A Great Recession, a Great Retreat: A Call for a Public College Quality Compact

8/10/2019 A Great Recession, a Great Retreat: A Call for a Public College Quality Compact

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A Great Recession, a Great Retreat

A Call for a Public College Quality Compact

By David Bergeron, Elizabeth Baylor, and Antoinette Flores October 2014


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A Great Recession,a Great RetreatA Call for a Public College Quality Compact

By David Bergeron, Elizabeth Baylor, and Antoinette Flores October 2014


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1 Introduction and summary

5 The Great Recession: A great retreat in state investment

postsecondary education

9 State funding of public colleges has declined while

family-financed tuition has increased

12 Low- and middle-income Americans pay more in states

with high disinvestment

14 State spending cuts have affected community colleges the

16 Recommendations

26 An investment with high returns

27 Conclusion

28 Methodology

30 Appendix

36 About the authors & acknowledgments

37 Endnotes

Contents


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1 Center for American Progress | A Great Recession, a Great Retreat

Introduction and summary

Public invesmen in higher educaion is vial o he perormance o our economy.

Firs and oremos, Americas public colleges and universiies offer ciizens a

seadas pah oward personal economic growh and opporuniy. An educaed

workorce also delivers a subsanial reurn on public invesmen in he orm o

economic expansion hrough susained employmen, higher earnings, new and

coninued business developmen, and ulimaely, higher ax revenues.

In 1947, he ruman Commission on Higher Educaion recognized his vial roleand promped he ederal governmen o begin making invesmens in public

colleges o make possecondary educaion more accessible and affordable o all

sudens. Troughou he 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, a number o he commissions

recommendaions were adoped; he addiional invesmen paid off, resuling in

significan increases in he share o high school graduaes going o college.1

Since he early 1950s, he ederal and sae governmens have shared he cos o

providing possecondary educaion o ciizens, bu saes have radiionally been a

greaer source o direc unding or public colleges and universiies.2Public

colleges and universiies rely on sae invesmen as a source o boh operaing and

non-operaing coss. Te subsidy provided by sae invesmen has been criical o

keeping coss low and providing an affordable educaion or all sudens.

Bu afer making grea srides or decades, he counry has begun o lose ground.

College coss have skyrockeed. Beween 2008 and 2012, he share o sudens

borrowing o finance heir educaion increased rom 35 percen o 40 percen, and

he average amoun borrowed annually increased rom $6,200 o $7,800.3Since

he Grea Recession, saes have wihdrawn public invesmen in higher educaion,

and many sudens rom low- and middle-income amilies have been pushed ouo public colleges and universiies. Over he pas decade, his has resuled in a

decline in he college-atendance rae among low-income sudens and a dramaic

slowing o he rae among middle-income sudens.4


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As noed in a recen Cener or American Progress repor, iled Te Middle-Class

Squeeze: A Picure o Sagnan Incomes, Rising Coss, and W ha We Can Do o

Srenghen Americas Middle Class, he share o a amily s income needed o mee

possecondary educaion expenses has increased dramaically in jus hree years.

Higher uiion and ees charged by colleges and universiies accoun or much o

his increase bu, significanly, so does he ac ha median amily income ell by 3

percen during he same period.5No surprisingly, he burden o uiion paymens

ofen ranslaes o he burden o deb. Tis suden deb has disproporionaely

affeced communiies o color.6ogeher, hese acors have led o decreased access

o college, higher cos, and higher deb.

In recen years, he ederal governmen has made significan invesmens in higher

educaion o make he cos o college more affordable, in par o respond o he

declining sae invesmen and crisis brough on by he Grea Recession. Tese

invesmens include $17 billion in he Pell Gran program o help make college

more affordable and increase he number o sudens eligible;7a reundable ax

credi o as much as $2,500 per year or amilies earning up o $180,000 o help pay

or college;8

and subsequenly, an addiional $36 billion in he Pell Gran programo ensure is financial sabiliy.9

FIGURE 1

College-attendance rate for students from low-income families

Source: U.S. Department of Education, "Table 302.30. Percentage of recent high school completers enrolled in 2-year and 4-yearcolleges, by income level: 1975 through 2012," available at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_302.30.asp (last

accessed September 2014).

20

30

40

50

60

1975 1980 1985 201020001990 1995 2005 2012

Low-income Low-income, last decade


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Te addiional invesmen by he ederal governmen o low-income sudens has

parially addressed affordabiliy and helped fill some o he gap caused by rising

uiion. However, since declining sae invesmenhe primary driver behind he

increasing ne price o collegehas ye o be addressed, he addiional ederal

suppor does no ully address he growing need o low-income and middle-

income amilies.

Tis repor builds on CAPs previous repor, Public College Qualiy Compac or

Sudens and axpayers,10wih new sae-by-sae analysis. In addiion o he

high-level sae analysis, our findings show ha:

Te reducion o sae unding coincided wih an increased reliance on uiion

revenue.

Low- and middle-income amilies in saes wih he highes disinvesmen pay he

highes ne price relaive o sudens in he same income groups in oher saes.

Te cus disproporionaely affeced wo-year communiy colleges.

o ensure ha American possecondary educaion remains affordable or he nex

generaion o sudens, i is ime or he ederal governmen o make an invesmen

similar o he ones recommended by he ruman Commission, wih he same goal

o significanly boosing degree atainmen. Tis repor proposes he creaion o a

ederal gran program, or und, ha creaes a direc ie beween ederal and sae

invesmens and encourages saes o reinves in possecondary educaion. Tis

new und will spur saes and insiuions o more effecively mee he needs o

low- and middle-income sudens. Te program would require saes o mach he

ederal grans. o be eligible, saes would need o agree o implemen reorms and

innovaions ha increase sudens value o public colleges, universiies, and

raining ceners hrough a Public College Qualiy Compac. Te compac would

require saes o:

Create reliable fundingby building new unding sreams. Tese sreams would

need o provide a leas as much as he maximum Pell Gran per suden in

indirec and direc suppor o public colleges and universiies o ensure hasudens and prospecive sudens can prepare or and enroll in possecondary

educaion wih cerainy.


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Make college affordableby guaraneeing ha low-income sudens who pursue

an associaes or bachelors degree will receive gran aid rom he compac o

cover heir enrollmen a public insiuions.

Improve performanceby seting oucome goals or insiuions, such as increased

graduaion raes, and by implemening proven, successul sraegies ha improvesuden perormance a he insiuional level.

Remove barriers

and sae and insiuional policies ha sand in he way o

college compleion by sandardizing ranser-credi and admissions requiremens

and by raising K-12 learning sandards o align wih readiness or possecondary

enry-level courses.

Te majoriy o unds rom he compac would be allocaed o saes based on

suppor or low-income and miliary veerans, measured by he share o Pell Gran

and GI Bill beneficiaries. Eligible saes would receive unding rom he compacbased on hese sudens having access o an affordable educaion and earning a

credenial or a degree. Te ederal governmen would also reserve some program

unds or saes or groups o insiuions working across sae lines ha wish o

experimen wih reorms ha are effecive in improving higher-educaion qualiy

and oucomes.

Tis repor presens daa o suppor he need or a resored sae-ederal parner-

ship in higher educaion and offers design deails o he new Public College

Qualiy Compac.


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The Great Recession:

A great retreat in state investment

in postsecondary education

In he repor Public College Qualiy Compac or Sudens and axpayers, he

Cener or American Progress documened he declining sae invesmen in public

universiies, communiy colleges, and raining ceners by examining secor-wide

invesmens in public colleges by sae governmens. Principally, he repor showed

ha he amoun o unding ha public colleges receive rom sae governmens had

declined sharply as a share o oal revenue. Beween fiscal year 2003 and fiscal year

2010, sae unding declined rom 30.9 percen o oal revenue o 22.3 percen.11

Te majoriy o his decline occurred during he fiscal years afer he onse o heGrea Recession.

In order o beter design a program o ederal governmen invesmen in public

universiies and our-year colleges, communiy colleges, and vocaional raining

ceners, his repor documens he rend o sae disinvesmen in higher educaion

a he level o each individual sae. Tis analysis seeks o undersand wha level o

ederal invesmen would appreciably make a difference or sudens, insiuions,

and sae governmens.

o examine he sae invesmen in public insiuions, we previously used

secor-wide figures repored annually by he Deparmen o Educaions Naional

Cener or Educaion Saisics.12o creae an analysis o invesmen by individual

saes, we used insiuion-level daa repored o he Deparmen o Educaions

Inegraed Possecondary Educaion Daa Sysem, or IPEDS. Tis insiuional-

level daa were collaed by sae and secor o deermine he overall sae inves-

men, he invesmen per suden, and he share o oal revenue ha sae unding

comprises. (see Mehodology)

Sae governmens have long been he primary financial suppor or publicinsiuions. Sae unding is he direc way in which our higher-educaion sysem

is able o provide an affordable educaion o sudens rom low- and moderae-

income backgrounds. However, daa show ha he majoriy o saes reduced he

overall level o direc unding o public insiuions since he onse o he Grea

Recession. On a per suden basis, he decline was even more pronounced.


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We examined he five mos recen years o daa available and ound ha afer

adjusing or inflaion in consan 2012 dollars, 29 o 50 saes governmens

lowered heir oal level o direc suppor o public insiuions beween fiscal

years 2008 and 2012.13Specifically:

7 saes decreased heir invesmen by more han 20 percen.

16 saes decreased heir invesmen beween 5 percen and 20 percen.

12 saes made litle change, decreasing by less han 5 percen or increasing by

less han 5 percen.

12 saes increased heir invesmen beween 5 percen and 20 percen.

3 saes increased heir invesmen by more han 20 percen.

Enrollmen in higher educaion is counercyclical wih he economy, meaning ha

enrollmen increases when he economy is experiencing a downurn; people pursue

degrees and credenials during a recession because hey have los heir jobs and need

o acquire more and beter skills o remain compeiive in he job marke. When

changes in sae unding a public insiuions o higher educaion are ranslaed o

per suden expendiures, he cus are even more pronounced.

During he five-year period beween he 200708 school year and he 201112

school year, enrollmen in public higher-educaion insiuions ha were eligible o

receive ederal suden aid unds increased markedly. Full-ime equivalen, or FE,

enrollmen is a calculaion by he Deparmen o Educaion ha creaes a single

value providing a meaningul combinaion o ull-ime and par-ime sudens.14

Using FE enrollmen, oal enrollmen a public insiuions increased 13.7

percen, rom 9.4 million FE sudens in 200708 o 10.6 million FE sudens

in 201112.15O ha amoun, enrollmen a our-year insiuions increased 10.6

percen, rom 5.4 million FE sudens in 200708 o 5.9 million FE sudens in

201112. FE enrollmen a wo-year insiuions increased more sharply, rising

20 percen, rom 4 million FE sudens in 200708 o 4.7 million FE sudens

in 201112.16


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Direc sae unding o public insiuions ailed o keep pace wih increasing

enrollmen, leading o a decrease in direc suppor per suden. Specifically:

20 saes decreased heir direc invesmen by more han 20 percen per suden.

18 saes decreased heir direc invesmen beween 5 percen and 20 percenper suden.

8 saes made litle change, decreasing heir direc suppor by less han 5 percen

per suden or increasing by less han 5 percen per suden.

4 saes increased heir invesmen beween 5 percen and 20 percen per

suden.

Tere were no saes ha increased heir invesmen by more han 20 percen

per suden.17

FIGURE 2

Public colleges in most states face steep declines in

funding per student

Change in state funding per student by state, FY 2008FY 2012

in constant 2012 dollars

Source: CAP analysis of U.S. Department of Education, "Integrated Postsecondary Education Data S

available at http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/datacenter (last accessed August 2014).

More than 30% decrease

Between 20 and 30% decrease

Between 5 and 20 percent dec

Between 5 percent decreaseand 5 percent increase

Increase of 5 percent or more

VT NH

One thing is clear: Some states have not faced

difficult funding decisions. For example, North

Dakota has seen dramatic increases in tax

revenues. Between 2008 and 2013, NorthDakota saw tax revenues increase from $2.3

billion to $5.3 billion, reflecting the dramatic

growth in taxes derived from mining and oil

extraction. The state could have reduced taxes

but instead decided to invest in higher

education and other priorities. State leaders

acknowledged that revenues from mining and

oil extraction will ultimately decline as the

reserves are depleted and opted to invest in

the futurethe education of North Dakotans.18

Investing in people whereresources allow


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In order or unding o keep up wih his surge in enrollmen, saes would need o

increase direc suppor or higher educaion. Bu his did no happen in 44 o he

50 saes, resuling in declines in sae spending per suden.19

Level of change in state funding:

More than 20 percent decrease

Between 5 percent and20 percent decrease

Between 5 percent decrease and5 percent increase

Between 5 and 20 percent increase

More than 20 percent increase

State funding per studentTotal state funding

FIGURE 3

Number of states that have increased or decreased funding

to public colleges

Level of funding change to total state funding and state funding per student to public

colleges, FY 2008FY 2012 in constant 2012 dollars

Source: CAP analysis of U.S. Department of Education, "Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System," available at

http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/datacenter (last accessed August 2014).

17

20

18

8

4

13

11

3 6

High investors in higher education

Wyoming

2nd in 2012 spending per student 2nd smallest spending reduction after the recession

Connecticut

4th in 2012 spending per student 6th smallest spending reduction after the recession

New York

6th in 2012 spending per student 11th smallest spending reduction after the recession

Low investors in higher education

Arizona

47th in 2012 spending per student 1st largest spending reduction after the recession

New Hampshire

48th in 2012 spending per student 3rd largest spending reduction after the recession

South Carolina

49th in 2012 spending per student 2nd largest spending reduction after the recession20


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State funding of public colleges

has declined while family-financed

tuition has increased

Decreases in sae unding have led o increases in uiion, wih amilies carrying he

cos. Americas higher-educaion sysem has become increasingly dependen on

suden-loan deb, wih he share o sudens borrowing increasing in recen years.21

In addiion, many borrowers have rouble repaying heir loans.22Because public

colleges have a mission o ensure ha higher educaion is affordable or amilies

rom all income levels, sae unding has long been a subsanial share o insiuions

overall revenue. As he overall amoun o direc sae unding in higher educaion

has declined, oher sources, including uiion, are supplemening revenue.Unorunaely, an analysis o insiuion revenues demonsraes ha uiion as a

share o revenue increased while direc public suppor declined.23Measured as a

share o oal revenue, he amoun o unding ha public colleges receive rom

sae governmens has seadily rereaed since FY 2008. Across he enire public

higher-educaion sysem, sae unding accouned or 29.1 percen o oal revenue

in FY 2008. Jus five years laer, as he effecs o he Grea Recession were clearly

esablished, ha amoun declined o 22.3 percen o revenues in FY 2012.24

Across he 50 individual saes, here are varying levels o decline in direc public

unding; however, allsaes decreased he share o revenue ha comes rom sae

governmens. Eigh saes experienced a decline o more han 10 percenage

poins; 27 saes decreased he share o revenue rom sae governmens beween

5 percenage poins and 10 percenage poins, and 15 saes experienced a decline

o less han 5 percenage poins.25

Across he 50 individual saes, 3 saes decreased he share o revenue coming

rom uiion dollars, while 47 increased he share o revenue rom uiion dollars.

O hose 47 saes, 37 saes increased heir share o revenue rom uiion dollars

by less han 5 percenage poins, while 10 saes increased heir share o revenuerom uiion dollars by beween 5 percenage poins and 10 percenage poins.26


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Tere are a ew excepions, bu he general rend demonsraes ha he saes ha

decreased heir share o sae unding he mos increased reliance on uiion

dollars he mos. Figure 4 liss he percenage poin change in boh share o sae

unding and share o uiion and ranks each sae on hese wo measures. Saes

ranked higher perormed worse on he measure, eiher decreasing heir share o

sae unding he mos or increasing heir reliance on uiion revenue he mos.

Passing he consequences o decreased public suppor o sudens and amilies in

he orm o increased uiion is no always necessary. Saes and insiuions can

find innovaive ways o decrease he cos o delivering an educaion while sabiliz-

ing or even decreasing heir reliance on uiion o supplemen revenue. Te policy

recommendaions oulined below are aimed a creaing incenives or increased

sae invesmen, as well as sae policies ha encourage innovaive soluions o

promoe suden learning while reducing coss o sudens.


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FIGURE 4

As states have decreased funding, schools have increased reliance

on tuition

Change in state funding and tuition as a share of revenue, FY 2008FY 2012

Source: CAP analysis of U.S. Department of Education, "Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System," available at


-15% -10% -5% 00 5% 10%

Georgia

Arizona

LouisianaIdaho

South Carolina

Connecticut

Massachusetts

Alabama

Delaware

California

Minnesota

Tennessee

Hawaii

Iowa

Virginia

Washington

South Dakota

KansasNew Mexico

Oregon

Florida

Pennsylvania

New Hampshire

New York

Mississippi

Utah

Wisconsin

Missouri

Ohio

Michigan

Kentucky

New JerseyMaine

Texas

Alaska

North Carolina

Rhode Island

Oklahoma

Nevada

West Virginia

Illinois

Nebraska

Indiana

Montana

Colorado

Vermont

MarylandArkansas

North Dakota

Wyoming

Change in state funding

Change in tuition


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Low- and middle-income

Americans pay more in states

with high disinvestment

Te increased reliance on uiion as a share o revenue means low- and middle-

income Americans pay more or heir educaion a public colleges. Naionally

across insiuions, ne pricehe price sudens and amilies pay afer grans and

scholarshipshas seadily increased wih increases in uiion.27Since he recession

and sae unding cus o higher educaion, low- and middle-income amilies have

paid he price or he decline in invesmen.

In he saes ha have decreased unding by 30 percen or more, low- and middle-income amilies pay a higher ne price han sudens rom he same income group

across he counry. O he our saes ha invesed more han 5 percen since he

recession, sudens in hese saes pay he lowes ne price; his rend is rue a

boh communiy colleges and public universiies.28

In saes wih high disinvesmen, low-income sudens pay 18 percen more han

he naional average a communiy colleges and 14 percen more han average a

public universiies. Low-o-middle-income sudens pay 8 percen more and 11

percen more a communiy colleges and public universiies, respecively. Middle-

income sudens pay 6 percen more and 4 percen more a communiy colleges

and public universiies, respecively, bu he percenage is he highes or low-

income sudens.29

In he ew saes ha have invesed in higher educaion, low-income sudens pay

16 percen less han average a communiy colleges and 2 percen less a public

universiies. Low-o-middle-income sudens pay 26 percen less and 13 percen

less a communiy colleges and public universiies, respecively, and middle-income

sudens pay 11 percen less and 20 percen less a communiy colleges and public

universiies, respecively.30


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Low- and middle-income sudens in saes wih high disinvesmen are he wors

wih a higher price o pay or college. A higher price means greaer borrowing and

higher deb or sudens wih he leas resources. A higher price could also resul

in sudens choosing no o go o college, meaning a decrease in access o educaion

in saes wih he greaes decrease in invesmen.

FIGURE 5

Low-income students pay the most for college in states with the

greatest cuts in higher-education funding

Net price by level of state disinvestment in higher education, instititution type, and income

Source: CAP analysis of U.S. Department of Education, "Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System," available a t


Low-income

2 Year

4 Year

Low-middle income Middle-income

0

Low-income Low-middle income Middle-income

$3,000

$6,000

$9,000

$12,000

$15,000

Cut most 2nd most Middle 2nd least Cut least

0

$2,000

$4,000

$6,000

$8000

$10,000


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State spending cuts have affected

community colleges the most

Alhough higher educaion experienced a decrease in unding in many saes, he

level o decline is urher differeniaed by unding oward wo- and our-year

insiuions. Overall, a wo-year insiuions, 21 saes decreased spending oward

communiy colleges, while 30 saes decreased unding o public universiies. A

firs glance, i appears ha our-year insiuions were more likely o see a decline

in unding. However, communiy colleges saw a 20 percen increase in enrollmen

while our-year public universiies saw an increase o only 10.6 percen.31Te increase

in enrollmen occurred as unemploymen rose and people sough o learn newskills and bolser heir resumes.

Seeking urher educaion during economic downurns should be encouraged, bu

unorunaely, he greaer increase in enrollmen during he Grea Recession was

no me wih an increase in unding. As a resul, communiy colleges were squeezed

he mos and el he effecs o cus more severely. Accouning or enrollmen rends,

wo-year insiuions were more likely o experience a cu in unding han our-year

insiuions. Tis is significan since communiy colleges serve a higher proporion

o low-income sudens and sudens o color relaive o our-year insiuions.32

Based on spending per suden, communiy colleges in 45 saes saw a decrease in

unding, while comparaively, unding oward public universiies declined in 39

saes. O hose 45 saes ha cu unding o wo-year insiuions, 10 saes decreased

unding by more han 30 percen; 14 saes cu unding beween 20 percen and

30 percen; 13 saes cu unding beween 10 percen and 20 percen; and 8 saes

cu unding by less han 10 percen. A public universiies, 5 saes cu unding 30

percen or more; 13 saes cu unding by 20 percen o 30 percen; 10 saes cu

unding beween 10 percen and 20 percen; 11 saes cu unding beween 0 percen

and 10 percen. Meanwhile, 11 saes increased unding o our-year insiuions.33

No only were communiy colleges more likely o experience a decrease in unding,

he cus experienced were more severe han a our-year public universiies. O he

45 saes ha eiher cu unding or made no change, 31 saes cu unding or


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wo-year insiuions a a higher percenage han our-year insiuions. By conras,

14 saes cu unding or our-year insiuions a a higher percenage han wo-year

insiuions, and 1 sae cu unding or boh wo- and our-year insiuions equally. 34

Te higher amoun o saes cuting unding o wo-year insiuions and he

greaer severiy o he cus are problemaic because sudens atending wo-yearinsiuions are much more likely o be low-income sudens, firs-generaion

sudens, and/or sudens o color. Naionwide, people o color made up 37 percen

o he oal populaion and 38 percen o undergraduae all enrollmen in 2009,

bu 50 percen o communiy college enrollmen.35Given he disproporionae

amoun o cus o wo-year insiuions ha occurred in recen years, i is imporan

o consider alernaives ha will sabilize unding in he uure and encourage

public reinvesmen.


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Recommendations

Te ederal governmen should creae a new ormula o encourage saes o reinves

in higher educaion. o be eligible, saes would need o agree o implemen reorms

and innovaions ha increase he value o public colleges, universiies, and raining

ceners or sudens. Called he Public College Qualiy Compac, i would

improve value by implemening policies ha mainain or increase he qualiy o

programs while keeping coss down. o receive a gran, saes would need o

mach he ederal grans. Te compac would require saes o:

Create reliable fundingby building new unding sreams. Tese sreams would

need o provide a leas as much as he maximum Pell Gran per suden in

indirec and direc suppor o public colleges and universiies o ensure ha

sudens and prospecive sudens can prepare or and enroll in possecondary

educaion wih cerainy.

Make college affordableby guaraneeing ha low-income sudens who pursue

an associaes or bachelors degree will receive gran aid rom he compac o

cover heir enrollmen a public insiuions.

Improve performance

by seting oucome goals or insiuions, such as increased

graduaion raes, and by implemening proven, successul sraegies ha improve

suden perormance a he insiuional level.

Remove barriersand sae and insiuional policies ha sand in he way o

college compleion by sandardizing ranser-credi and admissions requiremens

and by raising high school learning sandards o conorm o possecondary

insiuions academic maerial.


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Te majoriy o unding would be allocaed o saes based on hree acors:

Te number o Pell Grans and GI Bill beneficiaries enrolled a public colleges

and universiies in he sae

Te number o Pell Gran and GI Bill beneficiaries ha can afford o meeeducaional expenses wihou borrowing under he ederal suden-loan

programs or aking ou privae suden loans

Te number o Pell Grans and GI Bill beneficiaries receiving degrees rom

public colleges and universiies in he sae

Te ederal governmen invess heavily in low-income sudens hrough he Pell

gran program and in miliary veerans hrough he GI Bill. Sudens who receive

Pell Grans rely on public colleges and universiies. During he 201112 school

year, 65 percen o sudens who received a Pell Gran atended a public college oruniversiy; 29 percen atended public, our-year insiuions; and 36 percen

atended public wo-year insiuions.36A recen analysis rom he Senae Healh,

Educaion, Labor & Pensions Commitee ound ha he share o veerans using

he new Pos-9/11 GI Bill o enroll in public colleges declined rom 62 percen o

veerans in 200910 school year o jus 50 percen o veerans in he 201213

school year.37Te ormulas emphasis on enrolling and graduaing miliary veerans

and Pell Gran recipiens provides an incenive or public colleges o beter serve

hese sudens and heir amilies. Earning valuable degrees and credenials will

improve heir economic sanding.

Wih he Public College Qualiy Compac, he ederal governmen would reserve

10 percen o he unding o award grans o saes or regional consoriums ha

wish o experimen wih reorms ha improve oucomes or low-income sudens,

veerans, and sudens o color. Tese experimens likely could no be suppored

a he unding levels provided o he saes individually or would require cross-

border coordinaion or evaluaions o deermine which inervenions are mos

effecive. Tis program design flexibiliy would ensure ha ambiious effors o

improve degree atainmen could be pursued.


21/42


Create reliable funding

In recen years, several saes have creaed dedicaed unding sreams or higher

educaion. Despie he bes o inenions o hese saes leaders o increase suppor

or public higher educaion, our analysis suggess ha, wihou ouside pressure,

he economic realiies ha conroned each sae during he Grea Recessionoverook policy prerogaives. ypically, dedicaed unding sreams ideniy a source

o revenue o suppor higher educaion bu do no always guaranee a level o

invesmen. Tereore, he sreams alone are unlikely o sem disinvesmen because

he revenue replaces previous sae invesmens.

Caliornia, Minnesoa, Massachusets, and Washingon sae have implemened

dedicaed unding sreams or higher educaion. Tese saes have raised revenues

by increasing axes, reinvesed in public higher educaion, and consrained

uiion increases.38

Caliornia implemened a emporary axes o Fund Educaion, a .25 percen

increase in sales ax or our years and or new high-income ax brackesrom

$250,000 o $1 millionin effec or seven years. Much o his new revenue will be

invesed in public higher educaion.39Te Universiy o Caliornia and Caliornia

Sae Universiy sysem have rozen residen uiion hrough he 201617 academic

year, paid or wih he new revenue.40

Minnesoa increased unding or higher educaion by $250 milliona 10 percen

increase over he prior biennium. Te unding led o a reeze on uiion increases

a all sae colleges and universiies, paid or by an increased income ax on he op

2 percen o earners and an increase in he cigarete ax. Increased invesmen in

higher educaion ocused on he classroom raher han on adminisraion.41

Massachusets has ound money o und subsanial increases o higher educaion

and a reeze on mandaory suden ees. Te Universiy o Massachusets, or UMass,

campaigned or a 50/50 plana commimen ha he sae would once again

allocae 50 percen o he coss o educaing sudens, wih he remaining 50 percen

covered by sudens, heir amilies, and financial aid. Funding increases provided

by he sae will allow UMass o ge o 50/50 in wo years and he sae universiiesin hree years.42

Washingon sae closed a ax loophole ha had exemped wireless elecommuni-

caion service providers rom some axes. Mos o he $110 million raised was

direced oward higher educaion and aciliaed a one-year uiion reeze.43


22/42


Since he 200809 school year, direc suppor o insiuions o higher educaion in

hese our saes has decreased by 21.2 percen, or slighly more han he naional

average o 17.8 percen. Te reason ha hese examples o dedicaed unding

sreams have proven ineffecive a increasing or mainaining suppor or public

higher educaion is likely ha he dedicaed unding sreams supplan, raher han

supplemen, general sae appropriaions or educaion.44

o address his issue, hePublic College Qualiy Compac proposes esablishing minimum unding level

ha saes mus provide per suden o public colleges and universiies. Te

hreshold he compac proposes is sae spending per suden equal o he level o

a maximum Pell Gran award. For similar reasons, he compac should include a

mechanism o ensure ha gran money and spending are no disproporionaely

aimed a one insiuion ype over he oher, o allow all sudens o benefi rom

increased invesmen. o encourage invesmen ha helps sudens and amilies

pay or possecondary educaion bu discourages runaway spending, he combined

ederal-sae invesmen would no be required o exceed he cos o atendance in

a sae. I a sae were able o reduce he cos o atendance hrough innovaion, heinvesmen required o paricipae in he compac could also be lower.

Make college affordable

A public insiuions, he share o higher-educaion expenses ha sudens and

amilies are expeced o bear ough o have a reasonable relaionship o resources

he suden and amily have available o mee educaional expenses. A is core, he

ormula used o allocae unds under he ederal campus-based programs

Federal Work-Sudy, Federal Supplemenal Educaion Opporuniy Grans, and

Perkins Loanswas inended o direc resources o insiuions ha enrolled

low- and moderae-income sudens o help fill he gap, ofen called unme need,

beween how much a amily can afford o pay and he cos o atending college.

Funding or he ederal campus-based programs, however, has never been ade-

quae. As a resul, insiuions receive unding no based on he unme need o

curren sudens bu on how much he insiuion received in he disan pas.45

As a resul, he insiuions ha enroll sudens rom low- and moderae-income

amilies ofen lack he resources necessary o mee he needs o heir sudens.

Esablishing a minimum invesmen per suden o leverage he ederal invesmen

in higher educaion would resul in resoring he relaionship beween available

resources and uiion. In FY 2012, he median sae invesmen per suden across

all 50 saes was $6,300, down rom $8,000 in FY 2008. A our-year insiuions,

he median level was $8,500 in FY 2012, down rom $10,200 in FY 2008. A

wo-year insiuions, he median level was $3,700, down rom $4,400.46


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In order o se a minimum bar o spending ha will promp saes o increase heir

invesmen in public colleges, he spending per suden should be equal o he

maximum Pell Gran award. Ta amoun is $5,730 or he 201415 school year.47

During he 201112 school year, he maximum Pell Gran award was $5,273 per

suden.48Tis repors analysis on sae unding o higher educaion ound ha o

he saes examined, all bu 13 spen more han ha amoun per suden in FY2012 and hus would spend an accepable minimum amoun o paricipae in he

compac.49Addiional saes would likely increase heir spending in order o

receive suppor under his new program.

Once eligible, saes would be expeced o increase heir spending by 10 percen over

hree years. Alernaively, saes could documen ha insiuions have implemened

innovaions ha have proven effecive a reducing he cos o delivering he educaion

while increasing reenion and graduaion raes and mainaining qualiy. Tis

mechanism o encouraging a reducion in he cos o delivering a qualiy educaion

would suppor effors o reign in he overall decline in college affordabiliy.

Saes should work o ensure ha higher educaion remains affordable by demanding

ha insiuions keep heir ne price below he amoun ha sudens can borrow

under he ederal suden-loan programs. Currenly, dependen undergraduae

sudens are able o borrow a maximum o $5,500 in heir firs year o sudy, $6,500

in heir second year o sudy, and $7,500 in heir hird year o sudy and beyond.

Tese limis equal he cumulaive maximum o $27,000 in ederal suden loans

over our years.50

As a minimum qualificaion or his program, undergraduae sudens should no

be required o borrow more han ederal loan programs allow in order o finance

heir educaion. When a suden is unable o mee he cos o educaion wih a

combinaion o amily resources and ederal aid, hey are ofen orced o ake ou

privae suden loans. Among sudens who received a bachelors degree in he

201112 school year, graduaes wih boh ederal and privae loans borrowed an

average o $33,600, or 35 percen more han hose wih jus ederal loans, who had

an average deb o $24,800.51I is imperaive o creae srong incenives or saes

o ensure ha sudens atending public colleges and universiies do no need o

ake ou privae loans, as privae suden loans ypically charge higher, ofenrisk-adjused, ineres raes; require co-signers; and lack many o he consumer

proecions sandard in ederal suden loans.


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Improve performance

Saes have he primary responsibiliy o educae heir ciizens. Saes should make

re-invesmen in higher educaion a prioriy, bu hey should expec resuls in reurn.

In Connecicu, he sae provided he Universiy o Connecicu wih increasedfinancial invesmen o suppor he insiuion, producing posiive resuls.52Over

he course o a decade, he Universiy o Connecicu increased he graduaion

rae while becoming more diverseincreasing he percenage o undergraduaes

receiving Pell Grans, or example, by 28 percen jus since 2007.53Te seps he

universiy ook o generae hese suden perormance gains are aligned wih

prescripion o he compac and include implemening a firs-year experience,

learning communiies, undergraduae research, and a red flag sysem ha alers

advisors and aculy members when a suden is in danger o ailing a class.54Te

sae and he universiy have announced Nex Generaion Connecicu, a subsequen

invesmen wih an emphasis on boosing science, echnology, engineering, andmah, or SEM, programs and graduaes o mee projeced workorce needs. Te

overview o he governors announcemen o Nex Generaion Connecicu saes

is objecive: UConn mus do more o produce many more SEM graduaes o

mee workorce shorages and drive discoveries ha will uel Connecicus

long-erm economic growh.55

weny-five saes have implemenedand six more are in he process o imple-

meningunding mechanisms ha ake perormance o insiuions ino

consideraion. Such mechanisms use a ormula o allocae some share o unding

based on perormance indicaors a individual insiuions such as course compleion,

ime o degree, ranser raes, he number o degrees awarded, or he number o

low-income and minoriy graduaes.56For example, Missouri Gov. Jay Nixon (D)

signed legislaion in 2014 o use perormance-based unding o allocae increases in

he saes invesmen in is public universiies and communiy colleges. Gov. Nixon

worked wih Missouris colleges and universiies o increase unding or higher-

educaion insiuions based on he exen o which hey me specific goals, including

increased suden reenion, higher graduaion raes, and improved learning.57

Saes ha paricipae in he Public College Qualiy Compac would have o agreeo adop approaches o disribuing unding among insiuions o promoe suden

success. Te mechanics o such a sysem would be lef up he saes o encourage

coninued experimenaion and esing o alernaive approaches.


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Remove barriers and promote effective state and institutional policies

In order o receive a gran under he Public College Qualiy Compac, saes

would be required o ake seps o remove barriers o academic progress and

graduaion and o promoe sae and insiuional policies ha have been demon-

sraed o make he higher-educaion sysem more effecive. Among he reormsha saes could pursue are:

Alignment of college admissions requirements with high school graduation

requirements

Sudens graduaing rom public high schools should be academically prepared o

sar college. o accomplish his, all sudens graduaing rom public high school

should have he knowledge and skills necessary or success a he saes public wo-

and our-year colleges. Tis can be assured by aligning he high school graduaionrequiremens wih he college admissions requiremens. One way o accomplish

his would be o align K-12 sandards o he Common Core Sae Sandards.58

However, saes could align sysems wihou adoping he Common Core Sae

Sandards by making he requiremens or high school graduaion he same as he

admission requiremens a public wo- and our-year colleges in he sae.

Bridge programs

For sudens ha lack exposure o higher educaion, a summer bridge program

may help ease he ransiion. Summer bridge programs are designed o ensure

incoming sudens are prepared or all courses and ocuses on sudy skills. Tey

can provide an effecive mehod o reduce he college readiness gap beween

incoming sudens rom underserved communiies and hose o more privileged

schooling opporuniies. Reducing his readiness gap can assis a-risk sudens by

enhancing heir success, improving heir reenion, and increasing compleion

raes. Saes could und bridge programs or all low-income sudens. oday,

insiuions ofen offer hese opporuniies o a small subse o sudens ha are

par o a ederal or sae educaional oureach program, such as Upward Bound,59

bu leave oher sudens wihou he grounding ha such bridge programs can offer.


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Learning communities

Learning communiiesgroups o people wih shared values who acively engage

in learning ogeher and rom each ohercould dramaically improve oucomes

or sudens and srenghen he insiuions hemselves. Learning communiies

respond o a specific need or challenge on campus and reinorce a culure o inquiryha is criical o suden success. Saes could require insiuions o esablish

learning communiies on campuses or sudens ha, based on research and analysis

o poenial risk paterns, are mos a risk.

Transfer of credits

Recen research demonsraes ha he process o ranserring credis can be more

effecive. According o a recen Naional Cener or Educaion Saisics repor,

more han one-hird o firs-ime undergraduae sudens ranserred a leas onceduring a six-year period. Mos ransers56 percenoriginaed rom public

wo-year insiuions.60Making he ranser o credis more efficien wihin each

saes sysem and across sae lines is criical o improving he effeciveness o our

higher-educaion sysem. On average, 20 percen o he credis earned a a

communiy college are los when sudens ranser.61Nearly one-fifh o all sudens

who ranserred rom public wo-year colleges o public our-year colleges or

universiies brough no academic credi wih hem.62In addiion, one-fifh o all

credis earned did no ranser beween public wo-year and our-year colleges

an average o 30.1 credis ranserred versus 37.7 credis available o ranser.63

Saes can do many hings o improve he ranser o credis. Te lieraure on

saewide ranser and ariculaion sysems includes a number o recommended

componens:64

Common general educaion requiremens across public insiuions in he

same sae

A common course numbering sysem

Sae- and sysem-wide academic program ariculaion agreemens, in which

insiuions agree o accep credis earned a oher insiuions paricipaing in

he agreemen


27/42


Saewide ranser and ariculaion commitees wih membership ha

includes represenaives o aculy rom wo- and our-year insiuions, as well

as sae governing boards; hese commitees assess he academic rigor o

classes a boh wo- and our-year insiuions o ensure ha sudens are able

o ranser heir credis.

ranser guides and oher web-based ools such as online course caalogs and

degree audi ools ha allow sudens, advisors, aculy, and ohers easy access o

program requiremens, smoohing he abiliy o plan a program o sudy ha

includes ranser credis

Inegraed record daa sysem or sudens ha enables he racking o sudens

progress across differen insiuions in he sae

Insiuional perormance goals and measuremens or suden ranser ha apply

o boh wo- and our-year insiuions ha are linked o insiuional unding

Financial aid policies ha promoe verical ranser, making i possible or sudens

o save money by saring heir educaion a a wo-year insiuion and ranserring

easily o a our-year program

Designaed service ceners o advise ranser sudens a boh sending and

receiving insiuions

Common graduation requirements

Anoher way ha saes could address several o he exising barriers o degree

atainmen is o develop a se o general educaion requiremens ha all public

insiuions adop. Tis approach could build on he work being done by Complee

College America on mea majors.65Mea majors are a cluser o academic programs

ha conains courses and course sequences ha mee he academic requiremens

o muliple programs o sudy. Under a mea major approach, sudens choose o

pursue sudy in a broad academic areasuch as SEM, healh care, business, or

social scienceand narrow heir sudy specific majorsuch as chemisry, nursing,accouning, or sociologyas hey progress hrough heir academic program.


28/42


A criical goal o a mea major approach is o beter align mah requiremens o he

requiremens o he mea major. College algebra can be a serious obsacle o college

success or many sudens, ye he only goal o ha course is o prepare a suden

or calculus. Bu sudens in many majors do no need o sudy calculus and would

be beter served by sudying saisics and quaniaive lieracy. Saisics and

quaniaive lieracy beter align o he needs o sudens majoring in healh care,business, or social science han calculus or college algebra. Since more han 80

percen o sudens enrolled in possecondary educaion major in fields ha do

no require calculus, requiring sudens o complee college algebra sands as an

unnecessary barrier o suden success.66

Mea majors have been implemened a specific insiuions or heir own programs.

However, mea majors have he poenial o gain addiional power when all he

public colleges in a sae embrace he creaion o common requiremens or mea

majors a relaed insiuions.

Guided pathways to success

Anoher approach ha is showing promise is he implemenaion o guided pahways

o success, a model ha has been implemened on a number o campuses around

he counry.67Under he guided pahways approach, sudens know which criical

milesone courses mus be compleed each semeser o say on rack o graduae in

a paricular major. Te milesone courses provide a mechanism o assess suden

progress and provide an early warning o sudens ha may be sruggling in heir

chosen field o sudy. Appropriaely imed milesone courses keep sudens rom

puting off challenging courses unil he consequences o changing majors becomes

oo damaging o he sudens progress.68Like mea majors, using guided pahways

o success would have greaer uiliy when all he public insiuions in a sae or

region adop common requiremens or heir pahways programs.


29/42


An investment with high returns

Te Cener or American Progress has idenified $1.4 rillion in revenue ha can

be raised hrough biparisan ax reorm.69A porion o his addiional revenue

could be used o pay or he Public College Qualiy Compac. Federal unds aimed

a supporing insiuions could also be redireced o suppor he compac, and

reorming he suden-loan programs could lead o addiional savings.

Ulimaely, sae reinvesmen will pay or isel hrough improved economic

prosperiy and produciviy: Workers wih college degrees have higher earningshroughou heir lieimes, which leads o sronger economic growh and an increased

ax base. Bachelors degree recipiens earn an average o $580,000 more over he

course o heir lieime han hose wih jus a high school diploma; associaes degree

recipiens earn an average o $245,000 more.70Graduaion raes rom public colleges

and universiies have been fla or he pas decade a approximaely 21.2 percen

or communiy colleges and 57.2 percen or our-year colleges and universiies. I,

hrough sae reinvesmen and he resuling increases in affordabiliy and qualiy,

graduaion raes rom public our-year colleges and universiies increase by 10 percen

o 62.9 percen and graduaion raes rom communiy colleges increase o 23.3

percen over he course o 10 years, hese higher graduaion raes would ranslae

o oal lieime earnings growh naionally o $52 billion or college graduaes rom

jus he final cohor o firs-ime sudens enering in 2023. Tis is nearly $260

billion over he 10-year period, assuming seady increases in he graduaion rae

and earnings.71


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Conclusion

Presiden Harry S. rumans Commission on Higher Educaion concluded ha

here was a need or sweeping changes o higher educaion in he Unied Saes.

Te commission called or an expansion o ederal suppor or higher educaion

hrough scholarships, ellowships, and general aid o ensure ha he sysem in

poorer saes was closer o he qualiy already experienced in wealhier saes.72

Troughou he 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, he ederal governmen adoped policies

ha worked o enac he vision laid ou in he ruman Commission repor. Te

policies in he Naional Deense Educaion Ac o 1958,73he Economic OpporuniyAc o 1964,74he Higher Educaion Ac o 1965,75and he Higher Educaion

Amendmens o 197276resuled in significan increases in he share o high school

graduaes going o college. Tese invesmens paid off, leading o coninued

economic growh and increased produciviy.

In recen years, he ederal governmen, several sae governmens, and privae

oundaions have all embraced a similar goal o increasing he share o Americans

who hold a qualiy possecondary educaion credenial. o achieve his goal, we

need o creae a new parnership ha leverages he remendous invesmens ha

he sae and ederal governmens have made.

I we are successul in rebuilding our ederal-sae parnership in higher educaion,

we will be able o give sudens higher-qualiy educaion ha is more affordable and

includes less accumulaion o deb. Our saes will benefi rom a beter-educaed

workorce ha is able o atrac and reain new businesses, resuling ulimaely in

an enhanced ax base. Employers will know ha hey can depend on a highly

skilled workorce now and in he uure. Wih an effecive Public College Qualiy

Compac, everyone will win.


31/42


Methodology

Tis repor analyzed daa rom he U.S. Deparmen o Educaions Inegraed

Possecondary Educaion Daa Sysem, or IPEDS.77We uilized he View rend

or one variable uncion o conduc a year-over-year analysis. We colleced

inormaion or he 200708 hrough 201112 school years using he mos recen

collecion year available, he 201112 school year.

Our general mehodology was o creae a lis o public insrucions in each sae

and o aggregae he oal amoun o unds repored in each sae. We organizedhese insiuions by conrol, eiher wo year or our year, o examine changes in

unding. o selec our insiuions we used he EZ group uncion o creae liss

by sae and by secor. We examined Public, 4-year and above and Public,

2-year insiuions.

o calculae he oal amoun o sae unding o public colleges, we analyzed

inormaion repored under he Finance heading. Under he Revenues and oher

addiions subolder, we colleced inormaion repored under hree variables:

Sae operaing grans and conracs, Sae appropriaions, and Sae nonoper-

aing grans. Te oal o hese hree amouns was our figure or oal sae unding

per insiuion. Te oal sae unding by insiuion was hen urher aggregaed

o accoun or all sae unding o higher educaion overall, sae unding oward

our-year public college, and sae unding oward wo-year communiy college.

All figures were hen calculaed in consan 2012 dollars.

o calculae insiuion revenue, we used he Finance heading and he Revenues

and oher addiions subolder. Revenue was equal o he amoun repored under

he oal all revenues and oher addiions variable.

o calculae insiuion uiion, we used he Finance heading and he Revenues

and oher addiions subolder. uiion was equal o he amoun repored under

he uiion and ees, afer deducing discouns and allowances variable.


32/42


Pennsylvania Sae Universiy and he Universiy o Delaware repored heir

finance inormaion under privae, no-or-profi accouning sandards. For hese

wo insiuions, we colleced he comparable sae unding, uiion, and revenue

figures and added hem o each saes oal.

o esablish enrollmen, we used he 12-monh enrollmen heading and he12-monh insrucional aciviy and ull-ime equivalen enrollmen: 200304 o

curren year subolder. Our figure or enrollmen was equal o he amoun lised

under he Esimaed 12-monh ull-ime equivalen (FE) undergraduae

enrollmen variable. We eliminaed public insiuions ha do no receive sae

unding, such as service academies, rom our enrollmen coun. We also eliminaed

public graduae schools ha are lised as a separae uni idenificaion code rom

boh enrollmen and unding liss. Sae unding per FE, or per suden, was

calculaed by dividing oal sae unding and sae unding o boh wo- and

our-year insiuions by hese enrollmen numbers.

o calculae ne price, we used average ne price or ull-ime, firs-ime sudens

or each income group, ound under Suden Financial Aid and Ne Price

heading. Te daa were calculaed overall by sae and by boh wo-year and

our-year insiuions.


33/42


Appendix

TABLE A1

Total state funding, FY 2008FY 2012 in constant 2012 dollars

State 200708 200809 200910 201011 201112

Recession

change

Recession

percent

change

State ra

funding p

chan

Alabama $1,835,071,209 $1,468,254,250 $1,356,047,654 $1,378,026,616 $1,459,029,099 -$376,042,110 -20.49% 45

Alaska $310,042,176 $301,587,340 $318,613,200 $332,064,805 $354,756,391 $44,714,215 14.42% 8

Arizona $1,231,924,372 $1,081,683,591 $1,027,737,269 $1,038,449,088 $834,661,998 -$397,262,374 -32.25% 50

Arkansas $807,659,096 $799,334,692 $832,249,919 $931,877,072 $958,437,090 $150,777,994 18.67% 4

California $10,030,582,484 $8,948,426,871 $9,272,282,677 $9,938,736,124 $8,378,692,247 -$1,651,890,237 -16.47% 42

Colorado $412,679,730 $413,770,637 $281,550,590 $446,697,039 $404,247,139 -$8,432,591 -2.04% 25

Connecticut $833,213,332 $1,008,367,747 $1,021,217,438 $1,071,398,152 $967,085,355 $133,872,023 16.07% 5

Delaware $263,671,621 $250,357,282 $260,877,980 $264,809,982 $265,884,824 $2,213,203 0.84% 20

Florida $4,030,098,080 $3,808,918,493 $3,575,963,658 $3,858,116,437 $3,653,257,265 -$376,840,815 -9.35% 33

Georgia $2,223,003,369 $2,088,170,182 $1,772,257,142 $1,987,335,401 $1,926,728,905 -$296,274,464 -13.33% 36

Hawaii $550,317,138 $584,360,376 $489,582,265 $475,116,867 $509,881,875 -$40,435,263 -7.35% 30

Idaho $383,726,611 $386,262,497 $351,381,259 $348,260,035 $335,046,422 - $48,680,189 -12.69% 35

I llinois $1,883,560,409 $1,899,522,265 $1,969,866,531 $2,057,669,436 $2,171,720,256 $288,159,847 15.30% 7

Indiana $1,293,435,073 $1,331,528,114 $1,309,589,788 $1,308,744,945 $1,562,217,341 $268,782,268 20.78% 3

Iowa $933,810,595 $932,718,820 $823,972,440 $792,316,151 $788,746,419 -$145,064,176 -15.53% 40

Kansas $805,549,688 $786,377,580 $762,009,855 $773,679,649 $787,342,005 -$18,207,683 -2.26% 26

Kentucky $1,220,639,062 $1,182,769,062 $1,143,688,312 $1,193,590,967 $1,210,209,175 -$10,429,887 -0.85% 23

Louisiana $1,638,933,531 $1,631,805,899 $1,253,137,509 $1,251,014,127 $1,179,809,398 -$459,124,133 -28.01% 48

Maine $265,940,186 $268,282,343 $267,333,627 $278,435,407 $275,228,597 $9,288,411 3.49% 16

Maryland $1,383,586,226 $1,428,510,496 $1,353,735,459 $1,510,172,997 $1,568,565,710 $184,979,484 13.37% 9

Massachusetts $1,258,152,116 $1,125,207,959 $959,633,531 $1,110,358,221 $1,141,105,410 -$117,046,706 -9.30% 32

Michigan $1,964,897,961 $1,826,301,472 $1,787,187,855 $1,743,436,268 $1,552,818,793 -$412,079,168 -20.97% 46

Minnesota $1,524,419,844 $1,487,756,214 $1,408,123,557 $1,350,873,316 $1,279,331,241 -$245,088,603 -16.08% 41

Mississippi $1,026,189,999 $995,820,660 $917,906,356 $906,059,201 $990,509,700 -$35,680,299 -3.48% 27


34/42


State 200708 200809 200910 201011 201112

Recession

change

Recession

percent

change

State ra

funding p

chan

Missouri $882,590,051 $916,485,068 $955,254,835 $925,718,411 $879,409,300 -$3,180,751 -0.36% 22

Montana $191,465,922 $203,791,101 $185,581,751 $187,233,877 $209,816,524 $18,350,602 9.58% 11

Nebraska $577,518,170 $600,696,259 $617,197,951 $628,854,031 $637,737,713 $60,219,543 10.43% 10

Nevada $588,390,028 $589,105,802 $381,854,235 $539,402,327 $471,133,250 -$117,256,778 -19.93% 44

New Hampshire $132,493,521 $136,582,266 $139,012,697 $147,165,169 $95,610,837 -$36,882,684 -27.84% 47

New Jersey $1,863,521,066 $1,828,380,245 $1,912,611,497 $1,878,678,285 $1,926,875,342 $63,354,276 3.40% 17

New Mexico $923,562,599 $906,520,601 $863,749,596 $826,361,956 $791,780,177 -$131,782,422 -14.27% 37

New York $4,419,279,558 $4,642,148,495 $4,662,865,123 $4,639,751,241 $4,820,357,971 $401,078,413 9.08% 12

North Carolina $3,316,425,831 $3,178,179,001 $3,371,859,339 $3,551,954,342 $3,529,171,300 $212,745,469 6.41% 13

Nor th Dakota $225,782,798 $248,694,157 $278,135,046 $282,304,183 $301,740,976 $75,958,178 33.64% 1

Ohio $2,149,195,706 $2,304,645,336 $1,973,760,781 $2,018,825,703 $2,024,365,693 -$124,830,013 -5.81% 28

Oklahoma $1,097,384,826 $1,136,081,781 $1,125,853,384 $1,169,654,133 $1,163,695,152 $66,310,326 6.04% 14

Oregon $790,973,112 $627,530,664 $753,394,810 $599,211,862 $670,493,313 -$120,479,799 -15.23% 39

Pennsylvania $1,293,031,578 $1,263,860,057 $1,280,834,235 $1,225,732,684 $1,138,936,076 -$154,095,502 -11.92% 34

Rhode Island $176,644,372 $158,597,650 $156,556,391 $162,231,392 $175,029,447 -$1,614,925 -0.91% 24

South Carolina $1,068,456,505 $889,285,113 $841,724,717 $741,791,267 $743,757,828 -$324,698,677 -30.39% 49

South Dakota $179,542,897 $185,634,430 $183,782,548 $178,373,470 $184,784,211 $5,241,314 2.92% 18

Tennessee $1,483,756,100 $1,422,055,910 $1,389,029,173 $1,637,691,697 $1,393,877,874 -$89,878,226 -6.06% 29

Texas $5,405,455,274 $5,548,804,007 $5,689,897,351 $5,764,820,969 $5,652,248,567 $246,793,293 4.57% 15

Utah $780,005,085 $737,624,420 $697,187,469 $740,413,290 $780,028,876 $23,791 0.00% 21

Vermont $70,598,186 $69,209,608 $79,548,816 $78,077,463 $72,640,753 $2,042,567 2.89% 19

Virginia $1,717,612,612 $1,632,066,006 $1,445,632,100 $1,486,548,284 $1,471,430,926 -$246,181,686 -14.33% 38

Washington $1,779,315,678 $1,825,903,082 $1,654,272,667 $1,654,727,087 $1,479,069,800 -$300,245,878 -16.87% 43

West Virginia $467,620,229 $498,376,306 $481,489,873 $493,082,285 $542,240,303 $74,620,074 15.96% 6

Wisconsin $1,030,689,351 $1,081,193,002 $1,063,192,994 $1,139,669,109 $948,078,116 -$82,611,235 -8.02% 31

Wyoming $301,181,916 $333,017,935 $329,009,892 $372,486,115 $386,499,654 $85,317,738 28.33% 2

Source: CAP analysis of U.S. Department of Education, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, available at http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/datacenter (last accessed August 2014).


35/42


TABLE A2

State funding per full-time equivelent student by state, FY 2008FY 2012, in constant 2012 dollars

States 200708 200809 200910 201011 201112

Change in

funding

Funding

percent

change

State ra

funding p

chan

Alabama $10,451 $8,054 $7,008 $6,890 $7,618 -$2,832 -27.10% 41

Alaska $17,572 $16,833 $17,136 $17,207 $17,937 $365 2.08% 5

Arizona $5,982 $5,052 $4,496 $4,267 $3,425 -$2,557 -42.74% 50

Arkansas $8,234 $7,756 $7,519 $8,033 $8,230 -$5 -0.06% 7

California $7,243 $6,073 $6,282 $6,835 $5,917 -$1,326 -18.30% 27

Colorado $2,558 $2,483 $1,547 $2,359 $2,068 -$490 -19.16% 29

Connecticut $11,907 $13,711 $13,093 $13,397 $12,095 $188 1.58% 6

Delaware $3,858 $3,421 $3,444 $3,425 $3,631 -$227 -5.87% 13

Florida $7,571 $6,860 $6,001 $6,275 $5,867 -$1,704 -22.51% 35

Georgia $8,319 $7,152 $5,363 $5,721 $5,920 -$2,399 -28.83% 43

Hawaii $17,174 $17,464 $13,629 $12,904 $13,815 -$3,358 -19.56% 30

Idaho $10,720 $10,318 $8,125 $7,353 $6,954 -$3,766 -35.13% 46

Illinois $4,962 $4,876 $4,758 $4,978 $5,375 $413 8.33% 3

Indiana $7,988 $7,939 $7,338 $7,146 $6,484 -$1,503 -18.82% 28

Iowa $7,789 $7,834 $6,321 $5,806 $6,009 -$1,780 -22.85% 36

Kansas $7,004 $6,659 $6,051 $6,034 $6,110 -$894 -12.77% 22

Kentucky $9,283 $8,822 $7,931 $8,020 $8,240 -$1,043 -11.23% 21

Louisiana $11,702 $11,464 $7,912 $7,647 $7,280 -$4,422 -37.79% 47

Maine $8,411 $8,263 $7,835 $8,039 $8,017 -$394 -4.68% 12

Maryland $7,934 $7,821 $6,910 $7,471 $7,663 -$271 -3.42% 9

Massachusetts $9,469 $8,018 $6,401 $7,242 $7,362 -$2,107 -22.25% 33

Michigan $5,438 $4,997 $4,583 $4,393 $4,042 -$1,396 -25.67% 38

Minnesota $8,840 $8,434 $7,380 $6,951 $7,058 -$1,782 -20.16% 31

Mississippi $9,657 $9,051 $7,456 $6,861 $7,662 -$1,995 -20.66% 32

Missouri $6,625 $6,531 $6,342 $5,453 $4,871 -$1,754 -26.48% 39

Montana $5,835 $6,026 $5,179 $4,814 $5,406 -$429 -7.35% 18

Nebraska $8,530 $8,600 $8,253 $8,232 $8,411 -$119 -1.40% 8

Nevada $9,029 $8,682 $5,216 $7,496 $6,997 -$2,032 -22.50% 34

New Hampshire $4,590 $4,186 $4,128 $4,251 $2,795 -$1,795 -39.10% 48

New Jersey $8,391 $7,877 $7,645 $7,326 $7,519 -$871 -10.38% 19

New Mexico $11,853 $10,969 $9,489 $8,623 $8,321 -$3,533 -29.80% 44

New York $9,156 $9,199 $8,661 $8,477 $8,784 -$372 -4.07% 11


36/42


States 200708 200809 200910 201011 201112

Change in

funding

Funding

percent

change

State ra

funding p

chan

North Carolina $10,171 $9,131 $8,909 $9,297 $9,495 -$677 -6.65% 15

North Dakota $6,958 $7,504 $7,852 $7,817 $8,285 $1,328 19.08% 1

Ohio $6,145 $6,494 $5,065 $5,002 $5,082 -$1,063 -17.31% 23

Oklahoma $8,586 $8,889 $8,108 $8,127 $8,251 -$335 -3.91% 10

Oregon $6,828 $4,910 $5,421 $4,092 $4,486 -$2,342 -34.30% 45

Pennsylvania $2,904 $2,665 $2,408 $2,416 $2,395 -$509 -17.52% 25

Rhode Island $6,172 $5,427 $5,126 $5,305 $5,734 -$438 -7.09% 16

South Carolina $7,813 $6,148 $5,322 $4,620 $4,594 -$3,219 -41.20% 49

South Dakota $6,202 $6,179 $5,997 $5,627 $5,820 -$382 -6.16% 14

Tennessee $9,327 $8,614 $7,768 $8,951 $7,693 -$1,634 -17.52% 24

Texas $7,032 $6,994 $6,477 $6,232 $6,295 -$738 -10.49% 20

Utah $8,355 $7,548 $6,423 $6,078 $6,212 -$2,143 -25.65% 37

Vermont $3,826 $3,580 $3,909 $3,757 $3,550 -$276 -7.21% 17

Virginia $6,975 $6,321 $5,241 $5,215 $5,090 -$1,885 -27.02% 40

Washington $8,045 $7,713 $6,498 $6,342 $5,799 -$2,246 -27.91% 42

West Virginia $7,261 $7,573 $6,943 $6,919 $7,689 $428 5.90% 4

Wisconsin $5,412 $5,484 $5,108 $5,375 $4,439 -$973 -17.98% 26

Wyoming $14,499 $15,385 $14,045 $15,427 $16,126 $1,627 11.22% 2



37/42


TABLE A3

Changes in tuition and state funding as a share of revenue

State

Change in state funding Change in tution

Percentage point

change State rank

Percentage point

change State rank

Alabama -10.7% 43 4.8% 40

Alaska -5.0% 16 1.2% 11

Arizona -12.9% 49 8.0% 49

Arkansas -1.6% 3 0.6% 5

California -9.4% 41 4.1% 37

Colorado -2.3% 6 1.4% 14

Connecticut -12.2% 45 -4.0% 1

Delaware -9.5% 42 3.2% 32

Florida -7.0% 30 6.1% 45

Georgia -13.6% 50 5.8% 44

Hawaii -8.2% 38 4.1% 36

Idaho -12.8% 47 5.6% 43

Illinois -3.3% 10 1.2% 12

Indiana -2.5% 8 3.3% 33

Iowa -7.9% 37 1.7% 15

Kansas -7.2% 33 0.7% 7

Kentucky -5.1% 20 2.7% 29

Louisiana -12.8% 48 6.2% 46

Maine -5.0% 18 -0.1% 3

Maryland -1.6% 4 1.4% 13

Massachusetts -10.8% 44 3.0% 30

Michigan -5.3% 21 3.6% 35

Minnesota -9.3% 40 1.1% 10

Mississippi -6.3% 26 2.4% 26

Missouri -5.4% 23 1.8% 16

Montana -2.3% 7 1.9% 19

Nebraska -3.1% 9 2.7% 28

Nevada -4.0% 12 9.0% 50

New Hampshire -6.7% 28 6.5% 48

New Jersey -5.0% 19 3.1% 31

New Mexico -7.1% 32 2.0% 22

New York -6.4% 27 0.1% 4


38/42


State

Change in state funding Change in tution

Percentage point

change State rank

Percentage point

change State rank

North Carolina -4.8% 15 2.0% 21

North Dakota -0.3% 2 -1.1% 2

Ohio -5.4% 22 1.8% 17

Oklahoma -4.2% 13 1.8% 18

Oregon -7.1% 31 3.5% 34

Pennsylvania -6.8% 29 2.4% 27

Rhode Island -4.7% 14 2.3% 25

South Carolina -12.3% 46 5.3% 41

South Dakota -7.4% 34 2.0% 23

Tennessee -9.2% 39 4.4% 39

Texas -5.0% 17 1.9% 20

Utah -6.1% 25 2.1% 24

Vermont -1.7% 5 5.3% 42

Virginia -7.7% 36 4.2% 38

Washington -7.5% 35 6.2% 47

West Virginia -3.6% 11 0.7% 6

Wisconsin -5.5% 24 1.1% 9

Wyoming -0.1% 1 0.9% 8



39/42


About the authors

David A. Bergeron is he Vice Presiden or Possecondary Educaion a he

Cener or American Progress. Elizabeh Baylor is he Associae Direcor or

Possecondary Educaion a he Cener. Anoinete Flores is a Policy Analys on

he Possecondary Educaion Policy eam a he Cener.

Acknowledgments

Te auhors would like o hank Carmel Marin, Farah Ahmad, and Jessica roe

or reviewing and providing valuable inpu and conen or his repor.


40/42


Endnotes

1 U.S. Department of Education, Table 302.30. Percentageof recent high school completers enrolled in 2-year and4-year colleges, by income level: 1 975 through 20 12,available at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_302.30.asp (last accessed September 2014).

2 U.S. Department of the Treasury, The Economics of HigherEducation (2012), available at http://www.treasury.gov/connect/blog/Documents/20121212_Economics%20of%20Higher%20Ed_vFINAL.pdf.

3 David Bergeron, Elizabeth Baylor, and Joe Valenti,Resetting the Trillion-Dollar Student-Loan Debt Problem(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2013),available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/higher-education/report/2013/11/21/79821/resetting-the-trillion-dollar-student-loan-debt-problem/.

4 U.S. Department of Education, Table 302.30.

5 Bureau of the Census, Annual Social and EconomicSupplement from the Current Population Survey: TableH-5. Race and Hispanic Origin of HouseholderHouse-holds by Median and Mean Income: 1967 to 2012,September, available at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/household/h05.xls (lastaccessed August 2014).

6 National Center for Education Statistics, 2011-12National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (U.S.Department of Education, 2012).

7 U.S. Department of Education, The American Recoveryand Reinvestment Act of 2009: Education Jobs andReform, February 18, 2009, available at http://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/leg/recovery/factsheet/overview.html.

8 Ibid.

9 U.S. Senate, Democratic Policy Committee, The HealthCare and Education Reconciliation Act, available athttp://www.dpc.senate.gov/healthreformbill/healthbill61.pdf(last accessed September 2014); In2009, the federal government authorized the American

Recovery and Reinvestment Act, or ARRAalso knownas the stimulusto increase investments in the PellGrant program and create the American Opportunity

Tax Credit, or AOTC. The Health Care and EducationReconciliation Act of 2010 increased the investment inthe Pell Grant Program.

10 Elizabeth Baylor and David Bergeron, Public CollegeQuality Compact for Students and Taxpayers (Washing-ton: Center for American Progress, 2014), available athttp://www.americanprogress.org/issues/higher-education/report/2014/01/28/83049/public-college-quality-compact-for-students-and-taxpayers/.

11 Ibid.

12 Ibid.

13 CAP analysis of data from National Center for Education

Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education DataSystem, available at http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/(lastaccessed August 2014).

14 For the definition of FTE of students, see U.S. Departmentof Education, Integrated Postsecondary EducationData System (IPEDS) Glossary, available at http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/glossary/ (last accessed August 2014).

15 CAP analysis of data from National Center for EducationStatistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education DataSystem.

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid.

18 North Dakota University System, North Dakotachooses to heavily invest prosperity proceeds in futureof higher education, December 10, 2012, available athttp://www.ndus.edu/news/detail.asp?newsID=167.


20 Ibid.

21 Baylor and Bergeron, Public College Quality Compactfor Students and Taxpayers.

22 Bergeron, Baylor, and Valenti, Resetting the Trillion-DollarStudent-Loan Debt Problem.


24 Baylor and Bergeron, Public College Quality Compactfor Students and Taxpayers.


26 Ibid.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid.

31 Ibid.

32 David Bergeron, Farah Ahmad, and Elizabeth Baylor,Lessons Learned: Implications from StudyingMinority-Serving Institutions (Washington: Center forAmerican Progress, 2014), available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/higher-education/report/2014/04/10/87580/lessons-learned-2/.


34 Ibid.

35 Christopher M. Mullin, Why Access Matters: TheCommunity College Student Body (Washington:American Association of Community Colleges, 2012),

available at http://www.aacc.nche.edu/Publications/Briefs/Documents/PB_AccessMatters.pdf.

36 U.S. Department of Education, 2011-2012 Federal PellGrant Program End-of-Year Report(2012), Table 19,available at http://www2.ed.gov/finaid/prof/resources/data/pell-2011-12/pell-eoy-2011-12.html,.
http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_302.30.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_302.30.asphttp://www.treasury.gov/connect/blog/Documents/20121212_Economics%20of%20Higher%20Ed_vFINAL.pdfhttp://www.treasury.gov/connect/blog/Documents/20121212_Economics%20of%20Higher%20Ed_vFINAL.pdfhttp://www.treasury.gov/connect/blog/Documents/20121212_Economics%20of%20Higher%20Ed_vFINAL.pdfhttp://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/household/h05.xlshttp://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/household/h05.xlshttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/leg/recovery/factsheet/overview.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/leg/recovery/factsheet/overview.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/leg/recovery/factsheet/overview.htmlhttp://www.dpc.senate.gov/healthreformbill/healthbill61.pdfhttp://www.dpc.senate.gov/healthreformbill/healthbill61.pdfhttp://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/glossary/http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/glossary/http://www.ndus.edu/news/detail.asp?newsID=167http://www.aacc.nche.edu/Publications/Briefs/Documents/PB_AccessMatters.pdfhttp://www.aacc.nche.edu/Publications/Briefs/Documents/PB_AccessMatters.pdfhttp://www2.ed.gov/finaid/prof/resources/data/pell-2011-12/pell-eoy-2011-12.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/finaid/prof/resources/data/pell-2011-12/pell-eoy-2011-12.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/finaid/prof/resources/data/pell-2011-12/pell-eoy-2011-12.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/finaid/prof/resources/data/pell-2011-12/pell-eoy-2011-12.htmlhttp://www.aacc.nche.edu/Publications/Briefs/Documents/PB_AccessMatters.pdfhttp://www.aacc.nche.edu/Publications/Briefs/Documents/PB_AccessMatters.pdfhttp://www.ndus.edu/news/detail.asp?newsID=167http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/glossary/http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/glossary/http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/http://www.dpc.senate.gov/healthreformbill/healthbill61.pdfhttp://www.dpc.senate.gov/healthreformbill/healthbill61.pdfhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/leg/recovery/factsheet/overview.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/leg/recovery/factsheet/overview.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/leg/recovery/factsheet/overview.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/household/h05.xlshttp://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/household/h05.xlshttp://www.treasury.gov/connect/blog/Documents/20121212_Economics%20of%20Higher%20Ed_vFINAL.pdfhttp://www.treasury.gov/connect/blog/Documents/20121212_Economics%20of%20Higher%20Ed_vFINAL.pdfhttp://www.treasury.gov/connect/blog/Documents/20121212_Economics%20of%20Higher%20Ed_vFINAL.pdfhttp://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_302.30.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_302.30.asp


41/42


37 U.S. Senate, Health, Education, Labor & PensionsCommittee, Is the New GI Bill Working?: For-ProfitColleges Increasing Veterans Enrollment and FederalFunds (2014), available at http://www.harkin.senate.gov/documents/pdf/53d8f7f69102e.pdf.

38 Jeff Kolnick, Reinvesting in Higher Ed: A Lesson fromFour States,The Academe Blog, June 26, 2014,available at http://academeblog.org/2014/06/26/reinvesting-in-higher-ed-a-lesson-from-four-states/.

39 Ibid.

40 Ibid.

41 Ibid.

42 Providence Business News, UMass committee votes tofreeze tuition, fees for second year, June 11, 2014,available at http://pbn.com/UMass-committee-votes-to-freeze-tuition-fees-for-second-year,97702.

43 Kolnick, Reinvesting in Higher Ed: A Lesson fromFour States.

44 Lebioda, A Gamble with Consequen ces.

45 David P. Smole, The Campus-Based Financial AidPrograms: A Review and Analysis of the Allocation ofFunds to Institutions and the Distribution of Aid toStudents (Washington: Congressional Research

Service, 2005), available at http://projectonstudent-debt.org/files/pub/Campus%20Based%20II.pdf.


47 U.S. Department of Education, Federal Pell Grants,available at https://studentaid.ed.gov/types/grants-scholarships/pell(last accessed September2014).

48 U.S. Department of Education, 2011-2012 Federal PellGrant Program End-of-Year Report.


50 U.S. Department of Education, Annual and AggregateLoan Limits, available at https://studentaid.ed.gov/types/loans/subsidized-unsubsidized(last accessedSeptember 2014).

51 CAP analysis of data from the National Center forEducation Statistics, 201112 National PostsecondaryStudent Aid Survey (U.S. Department of Education,2012),available athttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/npsas.Prepared specifically for David Bergeron, TestimonyBefore the U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing,and Urban Affairs, July 31, 2014, available at http://www.banking.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Files.View&FileStore_id=a92f7859-417d-4e94-a44e-805aeb59627b.


53 Ibid.

54 Richard Veilleux, UConns Six-Year Graduation Rate Hitsa New High, UConn Today, January 20, 2 011, availableat http://today.uconn.edu/blog/2011/01/uconns-six-year-graduation-rate-hits-a-new-high/.

55 Office of the Governor, Next Generation Connecticut,available at http://www.governor.ct.gov/malloy/lib/malloy/Next_Generation_CT_Overview.pdf(lastaccessed October 2014).

56 Kysie Miao, Performance-Based Funding of HigherEducation: A Detailed Look at Best Practices in 6 States(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2012),available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/higher-education/report/2012/08/07/12036/performance-based-funding-of-higher-education.

57 Office of Missouri Governor Jay Nixon, Gov. Nixon signstwo higher education bills; provisions addressperformance funding for universities and colleges,increased distance education opportunities, Press release,June 19, 2014, available at http://governor.mo.gov/

news/archive/gov-nixon-signs-two-higher-education-bills-provisions-address-performance-funding.

58 Center for American Progress, A Guide to the CommonCore State Standards, December 4, 2013, available athttp://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education/news/2013/12/04/80426/a-guide-to-the-common-core-state-standards/.

59 U.S. Department of Education, Upward Bound Program,available at http://www2.ed.gov/programs/trioupbound/index.html (last accessed August 2014).

60 Sean Anthony Simone, Transferability of PostsecondaryCredit Following Student Transfer or Coenrollment(Washington: National Center for Education Statistics,2014), available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014163.pdf.

61 Ibid.

62 Ibid.

63 Ibid.

64 Western Interstate Commission on Higher Education,Best Practices in Statewide Articulation and TransferSystems (2009), available at http://www.wiche.edu/info/publications/ATlitOverview.pdf.

65 Complete College America, Guided Pathways to Success,available at http://completecollege.org/the-game-changers/#clickBoxTeal (last accessed Augus t 2014).

66 CAP Analysis of data from National Center for EducationStatistics, National Postsecondary Student Aid Survey,available at http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/npsas/ (lastassessed October 2014). Complete College America,

Guided Pathways to Success.

67 Ibid.

68 Ibid.

69 Harry Stein, Alexandra Thornton, and John Craig, TheGrowing Consensus to Improve Our Tax Code(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2014),available at http://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/SteinTaxReformReport.pdf.

70 Fred Drew, Compare Lifetime Earnings by CollegeMajor with New Hamilton Project Interactive, TheBrookings Institution, September 29, 2014, available athttp://www.brookings.edu/blogs/brookings-now/posts/2014/09/compare-lifetime-earnings-by-college-major-with-new-hamilton-project-interactive.

71 CAP Analysis of data from National Center forEducation Statistics, Integrated PostsecondaryEducation Data System; The H amilton Project, MajorDecisions: What Graduates Earn Over Their Lifetimes(2014), available at http://hamiltonproject.org/earnings_by_major/

72 CAP Analysis of data from National Center forEducation Statistics, Integrated PostsecondaryEducation Data System.
http://www.harkin.senate.gov/documents/pdf/53d8f7f69102e.pdfhttp://www.harkin.senate.gov/documents/pdf/53d8f7f69102e.pdfhttp://academeblog.org/http://projectonstudentdebt.org/files/pub/Campus%20Based%20II.pdfhttp://projectonstudentd