determine the most appropriate roadway cross-drain structures to move water across

the route. Space the cross-drain structures frequently enough to remove all surface

water.

• Avoid “eyeballing” grades in flat terrain. Use a clinometer or abney level to ensure that

you have proper slopes or grades.

• Outslope the road surface with gentle to moderate road grades on stable soils, using

rolling dips for cross-drainage structures.

• Divert water and stream flows around construction areas as needed to keep the

construction site dry and avoid water quality degradation. Restore natural channels as

soon as possible after construction.



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Several cross drain structures are available and provide alternative water diversion measures

with varying advantages. These include:

• Rolling outslope

• Waterbars

• Rolling dips

• Culverts and swales

4.4.1. Rolling outslope

Rolling outslopes incorporate a section of adequate length gently outsloped to move water off

of the route tread, while allowing the route to maintain a constant grade. Outsloped surfaces

best disperse water and minimise tread width, but may require surface and fillslope

stabilisation.

Outsloped roads with clay-rich, slippery route surface materials often require rock surface

stabilisation or limited use during rainy periods to assure traffic and route user safety. On

moderate to steep route grades and on steep hill slope areas, outsloped routes are difficult to

drain and can “feel unsafe” during travel.

Rules of Thumb • Maintain positive surface drainage with an outsloped section using gentle cross slopes.

• Utilise rolling outslopes in areas where the amount of water flow is relatively low.

4.4.2. Waterbars

Waterbars are ‘barrier bars’ which divert surface water from the tread. These structures are

relatively easy to construct and prevent water from channelling and becoming excessively

destructive due to large flow volumes. Waterbars can divert water satisfactorily on low-use,

recreational or seasonal routes. They tend to be viewed, however, as ‘speed bumps’ and are

prone to failure when driven over by vehicles.

Rules of Thumb • Waterbars are required to be installed at a 30-45° angle across the route surface.

• A waterbar should be twice as wide as it is high.

• Waterbars should be shaped to allow high clearance vehicles to easily pass over them.

4.4.3. Rolling dips

Rolling dips are designed to include a short dip followed by a rise (i.e. a reverse in the grade)

to force water to be diverted from the surface and to drain off the side. The gentle downhill

approach allows vehicles to navigate the drainage feature with ease. The downhill approach to

the rolling dip should include a gentle grade reversal for 4 - 8 m. The bottom channel should

be moderately outsloped to ensure run-off.



46

This is a practical maintenance measure as it does not include additional structures which can

block, dislodge or fail, and therefore requires minimal on-going maintenance. Appropriately

designed rolling dips are resistant to failure caused by tyre rutting and periodic heavy water

flow. Considering the benefits they provide, rolling dips are one of the most effective off-road

route structures a manager can employ.

Rolling dips are required to be placed at intervals sufficiently frequent to prevent water from

building adequate volume and velocity to scour or erode the tread surface. The spacing or

frequency of rolling dips will depend on the prevailing grade, amount of runoff and the ability

of the route tread to resist displacement (soil type). Soil scientists and hydrologists may be

able to assist in determining appropriate spacing, dependent on road grade.

Rolling dips are ideal on low volume, low to moderate speed roads (<20 kph and up to

50 kph).

Rules of Thumb • Design rolling dips when the route is established. It is difficult to introduce rolling dips

later on to an existing route with a steep grade.

• Space drain dips to accommodate soil type, precipitation and route gradient.

• Rolling dips should not direct sediment-laden water directly into streams or

watercourses.

• The positioning of rolling dips should take advantage of natural cross-drainage.

• Rolling dips can be used when it becomes necessary to break the grade of the route to

help limit the steep slope length.

• Rolling dips installed on routes with moderate gradients can cause the vehicle to

“bounce” while travelling the route. Vehicle “bounce” can be minimised through

avoiding sharp changes in grade.

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Route descends into drainage feature from both sides

Positioning of rolling dip to take advantage of natural cross-drainage

Water diverted from the travel surface and drains off the route

Illustration showing a rolling dip drainage feature

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Route descends into drainage feature from both sides

Positioning of rolling dip to take advantage of natural cross-drainage

Water diverted from the travel surface and drains off the route

Illustration showing a rolling dip drainage feature



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• Construct rolling dips rather than culvert cross-drains for typical, low-volume, low speed

roads with moderate grades. Construct rolling dips deep enough to provide adequate

drainage, and long enough to pass vehicles (i.e. at least 5 m long).

4.4.4. Culverts and Swales

Culverts and swales use the capacity of natural surfaces to reduce runoff velocity and increase

infiltration. Ideally, culverts should only be used to divert water into existing stabilised

drainage lines. Culvert cross-drains consists of a metal, plastic, cement, or wooden pipe

placed under a route to allow an intermittent stream of water to flow under the road, and

prevent vehicle traffic from directly impacting water in the stream channel. They are the most

common type of surface drainage measure, and are most appropriate for routes requiring a

smooth surface profile. Culverts are best located in a manner that includes a downgrade

approach to the culvert from both directions.

The hydraulic capacity of any culvert can be limited by the capacity of the inlet to accept flow

and/or the capacity of the pipe barrel to transport the flow. Appropriate advice should be

sought before making such engineering design decisions in order to avoid structural failure and

potential degradation of the route or the environment. Culverts are only effective when of

adequate size to carry potential maximum stormwater flow. Other considerations include the

expense of culvert piping and the associated difficulty to transport to remote sites, as well as

the frequency of cleaning in the case of small culvert pipes which are susceptible to blocking.

Swales are open channels used to collect and convey runoff, and have less precise design

criteria than underground systems. In grass-lined channels the critical parameter is the

velocity as vegetative covers are subject to damage by erosion. The amount of effort directed

towards maintenance of the vegetative cover will also influence the selection of the species

used as lining. Generally the type of grass selected for the channel lining should be adapted to

the geographic area, must be compatible with other plant species in the landscape and must

also be tolerable to frequent submersion.

Rules of Thumb • Culverts/swales should be used where water affecting the route consists of small or

intermittent flows.

• Cross-drains with culverts/swales are most appropriate for use on gentle to moderate

grades often in conjunction with armoured ditches to resist erosion.

• Culvert size selection should be based upon the size of the drainage area of a watershed

and should be able to accommodate flows associated with flood events.

• The culvert length will be determined by the width of the route. The longer the culvert,

the more difficult to remove lodged debris.

• For culverts installed in areas with limited or inadequate hydrologic data or designs,

include overflow (overtopping) protection to reduce risk of total failure or stream

diversion.

• Involve scientific specialists, such as hydrologists and aquatic ecologists, and route

engineers in the process of hydrologic and hydraulic design.



48

• Avoid designing and installing drainage structures without some rational or statistical

assessment of the expected flow.

• Use culverts where no external obstructions are desired on the route surface.

• A permit is required from the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) for any

disturbance to a stream or watercourse.

4.4.5. Control at Inlets and Outlets of Cross-Drains

Water should be controlled, directed, or have energy dissipated at the inlet and outlet of

culverts, rolling dips, or other cross-drainage structures. This ensures that water and debris

enters the cross-drain efficiently without blockage, and that it exits the cross-drain without

damaging the structure or causing erosion at the outlet.

The outlet of culvert pipes and rolling dips are ideally located in a stable, non-erosive soil area,

or in a well-vegetated or rocky area. The accelerated velocity of water leaving the route

surface can cause severe erosion, or gullying, if discharged directly onto erosive soils. The

outlet should be stabilised, and the energy of the water dissipated by discharging the water

onto an armoured area to resist erosion.

Rules of Thumb • Protect cross-drain outlets (for example with rock) to dissipate energy and prevent

erosion, or locate the outlet of cross drains on stable, non-erosive soils, rock, or in well

vegetated areas.

• Keep the route and streams hydrologically “disconnected”.

• Avoid discharging a cross-drain pipe or dip onto any unprotected or erosive soil.

4.5. Watercourse Crossings

Watercourse crossings are a major concern in the establishment and use of off-road routes

because of the potential for significant amounts of sediment to enter a river or stream system.

Crossings of natural drainage channels, streams and rivers may require hydrologic and

hydraulic design expertise to determine if the watercourse can be crosses using a low-level

crossing, or the appropriate size and type of structure required to span the channel. The type

of crossing (and associated choice of structure) include low-level crossings, box culverts, or

bridges, depending on the size of the watercourse.

The type and intensity of the use of the route, as well as the local climatic conditions will aid in

determining the most appropriate structure to implement. In general, more technical solutions

will be required to be implemented when designing low traffic unpaved roads (i.e. purpose-

built roads). However, low-level river crossings where the user would drive directly over the

river channel and the in situ alluvial materials may be suitable for low-usage recreational

routes for ORVs, subject to appropriate environmental assessment and the implementation of

adequate management measures. These low-level crossings may, however, then need to be

closed during high flow conditions.



49

As watercourse crossings are at areas of running water (perennial or non-perennial

watercourse), they can be costly to construct and they can have significant impacts on water

quality. Impacts can include degraded water quality, bank erosion, channel scour, and costly

repairs should a watercourse crossing structure fail. In addition, structures can greatly impact

aquatic fauna at all lifecycle stages.

Stream crossings should be as short as possible, and cross perpendicular to the channel.

Construction activities must minimise the area of disturbance. In watercourses with uncertain

flow values, or sites requiring large watercourse crossings should receive site-specific analysis

and design input, ideally by an experienced hydraulic engineer and other specialists. In such

areas, or in particularly sensitive watersheds, overflow protection is desirable to prevent a

failure.

Rules of Thumb • Minimise the amount of soil disturbance at watercourse crossings during construction.

• Limit construction activity to periods of low flow in perennial watercourses. Minimise use

of equipment in an unprotected natural streambed.

• Cross drainage channels as infrequently as possible. When necessary, cross streams at

right angles, except where prevented by terrain features.

• Locate crossings where the stream channel is straight, stable and not changing shape.

Bedrock locations are desirable for concrete structures.

• Keep approaches to stream crossings to as gentle a grade as practical.

• Use structures that best conform to the natural channel and that are ideally as wide as

the active stream channel (bankfull width). Minimise natural channel changes,

interference with natural water flow and the amount of excavation or fill in the channel.

• Instream structures must allow free passage of water and not be blocked by debris.

They require appropriate maintenance.

• Design structures that minimise impacts on aquatic species, or that can enhance fish

passage if required. This may require the input from an aquatic ecological specialist.

• Stabilise disturbed soil around crossings soon after construction. Remove or protect fill

material placed in the channel and floodplain.

• Stabilise route surface approaches to bridges or low-level crossings with gravel, rock or

other suitable material to reduce surface sediment from being displaced into the stream.

• Obtain necessary permits from Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) prior

to undertaking any activities which may alter, impact on or impede the flow of a stream

or river.

EXAMPLE

The scenario of uncertain flow values is particularly problematic in the Karoo, which

experiences high energy short duration floods over a very irregular timeframe – a “now dry,

now flooded” type situation. During dry periods causeways appear seriously over designed,

yet during the short and sharp floods the roadway is closed to passing traffic.



50

4.5.1. Low-level Crossings

Low-level crossings can offer a desirable alternative to culverts and bridges for stream

crossings on low-volume off-road routes where road use and stream flow conditions allow and

are appropriate. Like other hydraulic structures for stream and river crossings, low-level

crossings require specific site considerations and specific hydrologic, hydraulic, and scientific

analysis, and therefore may require the input of various specialists. Ideally low-level crossings

should be constructed at a narrow stream location and should be in an area of bedrock or

coarse soil for good founding conditions.

Where appropriate bedrock conditions are not present, low-level crossings may need to have a

simple rock reinforced (armoured) driving surface or an improved surface such as gabions or a

concrete slab. An alternative is the use of box culverts, which allow for uninhibited low flows,

and provide a reinforced driving surface to support traffic and keep traffic out of the water.

The reinforced driving surface also resists erosion during overtopping at high water flows.

Key design and location factors to consider include:

• low and high water levels;

• foundation conditions;

• scour potential;

• channel cross-section shape and confinement;

• protecting the downstream edge of the structure against local scour;

• stream channel and bank stability;

• locally available construction materials; and

• the structure should not change streamflow dynamics by channelling water that could

cause downstream erosion.

The structure may not be safe for passage by vehicles in times of high flow. Escape routes

may be required in areas susceptible to flash floods.

Rules of Thumb • Use low-level crossings for crossing seasonally dry streambeds or streams with low flows

during most periods.

• Locate low-level crossings where stream banks are low and where the channel is well

confined.

• Avoid deeply incised drainage lines that require a high fill or excessively steep road

approaches.

• Use an adequately long slab or structure to protect the “wetted perimeter” of the natural

flow channel. Add protection above the expected level of the high flow.

• Protect the entire structure from scour as a result of accelerated flows across the slab.

• Crossing the structure can be dangerous during periods of high flow. Use well-placed,

sturdy depth markers at low-level crossings to advise route users of dangerous water

depths.

• Avoid placing approach fill material in the drainage channel.



51

• Avoid placing low-level crossings on scour susceptible, fine grained soil deposits.

• Prevent major cutting of streams or riverbanks to allow for crossings.

• Obtain necessary permits from DWAF/DEA&DP prior to undertaking any activities which

may alter, impact on or impede the flow of a stream or river.

4.5.2. Bridges

Bridges can be expensive to construct, but often are the most desirable stream crossing

structure because they can be constructed outside of the stream channel and therefore

minimise channel changes, excavation, or placement of fill in the natural channel. They are

ideal for fish passage. They do, however, require detailed site considerations and specific

hydraulic analysis and design, and (depending on the watercourse to be crossed) may require

appropriate specialist scientific and engineering input. When possible, a bridge should be

constructed at a narrow channel location and should be in an area of bedrock or coarse soil

and rock for a bridge site with good foundation conditions. Many bridge failures occur due to

fine foundation materials that are susceptible to scour and undermining.

Bridges should be designed to ensure that they have adequate structural capacity to support

the heaviest anticipated vehicle. Bridges should be appropriately structurally designed, using

appropriate materials and appropriate design for the environment. Bridges should not channel

water or change flood retention or stream flow dynamics.

Rules of Thumb • Use adequate design specifications for bridge construction in order to ensure optimal

positioning, appropriate foundations and support, and an adequately long bridge span or

structure to avoid constricting the natural active flow channel.

• Locate bridges where the stream channel is narrow, straight and uniform. Avoid placing

abutments in the active stream channel or mid-channel.

• Obtain necessary permits from DWAF prior to undertaking any activities which may

alter, impact on or impede the flow of a stream or river, and prior to the construction of

a bridge. Authorisation from DEA&DP is required through the undertaking of a Basic

Assessment in terms of the EIA Regulations if a bridge is to be constructed within the

1:10 year floodline or within 32 m of the bank where the floodline is unknown.

4.5.3. Wet or Seepage/Sponge Areas and Wetland Crossings and the Use of

Underdrains

Off-road route crossings in consistently wet areas, including wetlands, high groundwater areas,

and spring sources, develop ruts that require additional maintenance and repair and have

significant environmental implications. Wetland areas are ecologically valuable. Soils in these

areas are often weak, requiring considerable subgrade reinforcement. Routes in these areas

present environmental problems and unnecessary route user hazards, and should be avoided.

If wetland areas cannot be avoided, special drainage or construction methods must be used to

reduce impacts from the crossing on the wetland system. Drainage measures tend to be

expensive and may have limited effectiveness. Measures include multiple drainage pipes or



52

coarse permeable rock to keep the flow dispersed, subgrade reinforcement with coarse

permeable rock, grade control, and use of filter layers and geotextiles. The objective is to

maintain the natural groundwater level and flow patterns dispersed across the wetland, and at

the same time provide for a stable, dry route tread/surface.

In extensive wetland areas, subsurface drainage will often not be effective. Here the route

tread surface platform would be required to be raised well above the watertable, that is, an

artificial tread introduced to protect the underlying soil. A thick aggregate layer would be

commonly used for surfacing, with the thickness based upon the strength of the soil and

anticipated traffic loads.

Rules of Thumb • Avoid crossing wetland areas unnecessarily.

• Avoid concentrating water flow or changing the natural surface and subsurface flow

patterns.

• For permanent road crossings of wetland areas, maintain the natural groundwater flow

patterns by the use of multiple pipes to spread out any overland flow. Alternatively, a

coarse, permeable rock fill can be used where overland (surface) flow is minimal.

• When designing routes, attempt to provide alternative routes during wet seasons in

areas where the route crosses wet areas.

• Impacting or encroaching on a wetland requires a permit from DWAF. In addition, an

authorisation from the DEA&DP, as a Basic Assessment is required (in terms of the EIA

Regulations) for the dredging, excavation, infilling, removal or moving of soil, sand or

rock exceeding 5 m3 from a river, riparian floodplain or wetland, as well as for the

construction of a bridge in the one in ten year floodline. In terms of the legislation, a

Basic Assessment must be undertaken by a suitably qualified, independent

environmental assessment practitioner.

• Route construction is best done during the dry months when soil saturation and water

levels are at their lowest.

4.6. Erosion Control

Soil on the travel surface is displaced through use. Soil displacement is heightened on steeper

grades where loose soil particles are susceptible to gravity. Water compounds the process of

surface erosion if it is allowed to channel down the route, increasing the speed of the flow.

Water carries loose soil away, cutting deeper into the route tread each time it flows. Soil

stabilisation and erosion control practices are, therefore, fundamental for the protection of the

travel surface as well as water quality, and should be used in areas where soil is exposed and

natural vegetation is considered inadequate. The amount of soil loss is related to slope length

and steepness, soil conditions and cover, rainfall intensity and duration. The goal is to

minimise surface erosion through encouraging dispersed flow of water, as when water is

allowed to concentrate it can do more damage than an ORV user.

Bare ground should not be left exposed for extended periods, and should be protected to help

prevent erosion and subsequent movement of sediment into watercourses, water bodies and

wetlands. This movement of sediment can occur during and after route establishment, with



53

most erosion usually occurring during the first wet season after construction. Aftercare periods

should be managed as part of the authorisation conditions to ensure adequate rehabilitation,

which can be critical to ensure the integrity of underlying soils.

Sedimentation11 is the end-product of erosion. The first step in planning for sedimentation

control is to control erosion (unwanted removal and deposition of material). The second step

is to trap sediments which are transported by runoff before they reach streams or wetlands.

Physical methods, such as sediment barriers control or direct the flow of water, protect the

ground surface against erosion, or modify the soil surface to make it more resistant to erosion.

Vegetative methods for stabilisation offer ground cover, root strength, and soil protection with

inexpensive and aesthetic "natural" vegetation, as well as help control water and promote

infiltration. Therefore, vegetation loss and the removal of topsoil layers should be reduced

during route establishment. In rehabilitating and revegetating exposed areas, vegetation

should be selected for good growth properties, hardiness, dense ground cover, and deep roots

for slope stabilisation. Only local indigenous species should be used. An Erosion Control and

Revegetation Plan (considered in Part 5) and use of erosion control measures appropriate for

the local area should be an integral part of route establishment, as well as the on-going

process of monitoring and maintenance. Disturbed working areas should receive immediate

erosion control treatment, as it is more cost-effective and efficient to prevent erosion than to

repair the damage or remove sediment from watercourses or groundwater.

Erosion and sedimentation control techniques must be installed during route establishment,

and include:

• Sediment barriers

• Filter strips

• Stabilisation

• Gabions

4.6.1. Sediment barriers

An erosion control device installed across and at the toe of a slope to prevent sediment from

entering wetland areas or open water/watercourse. These may be appropriate to be used

where sheet or rill erosion is likely to occur, or where temporary sediment retention is

necessary until permanent vegetation to trap sediments is firmly established

4.6.2. Filter strip

An area of undisturbed soil and vegetation situated between the exposed soil of the off-road

route, and a body of water/watercourse or a wetland. A filter strip allows surface runoff to

drop sediment before it reaches environmentally-sensitive areas. Maintaining a filter strip at

the base of a slope retains sediment on site and is considered a preferred method for erosion

11 Soil, most commonly clay, silt and sand, which is eroded from the land or poorly constructed roads and reaches a

stream or watercourse, commonly reducing water quality in rivers, streams and other waterbodies.



54

control. Filter strips can be used in areas adjacent to any body of water or wetland, or at the

outlet of drainage structures such as culverts, and waterbars after the water passes through

an energy dissipater.

4.6.3. Stabilisation

Establishing vegetation on highly erodible or disturbed areas is appropriate in areas where

permanent vegetative cover is necessary to stabilise the soil, and in sections of the route

where the soil is badly eroded and requires stabilisation in order to continue use as an off-road

route.

4.6.4. Gabions

High flow velocities in channels or along local stream banks often lead to bank erosion, scour,

or the formation of gullies. Scour can undermine and cause failure of bridges and culverts.

Gabions (i.e. steel baskets packed with large stones) are commonly used to protect stream

banks against scour. The size of the gabion structures is commonly determined as a function

of stream velocity and local channel conditions.

Ideally gabion structures should be placed upon a stable foundation and upon a filter layer

made either of coarse sand, gravel, or a geotextile.

4.7. Climbing turns/switchbacks

A climbing turn is a turn of approximately 180 degrees resulting in a change of direction of the

route. A well-designed climbing turn/switchback may be required to lessen the grade of a

route travelling up or down a steep slope, or avoid other challenges such as rock outcrops,

unstable soils or a property boundary, and therefore reduce the impacts on the environment.

These feature are, however, required to be engineered for good drainage.

Climbing turns/switchbacks can require high maintenance as water tends to accumulate

causing down-cutting where the water exits from the route surface. An insloped tread on the

upper portion of the climbing turn would assist to divert water away, and a draindip at the

lower edge of the climbing turn would prevent accumulated water from travelling down the

tread.

Climbing turns can be installed on gentle to moderate hillslopes for routes used by 2-wheel

drive vehicles and quadbikes, and on steeper hillslopes for roads used by 4-wheel drive

vehicles. The inclusion of a barrier to discourage shortcuts is recommended.

These facilities would require mechanical compacting to take the extra weight and the spinning

or skidding of vehicle tyres, and avoid additional erosion.



55

Illustration showing a climbing turn

Adapt

ed fro

m T

rail S

olu

tions

, 2004

Turn of approximately 180° resulting in a change of direction of the route

Direction of slope

Tread outsloped

Short section of route following direction of slope

Illustration showing a climbing turn

Adapt

ed fro

m T

rail S

olu

tions

, 2004

Turn of approximately 180° resulting in a change of direction of the route

Direction of slope

Tread outsloped

Short section of route following direction of slope

Rules of Thumb • Construct climbing turns/switchbacks in areas where the grade of a route (travelling up

or down a slope) is required to be reduced, or to avoid other challenges such as rock

outcrops.

• Design and construct for good drainage.

• Make use of an insloped ditch on the upper portion of the switchback to assist with water

diversion.

• Include a barrier to discourage shortcuts.

4.8. Signage

Route signage is an important element of all off-road route systems, necessary to provide

users with information relating to route identification, alignment, difficulty and regulations

regarding use of the route (such as speed limits, travel direction, etc.). It is, therefore,

important to develop a comprehensive signage system during route establishment.

Route signing should always include identification and information signs at the beginning of the

route, at route intersections and at strategic points along the route to provide users with

information regarding the route (e.g. route names, route direction (in the case of one-way

routes), route distances and alternative route alignments, such as may be provided to bypass

particularly difficult sections of the route if desired). In addition, signing can include

interpretive information, distances to public facilities, access points, destinations and

educational information encouraging responsible route use.

Proper and adequate route signage can improve the recreational experience of ORV users by

providing the necessary information to minimise the need for frequent map checks, and to



56

ensure that users are aware of area regulations and route conditions. A good signage plan

helps users comply with local regulations and makes regulation of non-compliance easier.

When planning signs, consider the planned type and intensity of route use – routes with a high

intensity of use and/or which have been established for multi-purpose use should be well

signed; conversely, rustic or low-use routes should have far fewer signs.

4.8.1. Types of Route Signs

A. Route Information Boards Route information boards should be placed at the beginning of a route, and should include:

• A complete map of the route, including information of sensitive areas and places of interest

• Description and location of nearby or intersecting routes (where applicable).

• Route length

• Level of difficulty, or special instructions for drivers and their vehicles

• Lists of emergency contact information

B. Directional Signs Directional signs provide navigational information, including the route name, direction of travel

(where applicable to one-way routes), and the length of the route. These signs should be

repeatedly placed at key locations along the route, particularly in difficult, hard to follow

sections. These signs need not be large and intrusive, but should be obvious to the route user

and must clearly mark the way.

C. Warning Signs Warning signs should be used to warn route users of upcoming hazards, and should be placed

in such a way that they are obvious to users, but unobtrusive to the environment. Be sure to

position them well in advance of the hazard such that route users have sufficient time to read

the sign and react. It is particularly important to inform users through appropriate signage of

technically challenging route sections, or alternate routes to avoid these (where appropriate).

D. Difficulty-level Signs The level of difficulty and length of the overall route, as well as designated sections of the

route should be clearly sign-posted at the beginning of the route and at key locations along the

route. Signage should be particularly clear at the intersections of routes with differing

difficulty levels such that users can make a decision regarding which route to take before

entering that particular section.

E. Regulatory Signs Regulatory signs indicate rules, such as the direction of travel, speed limits, the types of

vehicles permitted on the route (i.e. 4x4, 2x4, quadbikes, and/or trailbikes), and seasonal

restrictions (where applicable). Regulatory signs can also be used to dictate where sensitive

areas (such as rivers, streams and wetlands) may be crossed.



57

F. Educational Signs Educational signs interpret natural or cultural points of interest along the route, and should be

placed where applicable along the route. Signs must be placed near the elements which they

describe, but should not encourage route users to trample surrounding vegetation in order to

read the sign. Thus, provision should be made in these locations for route users to stop and

read the sign, while still allowing other route users to pass.

Rules of Thumb • Signs can intrude on a visitor’s outdoor experience, and so they should be used and

placed with care.

• Appropriate sizing, placement and tone of the signs along the route are important.

Signs should not be too small or inappropriately placed.

• On-going maintenance of route signage is required in order to ensure that they provide

correct information to the route user.

4.8.2. Sign Materials

Signs can be crafted from a wide range of materials, ranging from flexible plastic to immovable

stone cairns.

A. Plastics Plastics are widely available and come in a range of colours. Durability varies depending on

the type of plastic used.

B. Wood Wood is an aesthetically pleasing material and is usually the material of choice for rustic or

remote routes. Make use of rot-resistant wood which has been appropriately treated.

C. Aluminium Aluminium is lightweight and does not corrode. However, aluminium can be expensive and

obtrusive in the environmental setting.

D. Steel Steel is durable, but is prone to rusting and must be galvanised to resist corrosion.

E. Stone Stone is durable, but limits the amount of information which can be posted on the sign.

Painted signs on stone are not durable and require on-going maintenance. Stone is generally

best used in rock cairns that inform route users that they are, in fact, still on the route.

Rules of Thumb • Vandals are most likely to damage plastic or wooden signs.

• Signs should be suitable for the climate conditions of the area, be located to avoid

creating a hazard for route users while remaining visible to ORV users.



58

• Route signs should be rustic and unobtrusive. Avoid bright colours and synthetic

materials, where possible.

4.9. Costs associated with off-road route construction

Off-road route construction costs are most influenced by the components of the route built,

with tread width and surfacing, as well as the steepness of the terrain influencing costs in

particular. Placing a route on steep slopes where construction techniques such as cut-and-fill

or bench construction is required greatly increases the time of construction, amount of

excavation and earthwork, increases the areas of clearing and required revegetation, and adds

length to cross-drains and other drainage structures.

Route cost estimates are important in the planning process to ensure that adequate funds are

available to correctly build the route, and ensure on-going maintenance. Good design and

construction techniques result in higher initial costs, but reduce long-term maintenance needs

and avoid costly failures, repairs and adverse environmental impacts.

Rules of Thumb • Steep grades increase long-term maintenance costs of the route.

• Steep side slopes (particularly with wider routes) rapidly increase the quantities of work,

including the area involved for clearing and revegetation, and the excavated material.

• Frequent or large numbers of drainage (stream) crossings greatly increase route

establishment costs, but are required particularly in dissected terrain.

• Use construction techniques that are most appropriate to the local environmental

conditions and which are cost-effective for the project, using either equipment or

manual labour.

• Where appropriate and affordable, use best available appropriate technologies, such as

geotextiles, or soil stabilisation materials.

• Minimise earthwork activities when soils are very wet or very dry, or before approaching

storm events. Time construction activity for the drier seasons, where possible.

4.10. Post-construction

For about one year following completion of construction, follow-up monitoring must be

undertaken along the route in order to identify any problems which may have resulted from

the construction of the route that need to be corrected. These may include soft spots that

require additional fill, large rocks that protrude into the tread, wet spots that develop ruts, and

weathered material slumping onto the tread. General monitoring and maintenance of the

route must be on-going throughout the life cycle of the project (i.e. for operation and

maintenance, and closure of the route).


PART 5:Guidelines for the monitoring & 08/10/06 management of sustainable off-road routes

59

PART 5: MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE OFF-ROAD ROUTES

Natural processes will constantly shape and alter the travel surface of an off-road route. In

addition, on-going use of off-road routes can cause displacement of soil particles, increase

water runoff and erosion rates. Impacts to route treads include excessive tread widening,

muddiness, and proliferation of user-created braided routes. While some of these

environmental impacts are unavoidable, excessive impacts threaten natural resource values,

route user safety, and the quality of recreational experiences. Routine maintenance is needed

on any route to upkeep the condition of the travel surface and the drainage system working

optimally.

A well-operated and maintained off-road route will have reduced adverse impacts on the

environment, and will be environmentally acceptable as well as cost-effective in the long-term.

High-quality and timely maintenance practices will greatly extend the useful life of the route

Controlling erosion, ensuring adequate drainage, and keeping users on the route are central to

maintaining sustainable off-road routes. The character of the terrain itself (soil, slope, and

vegetation cover), the route purpose, type of use, and the volume of use will largely dictate

the nature and frequency of maintenance practices required during the operation of the route.

The governing Principles and BMPs of sustainable off-road routes (refer to Part 1) must be

borne in mind during route operation, monitoring and maintenance. In order to ensure that

the route will be sustainable in the long-term, the following must be considered:

1. Undertake regular routine route assessments to monitor/detect changes in route

conditions.

2. Monitor areas where excessive maintenance is routinely required to maintain the off-road

route in the desired state.

3. Undertake proactive rehabilitation in disturbed areas.

4. Undertake regular maintenance to prevent excessive erosion, rutting, impairment of route

drainage and other forms of damage not correctable using standard route maintenance

standards and techniques. Mechanisms implemented to control drainage and surface run-

off from route surfaces (including cross drains, culverts, energy dissipaters, and erosion

prevention mechanisms (gabion structures)) are critical in this regard.

5. Apply techniques and criteria for sustainable planning and establishment in route sections

which require reconstruction (as discussed in detail in Part 3 and Part 4).

6. Ensure the prevention of pollution to water bodies and groundwater.

7. Identify the need for restrictions of periods of off-road route use, considering seasonal

variations in impacts.

8. Offer areas of high biodiversity value some form of protection/security, thereby ensuring

the continued functioning of ecosystems, and maintaining species diversity through habitat

protection.

9. Limit public access to environmentally or culturally sensitive areas.

10. Provide for public access to known places of interest to avoid informal tracks being created

by users.

11. Be prepared for fire fighting. In terms of national and provincial legislation, a landowner is

responsible for ensuring that no down-wind damage occurs to crops, grazing, property,



60

human and animal life, etc. as a result of a fire which started on or crossed his/her land.

Therefore, adequate fire management measures must be implemented. Guidance can be

obtained from the principles outlined in CapeNature’s ‘A landowner’s guide to Fire

Management’. Fire fighting equipment must be easily accessible, and all employees should

be aware of where this equipment is kept and how it should be used.

12. Provide adequate facilities to attend to oil spills, towing of vehicles and evacuation of

vehicles/drivers/ passengers, medical facilities, air compressors (tyres) and car wash

facilities.

13. Adopt the ‘precautionary principle’ in decision-making where there is an absence of clear or

definitive data regarding the environmental impacts associated with the off-road route.

14. Develop and adhere to an achievable and appropriate Environmental Management Plan

(EMP). The EMP must include clear and measurable objectives and management actions

which can be audited.

15. Develop and adhere to an achievable and appropriate monitoring programme to detect

changes in route conditions. This monitoring should be undertaken through regular audits

of the route by the route operator. Use can be made of, for example, fixed point

photography at trouble spots and a route monitoring sheet to record the type of problem

identified, location, etc. (an example of a route monitoring sheet is included within

Appendix E).

16. Undertake independent audits of the route at regular intervals and after intensive use,

through the appointment of a suitably qualified independent party.

17. Keep records of all incidents, procedures undertaken, etc. Photographs and comments

from users should also be kept, where these are available.

Evaluation is necessary to develop methods to document use, assess impacts, and evaluate

mitigation and management methods. Scientific studies and on-site observations can assist

landowners, route owners and route operators in making objective assessments of

environmental impacts associated with their routes, and can provide recommendations

regarding management measures to minimise impacts through the provision of quantitative

documentation of the type and extent of impacts to the natural and social environment.

5.1. Operational Environmental Management Plan (EMP)

The management, assessment and monitoring of the operation phase of off-road routes should

be supported by an EMP. The EMP is to include details in respect of measures adopted to:

1. Ensure that the appropriate management measures for potentially significant

environmental impacts associated with the use and maintenance of the off-road route are

implemented.

2. Monitor and evaluate the success of restoration and repair efforts and provide feedback

loops for adaptive management.

3. Ensure vehicle users comply with any control measures and standards set for the route and

surrounding area.

4. Ensure that use of the off-road route is environmentally sustainable through the regulation

and control of vehicle access and use on the route and surrounding area and the

monitoring of environmental impacts.



61

The EMP must also include details regarding roles and responsibilities in terms of route

maintenance and management activities. Guidance on the compilation of an EMP can be

obtained from the DEA&DP Specialist Guidelines series – Guideline for Environmental

Management Plans.

Through observation and measurement of relevant variables such as rainfall, soil type, season

of use, grade and number of users, it is possible to predict maintenance cycles and tread

replacement needs.

An Erosion Control and Revegetation Plan should be compiled as part of the EMP to address

interim and long-term erosion control needs, specific measures, and how to implement or

install those measures. The Erosion Control and Revegetation Plan should include:

• details of roles and responsibilities in terms of erosion control and revegetation;

• project location and climate;

• descriptions of areas susceptible to erosion (including mapping information)

• types of erosion control measures required to be implemented in each area;

• timing of implementation of the vegetative erosion control measures, and methods for

revegetation;

• sources of seeds and plants; planting methods; etc; and

• follow up and monitoring programme.

5.2. Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation each have a distinctly different purpose and scope. Monitoring is

designed to gather the data necessary for evaluation. During evaluation, data provided

through monitoring is analysed and interpreted. This process will provide periodic summary

data necessary to determine if maintenance practises are meeting the desired objectives.

Regular monitoring of the route condition trends along the route and of the surrounding

environment is needed in order to identify areas where there is significant impact to the

environment and/or route users, identify areas which require maintenance in order to ensure

the on-going sustainable operation of the route, and to form the basis for prioritising areas for

future maintenance. As a first step, a route monitoring and management plan should be

developed and implemented for route operation and maintenance of the route corridor and

activities within it. Key steps for monitoring which should be included in this plan include:

• Establishment of prescriptive and measurable management objectives.

• Identification of the impacts being monitored, including erosion impacts, impacts to water

quality, soils, wildlife, flora, and route users (accidents, injuries, enjoyment of the route),

and select indicators to monitor changes in impacts.

• Establishment of quantitative and qualitative measurement scales for impact indicators for

the environment and route corridor.



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• Preparation of standards that describe when route environmental impacts are no longer

acceptable (i.e. Limits of Acceptable Change; e.g. resistance to disturbance of vegetation

or soils).

• Establishment of impact thresholds which, if reached, trigger correction or closure of the

route.

• Establishment of a schedule for monitoring activities to assess the condition of the route.

Where impacts are likely to occur, the cause must be identified and evaluated in order to

determine the most appropriate management action for implementation. A written reporting

system must be developed, and personnel should be secured and trained to follow the

monitoring and management plan. This plan must be updated on an on-going basis in order to

reflect changing route and environmental conditions.

5.2.1. Assessing the Conditions of the Route

The route should be assessed on an on-going basis to detect changes in route conditions. This

assessment must evaluate the entire route length, and not just areas known to be ‘problem

sites’, and must take note of what is happening in the surrounding area in order to obtain an

overview of the land condition. This will ensure that the assessment provides a basis for

evaluating condition trends along the route and of the surrounding environment during future

monitoring efforts, and will also form the basis for prioritising areas for future maintenance.

Relative to level of use, route owners and managers must evaluate the nature and extent of

resource impacts, and determine to what extent they are unacceptable and constitute

impairment, and investigate measures to avoid or limit the resource impact.

Route condition assessments must evaluate all aspects of the route and highlight:

• areas of significant impact to the environment,

• areas of inappropriate/improper route location,

• areas where excessive maintenance is required to maintain the route in the desired state.

Rules of Thumb • Inspect the route at regular intervals, especially following periods of heavy rains or

following periods when user numbers may have been higher.

• Monitoring to detect changes in route conditions, including a complete condition

assessment, should be conducted by the route operator on a continuous basis. Route

condition assessments must evaluate the entire route length, not just areas known to be

‘problem sites’.

• Enforcement of route regulations is necessary to manage use within acceptable impact

limits.

Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) can be a useful technique in route management,

particularly in maintenance. The standards should be set based on the route and the

environment within which the route falls. These standards can be used to measure

compliance of the route to the LAC, and alert the route owner as to where route standards

are exceeded, and where maintenance and funding is required to be allocated.



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5.2.2. Create a Route Assessment and Repair Sheet

A route assessment and repair sheet can be a useful tool in assessing the route conditions,

thereby directing maintenance activities to priority areas. This provides a means of recording

the location of a problem (by means of GPS co-ordinates where appropriate), nature of a

problem and actions required, which can then be easily relayed to the maintenance team. A

route assessment data sheet takes the ambiguity out of maintenance work.

5.3. Route Maintenance

Off-road routes must be maintained during active use, after periodic operations have been

completed, and after major storm events to ensure that the drainage structures are

functioning properly. Heavy rainstorms can cause cut slope failures, cause water flow on the

route surface, and erode the tread and fill slopes. Debris moves down natural channels during

heavy rains and blocks drainage structures, causing water to overtop the route surface and

erode fill slopes. Ruts and potholes in the travel surface will pond water, accelerate surface

damage and make driving difficult. Lack of route maintenance/management will lead to

increased resource degradation, maintenance costs and user accident rates.

In order to ensure the on-going sustainable operation of the route, basic maintenance

activities to be undertaken routinely, and those to be undertaken on an ad hoc basis must be

defined. Areas which will require major attention and maintenance work in order to ensure the

on-going sustainable operation of the route and minimised impacts to the environment must

be identified.

Key route maintenance items that should be performed routinely include:

• Monitor route conditions and restore the route to the planned design standard.

• Grading and shaping the travel surface to maintain a distinct inslope, outslope, or crown

shape to move water rapidly off the surface.

• Compacting graded surfaces/sections to keep a hard driving surface and prevent the loss of

soils. Replace surfacing material when needed.

• Rehabilitating ruts.

• Cleaning and reshaping drains to ensure adequate flow capacity.

• Removing debris from the entrance of drainage structures to prevent blockages, and

checking for signs of scour.

• Replacing/repairing rock armour, concrete, or vegetation used for slope protection, scour

protection or energy dissipation.

• Trimming roadside vegetation to improve sight distance and safety. Maintaining the route

corridor helps keep users on the route.

• Clearing of unplanned or unwanted obstacles within the route corridor, as well as those

alongside the route corridor which may pose a safety hazard to road users.

• Replacing missing or damaged signage.



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Rules of Thumb • The route should be subject to routine maintenance at least once a year, but as often as

necessary, preferably early in the season of use.

• Restore the route to the planned design standard.

• Periodic maintenance assists in avoiding major rehabilitation or re-construction.

Schedule maintenance in relation to the intensity of use. In the case of recreation

routes, the safety or liability constraints of users must be considered.

• Whatever the priority, maintenance should be undertaken when the need is first

identified.

• Remove obstacles or collapsed material where blocking access or surface drainage

structures.

• Where necessary, close the route during very wet conditions.

• Seek guidance or assistance from specialists where specific route repair/improvement

techniques are required.

Common maintenance requirements include:

• Setting priorities for route maintenance.

• Tread repair.

• Slope stabilisation.

• Cleaning and repairing drainage structures.

• Bridge/water crossing structure maintenance.

• Management of persistent significant impacts, and longevity of the route.

• Temporary closure of routes.

5.3.1. Setting Priorities for Route Maintenance

In determining route maintenance priorities, the following must be considered:

• The first priority: Correct truly unsafe conditions, which would pose a risk to route users

and the environment. This could include repairing impassable route sections, or removing

rocks and other obstacles from a route section which would not allow passing.

• The second priority: Correct sections or features causing significant route damage, and

consequent impacts to the environment. This would include erosion, sedimentation and

braided route development.

• The third priority: Restore the route to the planned design standard. This means that the

ease of finding and travelling the route matches the design specifications for the target

user and environmental settings. Actions may include minor activities (such as the

replacement of route signage), to major reconstruction of eroded route sections or failed

structures.

If maintenance cannot be undertaken when necessary or within the desired timeframe, the

affected section/s of the route should be temporarily closed.



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5.3.2. Tread Repair

Tread is the actual travel surface of the route. Most route construction and maintenance

revolves around making sure solid, obstacle-free tread is established and sufficient protection

is provided to keep it maintained. Routes may suffer from ‘tread creep’, in which the tread

surface enlarges as a result of:

• Obstacles in the route corridor which are forcing users off the route.

• The route being characterised by wet/muddy conditions. Solutions include the

implementation of appropriate drainage, where wet and muddy patches are as a result of

poor drainage, or realigning the route in areas where wet and muddy patches are as a

result of inappropriate route alignment during planning and establishment.

Tread creep exposes roots and bedrock and encourages the development of parallel or braided

routes. Tread creep can result in the route becoming difficult or dangerous to travel, and

harmful to the environment.

Rules of Thumb • Restore tread to the planned design standard.

• Where necessary, regrade and shape the route surface periodically to maintain proper

surface drainage.

• Fill in ruts and potholes with gravel or compacted fill as frequently as possible.

• Keep rolling dips shaped and graded.

• Ideally compact the final graded road surface.

• Where necessary, apply a surface stabilisation material, such as aggregate, to the route

surface to protect the tread from damage and reduce the frequency of maintenance

needed.

• Any disturbed area outside the tread should be rehabilitated to prevent erosion.

• Micro sites in some types of soil call for use of special tread protection techniques to

enable them to withstand route traffic with limited erosion. The route condition survey

should uncover areas requiring the use of special techniques, determine their extent and

estimate the cost of remedial measures.

5.3.3. Slope Stabilisation

In the majority of excavation and embankment work, minimising slope angles, good

compaction, and the addition of adequate drainage will aid to eliminate most routine instability

problems. However, once a failure has occurred, the most appropriate stabilisation measure

will depend on site-specific conditions such as size of the slide, soil type, type of route use,

alignment constraints, and cause of the failure. Slope stabilisation options appropriate for low-

volume off-road routes may include:

• Flatten, reconstruct or revegetate the slope for stabilisation.

• Install slope drainage (such as cutoff trenches or dewater the slope with horizontal drains).

• Design and construct retaining structures.



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Rules of Thumb • Where necessary, close the route during very wet conditions.

• Stabilise excavated areas as soon as possible after work is complete.

5.3.4. Cleaning and Repairing Drainage Structures

Timely cleaning and replacement of drainage structures helps to prevent soil erosion of routes,

as water seeks the path of least resistance, and will flow along the route should the drainage

structure offer resistance. Good route management involves continual cleaning, maintenance,

replacement, and protection of all drainage structures on a route. Routine regular

maintenance activities should include:

• Inspection of all drainage structures for signs of deterioration, and undertaking of repairs to

keep them in a safe, passable condition.

• Replacement of unsafe structures.

• Cleaning and repair or replacement of culverts and water bars

• Addition of water bars where needed to improve route surface drainage and minimise

erosion risk.

• Recovery of useable material for areas of poor drainage, and use of this material for route

tread repair.

Rules of Thumb • Keep drainage structures free from debris to ensure that the drainage systems function

unhindered. Remove debris during inspections.

• Keep overflow channels clean.

5.3.5. Bridge Maintenance

Periodic bridge inspection and maintenance is needed to ensure that the structure is safe to

carry vehicles, that the stream channel is clear and free of sedimentation, and to maximise the

design life of the structure. Typical bridge maintenance items include cleaning, treating and

condition assessment of the deck; clearing vegetation and debris from the stream channel;

replacing object markers and signs; and repairing stream bank protection measures.

5.3.6. Management of persistent significant impacts, and longevity of the route

Severely degraded routes challenge traditional route management techniques and may require

innovative management methods refined for local conditions to be implemented. No single set

of responses can meet every situation, but a framework can help guide the process. When

numerous portions of an off-road route have been determined to be significantly degraded as a

result of the level of use or maintenance, the most appropriate management method must be

determined to successfully reduce the impacts. Where it is not considered possible to mitigate

or ameliorate impacts, alternatives such as partial or full route closure must be considered.



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Management options include:

• Closure and rehabilitation of a portion of the route in response to the degree of

degradation. This would halt direct route impacts, but not necessarily secondary impacts

such as erosion and sedimentation. The route portion identified for closure needs to be

assessed and stabilised, or reclaimed and rehabilitated as necessary.

• Relocation of a portion of the route. The cost of stabilising the existing route compared to

constructing a new route alignment and rehabilitating the degraded alignment should be

considered in determining whether relocation is the most appropriate management option.

In addition, the impact of the construction of a new route section would be required to be

determined.

• Seasonal-use restrictions. As soils are most sensitive to impact when they are wet,

restricting use of sensitive routes during periods of high rainfall may significantly reduce

route degradation. The closure of routes during the wet season may also be a

management tool where rainfall is highly seasonal.

• Controlled use (traffic volume restrictions). Severe route degradation occurs when use

exceeds the ability of the route surface to resist impact. Determining the appropriate level

of use can be difficult, especially since a route’s resistance to impact can change with

weather and type of use. If route conditions are noted to be deteriorating, traffic volume

should be decreased, or route surfaces should be modified to support the use.

• Control of the type of vehicle allowed to use the route. For example, quadbikes have a

narrower track width to a 4-wheel drive vehicle, and has implications to off-road routes

designed for 4x4 vehicle use with regards to rut width, erosion of the ‘middle mannetjie’

and the finished riding quality. There may be a requirement to restrict certain vehicles

depending on the route’s conditions and susceptibility to degrade, should such multi-

footprint vehicles use the route system.

• Use of route hardening techniques in order to support use without unacceptable

environmental impacts to vegetation, soils, hydrology, habitat, or other resource values.

Route hardening should only be considered under the following conditions:

∗ Existing off-road route impacts are causing, or are projected to cause, unacceptable

direct (on-site) or indirect (off-site) impacts.

∗ More suitable alternative route locations are not environmentally acceptable, available,

or economically feasible.

• Closure of a portion, or the entire route in order to protect threatened resources as a result

of degradation. A route identified for closure needs to be assessed and stabilised, or

reclaimed and rehabilitated as necessary.

5.3.7. Temporary Closure of Routes

Routes may need to be temporarily closed for the undertaking of extensive maintenance

activities, or to minimise environmental impacts during periods designated as sensitive (e.g.

seasonal closure). Access to temporarily closed routes should be blocked and appropriately

sign-posted in order to keep traffic from using the route. The tread surface and drainage

crossing structures should be maintained in order to protect these routes from erosion during

the period of non-use.



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Rules of Thumb • Temporarily close routes or sections of routes using gates, barricades, or large berms.

Temporarily closed routes should be appropriately sign-posted. These should be

checked from time to time.

• Maintain tread surface and drainage on temporarily closed routes to minimise erosion

risk to the route surface.

5.4. Maintenance of Signage

Insufficient or ambiguous signs on designated routes cause responsible ORV users to

accidentally ride on non-designated routes. Signage along the route should be regularly

monitored and maintained. Sign maintenance includes the remounting of loose or fallen signs,

repairing or replacing signs which no longer serve the intended purpose, and resetting or

replacing damaged or missing posts. Signs may need to be replaced as a result of vandalism,

illegible lettering, or incorrect or incomplete information. As far as possible, the probable

cause of sign degradation should be identified and appropriate alternative measures

implemented. Special designation signage may need to be installed to indicate areas of re-

vegetation to prevent unintended trampling.

Rules of Thumb • At each site, consider the consequences of not repairing or replacing the sign.

• If the tread becomes more obvious with time, consider removing some directional signs

whose purpose is simply to demarcate the route.

• To reduce the need to maintain and replace signs, consider using numbered signs keyed

to an accompanying interpretive brochure that can be updated inexpensively as route

conditions change.

5.5. Management of Fire Risk

It is unlikely that ORV vehicles per se will be the cause of a fire in the Western Cape (unlike in

areas characterised by seasonal grassland). However, there is an increased risk of fires (albeit

largely accidental) associated with users. Education of route users regarding the susceptibility

of the Western Cape vegetation to fire is critical in this regard. Therefore, appropriate signage

regarding fire restrictions must be clearly displayed in areas of high risk.

In terms of national and provincial legislation, a landowner is responsible for ensuring that no

down-wind damage occurs to crops, grazing, property, human and animal life, etc as a result

of a fire which started on his/her land. Therefore, adequate fire management measures must

be implemented. Principles outlined in CapeNature’s ‘A landowner’s guide to Fire Management’

provide guidance in this regard.

5.6. Alien and Invasive Species Management

Alien plant species often benefit from soil disturbance, and as disturbance is associated with

off-road routes, it is likely that routes may increase the likelihood of aliens invading an area.

Appropriate alien vegetation control must form part of the route monitoring and management



69

plan, as alien invasion will constantly be an issue. If such a plan is implemented appropriately,

it should be easy to reduce or eliminate any such introductions.

Off-road routes provide a convenient means of access to otherwise hard to reach areas,

therefore allowing landowners to manage any existing or potential alien plant invasions within

these areas. Routes could therefore be used as a management tool for alien vegetation

control for larger areas/properties. Effective alien management will enhance the user

experience.

5.7. Compliance and Enforcement

Environmental and planning authorities should play a significant role in the layout, construction

and monitoring of suitable off-road routes. Proposed routes are currently regulated in terms of

national and provincial legislation. Consideration should be given to establishing partnerships

between the authorities and industry, as well as the establishment of appropriate stewardships

with conservation bodies such as CapeNature, private stakeholders and/or communities.

Broadly speaking, stewardship refers to the wise use, management and protection of that

which has been entrusted to your care. Within the context of conservation, stewardship

means protecting important ecosystems, effectively managing invasive alien species and fires,

and grazing or harvesting without damaging the veld. Stewardship programmes have been

implemented in various areas (such as the Honorary Conservator programme within the

Baviaanskloof) as partnerships between local landowners, stakeholders and conservation

bodies such as CapeNature. These partnerships have proven to be successful tools in assisting

regulating authorities with monitoring and enforcement of environmental legislative

requirements.

Rules of Thumb • The best enforcement of regulations will come from regular patrolling combined with

effective education and an active monitoring programme.

• Educate users about responsible driving and appropriate environmental ethics.

• Educate resource managers and technicians about effective route management

practices.

• Form appropriate partnerships between the authorities and industry, as well as the

establishment of appropriate stewardships with conservation bodies such as CapeNature.

Consider becoming a member of the Western Cape Conservation Stewardship

Association.



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5.8. Closure and Rehabilitation

5.8.1. Route Closure

A route may be closed because it is no longer required, or if the route is causing unacceptable

levels of environmental damage (to the ecological environment and/or the socio-economic

EXAMPLE 1

The Honorary Conservators of the Baviaanskloof Region runs on a voluntary basis, and is

currently approximately 80 members strong, including landowners, stakeholders and

representatives of the Eastern Cape Parks Board (ECPB).

Duty requirements are 12 days per year, mostly doing duty in the Baviaanskloof area, but

also manning stands at shows, fund-raising, training, etc. Training is compulsory and

consists of courses regarding basic orientation within the Kloof, communications and

Honorary Conservators orientation.

An organisation of this nature has to be properly structured and managed with a

constitution, rules and guidelines, committee, disciplinary procedures, identification tags

and accreditation (in this case through the East Cape Parks Board).

The Baviaanskloof Honorary Rangers operate within the framework of the Eastern Cape

Parks Board Act and the Protected Areas Act (Act No. 57 of 2003).

EXAMPLE 2

The Western Cape Conservation Stewardship Association (trading as Cape Stewardship),

was formed in October 2003 to provide a networking platform for all those involved in

conservation on private land in the Western Cape. While a number of regional conservancy

forums currently exist within the Western Cape, to date there has been no single forum or

provincial association that represents the interests of all the regional forums and other

privately owned sites that are not conservancies (e.g. private Nature Reserves and natural

heritage sites).

Key Purpose: To support, motivate and co-ordinate the diversity of private conservation

initiatives in the Western Cape.

Key Objective: To represent private conservation initiatives at a provincial and national

level.

Aims of the Association:

1. To further the best conservation interests of members 2. Provide a platform for networking 3. Stimulate awareness of the contribution and importance of private sector conservation

initiatives 4. Promote the concept of stewardship provincially and nationally 5. Establish co-operation among all role players 6. Influence leaders in all spheres of public affairs to accord the necessary priority to

conservation issues



71

environment), or is resulting in unacceptably high maintenance costs. Key considerations in

determining whether a route or portion of a route should be closed include:

• Is the route consistently wet despite being appropriately sloped, shaped and drained?

• Is the grade steep with evident and persistent erosion problems?

• Has the route caused unacceptable scarring?

• Does the route impose an unacceptable visual impact within a cultural landscape or

tourism route?

• Is the route located in a wetland area that cannot drain appropriately?

• Is the route resulting in unacceptable degradation to the surrounding environmental or

cultural resources?

• Have features been poorly designed such that they are leading to user conflict (on multi-

user routes) or user-caused erosion (such as the creation of braided routes)?

• Does the route contain sections that are bypassed by users because they are rutted or

otherwise damaged?

• Can the route problem be solved or would it be cheaper in the long-term to relocate the

route or a section of the route? For example: Would it cost less to repair the problem and

maintain a given route for 20 years, or would it be cheaper to relocate the route and

maintain it for 20 years?

• Is the route being used for the planned purpose and at the planned level of use?

Existing routes causing environmental damage must receive top priority for closure and

restoration.

Permanent closure (decommissioning) of a route or section of a route may be required where

environmental impacts cannot be mitigated, or when a route is no longer required. Permanent

closure involves permanent blocking of the access to the route, removing drainage crossing

structures and fill material, and stabilising the route surface. This is commonly accomplished

by breaking up the route surface (scarification), then seeding and mulching, so that the route

will naturally be re-vegetated over time.

Rules of Thumb • Ensure that, for permanently closed roads, all drainage crossing structures are removed,

the ground is reshaped, natural drainage patterns are restored as far as possible, and

the area is re-vegetated.

• Revegetate exposed soil on closed routes. A common treatment includes scarification,

seeding and a mulch application to promote natural vegetation growth. On moderate to

steep grades, waterbars should be added to assist in run-off control.

• Use local native vegetation species whenever possible. Select species appropriate for

the use, the site, and the bioregion.

• Close routes by reshaping the roadbed to maintain natural surface drainage patterns and

avoid concentration of water.

• Avoid neglecting temporarily closed routes.

• Apply techniques and criteria for sustainable planning and establishment in sections

which are rerouted or reconstructed (as discussed in detail in Part 3 and 4 of this

guideline).



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5.8.2. Rehabilitation and Restoration

Where routes or associated facilities have been permanently abandoned, provision must be

made for restoration and revegetation of the site. Restoration aims to restore the soil and

topography to a more natural state which would enhance natural regeneration of vegetation.

Restoration techniques which may be employed include soil treatments (pitting and

decompaction), as well as a ‘no treatment’ control. In areas of high sensitivity and where

vegetative cover is lacking, these sites should be excluded from pitting or decompaction. Only

hand tools should be used for restoration.

A. Decompaction/Ripping Soil decompaction increases water infiltration. Improving water infiltration allows plants to

establish and burrowing animals to inhabit the soil again.

B. Soil Pitting Soil pitting contours the soil to direct water flow and draw wind-blown seeds to focal spots on

the ground. This practice creates micro-sites in bowls to promote seed germination and small

plant growth.

C. Soil Imprinting Soil imprinting entails raking small trenches to roughen the texture on surface soil and to

collect wind-blown seed. Hand tools should be used.

D. Waterbars Waterbars divert water flow safely away from the exposed surface of a route to the sides of

the route, reducing water velocity along the exposed surface and thereby reducing erosion.

E. Planting Vegetation Re-vegetating involves directly planting indigenous species to accelerate improvements to soil

stability, vegetation cover and diversity. Re-vegetation requires the collection of indigenous

seeds either from the surrounding area or from a commercial source. In dry years, it may be

necessary to irrigate specimens of plant species desired for propagation by seed. In areas of

poor soil and low rainfall mulching can assist in accelerating the revegetation process.

F. Seeding Hand sowing together with raking of the top layer of soil can be used to spread seeds across

the soil surface. Hand seeding also may be concurrent with soil pitting (see above) to improve

seed germination rates. The contamination of rehabilitated areas with unwanted seeds must

be avoided, and thus seed should only be harvested or obtained from reliable sources.


PART 6: Common problems & a guide 08/10/06 to developing practical solutions

73

PART 6: COMMON PROBLEMS AND A GUIDE TOWARDS DEVELOPING PRACTICAL

SOLUTIONS

Water and wind are erosive forces and the cause of most problems that require maintenance

efforts on off-road routes. However, use of the route exacerbates the problems associated

with erosive forces. It is important to be able to identify what the indicator of common

maintenance problems are (i.e. what situation could trigger erosion or other maintenance

problems) in order to develop appropriate solutions and reduce future costly maintenance

needs. The following examples provide a guide towards developing practical solutions to some

common problem scenarios.

Problem scenario:

A route section is too steep and exceeds a maximum sustainable grade. The greater the grade

of the slope, the greater the potential for increased water velocity and erosion.

Solution:

Maximum sustainable grades are site-specific and fluctuate based on soil properties, types of

users, intensity of use, and the length of the section. Long, sustained grades that can increase

run-off rates and elevate erosion potential should be avoided during design and route

establishment. For existing routes with a short steep section, the route surface can be

armoured to protect it against accelerated erosion and soil loss. Alternatively, a well-designed

climbing turn/switchback may be required to lessen the grade of a route travelling up or down

a steep slope to reduce the impacts on the environment. These features are, however,

required to be engineered for good drainage. Where steep grades are unavoidable or form

part of an existing route, plan to construct appropriate drainage structures to slow runoff flow

and to avoid accelerated erosion. Rerouting of the section of the route to achieve sustainable

grades should be considered as a last resort.

Problem scenario:

A route section is frequently wet and muddy.

Solution:

In areas with a high water table, even well-built routes located on slopes can be persistently

wet. The only solution in these cases is to raise the route tread. In seasonally wet conditions,

the problem can be limited through the temporary closure of the affected portion of the route.

If the route section is on low-lying flat terrain which cannot drain adequately, mechanisms to

enhance drainage (such as the introduction of a rolling dip, inslope or outslope the tread) could

be introduced where appropriate. These features can be difficult to successfully introduce on

existing routes and may require engineering solutions.

If the route section is located on a slope, but is still holding water, it is likely that inadequate

outslope of the tread or drainage structures are in place. Mechanisms to enhance drainage

(such as the introduction of a rolling dip, inslope or outslope the tread) could be introduced,


PART 6: Common problems & a guide 08/10/06 to developing practical solutions

74

where appropriate. Rerouting of the section of the route to avoid frequently wet areas should

be considered as a last resort.

Problem scenario:

A section of the route lacks outslope, and water is not sheeting off the travel surface gently.

Solution:

The outslope of the route surface should be restored. The slight tilt of the tread will encourage

water to sheet across and off the route instead of funnelling down the centre and creating a

gully. It is common for routes to lose their outslope over time. In restoring the outslope,

water-trapping berms on the route will be removed. In addition, ensure that the route section

incorporates mechanisms to enhance drainage (such as the introduction of a rolling dip) as a

defence against water. The longer water is allowed to travel down the route, the greater its

erosive force.

Problem scenario:

Trail widening, trail braiding and/or tread creep. Obstacles or problem areas on the route

force users off the designated route.

Solution:

Remove any obstacles being bypassed by users from the route. Ensure continuous

maintenance and route monitoring to address problem areas as they arise. Close and

rehabilitate informal user-created routes. Introduce appropriate mechanisms (such as barriers

and/or signage) to ensure the permanent closure.


PART 7: Glossary of useful terms 08/10/06 75

PART 7: GLOSSARY OF USEFUL TERMS


PART 4: Glossary of Useful Terms 08/10/06 76

Aeolian environments: The erosion, transport, and deposition of material by wind, and

commonly associated with dry environments where vegetation cover is sparse, or absent.

Aggregated soils: An aggregate is a mass of rock particles, mineral grains or both. An

aggregated soil is a soil that generally contains a combination of the above, frequently referred

to as a fine-grained aggregate or coarse-grained aggregate, depending on the size grains of

the aggregate material.

Alien species: Plant and animal species that occur in a given place, area, or region as the

result of direct or indirect, deliberate or accidental introduction of the species by humans, and

for which introduction has permitted the species to cross a natural barrier to dispersal.

Rooikrans is a good example of alien species in the Western Cape.

Alignment: The configuration of the route in a horizontal plane, i.e. the bends, curves and

tangents of the path.

Alternative: Different means of meeting the general purpose and need of a proposed activity.

Feasible alternatives are those which are considered to be technically, economically and

environmentally feasible.

Archaeological site: (a) material remains resulting from human activity which are in a state of

disuse and are in or on land and which are older than 100 years, including artefacts, human

and hominid remains and artificial features and structures; (b) rock art, being any form of

painting, engraving or other graphic representation on a fixed rock surface or loose rock or

stone, which was executed by human agency and which is older than 100 years, including any

area within 10m of such representation; and (c) features, structures and artefacts associated

with military history which are older than 75 years and the sites on which they are found.

Aspect: The particular direction a site faces and the amount of solar radiation it is subjected

to.

Backslope: The angle of the back wall of a route excavated into a hillside.

Basic Assessment: A process contemplated in regulation 22 of the Environmental Impact

Assessment (EIA) Regulations published under the National Environmental Management Act

(NEMA).

Bedrock: The solid rock (in situ or residual) that lies under the soil or that is exposed at the

surface.

Bench construction: a bench is a section of tread cut across the side or contour of a hill/slope.

A full bench is constructed by cutting the full width of the tread into the hillside. On a partial

bench, only part of the hill/slope is cut away and the removed soil is placed at the lower edge

of the tread to establish the desired tread width.



Berm: A low earth ridge constructed at the side of a route to divert the direction of flowing

water.

Best Management Practices (BMPs): Best management practices are those practices that,

when correctly applied in the establishment of off-road routes, provide the most effective,

practicable means of preventing or reducing the likelihood of negative environmental impacts,

and reduce the need for extensive on-going route maintenance. BMPs address the key

planning, location, design, construction, and maintenance requirements of routes.

Biodiversity: The variety of life and its processes; including the variety of living organisms,

the genetic differences among them, the communities and ecosystems in which they occur,

and the ecological and evolutionary processes that keep them functioning, yet ever changing

and adapting.

Borrow Pit: An area where excavation takes place to produce materials for earthwork, such as

a fill material for embankments. It is typically a small area used to mine sand, gravel, rock, or

soil without further processing.

Carrying capacity: The number of users that can be supported by a resource in a specific area

based on ecological, physical, facility, and/or social factors.

Catchment: Area of land that collects rain water into a river or stream, which then carries the

water to a waterbody or the sea.

Channel: A waterway that contains moving water either periodically or continuously. A

channel has a definite bed and banks that confine the water.

Clearing: The corridor from which vegetation is cleared. Within limits, wider clearing provides

for easier travel.

Climbing turn: A turn of approximately 180 degrees resulting in a change of direction of the

route. This feature is intended to lessen the grade of a route travelling up or down a steep

slope.

Cohesive soils: A sticky soil, such as clay or silt where its shear strength equals about half its

unconfined compressive strength. Cohesive soils are also frequently referred to as soils that

are made up of particles bound together by clay minerals. Sands and gravels are granular soil

and generally considered as non-cohesive soil, whereas silt and clay are fine grained and are

classified as cohesive soil.

Compaction: A result of the downward force of vehicles on the route surface. As a result, the

route surface hardens and sinks relative to adjacent untravelled areas. Compaction hardens

the surface by pressing particles into tighter contact and firmer bonding, reducing space for air

and water



Consolidated material: Material which has been compressed under a static load. Consolidated

soils are usually formed when water is driven out of voids. Under these conditions the soil

becomes firm or coherent.

Contour: Lines drawn on a plan that connect points having the same elevation. Contour lines

represent an even value, with the contour interval being selected consistent with terrain, scale,

and intended use of the plan/map.

Cross slope: The slope of a route perpendicular to the gradient of the route, either insloped

towards the cutbank, or outsloped towards the fillslope.

Culvert: A drainage pipe (usually made of metal, concrete, or plastic) set beneath the travel

surface to move water from the inside to the outside of the route, or under the route. Culverts

are used to drain ditches, springs, and streams that cross the travel surface.

Cumulative impacts: Impacts which can arise from one or more activity. A cumulative impact

may result in an additive impact (i.e. where it adds to the impact which is caused by other

similar impacts), or an interactive impact (i.e. where a cumulative impact is caused by

different impacts that combine to form a new kind of impact). Interactive impacts may be

either countervailing (the net adverse cumulative impact is less than the sum of the individual

impacts) or synergistic (the net adverse cumulative impact is greater than the sum of the

individual impacts).

Cut Slope: The artificial face or slope cut into soil or rock along the ‘inside’ edge of the route.

Cut-and-fill: A method of road construction in which a travel surface is built by cutting into the

hillside and spreading the spoil materials in adjacent low spots and as compacted fill slope

material along the route. A “balanced cut-and-fill” utilises all of the “cut” material to generate

the “fill”, resulting in no residual or excess waste material and no need for hauling additional

fill material.

Decommissioning: Permanently closing a route to terminate the function of the travel surface

and mitigate the adverse environmental impacts of the route. Use of techniques that include

blocking the entrance, replanting vegetation, adding waterbars, removing fills and culverts, or

re-establishing natural drainage patterns. However, the basic shape of the route will still be in

place.

Disturbance: A discrete event, either natural or human-induced, that causes a change in the

condition of an ecological system.

Displacement: Human-caused horizontal movement of route tread material (soil, gravel,

stones, etc.). Displacement invariably deepens the tread over time.

Drainage structure: A structure installed to control, divert, or to move water off or across a

travel surface, including but not limited to culverts, bridges, and rolling dips.



Ecological corridor: Narrow continuous areas of favourable habitat that allow the movement

of animals, birds and plants along them.

Ecosystem: A system formed by the interaction of living organisms, including people, with

their environment. Spatially, ecosystems are described for areas in which it is meaningful to

talk about these relationships.

Ecotourism: Planning and managing tourism in a way that is sensitive to the natural

environment. Ecotourism also involves helping the natural environment to be sustained by the

economic benefits of tourist activities.

Edge effects: Tendency to have greater variety and density of organisms in the boundary zone

between communities.

Endemic / localised species: A taxon limited in its range to a specific geographical area. This

confinement may be due to historical (e.g. dispersal, evolution and longevity of taxon),

ecological (e.g. a particular substrate or environmental modification resulting from competition

with other plants or animals), or physiological (e.g. ability to tolerate aridity, excessive

moisture or habitat alteration) reasons.

Energy / flow dissipater: Rock or other non-erodible material placed where water is

concentrated to prevent erosion by dissipating the energy of the flowing water.

Endangered species: Taxa in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal

factors continue operating. Included here are taxa whose numbers of individuals have been

reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are

deemed to be in immediate danger of extinction.

Endangered wild animal: A wild animal of any species which is in danger of extinction and is

specified in Schedule I or Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Washington, 1973, provided that it shall not include a wild

animal of any species specified in such Appendix and Schedule 2.

Environment: the surroundings within which humans exist and that are made up of:

i. the land, water and atmosphere of the earth;

ii. micro-organisms, plant and animal life;

iii. any part or combination of (i) and (ii) and the interrelationships among and

between them; and

iv. the physical, chemical, aesthetic and cultural properties and conditions of the

foregoing that influence human health and well-being.

Environmental Impact: An action or series of actions that have an effect on the environment.



Environmental impact assessment: A study which predicts and assesses/evaluates

environmental impacts of specified, proposed activities, both positive and negative. The

conclusions of the EIA report are used as a tool in planning and decision-making.

Environmental management: Ensuring that environmental concerns are included in all stages

of development, so that development is sustainable and does not exceed the carrying capacity

of the environment.

Environmental management plan: An operational plan that organises and co-ordinates

mitigation, rehabilitation and monitoring measures in order to guide the implementation of a

proposal and its ongoing maintenance after implementation.

Erosive Soils: Soils that are relatively prone to erosion and movement by rain drop impact and

surface runoff. Fine granular, non-cohesive soils, such as fine sandy sand derived from

decomposed granite, silts, or fine sands, are known to be very erosive. Cohesive soils can also

be very erosive, especially if they are dispersive in nature.

Erosion: The process by which the surface of the earth is worn away and soil moved by the

actions of wind, water or gravity.

Erosion Control: The act of reducing or eliminating on-going erosion caused by natural or

man-made processes.

Erosion Prevention: Preventing erosion before it occurs. Erosion prevention is typically less

expensive and more effective than erosion control. Erosion prevention is intended to protect a

route, including its drainage structures, cut and fill slopes, and disturbed areas, and protect

water quality.

Extinct species: Taxa which are no longer known to exist in the wild after repeated searches

of their type localities and other known or likely places. This category is used for a taxon

which no longer occurs in the wild but survives in at least some form in cultivation or in a seed

bank, but is probably so genetically impoverished or altered as to make it impossible to return

it to a natural habitat. A plant may be listed as Extinct in one country while surviving in

another (e.g. Protea gaguedi). It is important to note that extinction can never be regarded as

more than a probability, and rediscoveries are occasionally made, hence this category is

sometimes referred to in the literature as "Presumed Extinct".

Fill Slope: The inclined slope extending from the outside edge of the travel surface shoulder to

the toe (bottom) of the fill. This is the surface formed where material is deposited to build the

route.

Floodplain: A level or gently sloping area on either side of a river or stream active (main)

channel that is submerged at times during high water or periods of flooding. Silt and sand are

deposited and accumulate in this area along the main channel.



Flora: Endangered flora, protected flora or indigenous unprotected flora and includes the

whole or any part of the plant, whether live, dead or dried.

Fynbos: Low-growing and evergreen vegetation found mainly in the Western Cape. Fynbos is

known for its rich biodiversity.

Gabions: Woven baskets (usually made of wire) filled with about 10 to 20 cm. size rock (or

broken pieces of concrete), used for building erosion control structures, weirs, bank protection,

or retaining structures.

Geotextile: Water permeable textile material (fabrics, etc) used as an underlay to conserve

gravel on travel surfaces and stabilise erodible surfaces. Textile allows for water to pass

through it but contains the fine-grained size fraction behind the geotextile.

Global positioning system (GPS): A system to map route locations using orbital satellites and

portable equipment. Digital data gathered can be placed directly into geographic information

system (GIS) database systems.

Grade: The slope of the route in the direction of travel. The steeper the grade the more

difficult the route is to drive.

Guideline: A broad plan or explanation of information to guide in setting standards or

determining a course of action.

Habitat: A dynamic system of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-

living environment interacting as a functional unit.

Habitat fragmentation: A process by which habitats are increasingly subdivided into smaller

units, resulting in their increased restriction as well as an overall loss of habitat area and

biodiversity.

Hardening: The manual, mechanical, or chemical compaction of the route tread resulting in a

hard, flat surface that sheets water effectively and resists the indentations that are created by

use.

Heritage resource: Any place or object of cultural significance

Hydric Soil: Soil that is saturated or flooded during a sufficient portion of the growing season

to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper soil layers.

Hydrologic soil groups: soils grouped according to their runoff-producing characteristics. The

chief consideration is the inherent capacity of soil bare of vegetation to permit infiltration.

Hydrology: The science dealing with the properties, distribution, and circulation of water on

the surface of the land, in the soil, and below the ground surface in the underlying rocks, and



in the atmosphere. Commonly used to describe the distribution and circulation of water in a

particular area.

Hydrophylic vegetation: Plants which are adapted to growing in saturated, poorly, or very

poorly drained soils.

Indeterminate species: Taxa known to be Extinct, Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but for

which information is insufficient to decide which of the four categories is appropriate.

Indigenous flora: Any plant, shrub or tree or part thereof that occurs naturally in an area,

excluding declared invasive and alien plants.

Indigenous species: Any species of flora or fauna that naturally occurs in an area.

In situ: Being in the original location; not having been moved.

Inslope: The inside cross-slope of a route surface. Inslope is used to facilitate the draining of

water from a route surface to an inside ditch. An insloped route has the highest point on the

outside edge of the route and slopes downward to the ditch at the toe of the cut slope, along

the inside edge.

Instream habitat: The physical structure of a watercourse and the associated vegetation in

relation to the bed of the watercourse.

Insufficiently known species: Taxa that are suspected but not definitely known to belong to

any of the above categories, because of the lack of information (Note, most of South African

literature has used the term "Uncertain (U) for this category).

Invader plant: A kind of plant which has under section 2(3) of the Conservation of Agricultural

Resources Act been declared an invader plant, and includes the seed of such plant and any

vegetative part of such plant which reproduces asexually.

Landscape: A uniform land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is

repeated in similar form throughout.

Limits of acceptable change (LAC): A planning framework that establishes explicit measures

of the acceptable and appropriate resource and social conditions usually but not only in

wilderness settings as well as the appropriate management strategies for maintaining or

achieving those desired conditions.

Low-level crossings: These are constructed at a narrow stream location and are in an area of

bedrock or coarse soil for good founding conditions.

“Middle mannetjie”: Vegetation naturally occurring in the centre of the route, such that the

route appears as a narrow two spoor track.



Mitigation: Actions or a specific item used to avoid, minimise, reduce, eliminate, or rectify the

adverse impact of a management practice.

Monitoring: The collection of information to determine the effects of environmental

management and to identify changing environmental conditions or needs.

Mulch: Material (including cut vegetation, grasses, wood chips) placed or spread on the surface

of the ground to protect it from raindrop, rill, and gully erosion, and retain moisture to

promote growth of vegetation.

NEMA: National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998).

Not threatened: This is used for taxa which are no longer in one of the above categories due

to an increase in population sizes or to subsequent discovery of more individuals or

populations.

Noxious weed: Plant that is invasive, displacing indigenous species.

Obstacles: Physical objects large enough to significantly impede travel, including logs or large

rocks.

Off-road vehicles (ORVs): Motorised uses, including 2- and 4-wheel drive vehicles, all-terrain

vehicles, quadbikes and off-road trailbikes and motorcycles.

Off-road route: any road, route or track, other than proclaimed roads, which can be used by

motorised vehicles, including 4x4s, 2x4s, all terrain vehicles, quadbikes and off-road trailbikes

for recreation or any other use.

Outslope: The outside cross-slope of a route surface. Outslope is used to facilitate the

draining of water from a route directly off the outside edge. An outsloped route has the

highest point on the uphill or inside of the route and slopes down to the outside edge of the

route and the fill slope.

Parallel and/or braided tracks: A parallel route occurs when two routes run alongside each

other. A braided route occurs when a new route is created and veers from the designated

route for a short period of time (usually to avoid an obstacle) and then returns to join the

original route.

Precautionary principle: Where the risk is unknown, provision will be made for the worst case

scenario.

Principle: A principle addresses environmental, social and economic aspects through

governing what must be achieved in order for a route to be sustainable in the long-term.



Principles are supported by Best Management Practices (BMPs), which practically guide how

the governing Principles can be achieved.

Protected flora: Any species of flora specified in Schedule 4 or Appendix II of the Convention

on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Washington, 1973;

provided that it shall not include any species of flora specified in such Appendix and

Schedule 3.

Protected wild animal: Any species of wild animal specified in Schedule 2 or Appendix II of

the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,

Washington, 1973; provided that it shall not include any species of wild animal specified in

such Appendix and Schedule 1.

Public road: A public road as defined in section 1 of the Road Traffic Act (Act No. 29 of 1989).

Rare species: Taxa with small world populations that are not at present Endangered or

Vulnerable, but are at risk as some unexpected threat could easily cause a critical decline.

These taxa are usually localised within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly

scattered over a more extensive range. This category was termed Critically Rare by Hall and

Veldhuis (1985) to distinguish it from the more generally used word "rare".

Red data species: Species listed in terms of the International Union for Conservation of Nature

and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, and/or in terms of the South

African Red Data list. In terms of the South African Red Data list, species are classified as

being extinct, endangered, vulnerable, rare, indeterminate, insufficiently known or not

threatened (see other definitions within this glossary).

Rehabilitation / Reclamation: Activities that reclaim, repair or improve part or all of an

existing travel surface or disturbed area, and restore it to its original or some desired final

condition.

Retaining Structure: A structure designed to resist the lateral displacement of soil, water, or

any other type of material. It is commonly used to support a travel surface, or gain width on

steep terrain. They are often constructed of gabions, reinforced concrete, timber, or

mechanically stabilised earth.

Rill: A steep-sided channel resulting from accelerated erosion in unstable soils (frequently

associated with dispersive soils).

Riparian habitat: The physical structure and associated vegetation of the areas associated

with a watercourse which are commonly characterised by alluvial soils, and which are

inundated or flooded to an extent and with a frequency sufficient to support vegetation of

species with a composition and physical structure distinct from those of adjacent land areas.

Riverine: Living in rivers.



Rolling Dip: A surface drainage structure with a constructed break in the route grade,

specifically designed to drain water from an inside ditch or across the travel surface, while also

serving to reduce vehicle travel speed.

Route: Encompasses all kinds of off-road routes and trails on private or public property,

including graded roads, double tracks (4x4, 2x4, and quadbike trails) and single-track trails

(off-road trailbike tracks).

Route Tread: The actual surface portion of a trail upon which users travel excluding backslope,

ditch, and shoulder. Common tread surfaces are native material, soil, or crushed rock.

Runoff: The part of precipitation that reaches streams by flowing over the ground surface.

Rutting: The creation of vehicle tracks/depressions in the travel surface is rutting. Rutting

channelises water, which leads to erosion, poor drainage and an uneven travel surface.

Rutting is frequently a sign of poor compaction and/or the use of poor construction material.

Sedimentation: Soil, most commonly clay, silt and sand, which is eroded from the land or

poorly constructed roads and reaches a stream or watercourse, commonly reducing water

quality in rivers, streams and other waterbodies. Sedimentation can also take place in aeolian

environments.

Sheet erosion: The removal of a fairly uniform layer of soil material from the land surface by

the action of rainfall and runoff.

Significant impact: An impact that, by its magnitude, duration or intensity, alters one or more

aspects of the environment.

Single-track route: A route wide enough only for one user to travel and requires moving off

the route to allow another user to pass.

Sideslope: The slope of the ground at its extreme angle, usually perpendicular to the direction

of travel. As the sideslope becomes steeper, the perception of difficulty and exposure

increases.

Stewardship: The wise use, management and protection of that which has been entrusted to

somebody or is rightfully theirs. Within the context of conservation, stewardship means

protecting important ecosystems, effectively managing invasive alien species and fires, and

grazing or harvesting without damaging the veld.

Sustainable development: Development that is planned to meet the needs of present and

future generations, e.g. the need for basic environmental, social and economic services.

Sustainable development includes using and maintaining resources responsibly.



Swale: Open channel used to collect and convey runoff (i.e. drainage system).

Switchback: A turn of approximately 180 degrees resulting in a change of direction of the

route. This feature is intended to lessen the grade of a route travelling up or down a steep

slope.

Temporary Route Closure: Closing vehicular access to a route through the use of barricades

such as gates, barriers, earthen mounds, or other temporary structures. The end result is to

restrict the use of the route for some period of time.

Trailbike: A motorcycle constructed primarily for off-road use. Trailbikes can be distinguished

from the street-legal motorcycle by their high-mounted mudguard and exhaust system and

tyres with aggressive tread.

Tread surface: The physical condition of the travelled portion of the route. A tread becomes

more difficult to ride as it becomes loose, rough, slippery, etc.

Tread width: The width of the travelled portion of the route. Wider tread provides for easier

travel.

Unconsolidated material: Materials which have not been exposed to compressive loads and

can be considered loosely arranged or unstratified. This material is occasionally described as a

loosely aggregated soil.

Underdrain: A buried trench, filled with coarse aggregate, coarse sand, or gravel, and typically

placed in the ditch line along the route, which acts to drain subsurface water from a wet area

and discharge it a safe and stable location. Underdrains may use a uniform size of rock, be

wrapped in geotextile, and have a perforated drainpipe in the bottom of the trench.

Vegetation: The different types of plants occurring in an area.

Vulnerable species: Taxa believed likely to move into the Endangered category in the near

future if the factors causing decline continue operating. Included here are taxa of which most

or all of the populations are decreasing because of over-exploitation, extensive destruction of

habitat or other environmental disturbance; taxa with populations that have bee seriously

depleted and those whose ultimate security is not yet assured; and taxa with populations that

are still abundant but are under threat from serious adverse factors throughout their range.

Waterbar: A low barrier, sometimes accompanied by a ditch, designed to divert water off a

route surface. Usually installed after a route is already established.

Watercourse: A natural or manmade channel through which water flows, and includes:

(a) a river or spring;

(b) a natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently;

(c) a wetland, lake or dam into which, or from which, water flows; and



(d) any collection of water which the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to

be a watercourse,

and a reference to a watercourse includes, where relevant, its bed and banks.

Watershed: The entire area that contributes water to a drainage system or stream/river.

Weed: Any kind of plant which has under section 2(3) of the Conservation of Agricultural

Resources Act been declared a weed, and includes the seed of such plant and any vegetative

part of such plant which reproduces asexually.

Wetland: Land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the

watertable is usually at or near the surface, or the land is periodically covered with shallow

water, and which land in normal circumstances supports or would support vegetation typically

adapted to life in saturated soil.

Zone of influence: The area influenced by a route, determined by many variables in a complex

interaction.


Further reading & resources 08/10/06 88

FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES

A-Z Directory Western Cape, http://www.drive-out.co.za/a2z_guide/wcape.shtml

Birkby, R.C. (1996) Lightly on the Land: The SCA Trail-building and Maintenance Manual.

Student Conservation Association. Published by The Mountaineers, Seattle, Washington.

Brand, W. (October 2005) T4A Submission to NOW. http://www.now.org.za

Brownlie, S. 2005. Guideline for involving biodiversity specialists in EIA processes: Edition 1.

CSIR Report No ENV-S-C 2005 053 C. Republic of South Africa, Provincial Government of

the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning, Cape

Town.

Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) (2001) Ecosystem Profile: The Cape Floristic

Region, South Africa. Final Version December 11, 2001.

Croudace, J. 1999. The alien clearing handbook for the Western Cape. Bo–Kloof Fynbos

Conservation and Environmental Information Trust, Scarborough.

Demmer, G. (October 2005) NAAMSA Submission to NOW.

http://www.now.org.za

Department for Environment and Heritage; South Australian Association of Four Wheel Drive

Clubs (2005) Recreational Vehicles and Protected Areas in South Australia: A Handbook for

Managers and Recreational Users.

De Villiers, C., Driver, A., Brownlie, S., Day, E., Euston-Brown, D., Helme, N., Holmes, P., Job,

N., and A. Rebelo. 2005. Fynbos Forum Ecosystem Guidelines for Environmental

Assessment in the Western Cape. Fynbos Forum, c/o Botanical Society of South Africa,

Conservation Unit, Kirstenbosch, Cape Town.

Duvenhage, W. (October, 2005) SAVRALA Submission to NOW.


Eaton, M. (April, 2005) NOW happening in George. http://www.now.org.za

Great Old Broads for Monitoring (2004) Healthy Lands Project Travel Corridor Monitoring –

Volunteer Guide.

Guenther, K. Low Maintenance Roads for Ranch, Fire and Utilities Access: A Practical Field

Guide. Published by Wildland Solutions, California, U.S.A.

Hansen, T. (October 2005) GCBC Submission to NOW. http://www.now.org.za

Hoosain, S. (October, 2005) Millennium Angling Club Submission to NOW.


International Mountain Biking Association. Closing and Reclaiming Damaged Trails.

http://www.imba.com

International Mountain Biking Association (2004) Trail Solutions – IMBA’s Guide to Building

Sweet Singletrack. Johnston Printing, USA.

Joubert, B. (November 1999) Guidelines for the management and ordening” of 4x4 vehicle

issues. Eco Solutions, November 1999. http://www.4x4africa.com

Joubert, J. (August 2005) National Offroad Workshop (NOW) Aide de Memoire.

http://www.kleinkaroo-promotions.co.za

Keatimilwe, K. and Ashton, P.J. 2005. Guideline for the review of specialist input in EIA

processes: Edition 1. CSIR Report No ENV-S-C 2005 053 B. Republic of South Africa,

Provincial Government of the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs &

Development Planning, Cape Town.



Keller, G and Sherar, J - USDA, Forest Service (2002) Low-Volume Roads Engineering: Best

Management Practices Field Guide. Produced for US Agency for International Development

(USAID) in Cooperation with USDA, Forest Service, International Programs & Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University

Landcare and DEAT. Undated. CARA legislation made easy. Booklet distributed by Dept.

Agriculture and by DEAT.

Letter from Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Marthinus van Schalkwyk MP to Mr J

Marais of NOW, 13 February 2006. http://www.kleinkaroo-promotions.co.za

Lochner, P. 2005. Guideline for Environmental Management Plans. CSIR Report No ENV-S-C

2005-053 H. Republic of South Africa, Provincial Government of the Western Cape,

Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning, Cape Town.

Marion, J.L. (2006) Assessing and Understanding Trail Degradation: Results from Big South

Fork National River and Recreational Area. National Park Service, Final Research Report.

United States Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife

Research Center, Virginia Tech Field Unit

Meyer, K.G. (February 2002) Managing Degraded Off-highway Vehicle Trails in Wet, Unstabel

and Sensitive Environments. USDA Forest Service: Technology and Development Program,

Missoula, MT. 2E22A68—NPS OHV Management

Moore, B. (2004) Assistant Commissioner, Department of Natural Resources. Memorandum to

Field OHV Project Teams: Additional Direction for OHV Trail Designation and Forest

Classification Review. June 2004

Münster, F. 2005. Guideline for determining the scope of specialist involvement in EIA

processes: Edition 1. CSIR Report No ENV-S-C 2005 053 A. Republic of South Africa,



Oberholzer, B. 2005. Guideline for involving visual & aesthetic specialists in EIA processes:

Edition 1. CSIR Report No ENV-S-C 2005 053 F. Republic of South Africa, Provincial

Government of the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs & Development

Planning, Cape Town.

Outdoor Recreation Centre Inc. (2005) Adventure Activity Standards for Organisations, Guides

and Leaders Conducting Adventurous Activities for Participants (Commercial or Non-

Commercial): Four Wheel Driving. Edition 2. April 2005.

Parker, T.S. (2004) Natural Surface Trails by Design: Physical and Human Design Essentials of

Sustainable, Enjoyable Trails. Book 1 in the Trail by Design Series. Natureshape LLC,

USA. Printed in South Korea.

Provincial Government of the Western Cape: Department of Environmental Affairs and

Development Planning (2006) NEMA Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations

Guideline and Information Document Series: Guideline on Alternatives, July 2006.


Development Planning (2006) NEMA Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations

Guideline and Information Document Series: Guideline on Public Participation, July 2006.


Development Planning (2005) State of the Environment Report 2005: Year One.

November 2005.




Development Planning (2005) Western Cape Provincial Spatial Development Framework:

The Western Cape Province Today. November 2005.

Rouget, M., Reyers, B., Jonas, Z., Desmet, P., Driver, A., Maze, K., Egoh, B. & Cowling, R.M.

2004. South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Technical Report.

Volume 1: Terrestrial Component. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute.

Saayman, I. 2005. Guideline for involving hydrogeologists in EIA processes: Edition 1. CSIR

Report No ENV-S-C 2005 053 D. Republic of South Africa, Provincial Government of the

Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning, Cape Town.

Smit, F. and Deal, J. (April 2005) SAROOF Established. http://now.org.za

Smit, F. (October 2005) SAROOF Submission to NOW. http://now.org.za

State of New Hampshire: Department of Resources and Economic Development, Division of

Parks and Recreation, Bureau of Trails (1994) Best Management Practices for Erosion

Control During Trail Maintenance and Construction. Printed in the USA. www.nhtrails.org

Trails and Wildlife Task Forec, Colodardo State Parks; and Hellmund Associates (1998)

Planning Trails with Wildlife in Mind. http://www.dnr.state.co.us/parks/

Tread Lightly. http://www.treadlightly.org/

Tee, J. (October 2005) LCCSA Submission to NOW. http://www.now.org.za

The International Mountain Bicycling Association (2001) Building Better Trails - Designing,

Constructing and Maintaining Outstanding Trails. Published by the International Mountain

Bicycling Association, PO Box 7578, Boulder, CO 80306 USA. Website: www.imba.com

U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of and Management (2001) National Management

Strategy for Motorized Off-highway Vehicle Use on Public Lands. Washington DC. January

2001.

United States Department of Agriculture; Forest Service; Technology and Development

Program in cooperation with United States Department of Transportation: Federal Highway

Administration (2004) Trail Construction and Maintenance Notebook. Produced by USDA

Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Centre.

Van Rooyen, A. (October 2005) AMID Submission to NOW. http://now.org.za

Van Zyl, H.W., de Wit, M.P. & Leiman, A. 2005. Guideline for involving economists in EIA

processes: Edition 1. CSIR Report No ENV-S-C 2005 053 G. Republic of South Africa,



Victorian Trails Co-ordinating Committee (2004) Victorian Trails Strategy 2005-2010. The

State of Victoria, Parks Victoria, 2004.

Wernex, J. (1994) Off-Highway Motorcycle and ATV Trails: Guidelines for Design, Construction,

Maintenance And User Satisfaction. Second Edition. Published by the American

Motorcyclist Association, 13515 Yarmouth Drive, Pickerington, Ohio 43147

Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (2005)

Guidelines for Resort Developments in the Western Cape.

Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (2002) EIA

Guideline Series: Guideline for the Management of Development on Mountains, Hills and

Ridges of the Western Cape

Winter, S. & Baumann, N. 2005. Guideline for involving heritage specialists in EIA processes:

Edition 1. CSIR Report No ENV-S-C 2005 053 E. Republic of South Africa, Provincial



Government of the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs & Development

Planning, Cape Town.

Zaayman, L. (October, 2005) AAWDC Submission to NOW. http://now.org.za


Appendix A 08/10/06 A-1

APPENDIX A: OFF-ROAD ROUTE RESOURCE IMPACTS

The unsurfaced tread of an off-road route is susceptible to a variety of impacts, these being

influenced by the nature and level of use, the local environment within which the route is

located, as well as the planning and management actions implemented. Motorised ORVs,

including 2- and 4-wheel drive vehicles, all-terrain vehicles (including quadbikes) and

trailbikes, have a greater potential for environmental impact on unsurfaced routes than non-

motorised uses. Tyres spin at higher rates of speed and cause more substantial abrasion

damage to vegetation, roots and soils. The greater weight and ground pressure of vehicles

also cause greater soil compaction and displacement – actions that lead to soil rutting and

which may result in erosion.

Primary ecological changes arising from off-road routes are associated with their construction.

The principal challenge for route owners is, therefore, to minimise the potential for impacts

through a robust planning phase, and subsequently prevent further post-construction

degradation and impacts arising from both use by ORVs, as well as from natural processes

(such as rainfall, water runoff and erosion).

1. Factors Affecting Off-road Route Resource Impacts

Common impacts caused by humans and natural forces resulting in direct impacts on the

environment include soil compaction, displacement, erosion, muddy conditions, vegetation loss

and changes in composition, exposure of vegetation roots, route tread widening, and the

proliferation of informally-created side/braided routes. The nature and extent of impacts

associated with off-road routes are influenced by use-related and environmental factors, both

of which may be modified through planning and management actions. Use-related factors

include type of use, amount of use, and user behaviour, while environmental factors include

attributes such as vegetation and soil type, topography and climate.

1.1. Use-Related Factors

Routes, and the vehicles utilising them can impact on soils and vegetation, and cause changes

in behaviour of some animals. While most impacts are limited to a linear disturbance corridor,

some impacts, such as the introduction of invasive plants, and disturbance of animal life, can

extend considerably further into natural landscapes. Even localised disturbance can harm or

damage sensitive resources, particularly in environments with slow recovery rates, such as are

prevalent in some areas of the Cape Floristic Region.

Some specific impacts, such as route widening and creation of parallel treads (route braiding)

or side-treads, are strongly influenced by user behaviour. Route users seeking to avoid severe

rutting or rockiness caused by soil erosion or muddiness often cause route widening or the

creation of parallel treads. Users bypassing other users also contribute to this problem.

Widening can lead to changes in use patterns and the characteristics of the route. The type of

use has also been shown to be a significant determinant of the nature and extent of off-road

route impacts (i.e. 4x4 or 2x4 use vs. quadbike use vs. trailbike use), while behavioural

differences between the users may lead to varying route degradation problems. Actions such



as wheel spinning and sliding result in avoidable impacts to the environment. It is important

to consider the type and mix of users when planning a route, such that each user type can be

appropriately accommodated.

Use-related factors which may result in environmental impacts include:

• Soil compaction as a result of the downward force of vehicles on the route surface,

• Soil displacement as a result of the horizontal movement of route tread material (soil,

gravel, stones, etc.), and

• Route widening and creation of parallel treads (route braiding) or side-treads

These factors result in both direct and indirect impacts on the environment. Direct user-

related impacts include:

• surface erosion,

• the abrasion of vegetation, surface litter, and plant roots;

• the breakdown of soil structure associated with soil compaction, and

• the formation of ruts as a result of soil displacement.

Indirect impacts include:

• impacts on ground and surface water quantity and quality;

• increased impacts on surrounding vegetation as a result of route widening or braiding;

• increased sedimentation of water resources;

• disturbance to animal life;

• visual impacts as a result of erosion and/or route widening or braiding; and/or

• impacts on sensitive areas and/or sites of special interest.

From a management perspective, excessive user-related impacts to vegetation, soil, animal

life or water quality can represent an unacceptable departure from natural conditions and

processes. Impacts also result in substantial costs for the maintenance and rehabilitation of

routes and the operation of management programmes.

EXAMPLE: User related impacts

Quadbike enthusiasts generally prefer to travel on wider and smoother routes. That

doesn't mean that some won't use them on extremely steep, tight and rough routes.

Unfortunately, when quadbikes are used on narrow, tight, or steep routes, serious damage

can result. Because of their width, the downhill wheel of a quadbike rides on the edge of

the fill and the uphill wheel rides on the central berm (in the event of a quadbike using a

4x4 track); or the downhill wheel of a quadbike rides on the edge of the fill and the uphill

wheel rides on the cut slope (in the event of a quadbike using a motorcycle track). This

results in damage to the fill slope, middle berm and/or cut slope of the route.



1.1.1. Direct Impact/Physical Forces

The degree of surface impact of a route is modified only by the natural resilience of the soil

and the intensity of use of the route. In an ideal situation, a natural balance is maintained

between soil resilience and use, and route use occurs without significant degradation.

However, in reality, the level of impact associated with the use of off-road routes does not

necessarily increase proportionally with the level of use. Even low levels of route use can have

significant environmental consequences. For example, when tread surfaces are adequately

drained, traffic causes relatively little additional impact, provided the routes receive adequate

maintenance to control water runoff, mud generation, erosion, and tread widening. However,

uncontrolled or over-use, as well as poor design will result in more significant impacts than

light and/or controlled traffic on well-designed routes.

Surface erosion occurs when wind or water displaces and transports soil particles from

exposed ground surfaces. The amount of soil they can carry away is influenced by two related

factors:

• speed - the faster wind/water moves, the more soil it can erode;

• plant cover - plants protect the soil and in their absence wind and water can do much

more damage.

Surface erosion usually occurs on steep terrain, on soils which contain high proportions of silt

and fine sands susceptible to wind erosion, or where dispersive conditions prevail. Soil erosion

exposes rocks and plant roots, creating a rutted, and uneven tread surface. Erosion can be

self-perpetuating when treads erode below the surrounding soil level, preventing the diversion

of water from the tread. Eroded soils may find their way into water bodies, increasing water

turbidity and sedimentation impacts to aquatic organisms. Surface erosion can lead to

significant environmental impacts that can be extremely difficult to stabilise or reverse, and

may expand the impact to adjacent surfaces.

Surface failure occurs when route surfaces degrade into muddy tracks with deep muck holes.

Excessive occurrence of mud, as can occur in flat areas with organic or finely textured soils,

renders routes less usable and aggravates tread widening and associated vegetation loss as

route users seek to avoid mud-holes and wet soils. Route widening and the creation of

parallel/braided routes and side-treads unnecessarily increase the area of land disturbed by

off-road routes (refer to Figure 1). Impacts such as deep ruts and muddy conditions increase

the difficulty of travel and can threaten the safety of the ORV route user.

Vegetation removal, compaction and displacement set the stage for increased erosion potential

in the absence of appropriate management.

Compaction is caused as a result of the downward force of vehicles on the route surface. As

a result, the route surface hardens and sinks relative to adjacent untravelled areas.

Compaction hardens the surface by pressing particles into tighter contact and firmer bonding,

reducing air and water spaces. The compaction makes tread more resistant to displacement

and erosion, but the hardening of the surface causes the area to become less absorbent.



Figure 1: Route degradation pathways (adapted from Meyer, 2002)

Therefore, nearly all water landing on the route surface tends to pond and flow along it,

creating ruts and increasing erosion potential. Rutting canalises water, which leads to erosion,

poor drainage, and an uneven travel surface.

Route Degradation Pathways

Cycle repeats

Vegetation and roots are strippedby traffic along the new route

Route widens as usersavoid degraded sections

Deep erosion ruts &muddy sections form

Water erodes the route surface &damages soil structure

Water drains onto & ischannelled along the route surface

Water collects on trailsurface & pools in low areas

Surface erosion/failure occurs

Compaction & subsidence destroysoil structure & disrupt

internal drainage patterns

Exposed soil is compacted &the route surface subsides

relative to the adjacent surface

Surface vegetation & roots arestripped by surface traffic



Dry cohesive12 soils are more resistant to compaction and rutting from ORVs, while cohesive

soils that are wet, loose, or on steep slopes are particularly vulnerable to damage (refer to

Table 1 below). In wet cohesive soils, water fills soil pores and resists compaction but water

also weakens soil strength and shear resistance, resulting in more severe rutting (i.e. becomes

soft and malleable, referred to as compressibility). Higher vehicle weights and narrower tyres

exacerbate such problems.

Table 1: Soil properties and soil behaviour relevant to off-road route construction

Property Sand Silt Clay

Water-holding capacity Low Medium - high High

Drainage rate High Slow - medium Very Slow

Compactibility (when wet) Low Medium High

Susceptibility to water

erosion

Can be high, as unconsolidated13

material is prone to

dislodgement by wind and water

High Low (if

aggregated14);

High (if not

aggregated)

Displacement is human-caused horizontal movement of route tread material (soil, gravel,

stones, etc.). Displacement invariably deepens the tread over time. While it can be reduced,

displacement cannot be prevented with any gravel road surface unless the surface is somehow

firmly bonded.

The type and intensity of soil erosion is strongly influenced by soil composition and structure.

Soils composed of sand and gravel (granular) are readily removed by ORV use, while soils rich

in clay (cohesive) endure less mechanical disturbance but experience greater erosion rates.

1.1.2. Indirect impacts

The use of routes may have indirect effects on ecological systems, hydrological systems,

animal life, site aesthetics, and other resource values. The degree of impact is related to the

level of degradation associated with the direct impacts discussed above.

Ground and surface water quantity and quality can be affected by ORV use. For

example, the increased compaction of riding surfaces may lead to a decrease in relative

infiltration rates (ability of the ground to absorb water) and increase in surface runoff. In

areas subject to high water flows, uncontrolled surface run-off or overland flow may be

channelled along off-road routes. Poor drainage can cause surface water ponding. Mud holes

along the route result in braiding and widening as users try to avoid the mud. Route widening

12 A sticky soil, such as clay or silt where its shear strength equals about half its unconfined compressive strength.

Cohesive soils are also frequently referred to as soils that are made up of particles bound together by clay minerals.

Sands and gravels are granular soil and generally considered as non-cohesive soil, whereas silt and clay are fine

grained and are classified as cohesive soil. 13 Materials which have not been exposed to compressive loads and can be considered loosely arranged or unstratified.

This material is occasionally described as a loosely aggregated soil. 14 An aggregate is a mass of rock particles, mineral grains or both. An aggregated soil is a soil that generally contains

a combination of the above, frequently referred to as a fine-grained aggregate or coarse-grained aggregate, depending

on the size grains of the aggregate material.



or braiding results in increased impacts on surrounding vegetation, thus increasing the

area impacted by the route.

In addition, poor drainage may lead to an increase in the amount of sedimentation15 taking

place downstream relative to the pre-disturbed reference state. Similarly, downstream areas

may experience an increase in turbidity and decrease in water quality. The increase in

turbidity may have a negative impact on aquatic fauna and flora. For example, an increase in

turbidity may negatively affect the extent to which light can penetrate the water column or

affect the ability of fish to take up oxygen via their gills.

Impacts on animals as a result of noise are also associated with ORV use. Auditory

disturbance is potentially linked to disruption of breeding, feeding, resting, caring for the

young, and exposure to predators. Direct contact may also kill or injure animals. ORV traffic

may also endanger isolated species, remnant populations, and other rare, threatened or

endangered species.

Impacts such as severe soil erosion and exposed roots are visually offensive and can degrade

the aesthetics of recreational settings.

Sensitive environments and sites of special interest or heritage value should be

adequately protected by the route, that is either avoided, or sign-boarded and secured

(fenced) as sites may be subject to inadvertent damage or vandalism by users. These sites

may be developed as educational facilities/opportunities (signboard education) and rest stops

with pedestrian (climb-out) traffic only.

1.2. Environmental Factors

Studies have demonstrated the influential role that environmental factors play in influencing

route degradation. These include vegetation type, topography and slopes, and soil and surface

characteristics. Bare earth, exposed surfaces and steep grades are inherently associated with

off-road routes. Careful and considered decisions regarding siting, alignment, and drainage

can help these routes withstand ORV use and the effect of natural processes.

15 Soil, most commonly clay, silt and sand, which is eroded from the land or poorly constructed roads and reaches a

stream or watercourse, commonly reducing water quality in rivers, streams and lakes. Sedimentation can also take

place in aeolian environments.

Education issues, as raised during 4x4 route EIA investigations should be clearly indicated

on educational signboards thereby (a) informing route users, and (b) educating 4x4

enthusiasts as to the implications of conserving interesting sites of value (e.g. fenced off

san rock art).

Alternatively, a parking area slightly away from a site of special interest can be created so

that the site of interest can only be accessed by pedestrian traffic. These opportunities

would have to be assessed during planning.



1.2.1. Vegetation

The most readily observable impact of off-road routes is to vegetation in the vicinity of the

route alignment. While these impacts tend to be localised, they have broader implications

because they alter habitat conditions and, in turn, affect animal life. In most cases, however,

the impacts to vegetation from the establishment of a formal route are less in the long-term

than haphazard destruction that results when there is no formalised route for vehicles to

utilise. Off-road route impacts can include:

• Reduction in the density of plants adjacent to the route through trampling as well as

picking/removal

• Compaction of the soil and contribution to erosion

• Habitat fragmentation

• Alteration of the composition of species by damaging existing plants, creating bare spots

that favour exotic and alien species, the seeds of which are introduced by route users and

their vehicles

• Alteration of the vertical structure and spatial pattern of vegetation.

• Alteration of natural drainage patterns through impacts on wetlands and/or seeps.

Dense vegetation adjacent to the route confines the lateral spread of ORV route users. Where

routes traverse open areas, the route tread is often widened or split to form multiple/braided

treads by users. At low use levels, vegetation types with high trampling resistance and/or

resilience (ability to recover) can sustain restricted use within a defined corridor with little

degradation. The influence of these attributes diminishes with increasing use and is relatively

unimportant at high use levels.

Habitat fragmentation as a result of poorly planned routes can result in the loss of vegetation

cover, and therefore animal habitats. These losses can have a negative on the status of rare

and endangered species within the Province.

Alien vegetation often benefits from soil disturbance, and as disturbance is associated with

ORV routes, it is likely that route establishment may increase the likelihood of aliens invading

an area. However, this will happen slowly, over a period of many years. Maintenance is

important in this regard, in order to limit the opportunities for alien vegetation invasion into an

area.

EXAMPLE: Environmental Impacts – habitat fragmentation

Some bee taxa are known to show site fidelity and a tendency to avoid crossing roads

(including purpose-built gravel roads) and railways. This may have an impact on the

ecological services they provide, such as pollination. Roads are also known to have a sex-

biased impact on fauna via sexually skewed road mortality rates. Roads may also indirectly

increase the mortality rates of mammals targeted by the hunting fraternity as they open

otherwise inaccessible (i.e. distant) areas.



Consideration of alien plant invasion is important during the route establishment and

maintenance phases, as alien species are often introduced into the area in imported

soils/material used to establish or repair the route.

1.2.2. Topography and Slopes

Characteristics of topography and climate influence route degradation. The Western Cape is

characterised by a pronounced topographical variation. The L-shaped Cape Fold Mountains

form a barrier that separates the wetter coastal strip to the west from the drier interior to the

east.

The orientation of the route to the prevailing slope is an important contributing factor to

accelerated erosion rates. Route establishment (and subsequent maintenance work) that is to

be performed on slopes should be carefully planned so as to minimise the grade of the route

and to incorporate appropriate route drainage. The most effective way to decrease erosion is

to avoid modifying slopes. A positive relationship exists between slopes and soil loss. The

greater the grade of the slope, the greater the potential for increased water velocity and

erosion. However, other influences such as the clearing existing vegetative cover or

displacement of soils through tyre contact (churning) also contributes to the local erosion

potential. Steep slope grades16 increase the need for maintenance and the potential for

erosion.

During route planning and construction, moderate slope grades are the most desirable,

depending on constraints which may be imposed by the nature of the surrounding environment

and local soil conditions17. This will minimise potential erosion and sedimentation problems.

Routes in areas with long, steep slopes should be designed to follow the contours to minimise

accelerated soil churning and erosion.

1.2.3. Soil and Surface Characteristics

The soils of the Western Cape region are highly variable and are influenced by the nature of

the underlying host geology and the degree of weathering (refer to Figure 2). The Cape Fold

Belt comprises erosion-resistant, quartzitic sandstone mountains alternating with plains and

valleys underlain by softer shales, and mantled at the coastal margin with young silicaceous

calcareous sediments. The wetter coastal areas are characterised by deeper soil profiles due

to chemical weathering, while the dryer inland areas are characterised by thin or poorly-

formed soil profiles. The soils of the West Coast region are largely derived from wind-blown

sands.

Physical soil properties influence route/tread degradation. Routes constructed on soils with

fine and poorly consolidated are more erodible and often have greater tread incision. Routes

16 Slopes of less than 3° can be classed as gentle, those of 3 to 7° as moderate, and those of 7-15° as steep. Slopes

in excess of 15° can be classed as very steep. 17 For example, an unconsolidated sandy environment displays very different physical constraints (and by implication

management requirements) to competent bedrock substrate.



that traverse poorly drained (cohesive) soils are susceptible to excessive tread widening as

users seek to avoid muddy areas. Wet muddy soils are also more susceptible to erosion,

especially when route grades are steeper. Highly organic soils retain water for longer periods

after rains, and with traffic lose cohesion. Wet soils often present seasonal limitations, such as

during times of the year when rainfall is particularly high. However, these problems are

exacerbated if routes are located near streams, wetlands, seeps and groundwater discharge

areas or on excessively steep slopes.

Surface characteristics generally refer to the roughness of route treads, such as stoniness and

the presence of exposed tree roots. Routes on soils with a high rock or gravel content are less

susceptible to soil erosion. Rocks and gravels are less easily eroded by water or wind, and

these materials can act as filters, retaining and binding finer soil particles. In general, small

rocks and stones should not be removed from route treads as their presence tends to slow the

velocity of water runoff and protect underlying soils. Coarse granular material (gravel and

stones) often occurs in an area as a response to an activity – e.g. floodplain gravels due to

flood events or scree due to talus/gravity slides. They have an important function in their

current setting (flood gravels behave as a natural sponge, while scree deposits hold the

transported material together along the slope catena) and most definitely cannot be removed.

1.3. Management Factors

Management actions have considerable potential for modifying the roles of use-related and

environmental factors. Knowledge of relationships between environmental factors and route

impacts can be applied to routes in the most resistant and sustainable locations. These are

discussed in detail within the Introduction and within Part 5.



Figure 2: Generalised soil description for the Western Cape (DEAT, ENPAT, July 2000)


Appendix B 08/10/06 B-1

APPENDIX B: KEY STEPS IN PLANNING AN OFF-ROAD ROUTE

The following are important steps in the business plan formulation process, and may require

specialist input to address adequately:

1. Define the purpose of the project

a) Develop preliminary goals for the project.

What is the ultimate vision for the route? What is the purpose of the route (i.e. to

provide access from point A to point B, or to create a recreational ORV route, including

driving opportunities in a particular media (loose sand or coarse river boulders) or to

create certain obstacles to test vehicle characteristics on certain terrain (e.g. steep

slopes))? What is the anticipated level of use of the off-road route? What is the

proposed width of the route? Why is a route needed in this area? What are the ‘draw

cards’ or unique features of the route? Are there any other off-road routes in the area?

What kind of experience would travelling on this route create? What facilities (such as

ablution facilities, parking areas and/or rest camps) would be required, and where could

these be located?

b) Determine the level and type of use.

What types of users would this route attract? Will this be a single-use or shared-use

route? Should any specific destinations or activities be included as part of the route?

2. Determine statutory requirements associated with the route

What permits or authorisations are required to be applied for in terms of current environmental

and planning legislation? Does an environmental impact assessment (EIA) need to be

undertaken?18 If established for a dedicated purpose, will the route need to comply with

regulated standards and engineering specifications (such as those of the Department of

Transport)? Specific details pertaining to desired average gradient, route width, surface

requirements, alignment and type and volume of traffic must be determined. Routes in

remote areas and within sensitive or conserved areas should be as narrow as possible. Where

the decision is made to maintain a route on a former roadbed, it need not necessarily be

maintained to the original road width.

Communicate with relevant parties. How will comments from the public be incorporated in the

vision for the route? Are there organisations that would be interested in the off-road route

project? What wildlife and conservation organisations would be interested to know of your

route project? Would any be able to assist with valuable data to assist your planning process?

Who are people and organisations that would feel strongly for or against the project? How can

18 the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations (published in terms of Chapter 5 of the National

Environmental Management Act (NEMA; Act No 107 of 1998)) list activities which may have a detrimental impact on

the environmental and require environmental authorisation. Legislation makes provision for DEA&DP to include

additional listed activities in identified sensitive areas. The establishment of off-road routes in identified sensitive

areas within the Province is likely to be included as a listed activity which will require authorisation from DEA&DP.



you inform and involve them? Are there land-use or resource planners who understand the

broader context of the area where you are considering a route?

3. Determine preliminary design parameters

Determine the physical extent of the project. Determine the property boundaries and consider

over what area the route could extend.

Conduct a preliminary environmental inventory. Gain an understanding of the area’s sensitive

plants, animals, and habitats. How much of the area and local environment is already

impacted or modified? Are there any special opportunities for environmental education? What

are the surrounding land uses and condition of habitat? Is there any potential for land use

conflicts? What opportunities or constraints are there for the development of a new off-road

route in the broader landscape? What plans are there for other routes of a similar purpose

across the same landscape? Do you foresee any cumulative route impacts by adding a new

route? What plans are there for other activities in the area? What landscape features would

the route pass through? Would any areas that currently have no routes and little human

modification be affected? Will the route impact and/or conflict with land use practises of

neighbouring landowners/tenants?

Keep environmental concerns within the focus of the project vision. Review data found to date

and conduct a site visit with a relevant specialist/s to identify potential environmental

opportunities and constraints. Will the nature of the topography, soils and slopes render the

area susceptible to slope instability and erosion? What vegetation type/s is dominant in the

area? What sensitive areas, and/or animal or plant species occur in the area? Are there

biologists or other professionals who can be consulted to advise you on environmental and

In order to understand community values related to the environment and routes, a public

involvement process should be associated with a new route project. An important first step

in understanding how a community values environmental resources and routes is

recognising that different groups may hold different values and may need to be invited into

the process in different ways. It is easiest to reach consensus among groups with differing

values when there is a common understanding of the issues at hand.

More often, communities are not just discussing their present needs and desires for routes

and environmental resources, but also ways of leaving choices for future generations, i.e.

how to develop areas in a sustainable manner. The concept of sustainability is about

meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs. In the case of the environment and off-road routes, sustainability is

about enjoying routes today without precluding the ability of future generations to enjoy

the environment. A recreational route that is contributing to the sustainability of an area is

meeting people’s current fundamental desire to experience nature, while not compromising

the ecological integrity of the area. This implies careful planning of routes so that they do

not detrimentally degrade biodiversity. With this kind of forward-planning perspective, it is

especially appropriate for route development to include restoration of degraded

areas/habitats (i.e. rehabilitate past mistakes), rather than alter other undisturbed areas.

This acknowledges our obligation to future generations.



route-design concerns? How can environmental factors be considered in the planning, siting

and design of the route? Have alternatives been identified for potentially sensitive sections of

the route? Identify appropriate indicators for monitoring change within the ecosystem as a

result of the establishment of the route. What is the suitability of local materials for road

construction/ rehabilitation, or would suitable materials need to be imported for this purpose?

Are there opportunities to improve habitat quality on the site? Will the route provide access to

areas not previously accessible? Identify seasons of areas of special concern (e.g. breeding

areas, wetlands etc). What benefits will the route provide to the socio-economic profile of the

area? Will the route deliver the greatest benefit to the greatest number of people possible,

while still protecting the environmental resource? Would it be necessary to restrict the number

of users on the route in order to limit the impact on the environmental resources? Would the

route be utilised on a continuous basis throughout the year, or would seasonal restrictions be

applied? What kind of vehicle would be required to drive the route (4x4, 4x2, with or without

difflock, etc.).

Look for opportunities to co-ordinate the off-road route project with conservation and other

complementary projects. Are there opportunities to co-ordinate habitat restoration or

protection with the off-road route project? Are there any cultural/historical or landscape

features whose value can be enhanced through the route and route user education? Are there

any communities or individuals who could benefit from the route? What type of employment

opportunities would be created by the establishment and on-going maintenance of the route?

Is there an area-wide land-use, open space, or off-road route plan? Is your route concept

consistent with these plans? Is there an existing management plan for these areas? Is your

route concept considered to be a viable land use option in the area?

Consider Alternatives

• Create distinctive alternative route alignment plans. Can alternative plans for the route or

sections of the route be planned? Seek professional assistance preparing and evaluating

alternatives, if possible. Alternatives may also include varying construction

techniques/erosion control strategies, or different management strategies for improvement

of an existing route.

• Consider alternative sites for rest camps and other support facilities. Sites for rest camps,

ablution facilities and parking areas should be identified and evaluated.

• Evaluate the alternatives. Conduct an evaluation of the alternatives, comparing each

alternative to the planning guidelines and goals in order to select a preferred plan.

Develop management strategies. Consider how the route will be most appropriately managed,

maintained, and monitored. Develop site designs, budgets, and timetables. Formalise plans

within a business plan, including all information regarding economic, environmental and social

EXAMPLE:

The current South African Reptile Conservation Assessment (SARCA) project is being

undertaken with the support of 4x4 Eco Challenge. Off-road users access remote areas

where herpetological assessments are required to ensure adequate grid coverage for

research purposes (see www.4x4ecochallenge.co.za).



considerations. Review the final plan with relevant authorities. Apply for all relevant permits

and authorisations.

4. Determine financial viability of the project in the long-term

Undertake a detailed cost analysis of the proposed route. Has a detailed cost analysis been

undertaken, particularly for routes for commercial/recreational purposes? The purpose of this

cost analysis is to determine and plan for (a) the costs to meet legislative and planning

requirements to set up a new route/authorise an existing route, (b) maintain and manage a

route effectively within the recommendations contained in the guideline series, and (c)

estimate what sort of return one could expect from operating such an off-road route. The

Business Plan should indicate the economic viability of such a venture through considering the

cost efforts and financial rewards. Financial viability is frequently dictated to by the type and

intensity of use of the proposed route, which in turn impacts on the environment.

Formalise the project goals. How can the preliminary project goals be revised on the basis of

what has been learnt? What do members of the public and other stakeholders think of the

project goals? Is the project plan aligned with other land management activities in the area?


Appendix C 08/10/06 C-1

APPENDIX C: LEGISLATION UNDER WHICH PERMITS MAY BE REQUIRED,

CONTACT DETAILS OF WESTERN CAPE REGULATING AUTHORITIES

AND INFORMATION RESOURCES

LEGISLATION UNDER WHICH PERMITS MAY BE REQUIRED TO BE OBTAINED

1. Activities which may have a detrimental impact on the environment listed in terms of the

EIA Regulations published in terms of the National Environmental Management Act

(Act No. 107 of 1999) (Dept of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning).

Legislation makes provision for DEA&DP to include additional listed activities in identified

sensitive areas. The establishment of off-road routes in identified sensitive areas within

the Province is likely to be included as a listed activity which will require authorisation from

DEA&DP. 2. Development of structures and lease of land below the high water mark. Refer to Sea

Shore Act (Act No. 21 of 1935) (Dept of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning and CapeNature)

3. Activities including earthworks, disturbance of vegetation, dredging and dune stabilisation.

Refer to OSCA Regulations (Government Notice No. R. 879 of 31 May 1996 and

Government Notice No. R 1526 of 27 November 1998) - Applicable to South Coast Only

(Local Authority or Dept. of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning)

4. Archaeological, cultural, historical and other resources related to national heritage - refer to

the National Heritage Resources Act (Act No. 25 of 1999) (Heritage Western Cape / South African Heritage Resources Agency – Applies to projects where there are naturally and

culturally significant features on or adjacent to the site where development is being

proposed)

5. Removal and/or relocation of indigenous fauna and flora - refer to the Nature Conservation

Legislation: Nature and Environmental Conservation Ordinance (Ordinance 19 of 1974)

(CapeNature), as well as the Marine Living Resources Act (Act No. 18 of 1998)

(Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism)

6. Effluent disposal - Refer to the Section 21 of the National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998)

(Department of Water Affairs & Forestry – Applicable to projects where liquid waste is

produced and will be disposed to a watercourse, wetland, dam or the sea. If effluent is to

be discharged to a municipal sewer, application must be made to the relevant local

authority)

7. National Environmental Management Act (Act No. 107 of 1999): Regulations: Control of

Vehicles in the Coastal Zone (“the ORV Regulations”) (Manager of the coastal protected area, or Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism)

PROVINCIAL DEPARTMENTS OR SPHERES WHO MAY BE REQUIRED TO PROVIDE

INPUT INTO THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

1. Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. In terms of Section 28

of the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA; Act No. 107 of 1998), landowners

have a responsibility to ensure that any development on their property is consistent with

the ‘Duty of Care’ principle (i.e. that reasonable measures have been taken to prevent



significant environmental degradation). Depending on the nature of the development and

the environment within which the development is proposed, such measures may include

the undertaking of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). This EIA must be

submitted to this Provincial Department for evaluation and decision-making. If the

application is acceptable, in principle, from an environmental point of view, a Record of

Decision (ROD) will be issued. A list of conditions, aimed at mitigating the effects of the

development (if approved), will accompany the ROD.

2. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Development applications are usually

referred to this Department for comment. Any abstraction and use of surface or

groundwater must be undertaken in a sustainable manner. Applicable to projects where

the water required for the project will be obtained from a source other than from an

established municipal supply system. Sustainability of water supply is also required in

terms of the Water Services Act (Act No. 108 of 1997). Approval for abstraction of water,

disposal or treatment of sewage and prevention of pollution of water resources should be

obtained from the Department and disposal must at all times comply with the requirements

of the National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998).

3. Provincial Department of Agriculture. Applications are referred to this Provincial

Department if the land proposed for development is zoned for agricultural purposes. If any

development is to take place within 10 m of the edge of a river, permission for

development should be obtained in terms of the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act

(Act No. 43 of 1983). If the application involves the subdivision of agricultural land,

permission will also be required in terms of the Subdivision of Agricultural Land Act

(Act No. 70 of 1970), which act is administered by the National Department of Agriculture.

4. Department of Health. Any conditions stipulated by the Department should be included.

5. District Roads Engineer/Provincial Transport Branch. An application is referred to this

Branch if access is obtained from a provincial road, to ensure that it conforms to the

Normal Standards (as per the Access Policy report of the Provincial Department of

Transport).

6. National/Provincial Heritage Resource Agency. If any cultural or historic features are

suspected to be present on the site, an archaeological investigation should be compelled to

be undertaken and a permit for development be obtained in terms of Section 38 of the

National Heritage Resources Act (Act No. 25 of 1999). Heritage Western Cape is the

implementing authority in this regard.

7. CapeNature. Development applications are referred to CapeNature for comment if they

occur in areas important for biodiversity conservation, or if the proposed negative impact

on the ecological environment cannot be avoided or seem unacceptable. In addition, the

EIA practitioner should determine if there are any issues relating to biodiversity that need

to be addressed and this can be verified and/or the assessments reviewed by CapeNature.

It is also important to determine if there are any other legally binding mechanisms e.g. title

deed restrictions that will assist in protecting the biodiversity on the site prior to

approaching CapeNature. If any red data or protected fauna or flora species are to be

impacted by the proposed ORV route, a permit is required from CapeNature in terms of the

Nature Conservation Legislation: Nature and Environmental Conservation Ordinance

(Ordinance 19 of 1974).



8. Local municipalities are responsible for handling development applications, such as

applications for departures from building parameters or applications for rezoning or for the

subdivision of land. Municipalities decide how to handle these applications according to

legislation, policies and guidelines provided by the Department of Environmental Affairs

and Development Planning.

CONTACT DETAILS

Regulating Authorities:

Department Address Contact numbers

Department of

Environmental Affairs and

Development Planning:

Environmental Management

Private Bag X9086

Cape Town, 8000

Tel: 021 483 2994

Fax: 021 483 4372

Department of Water Affairs

and Forestry (DWAF):

Regional Cluster (Western

and Eastern Cape)

Private Bag X7485

King Williams Town

5600

Tel: 043 604 5406

Fax: 043 604 5592

DWAF: Regional Office

(Western Cape)

Private Bag X16

Sanlamhof

7532

Tel: 021 950 7100

Fax: 021 946 366

http://www.dwaf.gov.za

Heritage Western Cape Private Bag X9067

Cape Town, 8000

E-mail: [email protected]

South African Heritage

Resources Agency

P.O. Box 4637

Cape Town, 8000

Tel: 021 483 9695

Fax: 021 483 9842

Cape Nature: Western Cape

Nature Conservation Board

Private Bag X29

Rondebosch, 7701

http://www.capenature.org.za

CapeNature’s permit office Tel: 021 659 3416/8

CapeNature: Endangered

flora

Tel: 021 659 3416/3417/

3418/3420

Western Cape Department of

Agriculture (DoA): Beaufort

West, Central Karoo

PO Box 66

Beaufort West, 6970

Tel: 023 414 2126

Fax: 023 414 4386

DoA: Caledon,

Theewaterskloof

PO Box 43

Caledon, 7230

Tel: 028 212 1158

Fax: 028 212 1878

DoA: George, Eden PO Box 249

George, 6530

Tel: 044 874 2047

Fax: 044 874 7730

DoA: Elsenburg, Cape Town

(Head Office)

Private Bag X1

Elsenburg, 7607

Tel: 021 808 5111

Fax: 021 808 5120

DoA: Ladismith, Kannaland PO Box 19

Ladismith, 6885

Tel: 028 551 1017

Fax: 028 551 1017

DoA: Laingsburg, Central

Karoo

PO Box 6

Laingsburg, 6900

Tel: 023 551 1034

Fax: 023 551 1637

DoA: Malmesbury, Swartland PO Box 146 Tel: 022 482 2265



Department Address Contact numbers

Malmesbury, 7299 Fax: 022 487 2331

DoA: Moorreesburg,

Swartland

PO Box 138

Moorreesburg, 7310

Tel: 022 433 2272

Fax: 022 433 2102

DoA: Oudtshoorn, Eden PO Box 351

Oudtshoorn, 6620

Tel: 044 272 6077

Fax: 044 279 1910

DoA: Piketberg, Bergrivier PO Box 44

Piketberg, 7320

Tel: 022 913 1112

Fax: 022 913 2390

DoA: Riversdale, Langeberg PO Box 33

Riversdale, 6770

Tel: 028 713 2442

Fax: 028 713 3457

DoA: Swellendam, Overberg PO Box 100

Swellendam, 6740

Tel: 028 514 1196

Fax: 028 514 1342

DoA: Vredendal, Matzikama PO Box 130

Vredendal, 8160

Tel: 027 213 2000

Fax: 027 213 2712

DoA: Wellington,

Drakenstein

PO Box 53

Wellington, 7655

Tel: 021 873 1135

Fax: 021 873 3522

DoA: Worcester, Breede

Valley

PO Box 66

Worcester, 6849

Tel: 023 347 1121

Fax: 023 342 6779

National Department of

Agriculture

Tel: 012 319 6000

http://www.nda.agric.za/

Cape Gateway (Single point

of access to government

information and services for

the citizens of the Western

Cape)

http://www.capegateway.gov.za

Tel: 0860 142 142

Department of Health: Head

Office

Tel: 021 421 1124

Fax: 021 418 5685

Department of Health: Metro

District Health Services

Tel: 021 918 1513/1559

Fax: 021 918 1513

Department of Health:

Boland/Overberg Region

Tel: 023 348 1431

Fax: 021 342 8501

Department of Health: West

Coast/Winelands

Tel: 027 213 4070

Fax: 027 213 3145

Department of Minerals and

Energy

Private Bag X59

Pretoria, 0001

Mineralia Centre,

234 Visagie Street, Pretoria

Tel: 012 317 8000

Fax: 012 322 3416

Website: www.dme.gov.za



Municipalities:

Municipal areas of the Western Cape. The details for each municipal area are provided

overleaf.



City of Cape TownMunicipality Private Bag X9181

CAPE TOWN

8000

Tel: 021 400 1330

Fax: 021 400 1332

West Coast DistrictMunicipality P O Box 242

MOORREESBURG

7310

Tel: 022 433 2380

Fax: 022 433 2172



Cape Winelands DistrictMunicipality P O Box 100

STELLENBOSCH

7599

Tel: 086 1265263

Fax: 021 887 2271

Overberg DistrictMunicipality Private Bag X22

BREDASDORP

7280

Tel: 028 425 1157

Fax: 028 425 1014

Eden District Municipality P O Box 12

GEORGE

Tel: 044 803 1300

Fax: 044 874 6626



Planning and Assessment Resources

Organisation Address Contact numbers

Council for GeoScience

(for digital and hard copy

geological maps)

280 Pretoria Road,

Silverton

Private Bag x112

Pretoria, 0001

Data Sales Tel No:

012 841 1032

Department of Land

Affairs

Chief Directorate:

Surveys and Mapping (for

digital and hard copy

topographical maps and

aerial photographs)

Rhodes Avenue

Mowbray

Tel: 021 658 4300

Fax: 021 689 1351

Map Sales Fax:

021 686 9884

http://w3sli.wcape.gov.za

Institute for Soils,

Climate and Water:

Agricultural Research

Council (for soil maps)

Private Bag x79

Arcadia

Pretoria, 0001

Tel: 012 310 2500

Western Cape Wetlands

Forum (WCWF): Urban

Conservation Unit; SANBI

Kirstenbosch Botanical

Gardens; Rhodes Drive

Private Bag X7

Claremont; 7735

Tel: 021 799 8800

Fax: 021 797 8390


Working for Wetlands http://www.ccwr.ac.za/wetlands

District Roads Engineer

Ceres

Ceres, Witzenberg

Oosterlig, Ceres, 6835

Tel: 023 312 1120

Fax: 023 312 2633

Central Karoo DistrictMunicipality Private Bag X560

BEAUFORT-WEST

6970

Tel: 023 449 1000

Fax: 023 415 1253





Oudtshoorn

Vrede Road, Oudtshoorn

Private Bag X617

Oudtshoorn, 6620

Tel: 044 272 6071

Fax: 044 272 7243


Western Cape

Main Road, Paarl

Private Bag X6003

Suider Paarl, 7624

Tel: 021 863 2020

Fax: 021 863 3623

South African National

Biodiversity Institute

(SANBI): Head Office

2 Cussonia Ave

Brummeria, Pretoria

Private Bag X101

Pretoria, 0001

Tel 012 843-5000

Fax: 012 804-3211

SANBI: Kirstenbosch

National Botanical Garden

Rhodes Drive, Newlands

Private Bag X7

Claremont, 7735

Tel: 021 799-8899

Fax: 021 797-6570

Cape Action for People

and the Environment

(C.A.P.E.)

Private Bag X7,

Claremont, 7735

Tel: 021 799-8790

Fax 021 797-3475


http://www.capeaction.org.za/

Succulent Karoo

Ecosystem Programme

(SKEP): Rufford Maurice

Laing Institute, Centre

for Biodiversity

Conservation

Kirstenbosch Gardens

Newlands, 7735

Private Bag X7

Claremont, 7735

Tel:021 799-8872

Fax: 021 797-1940

www.skep.org

www.sanbi.org

www.conservation.org

Western Cape

Stewardship Association

Tel: 028 314-0185

SANBI Biodiversity GIS Kirstenbosch Research

Centre

P/Bag X7

Claremont, 7735

[email protected]

Tel: 021 799-8698/9

Fax: 021 797-6903

http://cpu.uwc.ac.za

University of the Western

Cape

http://www.uwc.ac.za/portal/index.htm

University of Cape Town:

Faculty of Engineering &

the Built Environment

http://www.uct.ac.za/

Tel: 021 650-2699

Fax: 021 650-3782


University of Cape Town:

Faculty of Science

http://www.uct.ac.za/

Tel: 021 650-2712

Fax: 021 650-4511


National Off-road

Workgroup

http://now.org.za/




Southern Africa Route

Owners and Operators

Association

http://www.saroof.org.za/

Southern Cape Route

Owners Association

(SCROF)

http://www.4x4ineden.co.za/

National Association of

Automobile

Manufacturers of South

Africa

http://www.naamsa.co.za/

Association of All Wheel

Drive Clubs of Southern

Africa

http://www.aawdc.org.za/


Appendix D 08/10/06 D-1

APPENDIX D: WEINERT’S N-NUMBER

Characteristics of materials in relation to climate (N-number) Weinert’s

N-number Material characteristics Significance of material properties

N < 2 Rocks are extensively weathered, often to

depths of several metres, and

decomposition is pronounced. Smectite

minerals are the principal products of the

decomposition of basic crystalline rocks

Materials tends to have relatively high plasticity

and are moisture sensitive. Basic igneous rocks

are often not durable and prone to degradation in

service. Careful attention should be paid to the

internal and external drainage of road pavement

N = 2-5 Conditions similar to above, but the

thickness of residual soil cover gradually

decreases as the N = 5 contour is

approached.

N = 5-10 Thickness of residual soil cover gradually

decreases even further than above.

Disintegration is the dominant mode of

weathering

N > 10 All rock types weather by mechanical

disintegration alone and the shallow

residual soils are commonly granular and

gravely

Materials have relatively low plasticity and are

not particularly sensitive to moisture

Weinert’s N-number: It has been observed that the varying mode of weathering of these

rocks and the associated variation in the performance of weathered dolerite and basalt used

in road construction were related to climate. Originally, a direct link with the total annual

rainfall was assumed. More detailed investigation showed that this view did not agree

entirely with the observation. Further studies resulted in the N-Number (Weinert, 1980).

The Weinert’s N-Number is calculated from climatic data as follows:

N= 12 Ei/Pa

Where: Ei = evaporation during hottest month, and

Pa = annual precipitation


Appendix E 08/10/06 E-1

APPENDIX E: EXAMPLE OF A ROUTE MONITORING SHEET Date _____________________________________

Time_____________________________________

Weather conditions__________________________

Route type: Graded Double track Single track

Photo number GPS co-

ordinates Description Route condition

Surrounding land

condition

Management Action

Required

e.g. 001

Braided/parallel routes are being

created by users to avoid the poor

surface condition of the main route

Main route in poor

condition due to presence

of deep mud patches,

rutting and erosion

Route width

widened, impacting

on adjacent

vegetation

Erosion control measures to be

implemented on route;

braided/parallel routes to be

closed and rehabilitated

General comments: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Areas of concern (example):

Signs: 3. Route section wider than average 2. Impacts on surrounding vegetation

1. Entry signs do not include user rules 4. Poor drainage, water ponding 3. Travel in riverbed

2. Sign not present/removed 5. Impacts on watercourses/riparian areas 4. Users ignore signs/barriers restricting travel

3. Sign information not consistent with route 6. Part of route washed away 5. Impact on cultural or heritage sites

Route conditions: 7. Impacts on vegetation in centre of route 6. Significant amount of litter

1. Deep rutting impacts Land condition:

2. Braided tracks 1. Significant area of bare soil


Appendix E E-1

Documents

A GUIDE FOR ROUTE PLANNERS AND OPERATORS PROVINCIAL ... · In the context of this guideline, an off-road route is any road, route, trail or track, othe than proclaimed roads, which