A Glossary of Marine Nature Conservation and Fisheries

A Glossary ofMarine NatureConservationand Fisheries

Stephen J LockwoodEditor

Glossary 1/3/02 11:25 am Page 1


A Glossary of Marine Nature Conservation

and Fisheries

Stephen J LockwoodEditor


Anon. 2001 A glossary of Marine Nature Conservation and Fisheries.Countryside Council for Wales, Bangor.

ISBN: 1 861 69 085 1CCC 183 2k

Contract No.: FC 73-02-171Countryside Council for WalesPlas PenrhosFfordd PenrhosBangorGwynedd LL57 2LQ

© Crown Copyright


iii

Contents

Foreword ............................................................................... v

Acknowledgements ................................................................ vii

Abbreviations and Acronyms .................................................. 1

Names of Animals in Text ....................................................... 11

GlossaryA............................................................ 19

B ............................................................ 23

C ........................................................... 27

D .......................................................... 32

E ........................................................... 36

F ............................................................ 40

G .......................................................... 44

H ........................................................... 45

I ............................................................ 47

J ............................................................. 50

K ........................................................... 50

L ............................................................ 51

M .......................................................... 53

N ........................................................... 57

O ........................................................... 59

P ........................................................... 60

Q ........................................................... 63

R ........................................................... 63

S ........................................................... 66

T ........................................................... 72

U .......................................................... 74

V............................................................ 75

W .......................................................... 75

Y ........................................................... 76

Z ........................................................... 76

References ............................................................................. 77


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v

Foreword

The whole field of fisheries is so beset with jargon and acronmyns that for anyonewishing to understand the issue, it can be a nightmare. Add to that increasing callsto protect marine wildlife, which has led to new terminology, particularly relatingto the Habitats and Species Directive.

At a time when the European Commission is pushing for consideration of theenvironment alongside all activities (through a process called integration), it isimportant to ensure that all those involved with fisheries and the environment havea common understanding of terms. This is why this glossary of terms for marinenature conservation and fisheries was commissioned. There has been wideconsultation with a cross section of individuals over the definition of terms, whichin itself helped increase common understanding. It is of paramount importancethat integration of fisheries and the environment occurs in practice, at the grassroots level and not just in principle. We hope that this glossary will help to achievesuch an aim.

A number of communications from the European Union stress the importance ofdisseminating scientific information in a way that is easily understood. The ECBiodiversity Strategy [COM(1998)42] calls on the Community to developprogrammes for public information, education and awareness raising onconservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. This should also apply to theCommission’s action plan for biodiversity in fisheries. A similar commitmentapplies in relation to information on the impact of fisheries on marine ecosystems.

Countryside Council for Wales on behalf of the UK statutory nature conservation agencies.


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Acknowledgements

A glossary such as this cannot be wholly original work, it must either comprise theedited contributions of numerous authors or be compiled by reference to as manysources as are relevant and readily available. This glossary is very much acompilation.

In drafting the definitions we have referred to a great many publications, many ofthem qualifying as the ‘gray literature’ of national and international scientificbodies, non-governmental organizations and government reports. We are gratefulto the authors, both named and anonymous, of these diverse publications for theassistance which unwittingly they have given.

The publications that provided most help are listed in the references, includingseveral dictionaries. Where a definition was taken more or less verbatim from aparticular publication the source is cited in the text as well as including it in thereferences. We acknowledge our appreciation for the help these authors andpublishers have given.

Many friends and colleagues in the voluntary and statutory nature conservationbodies, government fishery laboratories, universities and the fishing industrysuggested terms for inclusion in the glossary. Several of them also gave generouslyof their time to read and comment on the draft definitions. We thank them all butshoulder the responsibility for any shortcomings the reader will feel or find.

This work was funded by the Countryside Council for Wales (Contract No.: FC 73-02-171) as part of its fisheries and marine environment programme.

Dr Stephen J Lockwood (editor) Dr N Clare EnoCoastal Fisheries Conservation Senior Maritime Policy Officer& Management Countryside Council for WalesColwyn Bay Bangor


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1

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACFA* Advisory Committee on Fisheries and Aquaculture (EC)

ACFM* Advisory Committee for Fisheries Management (ICES)

ACME* Advisory Committee for the Marine Environment (ICES)

ACOPS Advisory Committee on Protection of the Seas

ALARA As Low As Reasonably Achievable

AM Assembly Member – member of the National Assembly for Wales

AnaCat* Anadromous and Catadromous Fish

ASCOBANS* Agreement on Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Sea; an Annex to the Bonn Convention*

ASFC Association of Sea Fisheries Committees

ASMO Assessments & Monitoring Group (of OSPAR)

ASP* Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning

ASSG Association of Scottish Shellfish Growers

ASSI* Area of Special Scientific Interest (Northern Ireland)

BAP* (UK) Biodiversity Action Plan

BATNEEC Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost

BIM Bord Iascaigh Mhara / Irish Sea Fisheries Board

BioMar Biological Diversity in Marine Systems – an EU LIFE Project

BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand

BODC British Oceanographic Data Centre, Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory (NERC)

BSFO British Sea Fisheries Officer

CA Countryside Agency (formerly the Countryside Commission)

CBD UN Convention on Biodiversity

CCAMLR Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

CCMS Centre for Coastal & Marine Sciences (NERC)

* Further information is given in the main text of the Glossary


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CCW Countryside Council for Wales

CEC* Commission of the European Communities

CEFAS Centre for Environment Fisheries & Aquaculture Science

CEMARE Centre for Economics & Management of Aquatic Resources, University of Portsmouth

CEMIEP Coastal and Estuarine Management Institute for Environmental Policy, University College London

CERCI Centre for European Research in Coastal Issues, University College Scarborough

CFO Chief Fisheries Officer (of Sea Fisheries Committee)

CFP* Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union

CITES Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species

CORINE Co-ordination of Information on the Classification of the Environment (EU project)

CPUE* Catch Per Unit of Effort

CSD Commission on Sustainable Development

CSW* Chilled Seawater tanks – the hold on pelagic fishing vessels.

CZM* Coastal Zone Management

DAF Department of Agriculture & Fisheries, States of GuernseyDepartment of Agriculture & Fisheries, States of Jersey

DAFF Department of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry, Isle of Man

DANI Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland – now DARD

DARD (NI) Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (Northern Ireland) – formerly DANI.

DETR Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions

DG XI* Commission of the European Communities Directorate General for the Environment – now DG Environment

DG XIV* Commission of the European Communities Directorate General for Fisheries – now DG Fisheries

DGPS* Differential Global Positioning System

DI District Inspector of Fisheries

DML Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory

DMLC Dove Marine Laboratory Cullercoats, University of Newcastle* Further information is given in the main text of the Glossary


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DoE Department of Environment. Now part of DETR

DoE(NI) Department of Environment (Northern Ireland)

DoT Department of Transport. Now part of DETR

DSP* Diarrhoeic Shellfish Poisoning

DTI Department of Trade and Industry

EA Environment Agency

EAGGF European Agriculture Guidance & Guarantee Fund (inc Fisheries)

EC* European Commission (formally, Commission of the European Communities CEC)

ECA European Court of Auditors

ECJ European Court of Justice

EcoQ Ecological Quality

EcoQO Ecological Quality Objective

ECSA Estuarine & Coastal Sciences Association

EEA European Environment Agency

EEC European Economic Community

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone

EFH Essential Fish Habitat

EHO Environmental Health Officer

EHS Environment & Heritage Service (Northern Ireland)

EHWST Extreme High Water of Spring Tides

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

ELIFONTS Effects of Large-Scale Industrial Fisheries on NonTarget Species (EUproject)

ELOIS European Land-Ocean Interface Study

ELWST Extreme Low Water of Spring Tides

EMP Estuary Management Plan

EMS* European Marine Site

EN* English Nature

EP European Parliament

EQO Environmental Quality Objective* Further information is given in the main text of the Glossary


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EQS Environmental Quality Standard

ERDF European Regional Development Fund

ES Environmental Statement

ESF European Social Fund

ESUSG European Sustainable Use Specialist Groups (of the IUCN)

EU* European Union

EuroPeche Umbrella body for EU national fishermen’s organisations (not an acronym)

F * Fishing mortality rate

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations

FCS* Favourable conservation status (Habitats & Species Directive)

FIFG Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance (EU structural fund)

FO Fisheries Officer

FoE Friends of the Earth

FOOCG Fisheries & Offshore Oil Consultation Group

FRS Fisheries Research Services – Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen

GB Great Britain – England, Scotland & Wales

GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution(UN Advisory Group)

GIS Geographic Information System

GMO Genetically Modified Organism

GPS Global Positioning System

HAB* Harmful Algal Bloom

HAP* Habitats Action Plan (part of UKBAP)

HAT Highest Astronomic Tide

HelCom Helsinki Commission/Convention for the Environmental Protection of the Baltic Sea

HIE Highlands & Islands Enterprise

HIFI Hull International Fisheries Institute, University of Hull

hp Horse Power 0.7355 kW

HWST High Water Spring Tides



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IACMST InterAgency Committee for Marine Science & Technology

IBSFC International Baltic Sea Fisheries Commission

ICCAT International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas

ICES* International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

ICZM* Integrated Coastal Zone Management

IDBNI Industrial Development Board for Northern Ireland

IECS Institute of Estuarine & Coastal Studies, University of Hull

IEEP Institute for European Environmental Policy

IFOMA International Fish Oil & Meal Association

IMM* Intermediate Ministerial Meeting of the North Sea Conference

IMO International Maritime Organisation of the United Nations

IOC International Oceanographic Committee of the United Nations

IOE Institute of Offshore Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

ISF Irish Sea Forum

ITQ* Individual Transferable Quota

IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources – also known as the World Conservation Union

IWC International Whaling Commission

JAMP Joint Assessment and Monitoring Programme (OSPAR)

JNCC Joint Nature Conservation Committee

kW Kilowatts

LAT Lowest Astronomic Tides

LEAP Local Environment Agency Plan

LGA Local Government Association

LIFE L’Instrument Financier pour l’Environment (EU funding package)

LNR Local Nature Reserve

LOIS Land-Ocean Interface Study

LPUE* Landings Per Unit of Effort

LWST Low Water of Spring Tides

M* Natural mortality rate of fish

MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food



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MAGP* Multi-Annual Guidance Programme

MarLIN Marine Life Information Network (marine element of National Biodiversity Network)

MarPol International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea from Shipping

MBA Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth

MBAL* Minimum Biologically Acceptable Limit

MCA Maritime & Coastguard Agency

MCA* Marine Consultation Area (Scotland)

MCS Marine Conservation Society

MEHRA* Marine Environmental High Risk Area

MEP Member of the European Parliament

MEY* Maximum Economic Yield

MHW Mean High Water

MHWNT Mean High Water of Neap Tides

MHWOT Mean High Water of Ordinary Tides

MHWST Mean High Water of Spring Tides

MIFOS Modelling the Impact of Fisheries On Seabirds (EU project)

MLS* Minimum Landing Size

MLW Mean Low Water

MLWNT Mean Low Water of Neap Tides

MLWOT Mean Low Water of Ordinary Tides(the seaward limit of ‘land’ in England & Wales)

MLWST Mean Low Water of Spring Tides (the seaward limit of ‘land’, in Scotland)

MMS* Minimum Mesh Size

MNCR Marine Nature Conservation Review (JNCC project)

MNR* Marine Nature Reserve

MoD Ministry of Defence

MPA* Marine Protected Area

MPCU Marine Pollution Control Unit (now Counter-pollution branch of the Maritime & Coastguard Agency)



7

MSC* Marine Stewardship Council

MSP Member of Scottish Parliament

MSVPA* Multi-species Virtual Population Analysis

MSY* Maximum Sustainable Yield

NAFO* North Atlantic Fisheries Organisation

NAO North Atlantic Oscillation

NASCO North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organisation

NAWAD National Assembly for Wales Agriculture Department (previously WOAD), the Department covers fisheries

NBD National Biodiversity Network

NCEAG National Coasts & Estuaries Advisory Group (now a SIGSOG)

NEAFC North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission

NERC Natural Environment Research Council

NEUT Working group on Nutrients and Eutrophication (OSPAR)

NFFO National Federation of Fishermen’s Organisations

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NI Northern Ireland

NMMP National Marine Monitoring Plan (UK)

NMBAQC National Marine Biological Analytical Quality Control Scheme

NMPMMG National Marine Pollution Monitoring Management Group

NNR National Nature Reserve

NRPB National Radiological Protection Board

NSTF North Sea Task Force

NTZ* No Take Zone

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development

OPRU Oil Pollution Research Unit

ORNIS Scientific Advisory Committee of EC Birds Directive

OSPAR* Oslo and Paris Commission / Convention

PDA Potentially Damaging Activity (in MPA)

PDO Potentially Damaging Operation (in SSSI)



8

PEML Port Erin Marine Laboratory, University of Liverpool, Isle of Man

PESCA The name (not abbreviation) of an EU fisheries funding package

PML Plymouth Marine Laboratory

PO* Producer Organisation

POL Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory, Bidston (NERC)

PRIMER Plymouth Routines In Multivariate Ecological Research

PSP* Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning

PSSA Particularly Sensitive Sea Area

psu Practical Salinity Units ( replaces parts per thousand, ‰)

QSR Quality Status Report, eg North Sea QSR

QUASIMEME Quality Assurance of Information for Marine Environment Monitoring in Europe

RA* Relevant Authority (Habitats (Conservation) Regulations

Ramsar* Town in Iran after which the Ramsar Convention is named

RN Royal Navy

RSPB Royal Society for the Protection of Birds

RSW* Refrigerated Seawater tanks – the hold on (pelagic) fishing vessels

SAC* Special Area of Conservation

SAGB Shellfish Association of Great Britain

SAHFOS Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Oceanographic Science

SAMS Scottish Association for Marine Science, Dunstaffnage, Oban (previously SMBA)

SAP* Species Action Plan (part of UKBAP)

SBL* Safe Biological Limits

SCANS Small Cetacean Abundance in the North Sea (EU project)

SCI* Site of Community Importance

SCOPAC Standing Conference on Problems Associated with the Coastline

SCOR Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (IOC)

SEPA Scottish Environment Protection Agency

SERAD Scottish Executive for Rural Affairs Department (previously SOAEFD)



9

SFC* Sea Fisheries Committee

SFF Scottish Fishermen’s Federation

SFI* Sea Fisheries Inspectorate

SFIA Sea Fish Industry Authority now known as Seafish

SFPA Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency

SIGSOG Special Interest Group of Senior Officers Group (of LGA)

SMA* Sensitive Marine Areas (England)

SMBA Scottish Marine Biological Association (now SAMS)

SMP Shoreline Management Plan (flood defence & coastal protection)

SMRU Sea Mammal Research Unit, University of St Andrews

SNH Scottish Natural Heritage

SNIFFER Scotland & Northern Ireland Forum for Environment Research

SOAEFD Scottish Office Agriculture, Environment and Fisheries Department (now SERAD)

SOC Southampton Oceanographic Centre, University of Southampton

sp.; spp. Species; singular and plural

SPA* Special Protection Area

SPFA Scottish Pelagic Fishermen’s Association

SSB* Spawning Stock Biomass

SSFA Shetland Salmon Farmers Association

SSGA Scottish Salmon Growers Association

SSMG Scottish Shellfish Marketing Group

SSSI* Site of Special Scientific Interest

STECF* Scientific, Technical & Economic Committee on Fisheries (EC)

STQ Single Transferable Quota

SVPA* Separable Virtual Population Analysis

SWFPA Scottish White Fish Producers Association

SWFPO South West Fish Producers Organisation

TAC* Total Allowable Catch

TBT Tri-Butyl Tin – antifouling component in marine paint



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UK The United Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern Ireland

UKBAP* UK Biodiversity Action Plan

UKBG UK Biodiversity Group

UKDMAP United Kingdom Digital Marine Atlas Project

UKOOA UK Offshore Operators’ Association

UN United Nations

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment & Development the ‘World Summit’ or Rio Conference, 1992

UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Cultural & Scientific Organisation

VCO Voluntary Conservation Organisation

VCU* Vessel Capacity Units [length (m) x breadth (m)] + 0.45 engine power (kW)

VMNR Voluntary Marine Nature Reserve

VNR Voluntary Nature Reserve

VPA* Virtual Population Analysis

WDA Welsh Development Agency

WDCS Whale & Dolphin Conservation Society

WOAD Welsh Office Agriculture Department (now NAWAD)

WWF World-Wide Fund for Nature (previously World Wildlife Fund)

WWT Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust

Y/R Yield Per Recruit

YPR Yield Per Recruit

Z* Total mortality rate


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Common Name Scientific Name

Barnacle ................................................Balanus sppElminius modestusSemibalanus balanoides

Bass ...................................................... Dicentrachus labrax

Black fish .............................................. Centrolophus niger

Blue ling ............................................... Molva dypterigia

Blue whiting ......................................... Micromesistius poutassou

Cockles ................................................. Cerastoderma edule

Cod ....................................................... Gadus morhua

Cold water coral ................................... Lophelia pertusa

Crab, edible/brown ............................... Cancer pagurusspider .......................................... Maia squinadovelvet/swimming ......................... Necora (Liocarcinus) puber

Cuttlefish ...............................................Sepia officinalis

Dogfish, lesser spotted............................ Scylliorhinuscaniculagreater spotted ....................... Scylliorhinus stellaris

Dolphin, bottle-nose ............................. Tursiops truncatuscommon ................................ Delphinus delphis

Dover sole ............................................ Solea solea

Eel, European ........................................ Anguilla anguilla

Flounder ................................................Platichthys flesus

Fulmar ...................................................Fulmarus glacialis

Haddock ............................................... Melanogrammus aeglefinus

Hake ..................................................... Merluccius merluccius

Herring ..................................................Clupea harengus

Horse mussel .........................................Modiolus modiolus

Lamprey ................................................ Petromyzon marinus

Limpet ...................................................Patella vulgata

Animals Named in Glossary


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Lobster .................................................. Homarus gammarus

Lophelia – a deep water coral ...............Lophelia pertusa

Lugworm ...............................................Arenicola spp.

Mackerel ............................................... Scomber scombrus

Maerl or calcified seaweed ................... Lithothamnion spp. Phymotolithon calcareum

Megrim ................................................. Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis

Monkfish (anglerfish), white .................. Lophius piscatoriusblack .................. L. budegassa

Mullet, red ............................................ Mullus surmuletusgolden .......................................Liza auratathin lipped ................................ Liza ramadathick lipped ...............................Chelon labrosus

Mussel ...................................................Mytilus edulis

Nephrops – Dublin Bay Prawn ..............Nephrops norvegicus– Langoustine– Norway Lobster– ‘Prawns’– Scampi

Norway pout ......................................... Trisopterus esmarkii

Octopus, lesser (northerly sp.) ...............Eledone cirrhosacommon (southerly sp.) ......... Octopus vulgaris

Orange roughy ...................................... Hoplostethus atlanticus

Otter ..................................................... Lutra lutra

Oyster, native/European ........................ Ostrea edulis

Petrels ................................................... Hydrobatidae

Pilchard .................................................Sardina pilchardus

Plaice .................................................... Pleuronectes platessa

Pollack .................................................. Pollachius pollachius

Porpoise, common/harbour ................... Phocoena phocoena

Pout whiting or bib ............................... Trisopterus luscus

Ray, blonde ...........................................Raja brachyuracuckoo .......................................... Raja naevus

Ray, thornback (roker) ........................... Raja clavata


13

Razorfish ............................................... Solenaceaeg Solen spp. & Ensis spp.

Red fish ................................................. Sebastes marinus

Reef-building tube worms ..................... Sabellaria alveolataSabellaria spinulosa

Roundnose grenadier ............................ Coryphaenoides rupestris

Sailfish .................................................. Istiphorus albicans

Saithe (coley) ........................................ Pollachius virens

Salmon, Atlantic ....................................Salmo salar

Sandeels ................................................Ammodytidae

Scallops, king ........................................ Pecten maximus

Scallops, queen ..................................... Chlamys spp.

Sea urchin, edible ................................. Echinus esculentus

Seal, common ....................................... Phoca vitulinagrey .............................................. Halichoerus grypus

Shad, allis ............................................. Alosa alosatwaite .......................................... Alosa fallax

Shark, basking .......................................Cetorhinus maximusblue ............................................Prionace glaucaporbeagle ................................... Lamna nasus

Shrimp, brown ...................................... Crangon crangonpink ......................................... Pandalus montagui

Skate, common .................................... Raja batislong-nose ................................... Raja oxyrhincus

Spur dog ................................................Squalus acanthias

Sprat ......................................................Sprattus sprattus

Squid .....................................................Loligo spp.Alloteuthis spp.

Sturgeon, European ............................... Acipenser sturio

Swordfish .............................................. Xiphias gladius

Trout, sea, migratory or brown .............. Salmo trutta

Turbot ....................................................Scophthalmus rhombus

Turtles ....................................................Testudinata


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Tuna ......................................................Thunnus spp.

Walrus .................................................. Odobenus rosmarus

Whales, baleen ..................................... eg Balaenoptera spp.toothed, killer ......................... eg Orcinus orcasperm ..................................... Physeter catodon

Whelk ................................................... Buccinum undatum

Whiting .................................................Merlangius merlangus

Winkle .................................................. Littorina spp.


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Scientific Name Common Name

Arenicola spp. ...................................... Lugworm

Cancer pagurus .................................... Crab, edible, brown

Centrolophus niger ............................... Black Fish

Cerastoderma ....................................... Cockles

Cetorhinus maximus ............................ Basking shark

Chlamys spp. ........................................ Queen Scallop

Clupea harengus ................................... Herring

Coryphaenoides rupestris ..................... Roundnose grenadier

Fulmarus glacialis ................................ Fulmar

Gadus morhua ...................................... Cod

Halichoerus grypus ...............................Grey seal

Homarus gammarus ............................. Lobster

Hoplostethus atlanticus ........................ Orange roughy

Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis ................ Megrim

Lithothamnion spp. ...............................Maerl or calcified seaweedPhymotolithon calcareum

Lophelia pertusa ................................... Cold water coral

Lophius piscatorius ............................... Anglerfish orL. budegassa ......................................... Monkfish

Melanogrammus aeglefinus .................. Haddock

Merluccius merluccius ......................... Hake

Micromesistius poutassou...................... Blue whiting

Modolius modolius ...............................Horse mussel

Molva dypterigia ...................................Blue ling

Mytilus edulis ....................................... Mussel

Nephrops norvegicus ........................... Dublin Bay prawnLangoustinesNephropsNorway LobsterScampi

Odobenus rosmarus ............................. Walrus


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Ostrea edulis .........................................Native oyster

Patella vulgata .......................................Limpets

Pecten maximus ................................... King scallop

Phoca vitulina ...................................... Common seal

Phocoena phocoena ............................ Common or harbour porpoise

Pleuronectes platessa ........................... Plaice

Raja brachyura ..................................... Blonde ray

Raja clavata ......................................... Thornback ray or roker

Raja naevus ......................................... Cuckoo ray

Sabellaria alveolata ............................. Reef building tube wormsSabellaria spinulosa

Salmo salar .......................................... Salmon

Salmo trutta .......................................... Sea trout

Sardina pilchardus ............................... Pilchard

Scomber scombrus ............................... Mackerel

Squalus acanthias ................................ Spur dog

Scylliorhinus canicula .......................... Lesser spotted dogfish

Scylliorhinus stellaris ............................ Greater spotted dogfish

Sebastes marinus ................................. Red fish

Solea solea ........................................... Dover sole

Trisopterus esmarkii .............................. Norway pout

Trisopterus luscus ................................. Pout whiting or bib


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18


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A

Glossary

abiotic – anything that is non-living.

abyss – great depth; typically taken tobe depths greater than 2000 m (Fig. 1).

access rights – authorisation grantedby the coastal state for others to fishwithin the coastal state’s fishery limits .Access may be granted free of chargeor licensing fees can be levied by thecompetent authority. The EU negotiateswith third countries allowing themaccess to fish between 12 and 200miles of EU coastal state baselines andvice versa. Some states have the‘historic right’ to fish within specifiedsections of the UK 6-12 mile fisherylimits.

accessibility – the condition wherefish occupy a position that enablesfishermen to approach and capturethem with the appropriate gear.

ACFA – the Advisory Committee onFisheries and Aquaculture: acommittee of (EC) DG Fisheries thatincludes representatives from thefishing and aquaculture industries aswell as non-governmentalorganisations with interests indevelopment and the environment(Fig. 2).

ACFM – the ICES AdvisoryCommittee on Fisheries Managementresponsible for reviewing stockassessments undertaken by ICES

working groups and formulating ICESadvice to the fisheries commissions(Fig. 3).

ACME – the ICES AdvisoryCommittee on the Marine Environmentresponsible for reviewing scientificaspects of marine environmentalmanagement other than fisherymanagement (see ACFM). Advice isformulated for various internationalcommissions, eg OSPAR and HelCom(Fig. 3).

acquis communitaire – allEuropean Union (EU) legislation that isadopted by states as part of theiraccession to the EU.

age group or class – all the fish ina species’ population that are of thesame age; eg 0-group, I-group, II-groupetc. The ICES convention is to allocateall marine fish a notional birth date of1 January.

Agenda 21 – an environmentalmanagement programme for the 21st

century developed at the UNConference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED), the ‘EarthSummit’, in Rio de Janeiro, 1992.Many organisations and UK councilsare developing and participating in‘Local Agenda 21’programmes.

air lift – a system for lifting material,eg benthos, from the seabed. A flexible


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Figure 2: The fisheries management framework in Europe and the north-east Atlantic. ICESand STEFC are advisory only.


21

pipe passes from the surface to a‘dredge head’ on the seabed.Compressed air is released into thedredge head. As the air rises andexpands it forces water from the top ofthe pipe and is replaced by watermoving rapidly into the dredge head.This disturbs the seabed sand andmud, and the associated benthos arethen lifted up the pipe to the surface.

algae – marine plants that include themacro-algae, commonly known asseaweed, and the microscopic algaeknown as phytoplankton andphytobenthos .

algal blooms – all phytoplanktongoes through an annual cycle ofabundance. The spring bloom is thenormal increase in abundanceassociated with increasing day length.Abnormal increases in abundance thatmay be associated with nutrientenrichment (eutrophication) , and theirsubsequent collapse, can result insignificant depletion of oxygen contentin the water and suffocation of manyspecies. Some algal species areassociated with ‘harmful algal blooms’(HAB) .

alien species – a non-established,introduced species that is incapable ofestablishing a self-sustaining or self-propagating population in the newarea without human interference. (Seealso introduced species and non-native species .)

amnesic shellfish poisoning – seeASP.

anacat – fish that live part of their lifein freshwater and the remainder in

seawater, and vice versa; fromanadromous (eg salmon) andcatadromous (eg eels).

anadromous – fish that spawn infreshwater but spend a part of their lifeat sea, eg salmon, eels and shads. Seealso catadromous and diadromous.

anoxia – the lack of oxygen in anenvironment. It is caused by eitherabnormally high production ratesrelative to the oxygen supply (eg seealgal blooms) or where there are highconcentrations of decaying biologicalmaterial resulting in a highbiochemical oxygen demand. Anoxiaoccurs most frequently in static waterbodies or ones that have very lowcirculation rates.

aquaculture – the artificial rearingand husbandry of aquatic organisms;fish, shellfish and seaweed.

artificial reef – any man-madestructure that is submerged, or partiallysubmerged, at any stage of the tidalcycle. It may be placed by design for amultitude of purposes, eg piers, jetties,coastal defence, fishery enhancement,or by chance, eg shipwrecks.

artisanal fisheries – typically,fisheries undertaken in inshore watersfrom small boats using traditional orbasic methods with relatively fewtechnical aids.

ASCOBANS – the internationalAgreement on Small Cetaceans of theBaltic and North Sea ; an annex of theBonn Convention focusing on theconservation of small Cetacea.

ASP – amnesic shellfish poisoning, the


22

Figure 3: An outline of ICES structure and the distribution (1999) of working (WG) and studygroups (SG) that contribute to the formulation of ICES advice.


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bait – any organism, but usuallyanimal in origin, that is attached tofishing gear to attract fish; crab potsare baited with fish, long-lines arebaited with fish or molluscs, anglersalso use worms and soft-shelled(‘peeler’) crabs.

bait boat – boats that fish primarilyto gather bait for use in other fisheries.

baitpump – a suction system forgathering benthic species burieddeeply in sand or mud.

ballast water – water carried inbilges, tanks or the holds of cargovessels to enhance stability when theyare not fully laden with normal cargo.

BAP – see UKBAP.

baselines – the point from which theTerritorial Sea, fishery limits (3, 6, 12and 200 nautical miles) and theexclusive economic zone (EEZ – 200nautical miles) are measured. Thebaseline is normally mean low waterbut it can be measured from a ‘bayclosing line’ where the bay’s headlandsare separated by less than 24 nauticalmiles (2 x 12 nautical miles ofTerritorial Sea ).

bass nursery area – 37 designatedcoastal and estuary sites around thecoast of England and Wales in whichfishing for bass from boats is eitherprohibited or restricted. Some areas arerestricted throughout the year but themajority are subject to a closedseason, eg May – December inclusive.

B

loss of short-term memory resultingfrom eating bivalve molluscan shellfishthat have accumulated toxins (domoicacid) from certain diatoms in thephytoplankton, eg Pseudonitzschia sp.When toxins are detected above 20mg/100 g shellfish flesh commercialharvesting and sale is prohibited.

assemblage – a mixed grouping ofanimals and/or plants that areassociated with a particularenvironment and can be used as anidentifying characteristic of thatenvironment.

assessment – 1) the evaluation ofimportance through the orderlygathering of information aboutbiotopes and species in an area and

comparing their attributes bystandardised procedures. 2) Theevaluation of the likely impact of adevelopment on the environment (as inenvironmental impact assessment. (Seealso stock assessment .)

ASSI – see SSSI.

attachments – modifications of, oradditions to a trawl , usually on theoutside. Some are legal, eg chafersattached to the underside of the cod-end to reduce wear but top-sidechafers are illegal as they inhibit meshselection. Similarly, weights must notbe attached to a cod-end as they serveto close the cod-end meshes andprevent the escape of undersize fish .


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bathypelagic – see Fig 1. deep, midwater; typically depths between 200and 1000 m depth.

beach seine – a light-weight,encircling net deployed parallel to theshore and then drawn in to the beachby long ropes attached to the wing-ends of the net.

beam trawl – a bottom trawl that iskept open laterally by a rigid beam.Each end of the beam is attached tothe apex of a roughly triangular metal‘trawl head’ or ‘shoe’ ca 0.5-0.75mhigh (Fig. 4).

belly – the under-part of a bottomtrawl that is in contact with the seabedwhile fishing.

benthic – a description for animals,plants – the benthos and habitatsassociated with the seabed (Fig.1).

benthos – all plants (phytobenthos )and invertebrate animals that live in oron seabed habitats, including theintertidal zone.

Bern Convention – the Council ofEurope Convention on the Protectionof European Wildlife and NaturalHabitats (Bern 1979). The conventionoffers protection to plants, invertebratesand all vertebrates and is binding onall signatories, which includes the UK.

biocoenosis – the biological, ieliving, part of an ecosystem.

biodiversity – the variability amongliving organisms from all sourcesincluding, among others, terrestrial,marine and other aquatic ecosystemsand the ecological complexes of whichthey are part; this includes diversitywithin species and ecosystems (CBD1992).

Figure 4: The main parts of a heavy beamtrawl (left) with a chain matrix or ‘mat’(after Nédélec, 1996) and details of thetrawl head and beam from a lightweight(shrimp) trawl (after Graham, 1956)


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Biodiversity Convention – the UNConvention on Biodiversity signed atthe UNCED ‘Earth Summit’ in Rio deJaneiro 1992 to safeguard the totalvariety of animals, plants and all otherliving matter on Earth, ie thebiodiversity , and their habitats .

biogenic reef – any structure thathas been formed from living material.It can be applied to many fossilisedstructures, such as chalk cliffs, but isnormally used to describe livingstructures such as those created by thecold-water coral Lophelia pertusa,colonial worms such as Sabellaria sppand molluscs, including the horsemussel Modiolus modiolus.

biogeographic zones or regions– major subdivisions of the Earth’ssurface encompassing plant andanimal communities with commoncharacteristics. The UK falls within theNE Atlantic (Iberia – Norway) part ofthe (marine) Palaearctic Region.

bioherm – a build up of biogenicmaterial in one place to produce amound (eg the cold-water coralLophelia pertusa) or reef .

biological conservationmeasures – fishery managementmeasures that are aimed at a particularspecies or stock of fish, eg minimumlanding sizes (MLS), closed areas ,quotas, rather than the method offishing. (See also technicalconservation measures .)

biological interactions – seefishery biological interactions .

biological reference points – seelimit reference points and safebiological limits .

biomass – the total weight of livingmatter, either by species or all speciescombined. Also referred to as thestanding stock .

biome – a term generally applied tolarge-scale, terrestrial botaniccommunities. At one level the marineenvironment might be viewed as asingle biome but UK sub-tidal kelpforests, for example, could also bedescribed as a biome.

biosphere – that part of the Earth’senvironment that is occupied by livingorganisms.

biota – any living organisms, bothanimals and plants.

biotope – the physical habitat with itsassociated, distinctive biologicalcommunities. The smallest unit of ahabitat that can be delineatedconveniently and is characterised bythe community of plants and animalsliving there.

bioturbation – the disturbance orreworking of seabed sediments by theanimals that live or feed on or in thesediment.

Birds Directive – the EU Directiveon the Conservation of Wild Birds(79/409/ EEC) seeks to protect all wildbirds and the habitats of listed species,in particular through the designation ofspecial protection areas (SPA).

bivalves – molluscs with two hingedshells that encase the soft parts of the


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animal, eg cockles, mussels, oystersetc.

black-fish – fish that are landed incommercial quantities without beingrecorded in vessels’ fishing log booksor without being declared to theappropriate authority as required byEU fishery regulations. Also thecommon name for a deep water shark:Centrolophus niger.

Blim – see limit reference points .

Bmsy – the spawning stock biomass(SSB) necessary to support a fisherythat would produce the maximumsustainable yield (MSY) .

Bonn Convention – the Conventionon Migratory Species of Wild Animals(Bonn 1979) seeks to co-ordinate theconservation of migratory species,particularly those species whose life-cycle takes them across internationaland jurisdictional boundaries.Agreements reached under the

convention include ASCOBANS.

bottom fishing gear – any fishinggear that is operational when incontact with the seabed but usuallyapplied to trawls , dredges and someseine nets.

bottom trawl – a trawl net (Fig.5)that is towed across the seabed ratherthan through mid water. They are alsoreferred to as a demersal trawls andinclude both beam trawls and ottertrawls .

Bpa – see limit reference points .

bridle (sweep) – the wires thatconnect an otter trawl ’s doors, or‘otter boards’, to the wing (front, outer)ends of the trawl (Fig.5). They help toincrease the distance between thedoors and thereby increase the widthof the swept area or track from whichfish can be caught.

broodstock – the mature animals in

Figure 5: The main parts of a demersal trawl (after Butcher 1980)


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canyons – steep sided, narrowvalleys that are typically found runningdown the slope from the continentalshelf towards the abyss. They are acommon feature along the outermargins of the Celtic Sea.

capital stuffing – high levels ofinvestment through the continualaddition of technical aids such as deckhandling machinery and electronicnavigation and fish-finding aids on thebridge, eg multiple echo-sounders,RoxAnn, DGPS, sonar etc.

carapace – the hard shell forming theback of a crab and the front half(thorax) of lobsters, prawns andshrimps.

carrying capacity – the maximumnumber or biomass of a given species

that a given ecosystem, environmentor habitat can sustain without adeterioration in the quality of theenvironment or abundance of theresource. ‘Total carrying capacity’ isapplied to the sum of all speciescombined, animal and plant, in theecosystem or habitat.

catadromous – species of fish thatspawn at sea but spend a large part oftheir life in freshwaters, eg theEuropean eel and flounder. (See alsoanadromous and diadromous.)

catch (C) – the total quantity of fishthat is retained by fishing gear andbrought onto the deck or fishingstation, ie landings plus discards.

catch per unit of effort – CPUE,the quantity of a given species, or all

C

a population that will breed andgenerate future year classes ; a termmore commonly applied toaquaculture than to wild populationswhere the term spawning stockbiomass (SSB) is more generallyapplied.

buffer zone – a transition zonearound a protected (or closed) area inwhich some activities may berestricted but not prohibited, toenhance the benefits to be gained fromthe protected area.

by-catch – the catch of non-targetspecies and undersized fish of thetarget species . By-catch of commercialspecies may be retained or discardedalong with non-commercial by-catch.

(See also discards and incidentalcatch.)

byelaw – legislation introduced at alocal level to meet a specific need.Local authorities, sea fisheriescommittees (SFC) and ports andharbour authorities, for example, allhave the power to introduce andenforce byelaws that can have abearing on the marine environmentand its resources.

byssus – a tough, thread-like structureby which mussels attach themselves tothe substratum . The byssus isgenerated by a gland at the base of themussel’s foot.


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species combined, that is taken fromthe sea (or landed – see LPUE) for eachunit of effort (eg days at sea, hourstrawling etc) that is expended in itscapture. It provides a simple index ofspecies abundance in the area of afishery.

catchability ( q) – the fraction of afish stock that is caught by a definedunit of fishing effort (Ricker 1975).

catch rate – see catch per unit ofeffort .

CEC – the Commission of theEuropean Communities (sic): since1993, the legal title for the EuropeanCommission (EC) (Fig. 2 & 4).

Cephalopoda – molluscs that beareight or ten sucker-bearing tentaclesaround the mouth, including squid,cuttlefish and octopus.

Cetacea – marine mammals that givebirth at sea, eg dolphins, porpoises andwhales.

CFP – the Common Fisheries Policy ofthe European Union (as revised in:Council Regulation 3760/92). Itprovides the framework for themanagement of the EU fishery sector,including all marine fisheries within200 miles of member states’ baselines.(For further information see References– EC Current.)

chafer – a sheet of material, often oldnetting, attached to the underside ofdemersal trawls , particularly beneaththe cod-end, to reduce wear and tear(Fig. 5). (‘Top-side chafers’are anillegal attachment .)

chain mat or matrix – an inter-linked network of lateral andlongitudinal tickler chains across themouth of a beam trawl between trawlheads (‘shoes’) and groundrope (Fig.4). Mats are fitted when trawling onrough ground to minimise the amountof stone entering the trawl.

charismatic species – a speciesthat is readily recognised, frequentlywith widespread popular appeal. Theyare sometimes used to focus attentionon a (conservation) campaign or usedas a logo, eg the Marine ConservationSociety dolphin or WWF panda.

chilled seawater tanks – see CSW.

circalittoral – see sublittoral (Fig. 1).

clam – a colloquial name for bivalvemolluscs that live buried in the seabed,but typically those species that canclose the two shells completely, egcockles, palourdes.

climax community – the ‘final’community or assemblage of speciesin a particular habitat after progressingthrough a process of colonisation byfirst one then a succession of speciesuntil a state of equilibrium is reachedbetween the species.

closed area – an area within whichfishing by one or more methods offishing, or fishing for one or morespecies of fish, is prohibited (see Fig.6). Such areas may be permanentlyclosed or be subject to closed seasons.(See Rogers 1997.)

closed seasons – a period duringwhich fishing for a particular species,often within a specified area, is


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prohibited. For example, salmon(Salmo salar), migratory (sea) trout(Salmo trutta), and native oysters(Ostrea edulis) may only be taken inUK waters at certain times of year.

coastal fisheries – see inshorefisheries .

coastal state – the country offwhose coastline an area of sea occursand which exercises jurisdiction overthat sea area.

coastal waters – are defined in the(draft) EU Water Framework Directiveas ‘the surface water on the landwardside of a line every point of which is ata distance of one nautical mile on theseaward side from the nearest point ofthe baseline from which the breadth ofthe territorial waters is measured’.

coastal zone – the space in whichland-based activities and terrestrialenvironments influence the marineenvironment and vice versa (Hiscock1996), but there is no universallyrecognised definition for the coastalzone (eg see Harden Jones 1994).Pragmatically, the seaward boundaryto the coastal zone is usually set by thelimits of enabling legislation; eg theTerritorial Sea (national legislation), or6 miles – the area covered by nationallegislation and local byelaws, and thewaters within which only UKregistered vessels may fish.

coastal zone management –CZM, see ICZM.

Cod Boxes – areas of the Irish andNorth Sea within which fishing for cod

Figure 6: Examples ofsome closed areasaround the UK withinwhich fishing is restrictedas a stock conservationmeasure. (Courtesy ofCEFAS, Lowestoft; CrownCopyright)


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is prohibited, and other fishingrestricted, during the spawning season.

cod-end – the narrow, back end of atrawl into which the catch is funnelledwhile towing, and from which it isreleased after hauling.

cod equivalent tonnage – aconversion factor that can be appliedto any species subject to TACmanagement and national quotas. Itequates each species’ market value tothat of cod (= 1.0). The concept wasintroduced during the 1970s tofacilitate the original CFP quotanegotiations and continues as the basisupon which nations exchange quota indifferent species.

cohort – all the fish, or animals in apopulation that are of the same age, ieall fish spawned in the same year.

cohort analysis – a simplifiedapproximation to virtual populationanalysis (VPA), a mathematical modelwith which to construct fish populationlife-tables as a basis for assessing thecurrent status of a stock andforecasting the probable consequencesof adopting various fisherymanagement options.

coliform bacteria – rod shapedbacteria, eg Escherichia coli andSalmonella, whose presence in coastalwaters are indicative of faecalpollution. Consumption ofcontaminated bivalve molluscs, egoysters and mussels, can causediarrhoea but the shellfish are readilypurified of bacteria by depuration .

collapsed stock – the decline inspawning stock biomass (SSB) , through

sustained fishing pressure or naturalcauses, to the point where it no longergenerates sufficient recruits to supporta fishery.

Com Doc – see Communication.

commercial fisheries – any fisherythat is undertaken for financial gainbut particularly one that generatessufficient revenue to contribute asignificant proportion of the totalincome of those engaged in the fishery.

Commission – see CEC and EC.

common law right – Magna Carta(1215) guarantees the rights of thecommon man. These rights includeunhindered access to the ‘commons’ –assets and benefits that belong to noone individual but are for the benefitof all, eg ferae naturae, the right totake wild animals, including fish intidal waters. Only in exceptionalcircumstances can these rights bereduced or amended, eg see Severaland Regulating Orders .

Communication – a formaldocument (Com Doc) adopted by theEuropean Union outlining theCommission’s views, intentions, orproposals on a particular subject, egproposals for new fishery managementmeasures.

community – the grouping ofanimals and plants that is found livingtogether in a particular place, habitator environment .

competent authority – anauthority that has the statutory powersto introduce byelaws or otherregulations that may be necessary to


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meet national obligations towards EUlegislation, but particularly for theHabitats and Species Directive , egministers, government departments,sea fisheries committees (SFC) , portsand harbour authorities. (SeeConservation Regulations .)

conservation objective – one ormore measurable or otherwisedefinable objectives required underRegulation 33 of the ConservationRegulations to ensure that a Europeansite maintains a favourableconservation status .

Conservation Regulations – TheConservation (Natural Habitats, &c.)Regulations (1994), and TheConservation (Natural Habitats, &c.)(Northern Ireland) Regulations (1995),are the Statutory Instruments(1994/2716) and (1995/380) setting outthe powers and responsibilities ofcompetent and relevant authorities toimplement the Habitats & SpeciesDirective in the UK.

contaminant – the increasedpresence of a substance in theenvironment as a result of humanactivities but with no significantadverse effects (GESAMP).

continental shelf – the area ofseabed extending from the shoreline toa depth of about 200 m or where theslope increases sharply to abyssaldepths (Fig.1).

Council of Europe – a non-legislative forum (Strasbourg, France)in which 40 member states discussissues of mutual interest or concern.Action is implemented through

agreements and conventions, eg theBern Convention . (This should not beconfused with the European Council ,an EU institution).

Council of Ministers – or Councilof the European Union (EU) is one ofthe main Institutions of the EuropeanUnion. It is the principal decision-making body of the EU with bothexecutive and legislative powers. TheCouncil is composed of one ministerof each member state who isauthorised to speak for theirgovernment. On the basis ofCommission (EC) proposals, theCouncil adopts legislation on its ownor jointly with the EuropeanParliament , depending on the legalbase (Fig. 2).

Court of Auditors – is theInstitution of the European Union (EU)responsible for financial control andauditing the accounts of the EU and itsInstitutions. It serves to ensure thatfinancial management of the EU, andits development funds, is sound andnot fraudulent. It reports to the fourother main Institutions, ie theCommission (EC) , Council ofMinisters, Court of Justice and theEuropean Parliament .

Court of First Instance – a part ofthe European Court of Justice thatdeals with relatively simple mattersand member states’ challenges or legalactions against the EC.

Court of Justice – one of the mainInstitutions of the European Union(EU). It is the final arbiter in disputesarising under the EU Treaties andlegislation. The court can impose fines


32

on member states. It is made up of 15judges and 9 advocates-general whoare appointed for a period of 6 yearsfollowing agreement between memberstates’ governments.

CPUE – see catch per unit of effort .

crabber – a fishing vessel thatengages primarily in fishing withpots/creels for crabs and lobsters.

creel – an alternative name for a crabor lobster pot.

critical environmental capital –that part, or parts of the environmentthat is fundamental to the well being ofspecies and habitats within theenvironment, the loss of which couldcause irreversible changes or be

impossible to replace in humantimescales.

Crustacea – invertebrates with ashell and many legs that are used forwalking or swimming. Commercialspecies include: shrimps, prawns (egNephrops), crabs, lobsters andcrawfish. A very high proportion of theplankton, particularly that part uponwhich many pelagic fish species feed,are also Crustacea.

CSW – chilled seawater tanks, the fishholds on (pelagic) fishing vessels areflooded and the waters cooled to atemperature that is less than ambientbut is not fully refrigerated (see RSW).

CZM – coastal zone management, butsee ICZM.

Danish seine – see demersal seine .

dahn – a small, flagged buoy attachedto the end of fixed gear to mark itsposition.

days at sea – a means of measuringfishing effort . A potential managementmeasure to limit fishing effort byrestricting the number of days permonth or year each vessel may fish.

decommissioning – the formalprocedure for removing a vessel fromthe fishing register and reducing thetotal tonnage of vessels or vesselcapacity units (VCU) engaged incommercial fishing. A reduction infleet size/capacity is a requirement of

the multi-annual guidance programme(MAGP). In the UK, a vessel must bephysically scrapped to qualify for adecommissioning grant.

deep-water species – species thatare normally found in waters greaterthan 400 m depth. They form threemain categories: mesopelagic andbathypelagic species that live in mid-water and benthopelagic species(Fig.1). The mesopelagic (ca 400 -1000 m depth) and bathypelagic(>1000 m) species are not exploitedcommercially by EU registered vessels.Among the more commerciallyimportant benthopelagic species areroundnose grenadiers, blue ling,orange roughy – and the angler or

D


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monk-fish that is also found in coastalwaters (UKBG 1999).

demersal – species of fish that liveon, or in close proximity to, theseabed, eg flatfish, cod, haddock. Theterm also applies to fishing gear that isworked on the seabed (Fig.1).

demersal seine – a trawl-shaped netwith extended wing ends each side ofthe net mouth. It is set in the middle ofa long rope that is shot in a widecircle. When the two ends of the ropeare hauled, they gradually draw theropes and wing ends together and herdthe fish towards the net and the cod-end.

demersal trawl – a net that is towedon the seabed rather than through midwater (Fig. 5).

density dependence -–theregulation of a population orcommunity of species by processeswhose effects are proportional to theabundance of the population. Forexample, the mortality rate in anursery area may increase as thenumber of juvenile fish in the nurseryincreases (density-dependentmortality). Similarly, the growth ratemay decrease as the number of fish,and hence competition for food,increases (density-dependent growth).These processes contribute to thedetermination of environmentalcarrying capacity .

depleted stock – the decline inspawning stock biomass (SSB) to alevel that is approaching, or is below,the lowest historic record but has notnecessarily reached the point of

collapse. (See also limit referencepoints and safe biological limits. )

depuration – the purification ofbivalve molluscs by holding the liveanimals for a prescribed period incirculating seawater that iscontinuously sterilized, eg by an ultra-violet light source. During the process,the bivalves purge their guts of foodand any coliform bacteria that mayhave collected there.

derogation – a variation to, ortemporary exemption from, EUlegislation which enables an activity tobe undertaken that would otherwise beprohibited. For example, the use ofbeam trawls might be prohibited in anarea but there are derogations forshrimp trawlers which use aparticularly light-weight beam trawl –sometimes known locally as ‘shanknets’. Conversely, a derogation mightbe granted for a temporary or localprohibition to be imposed in anotherwise ‘open’ area.

designated port – one of 31 UKfishing ports where UK registeredfishing vessels over 20 m in lengthmust land their catch unless they maketheir landings in another EU state (egsee flag ship). Designated port statusincludes specific locations for‘klondiking’.

DG Environment – the Directorate-General, or department, in theEuropean Commission (EC) that haslead responsibility for EUenvironmental policy, includingmarine nature conservation – formerly,DG XI.


34

Figure 7: An outline of the procedure for agreeing EU laws. The details vary according tothe subject being discussed (after Maughan, 1998)


35

DG Fisheries – the Directorate-General or department of the EuropeanCommission (EC) with leadresponsibility for EU fishery policy -formerly DG XIV. DG Fisheries holds‘absolute competence’ with respect toall aspects of fishery conservation andmanagement within the EuropeanUnion (EU) (Fig. 2).

DG XI – see DG Environment

DG XIV – see DG Fisheries .

DGPS – differential global positioningsystem: a satellite navigation systemwith an accuracy that can be betterthan ± 5 m.

diadromous – fish that spend part oftheir life in freshwater and part insaltwater; eg anadromous salmon andcatadromous eels.

diarrhetic shellfish poisoning –see DSP.

directed fishery – a fishery with aclearly defined target species , eg apelagic fishing vessel may targetherring or mackerel but invariably indifferent areas and at different times ofyear.

Directive – EU legislation that isbinding but leaves individual memberstates to decide how it should meet itsobligations (eg primary legislation,Statutory Instrument , byelaw). If amember state fails to meet itsobligations under EU legislation it canbe reported to the EU Court of Justice ,most probably by the Commission(EC) , and fined (Fig. 7). (See alsoRegulation.)

discards – any fish, or other living

matter caught when fishing, that is notretained but returned to the sea – aliveor dead.

doors – a generic name for a widevariety of ‘otter boards’ that areattached to trawlers’warps (towingwires). They work like a kite, buthorizontally, pulling the wings of thetrawl out to the side and holding itopen laterally (Fig. 5).

dredging – a method for catchingmolluscs that live on or in the sea bed,eg clams, native oysters, scallops.Boats tow groups – ‘gangs’ – ofdredges, each dredge rarely more thana metre in width. They are made of arobust steel frame, often with a toothedbar across the lower edge, and aheavily reinforced or chain link bag.(See also French dredge andNewhaven dredge .)

drift nets – curtains or sheets ofnetting that hang vertically in thewater, either at the surface or lower inthe water column. Pelagic fish aretrapped when they try to swim throughthem but are too big and becomewedged. They are widely used in UKcoastal waters for herring and relatedspecies (eg pilchards) and on the highseas for migratory fish such as salmonand tunas.

DSP – diarrhetic shellfish poisoning: atemporary illness caused by eatingbivalve molluscan shellfish that haveaccumulated toxins fromdinoflagellates (Dinophysis spp.) in thephytoplankton. Shellfish containingDSP are not permitted for sale.

dumping – a colloquial term for thedeliberate disposal of catch. It implies


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EC – the European Commission orstrictly, the Commission of theEuropean Communities (CEC) , one ofthe main Institutions of the EuropeanUnion (EU) (Fig. 2 & 7). A CommissionPresident leads a body of 20Commissioners, each nominated bytheir government: two each fromFrance, Germany, Italy, Spain and theUK, and one from each of the tenother member states, but ratified by theEuropean Parliament , to which theCommission is answerable. EachCommissioner has responsibility forone or more of the 24 Directorates-General, eg DG Fisheries (Fig. 2) andDG Environment . The Commissiondraws its powers from the EuropeanTreaties (eg Treaty on European Union,EC Treaty); it formulates andimplements EU legislation and is‘guardian’ of the Treaties. About15,000 civil servants work in supportof the Commission.

EC Decision – a legal instrument ofthe European Union (EU) . Decisionscan be formal responses by theCommission to a query or challengeon the meaning or interpretation of aTreaty, eg the Treaty of Rome orMaastricht Treaty, or a step in theinitiation of new legislation (Fig. 7) bythe Council of Ministers or European

Parliament .

ecdysis – see moulting.

echo-sounder – an instrumentmounted in a ship’s hull that generatesa pressure wave and records theenergy reflected back from the seabedor any object in the water column. Itrecords depth or indicates the presenceof particles in the water column,including fish. Echo-sounders are alsoattached to mid-water trawls tomonitor their position in the watercolumn and the catch as it enters thenet. Steerable, hull-mounted echo-sounders (sonar) are used to searchahead or around a ship for fish shoals.

ecological quality (EcoQ) – anoverall expression of the structure andfunction of the (aquatic) systems,taking into account the biologicalcommunity and natural physiographic,geographic and climatic factors as wellas physical and chemical factorsincluding those from human activities(OSPAR).

ecological quality objective(EcoQO) – the desired level of theecological quality (EcoQ) relative topredetermined reference levels(OSPAR). (See also EcoQO referencelevel.)

E

a scale rather greater than discardingand usually refers to fish that wouldnormally be landed for sale. Thecauses of dumping can be marketsaturation, closure of quotas and high-grading. [This should not be confused

with, for example, the disposal(dumping) of dredge spoil at sea whichis an activity licensed by MAFF underFEPA (Food and EnvironmentProtection Act 1985).]


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ecologically significant habitat –is a habitat of importance for the widerecological processes, functions andspecies it supports.

ecologically significant species –is a species that has a controllinginfluence on a community, ie akeystone species .

ecology – the study of the inter-relationships between animals, plantsand the non-living components of theirenvironment , in their naturalsurroundings.

EcoQO reference level – the levelof ecological quality objective wherethe influence of human activities onthe ecosystem is minimal (OSPAR).

EcoQ – see ecological quality .

EcoQO – see ecological qualityobjective.

ecosystem – a discrete unitcomprising both living and non-livingparts; it can range in size fromsomething as small and ephemeral asan intertidal pool, or rather larger, egthe North Sea or Earth’s oceans.

ecosystem approach – the pursuitof a simultaneous understanding of thedynamics of all the populations in anecosystem and their interactions witheach other and their environment.

ecosystem management – aframework for maintaining theequilibrium between all thecomponent parts of an ecosystemrather than focusing on individual partsof the ecosystem, which is the currentpractice with fishery management.

ecotone – a narrow and fairly sharplydefined transition zone between two ormore communities (Allaby 1998); egthe different plankton communitiesthat occur on opposite sides of front s.

ecotope – the non-living, ie abiotic,part of an ecosystem.

EEZ – exclusive economic zone; thearea of sea (typically 200 nauticalmiles from baselines) over which thecoastal state claims ownership of alleconomic resources, eg minerals,hydro-carbons and fish. NB The EUholds ‘absolute competence’ withrespect to all fish and fishery matterswithin 200 nautical miles of memberstates’ baselines. The UK Governmentdoes not claim an EEZ, but see UKwaters (Fig.1).

effort (f) – the total quantity offishing gear in use for a specific periodof time (Ricker 1975). Effort can beexpressed in a multitude of ways: daysaway from port, hours trawling, lengthof drift net , number of hooks used,and so on. At its most basic, it is thetotal number of boats engaged in afishery and/or the number of days theywere fishing.

effort control – a system of fisherymanagement that focuses on limitingthe quantity of fishing gear or theduration of its deployment rather thanon limiting the quantity of catch thatcan be taken. (See also TAC andquota.)

EFH – see essential fish habitat.

egg survey – a means of estimatingspawning stock biomass (SSB) bytaking plankton samples at regular


38

intervals of space and time across thetarget species’ spawning ground andseason. The number of fish eggs in thesamples is proportional to SSB.

elasmobranch – fish with a skeletonof cartilage, eg sharks and rays. (Seealso teleost .)

endangered – a species, stock orpopulation is ‘endangered’ if it isfacing a high risk of extinction in thewild in the near future (IUCN Current).

endemic – a natural or naturalisedpopulation that is normally found in aparticular area.

engine capacity or power – ismeasured in numerous ways. Forexample, shipyards frequently expressa fishing vessel’s power in terms of‘tonnes bollard pull’ or horse power(hp) but EU regulations refer to enginepower in kilowatts (kW).

environment – the physicalsurroundings and climatic conditionsthat influence the behaviour, growth,abundance and overall performance ofa population or species.

environmental sustainability –the control of current and futureactivities to prevent irreversible orother significant, long-term change tothe environment or its dependentliving resources. (See also sustainabledevelopment.)

environmentally sustainablefisheries – fisheries that safeguard therequirements of all animals and plantswithin an ecosystem or habitat and donot cause irreversible or othersignificant, long-term change to the

environment or the communities ofspecies that live within thatenvironment.

epifauna – animals that live on thesurface of the seabed or othersubstratum.

equilibrium yield ( YE) – the catchtaken from a fish stock when it is inequilibrium with fishing of a givenintensity, ie the fishing activity is notcausing the abundance of the stock tochange. This is also known assustainable yield (Ricker 1975). Theyear-on-year yield can be inequilibrium with the stock even ifspawning stock biomass SSB isdepleted.

escape gap – a gap between thebase and the netting of a crustaceanparlour pot to allow small crabs andlobsters to escape. (See also sortinggrid and square mesh).

essential fish habitat (EFH) – anyhabitat that is fundamental to the wellbeing of populations or communitiesof fish. It may be applied to a habitatthat a species utilises throughout its lifeor at a particular time, eg spawning,nursery or feeding areas. The conceptwas given statutory recognition in theUSA (1998) and now forms part of theUS national fishery managementprogramme.

EU – the European Union: a politico-economic association of 15 Europeannations: Austria, Belgium, Denmark,Finland, France, Germany, Greece,Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,UK. The Union’s affairs are managed


39

through its main Institutions: theCommission (EC), the Council ofMinisters , the Court of Auditors , theCourt of Justice and the EuropeanParliament .

European Council – is made up ofthe executive head of government ofeach member state of the EuropeanUnion (EU) . The Council meets twicea year and sets the broad guidelines forEU development and activities (Fig. 2).(This should not to be confused withthe Council of Europe .)

European Parliament – one of themain Institutions of the EuropeanUnion (EU) . There are 626 directlyelected members of the EuropeanParliament (MEP). The parliamentcannot initiate legislation directly, asdo national assemblies, but its reportscan ‘spur the Commission (EC) toaction’ (Weidenfeld & Wessels 1997).It has general powers for supervision ofthe Commission and it ratifies theappointment of new Commissioners. Itcan reject the EU budget as a whole,alter non-compulsory expenditure notspecified in EU primary legislation andcall in the Court of Auditors if it is nothappy with the Commission’s financialmanagement. It has co-decisionpowers with the Council of Ministerson environmental issues but not forfisheries (Fig. 2 & 7).

European (marine) site – aconservation area designated under theHabitats Directive (SAC) or the BirdsDirective (SPA) .

European Union – see EU.

eutrophication – the enrichment ofwater by nutrients causing anaccelerated growth of algae and higherforms of plant life to produce anundesirable disturbance to the balanceof organisms present in the water andto the quality of the water concerned(OSPAR & EU Urban Waste WaterTreatment Directive).

exclusion zone – an area withinwhich fishing, anchoring, and oftenpassage, is not permitted. There areexclusion zones of 500 m radiusaround all offshore gas and oilinstallations. Others can be found onmilitary ranges and around historicwreck sites etc. (See also closed area ,buffer zone and NTZ.)

Exclusive Economic Zone – seeEEZ.

exotic species – see non-nativespecies.

exploited stock – any stock of fishthat is subject to commercial fishingactivity. (See also fishablestock/biomass. )

exploitation pattern – the variationin fishing mortality , by age group , in afish stock .

exploitation rate – the ratio of fishcaught by fishing (F) to total mortality(Z) (Ricker 1975).


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F – formally, the instantaneous rate offishing mortality (the natural logarithmof the change in abundance due tofishing per unit of time), but moresimply, the proportion of thepopulation killed each year by fishing.

F 0.1 – the estimate of fishing mortality(F) that corresponds to a point on theyield-per-recruit (Y/R) curve where theslope is 10% of the slope at the origin.It is an approximation to the level offishing mortality that will generate themaximum sustainable yield (FMSY)when a more exact estimate is notpossible (Fig. 8).

Factortame – the name given to alandmark ruling of the Court of Justice(ECJ) against the UK governmentconcerning flag-ships. The governmentintroduced legislation that sought to

block non-UK nationals fromestablishing fishing companies in theUK, registering vessels in the UK, andfishing against the UK quotas. The ECJruled that this was contrary to theprovisions of the European ‘singlemarket’ and that the UK governmentmust pay compensation to thecompanies that were affected by theUK legislation.

factory ship or trawler – a largevessel that takes the catch from otherboats, or fishes itself, and processes thecatch on board. They have facilities forfilleting, freezing and sometimes,canning and the production of fishmeal and oil. They form the focus ofklondiking operations most frequentlyoriginate from Russia and countries ofthe former Eastern Bloc.

fauna – all animal life frommicroscopic benthos and zooplanktonthrough Crustacea and fish tomankind.

favourable conservation status –a basic requirement of the HabitatsDirective. The conservation status of ahabitat is ‘favourable’ when:

the natural range of the habitat andthe area that it covers are stable or increasing; and the specific structure and functions that are necessary for its long-term maintenance are likely to continuefor the foreseeable future; and the conservation status of its typical species are similarly stable or increasing.

The conservation status of a species is

F

Figure 8: A generalised yield-per-recruit(YPR) curve showing the point at which thefishing mortality rate (F) is equivalent to themaximum sustainable yield (Fmsy) and thepoint at which the slope of the curve isapproximately 10% the slope of F=0, ieF0.1 (See also Fig.10)


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‘favourable’ when:

the species’population dynamics indicate that it is maintaining itself on a long-term basis as a viable component of its natural habitat;

the species’ natural range is neitherbeing reduced nor is it likely to be reduced for the foreseeable future;

there is, and will probably continue to be, a sufficiently large habitat to maintain its populations on a long-term basis.

fecundity – the number of eggs thata female fish produces annually.

fish – taxonomically, ‘fish’ aremembers of the superclass Pisces,including elasmobranchs and teleosts .In UK law ‘fish’ are all animalsclassified as Crustacea , Mollusca andPisces. Thus, UK fishery legislationcannot be applied directly for themanagement or conservation ofspecies such as edible sea urchins orlugworm even though such speciesmay be subject to commercialexploitation.

fish stock – scientifically, apopulation of a species of fish that isisolated from other stocks of the samespecies and does not interbreed withthem and can, therefore, be managedindependently of other stocks (cf genepool). However, in EU legislation theterm ‘stock’ is used to mean a speciesof fish living in a defined sea area, thetwo are not always synonymous(Holden 1994).

fishable stock or biomass – thatpart of the total biomass that isexploited. (See also exploited stock .)

fishery biological interactions –any interaction between two or morepopulations or species, but particularlythose that are influenced by fishingactivity. For example, there is a closerelationship between cod (thepredator) and Nephrops (the prey) inthe Irish Sea. When Irish Sea cod areat a low level the Nephrops populationcan increase in abundance as there arefewer predators. Conversely, whentrawl activity is directed away fromcod towards Nephrops, codabundance can increase. This is due toreduced fishing mortality (F) and thefact that cod will prey on species otherthan Nephrops (Brander & Bennett1986).

fishery commissions – areinternational bodies convened to agreemanagement measures for theconservation of internationallyexploited fish stocks (Fig. 2). Beyondthe 200 mile limit of EU memberstates’ baselines, fishery managementfalls to the North East Atlantic FisheriesCommission (NEAFC), the Baltic SeaFisheries Commission (BSFC), theNorth Atlantic Salmon ConservationOrganisation (NASCO) and theInternational Commission for theConservation of Atlantic Tunas(ICCAT). The EU, as represented by theEC (DG Fisheries), retains ‘absolutecompetence’within 200 miles ofmember states’ baselines andrepresents member states oninternational fishery commissions.

fishery conservation – theconservation and sustainable use ofexploited fish stocks. It is the principalobjective of UK and EU fisheries


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legislation; fishery management is theprimary method through which theobjective is pursued.

Fisheries Council (EU) – thepopular name for the Council ofMinisters when the agenda isdominated by fishery matters andfisheries ministers attend rather thanother ministers of member states’governments (Fig. 2 & 6).

fishery limits – the EuropeanCommission (EC) holds ‘absolutecompetence’ for all aspects of fisherymanagement within 200 nautical milesof member states’ baselines. Memberstates are responsible for enforcingfishery management measures on theirown national fishing fleets and withintheir own sector of the 200 mile EUfishing limit (Fig. 1). Member statesmay introduce and enforce nationalmanagement measures within 12nautical miles of baselines (theTerritorial Sea ), subject to the approvalof DG Fisheries . Some EU memberstates and Norway have historic rightsto fish in prescribed areas of the outerhalf of the UK Territorial Sea (6-12nautical miles). (There are some, butvery limited, reciprocal arrangementsfor UK vessels.) Only UK registeredfishing vessels are permitted to fishwithin 6 miles of UK baselines (but thisdoes not diminish the internationalright to navigation and free passage).There is a body of UK legislation thatapplies only within the 6 mile limit (or3 miles in a few small areas), egEnvironment Agency and Sea FisheriesCommittee (SFC) byelaws . All UKfishery legislation is subject toapproval by the EU (DG Fisheries) and

must not be in conflict with EUlegislation, nor can it be‘discriminatory’, ie it must not favourone group of fishermen to thedisadvantage of another group.

fishery management – theintegrated process of informationgathering, analysis, planning, decisionmaking, allocation of resources,formulation and enforcement of fisheryregulations which govern the presentand future fishing activities inparticular to ensure the continuedproductivity of the resources (EC1999).

fishery protection vessel –various agencies’ patrol boats thatinspect fishing vessels’ gear and catchat sea and enforce EU and nationalfishery legislation. The FisheryProtection Squadron of the Royal Navy(RN) operates on behalf of MAFFwithin 200 miles of UK baselines andhas the powers to inspect and enforcefishery legislation aboard UK registeredfishing vessels operating in the watersof other nations or on the high seas.The waters around Scotland arepatrolled by vessels of the ScottishFishery Protection Agency andsimilarly, DARD maintains a patrolboat for operation off the coast ofNorthern Ireland. Around the coasts ofEngland and Wales Sea FisheriesCommittee (SFC) boats operate in theirown districts (within 6 miles ofbaselines) – with the exception of theIsles of Scilly SFC whose district ispatrolled by the Cornwall SFC boat.The Environment Agency also patrolswithin 6 miles of England and Wales’baselines enforcing legislation for


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migratory species conservation (egsalmon) and pollution control. (Seealso fishery limits and sea fisheryinspectors .)

fishery or statistical rectangle –see ICES Rectangle .

Fishery Order – a generic termapplied to regulations that establisheither Several Order or RegulatingOrder fisheries – orders that remove orlimit the public, common-law right tofish.

fishing effort – see effort .

fishing intensity – fishing effort perunit area; eg hours trawling per ICESRectangle.

fishing mortality rate – see F.

fishing power – a relative measureof the ability of one vessel or type ofgear to catch fish compared to anothervessel or type of gear. Thus, a motortrawler is more powerful, in terms ofcatching capability, than a sailingsmack or steam trawler and a purse-seiner is more powerful that adriftnetter .

fixed gear – any fishing gear that isanchored or attached in some otherway to the seabed so that it does notdrift or move while it is in fishingmode, eg crab pots, long-lines andbottom set gill nets .

flag ship – a UK registered fishingvessel, fishing against the UK quota,operated by a UK company but onethat is a subsidiary of a parentcompany registered in another EUmember state (most frequently the

Netherlands or Spain). All UKregistered fishing vessels are requiredto make a minimum number ofvisits/landings to UK ports but themajority of flag ships’ catches arelanded in their ultimate owners’ states.

flatfish – bony fish (ie not skates andrays) that live on the seabed and havea pigmented upper surface and a paleor white underside, eg Dover sole,megrim, plaice.

Flim – see limit reference points.

flora – all plant life includingphytoplankton , phytobenthos andseaweed.

fly dragging/seining – a commonname for fishing with a fly seine, alightweight form of demersal seine .

FMSY – the level of fishing mortality (F)that corresponds to the peak value ona dome-shaped yield-per-recruit curveand the value that will produce themaximum sustainable yield (MSY)from a fish stock (Fig. 8 & 10).

footrope – the weighted rope thatforms the lower edge of a drift, gill,tangle or trammel net .

foul hooked – a fish that has beencaught in any hook-and-line fisherywhere the hook is impaled somewhereother than through the mouth.

Fpa – see limit reference points .

freezer trawler – a trawler thatprocesses the catch and freezes it atsea.

French dredge – a heavyweightscallop dredge in which the tooth bar


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gadoid – fish of the cod family, egcod, haddock, Norway pout, pollack,saithe (coley), whiting, pout whitingand others.

gastropods – snail-like molluscssuch as whelks, winkles and limpets.

gear – an all-embracing term forfishing equipment in total or in part, egwarps, long-line, tickler chains,bridles, dredges, etc.

gear restriction – a fisherymanagement measure that prohibits orotherwise restricts the use of particularfishing methods in a specified area orseason. These restrictions are widelyadopted by Sea Fisheries Committees(SFC) and are often associated withclosed areas and closed seasons.

gene pool – the sum of all thegenetic material, including itsvariations and mutations, held within agroup of organisms that interbreed butform a more or less separate breedingpopulation (ie stock) from otherpopulations of the same species, egsalmon in the Scottish Dee are drawnfrom, and contribute to, a differentgene pool to that of salmon that breedin the Welsh Dee.

generation time – the average timetaken for an organism to develop fromfertilisation through to sexual maturity.This can be as little as a few days forsmall organisms such as phytoplanktonor 5-10 years for large, late maturingfish such as sharks and rays.

genome – the sum of genetic material

G

across the lower edge of the dredgemouth is not spring-loaded. It has adiving plane across the top of themouth to help force the dredge intothe seabed. (See also Newhavendredge.)

front – the boundary or boundaryzone between two water masses withdifferent physical properties, typicallywhere the thermocline (a steeptemperature gradient) or halocline(salinity gradient) reaches the surface.There is often above-averagebiological activity in the vicinity of afront including concentrations ofplankton, plankton feeders, migratoryspecies – and consequently, fishing

activity.

fyke net – cylindrical nets (ca 0.5 mdiameter) held in shape by a series ofhoops and fixed in their fishingposition by stakes. An inverted funnelof netting forms part of the net mouthto aid fish entering the net buthindering attempts to leave. Thesefunnels may be repeated further downthe net if it is very long. They are mostcommonly used for eel fishing in riversbut occasionally they are used inestuaries and intertidally. A plain wallof netting several metres long is oftenattached to the mouth of the net to actas a ‘leader’ to the net mouth.


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H A B – harmful algal blooms, bloomsof dinoflagellate p h y t o p l a n k t o n that areinherently toxic, eg – species associatedwith red tides (including G o n y a u l a xspp) and, or shellfish poisoning (egP s e u d o n i t z s c h i a sp., D i n o p h y s i s s p p .a n d A l e x a n d r i u m spp.). Blooms ofotherwise harmless algae that haveincreased to a point where they are

causing problems of de-oxygenation arealso ‘harmful’ but may more generallybe referred to as ‘nuisance algalblooms’. Significant de-oxygenation canhappen at night when the algae areconsuming oxygen, or when the bloomcollapses and the dead organisms createan abnormal increase in biochemicaloxygen demand (BOD).

H

held in either an individual egg orsperm before they unite in fertilisationto form the genotype.

genotype – the sum of the geneticmaterial in each organism followingfertilisation. (See also genome.)

ghost fishing – the continuedcapture of animals by fishing gear thathas been lost or abandoned. Such gearcan continue to fish until it is retrieved,destroyed (by time and weather) orotherwise ceases to fish, eg weigheddown with weed, debris and/orcadavers.

gill nets – curtains of netting thathang vertically in the water, either in afixed position (eg surface or seabed) ordrifting, that trap fish by their gillcovers – operculum – when they try toswim through the net’s meshes. (Seealso drift, tangle and trammel nets .)

Graham’s Great Law of Fishing– all fisheries that are unregulatedbecome unprofitable (Graham 1943).(See also Tragedy of the Commons .)

groundrope – the rope that forms

the lower, front edge of a trawl ordemersal seine (Fig. 4 & 5) and is incontact with the seabed while towingor closing.

growth overfishing – occurs wherefish are caught before they are able tomake their optimum (in terms ofgrowth) individual contribution toexploited biomass. As a result, thestock as a whole is fished at a levelwhere it cannot deliver the maximumsustainable yield (MSY) .

growth rate – the increase in weightper unit of time. The instantaneous rateof growth is the natural logarithm ofthe ratio between the initial and finalweight per unit of time.

gutted weight – the weight of fishwith their viscera removed. Themajority of roundfish (eg cod, haddocketc) and flatfish (eg sole, plaice etc) arenormally landed gutted (but see‘rounders’ ) whereas pelagic fish arelanded whole. The principal reason forthe difference is that each group of fishkeeps better if stored in their respectivecondition.


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habitat – the place where anorganism lives, as characterised by thephysical features. For example, rockyreefs, sandbanks and mud holes allprovide particular habitats that areoccupied by animals adapted to live inor on one of them but probably cannotthrive, or even survive in the others.

Habitat Action Plan – see HAP.

habitat degradation – adversealterations to a particular habitat typethrough physical disturbance orpollution. For example, trenching apipeline through a mud patch couldresult in the mud being fluidised andunsuitable for Nephrops burrowconstruction.

habitat restoration andrehabilitation – programmes to haltactivities causing adverse effects andimprove the condition of a habitat byactive intervention and return it to itsprevious condition. Such programmescan include the reintroduction (stockenhancement ) of animals and plantsnormally associated with the habitat.

Habitats (and Species) Directive– Council Directive 92/43/EEC on theconservation of natural habitats and ofwild flora and fauna requires EUmember states to protect scheduledspecies and to designate and managespecial areas of conservation (SAC) forthe protection of, among others:

Habitats – sandbanks slightly covered by seawater at all times, estuaries, intertidal mudflats and sandbanks, lagoons, large shallow inlets and bays, reefs, submerged or partly submerged sea caves;

Species – Atlantic salmon, bottle-nosed dolphins, harbour porpoise, common and grey seals, lampreys,otters, shads, sturgeon.

(See also Conservation Regulations .)

Hague Preference – an agreementreached by the Council of Ministers(The Hague 1976). Areas that werehighly dependent on fishing (eg Irelandand the Highlands and Islands ofScotland) were allocated quotas fromthe TAC that were greater than wasjustified by their track record from theearly 1970s. As a consequence, whenthe CFP was ratified (1983) it resultedin the TACs being set higher than ICESrecommendations for several years inorder to meet the terms of thePreference without ‘disadvantaging’other member states. (See Holden1994).

handline – a hook-and-line methodof fishing, eg for mackerel, ostensiblyhauling by hand but an increasingnumber of ‘handliners’are now fittedwith hydraulic shooting and haulingsystems. (See also long-line.)

HAP – habitat action plan: theseplans form part of the UK BiodiversityAction Plan (UKBAP) to protect UKspecies and habitats . Marine ‘priorityhabitats’for which plans have beenpublished (UKBG 1999) include:

littoral and sub-littoral chalk, Lophelia pertusa reefs, maerl beds,Modiolus beds, mudflats, mud habitats in deep water, Sabellariareefs, saline lagoons, seagrass beds, Serpulid reefs, sheltered muddy gravel, sub-littoral sands and gravel, tidal rapids.


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ICES – the International Council forthe Exploration of the Sea, anindependent scientific advisory bodyfounded in 1902. It is funded by 19member states’ governments fromaround the North Atlantic (includingCanada and the USA) and Baltic Sea. It

encourages research into commercialfish stocks , their biology and all factors(natural and man made) that mayaffect their abundance. It does notundertake research in its own right buthas a secretariat (in Copenhagen) tofacilitate and co-ordinate

I

harmful algal blooms – see HAB.

haul – the act of drawing-in a net torecover the catch but also used as ageneral term for effort , eg x hauls perday.

Heinke’s Law – the largest plaiceare found in the deepest water. Morespecifically, the abundance of plaice isinversely proportional, and their size isdirectly proportional to their distancefrom the shore (and depth of water).

High Seas – the sea beyond thejurisdiction of coastal states. Generally,this means beyond the Territorial Seabut ‘high seas fisheries’ are those thatoccur beyond coastal states’ 200 milefishery limits or EEZ.

high grading – the practice ofretaining only the most valuable partof a catch and discarding the speciesand, or size groups that have a lowercommercial value even when it wouldnot be an offence to retain and landthem.

historic access rights – the rightthat certain nations’ fishing vesselshave to fish within the 6-12 mile bandof the UK Territorial Sea . The majority

of these rights are restricted by place,season, species and gear.

Hybrid Order – a general term todescribe a particular practice formanaging a shellfish Regulating Orderfishery. The rights of the RegulatingOrder are held by an organisation,usually a Sea Fisheries Committee(SFC) , which then allocates fishingaccess and stock ownership rights toindividuals, within the RegulatedOrder fishery, as if these secondaryrights were a Several Order .

hydraulic dredge – a method offishing for bivalve molluscs that areburied in the seabed, eg cockles,razorfish or clams. The dredge istrailed behind the boat at the end of a10-20cm diameter pipe. Water ispumped at high pressure to the mouthof the dredge and directed back up thepipe. As the water rises up the pipe itcreates suction and lifts the sand andbenthos (including the target species )to the surface. The larger animals areretained by a sorting grid while thewater, sand and undersize animals arereturned to the sea.


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Figure 9: ICES sub-Areas(Roman numerals) andDivisions (Roman lower-case letters) around theBritish Isles

collaboration, including fishery stockassessments, between member states.Work is carried out through numerousworking groups convened under theremit of one or more standingcommittees:

Advisory Committee of Fisheries Management (ACFM) ,

Advisory Committee for the Marine Environment (ACME) ,Baltic Committee,Fisheries Technology Committee, Living Resources Committee, Mariculture Committee,Marine Habitat Committee, Oceanography Committee,Resource Management Committee.

(See Fig. 3)

ICES (sub-)Area – a major statisticaldivision of the Northeast Atlanticbased loosely on biogeographic zones .The North Sea, for example, formsICES sub-Area IV (Fig. 9).

ICES Division – statistical area ofthe Northeast Atlantic comprising avariable number of ICES (fishery orstatistical) Rectangles, eg Division VIIdand VIIe are the eastern and westernEnglish Channel respectively (Fig. 9).

ICES Rectangle – fishery statisticsare collected and collated in ‘ICESRectangles’; these are half degree oflatitude by one degree of longitude.The rectangles may be further dividedinto ‘sub-rectangles’ (quarter degreelatitude by half degree longitude), and


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exceptionally, may be divided again(one quarter degree of latitude by onequarter degree of longitude).

ICZM – integrated coastal zonemanagement, the co-ordination of allactivities, regulatory and managementfunctions to safeguard all naturalresources and processes found in andaffecting the coastal zone.

IMM – the Intermediate Meeting ofMinisters to the North Sea Conference.In 1997 a meeting of west Europeanministers and EU Commissionersconvened in Bergen "to discuss theintegration of environmental issues inthe North Sea" (Svelle et al, 1997). AStatement of Conclusions was issuedfollowing the meeting setting outgeneral targets and aspirations forcloser integration of environmentalprotection and nature conservation infishery management. Subsequently,these became part of EU fishery policy(EC 1999).

incidental catch – sometimes usedas an alternative to by-catch anddiscards but also used to differentiatethe individual captures of(charismatic) species that are not anormal part of the catch. Thus, anincidental catch could be commercialspecies such as porbeagle or baskingshark, or birds, turtles and marinemammals.

indicator species – a species thatcan be monitored as a representativeof a broader community of species orone whose abundance gives anindication of the status (‘health’) of aparticular habitat , ecosystem orenvironment .

industrial fishing – the capture offish specifically for reduction to mealand oil. Target species include oil-richpelagic species such as mackerel andherring but more commonly they arethe smaller species with little or noalternative commercial use, eg sprats,sandeels and Norway pout.

infauna – animals that live buried inthe seabed, eg cockles and lugworm.

inkwell pot – a traditional, wicker-work crab or lobster pot with a singleopening at the top. Wicker-work haslargely been replaced by steel rod andplastic.

input controls – the managementmeasures introduced to limit theamount of effort used in theexploitation of a stock. The controlscan be any one, or a number ofmeasures, eg days at sea, gearrestriction , closed areas etc.

inshore fisheries – occur in coastalwaters, overwhelmingly within theTerritorial Sea if not within 6 miles ofthe coast. The majority of inshoreboats are less than 10 m in length andhave a ‘permit to fish’ equivalent to aClass A licence (MAFF 1999).

integrated coastal zonemanagement – see ICZM.

intertidal – the foreshore or area ofseabed between high water mark andlow water mark which is exposed eachday as the tide rises and falls. Alsocalled the littoral zone (Fig 1).

introduced species – any speciesthat occurs outside its normalgeographic range as a direct or indirect


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J-net – a type of intertidal / coastalstake-net salmon trap that is workedon the east coasts of Scotland and NEEngland. The trap is set to one side ofthe outer end of a ‘leader’ wall ofnetting – thereby forming a ‘J’ shape.(See also T-net).

jigging – a term most frequentlyassociated with fishing for squid withhandlines that are ‘jigged’ up-and-down. On squid fishing boats the‘handlines’ are operated hydraulically.

jumbo – a name often applied to thelargest market category of certain fish,eg ‘jumbo mackerel’ and ‘jumbohaddock’. It is also the name for ashort-handled rake used to gathercockles manually in certain intertidalfisheries, eg Burry Inlet andMorecambe Bay.

juvenile – an immature fish, ie onethat has not reached sexual maturity(but could still be larger than theminimum landing size – MLS).

J

result of human activity and one thathas not been found to occur naturallyin the area within historic time. Theterm applies equally to non-selfsustaining (alien) populations and toestablished non-native species.

Irish Box – an area of sea off thesouth of Ireland to which access bySpanish registered fishing vessels islimited to a maximum of 40 at any onetime.

ITQ – individual transferable quotasare a form of fishery management inwhich quotas are allocated toindividual boats. It is for theskipper/owner to decide if and whentheir quota is taken or if it should beleased or sold on to a third party. ITQmanagement is practised in Icelandand New Zealand.

keep box – a floating box in whichlive Crustacea are kept until collectedfor market. (See also vivier.)

keystone species – a species thatforms an essential part of a communityor assemblage of species withoutwhich the rest of the communitycannot exist. For example, reefbuilding species such as the colonial

worm Sabellaria spp or the horsemussel Modiolus modiolus arekeystone species that provide specifichabitats within which many otherspecies live. (See also ecologicallysignificant species and habitats .)

klondiking – the practice of ‘landing’catches, usually of pelagic species, tofactory ships anchored offshore. The

K


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landings – that part of the catchwhich is put ashore. Frequently,landings provide the only record oftotal catch; ie the landings plusdiscards.

landings per unit of effort – thetotal quantity of a given species, or allfish combined, that is landed for eachunit of effort (eg days at sea, hourstrawling etc) expended in its capture. Itis an alternative means of expressingcatch per unit of effort (CPUE) andprovides an index of abundance in thearea of a fishery.

larvae – the developing animal after ithas hatched from its egg but before ithas reached the adult or even juvenilestage. Many marine larvae drift in theplankton.

length cohort analysis – aprocedure for constructing apopulation life-table, the basis foranalytical stock assessments , usinglength-groups as an alternative for age-groups (as used in VPA) where ageingis difficult or otherwise not practicable.

licensing – a widespread method offishery management that limits entry toa fishery. Licence conditions can varyfrom simply granting an individual the

right to fish, through to specifying notonly the gear used andquantity/number of fish that may betaken but the time and place of fishingtoo, as in some salmon fisheries.Anyone who wishes to fishcommercially in the UK must obtainone or more of the following fourclasses of licence:

Vessels >10 m in length

Class A (whitefish) licence to fish all demersal species, including ‘pressure stocks ’, and up to 500 t of pelagic species per year;

Class A (pelagic) licence to fish forherring, mackerel, horse mackerel,pilchards, sprats and blue whiting;

Class B licence to fish all demersalspecies except pressure stocks, butincluding non-pressure stocks ;

Class C – licence to fish for ‘miscellaneous species’, ie species that are not subject to TACrestrictions plus a limited number that are;

Vessels <10 m in length

Class A (<10 m) licence, or ‘permitto fish’ for all stocks.

L

catches still count against the catchingvessels’ national quota even thoughthey are not put ashore.

k-selected species – species thattend to be large, long-lived, with low

fecundity and are best adapted forstable environmental conditions, eglarge elasmobranchs and marinemammals. (See also r-selectedspecies.)


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limit reference points – arebiological or fishery managementindicators that define the point atwhich precautionary action must betaken to safeguard a fish stock. In orderfor stocks and fisheries exploiting themto be within safe biological limits ,there should be a high probability that:1 – the spawning stock biomass (SSB =B) is above the threshold whererecruitment is impaired; 2 - the fishingmortality (F) is below that which willdrive the spawning stock to thebiomass threshold, a condition thatmust be avoided. Thus:

Blim = minimum acceptable biomass

Flim = maximum acceptable fishingmortality

(lim stands for ‘limit’).

The certainty with which these pointscan be identified varies with thequality of assessment data available.Therefore, ICES has also identifiedprecautionary reference points thatidentify higher biomass thresholds thanBlim and lower fishing mortalitythresholds than Flim:

Bpa = precautionary minimum biomass

Fpa = precautionary maximum fishing mortality

(pa stands for precautionary approach).

In many instances, the value for Bpawill be the same as the valuepreviously identified as the minimumbiologically acceptable limit – MBAL(ICES 1998a and ICES Current).

In circumstances where therelationship between the exploited

stock and the spawning stock is notclear, as is the case with some of thedeep-water species of fish, limitreference points may be expressedwith respect to the ‘unexploited stock’:

Ulim =minimum acceptable percentage of unexploited biomass

Upa = precautionary minimum percentage of unexploited biomass.

(See ICES 1998b).

littoral – the edge of the sea, butparticularly the intertidal zone (Fig.1).

live bearers – animals that incubatetheir young internally and producelive, free-living offspring, eg manysharks including spur dogs, Squalusacanthias.

live weight – the weight of fishbefore it is gutted, ie the whole (orlive) weight. (See also gutted weightand rounders .)

log book – a set of forms issued bythe E C that skippers of vessels >10 m inlength must complete after each haulrecording: date, time, place, duration offishing, species composition andestimated weight of retained c a t c h ( i etotal catch less d i s c a r d s). Completedforms must be handed in on return toharbour or produced at sea at therequest of a fishery inspector.

long-line – a method of fishing withbaited hooks. An inshore cod long-line, for example, has hooks set onshort (ca 0.5 m) lengths of line –‘snoods’– attached to the main line atintervals of 2-5 m. The total length of


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line can range from 2-300 m to severalkm in high seas long-line fisheries –where the snoods are longer and setrather further apart.

L P U E – see landings per unit of ef f o r t .

Luxembourg Compromise – an

unofficial procedure adopted at aCouncil of Ministers meeting(Luxembourg 1956) under which theCouncil would not proceed to a vote ifa member state declared that it wouldbe ‘against the national interest’toadopt the proposal under discussion(see Holden 1994).

M – formally, the instantaneous rate ofnatural mortality (the natural logarithmof the change in abundance due tonatural causes per unit of time); butmore simply, the proportion of thepopulation killed each year bypredation, illness (eg parasite load), oldage etc.

Mackerel Box – a mackerel nurseryarea around the south-west peninsulaof England, and extending into theCeltic Sea, (Fig. 6) within whichdirected fishing for mackerel by purseseiners and pelagic trawlers isprohibited.

macro-fauna – any animal that isreadily visible to the naked eye.

maerl – twig-like, calcified red algaethat act as keystone species and form aparticular habitat. Maerl is marketed as‘calcified seaweed’ for horticultural use.

MAGP x – the EU Multi-AnnualGuidance Programme (where x is aparticular programme lasting 3-5years). The, legally binding, aim is toreduce the total fishing power of thecombined EU fishing fleet. Eachmember state has targets for fleetreduction (vessel numbers, tonnage,engine power etc) that they must meet.

management unit – is a fisheryexploiting a species of fish living in adefined area upon which (eg) ECmanagement is based. In some casesthe management unit includes two ormore stocks; in other cases one stockis split in two, usually to meet politicalrequirements, eg to exclude the vesselsof a member state from fishing in aparticular zone (Holden 1994).

mariculture – marine aquaculture .

Marine Consultation Area – seeMCA.

Marine Environmental HighRisk Area – see MEHRA.

Marine Nature Reserve – seeMNR.

Marine Protected Area – seeMPA.

Marine Stewardship Council – anon-governmental organisation thatencourages consumers to purchase fishtaken only from environmentally re-sponsible and sustainable fisheries. Allfish products that MSC judge to befrom such sustainable fisheries will bepermitted to carry an ‘eco-friendly’ sealof approval.

M


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maximum economic yield – themaximum, most cost-effective yield (egtonnes per unit of effort ) that can betaken on a sustainable basis (Fig. 10).On a yield-per-recruit (YPR) curve theMEY is found at a slightly lower levelof fishing mortality (F) than is themaximum sustainable yield (MSY).

maximum sustainable yield – seeMSY (also Fig. 8 & 10).

MBAL – minimum biologicalacceptable limit: an estimate ofspawning stock biomass below whichICES recommends it should not beallowed to fall for fear of imminentrecruitment failure and stock collapse.(See also limit reference points .)

MCA – marine consultation area: anon-statutory nature conservationdesignation for Scotland. It identifiesareas of nature conservation interestfor which widespread consultation isdesirable before any developmenttakes place. (See also SMA.)

MEHRA – marine environmental highrisk area: a UK designation proposedin the Donaldson Report following thewreck of the oil tanker Braer, Shetland.They will be sea areas with highmarine traffic densities adjacent orclose to coastal or shallow-water areasthat are considered particularlyvulnerable to environmental damagefrom oil spills or other noxiouscargoes. (See also PSSA)

mesh selection – the process bywhich fish above a certain size areunable to pass through the meshes of afishing net but fish below that size cando so. It works most successfully in

free hanging nets such as drift netsand gill nets , but trawls are alsoregulated by minimum mesh size(MMS) . The efficiency of trawl meshselection varies enormously as theshape of the meshes change inresponse to changing loads whiletowing. For example, as catch, andhence drag, increases the cod-endmeshes tend to close. (See also squaremesh.)

MEY – see maximum economic yield.

mid-water trawl – a trawl that isdesigned specifically for the capture of

pelagic species, eg herring andmackerel, and is towed in mid waterrather than across the seabed.

migratory fish – a high proportionof the commercially exploited speciesin the North Atlantic undergomigrations (directional movementsover anything from a few hundred totens of thousands of kilometres) duringtheir life-history, if not seasonally. InUK legislation, however, ‘migratory

Figure 10: An extrapolation of the yield-per-recruit model to describe variousconditions in the development of a fishery


55

fish’ are those named in the Salmonand Freshwater Fisheries Act (1975 –and related Acts): salmon (Salmosalar), sea trout (Salmo trutta) and eels(Anguilla anguilla). Internationally, theterm tends to describe species withoceanic migrations moving throughseveral jurisdictions in the course of ayear, eg blue sharks, tunas, swordfish,sailfish etc.

minimum landing size – see MLS.

minimum mesh size – see MMS.

miscellaneous species – are stocksnot subject to quota management (egmullet, crabs, whelks), plus somestocks which were not subject toquotas in 1984 when broad-scale, UKlicensing was introduced) but are nowunder quota, eg North Sea prawns(Nephrops), anglerfish, skates and rays(MAFF 1999). (See also pressure stocksand non-pressure stocks .)

misreporting – the inaccuraterecording of catches in EU fishing logbooks or comparable reportingsystems. Among the more commonpractices are under-reporting thequantity of fish caught or reporting thecatch as being taken in a different areafrom the one in which it was actuallymade. The latter example is mostwidespread when the quota for aspecies in one ICES Division has beentaken but quota is still available in anadjacent Division. (See also under-reporting and black-fish.)

mixed fishery – a fishery that takesmulti-species catches. Pelagic fisheriestend to take relatively ‘clean’ singlespecies catches whereas multi-species

catches are more frequent in demersalfisheries.

MLS – minimum landing size: thesmallest length at which it is legal toretain a fish or offer it for sale. Ideally,it is the minimum length at which notless than 50% of a given species firstreach sexual maturity. In practice ittends to be set at a level influenced bymarket acceptability and is frequentlyless than the biological optimum.

MMS – minimum mesh size: thesmallest size of mesh that can be usedlegally in any given type of net. It ismeasured either down one side of themesh (knot-to-knot) or – more usually -across the diagonal under tension(stretched mesh). The MMS is set toallow at least 50% of the targetspecies at their minimum landing size(MLS) to pass through the mesh.

MNR – marine nature reserve: an areaof sea and seabed (which can includeintertidal areas) designated under theWildlife and Countryside Act (1981)for the purpose of conserving marineflora and fauna or geological orphysiographic features of specialinterest and/or providing opportunitiesfor study and research. The designationcan be applied throughout UKterritorial waters; sites designatedalready are: Lundy MNR (England),Skomer MNR (Wales), StrangfordLough MNR (Northern Ireland).

mobile fishing gear – any gear thatis towed or otherwise moved throughthe water, eg trawls, seines, dredgesetc. (See also fixed/static gear.)


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molluscs – all animals in the PhylumMollusca including: gastropods , egwhelks and winkles; bivalves, egcockles and mussels; cephalopods, egsquid and cuttlefish.

monitoring – the regular andsystematic collection of environmentaland biological data by agreed methodsand to agreed standards. Monitoringprovides information on current status,trends and compliance with respect todeclared standards and objectives. (Seealso surveillance.)

monofilament – a single strand ofnylon (or similar) line that is oftentranslucent, and therefore, difficult tosee in water. It is widely used in themanufacture of static gear nets, eg gillnets, as well as the morecommonplace fishing line for anglers.

mortality – the death of organismsthrough natural causes (M), egpredation, or fishing (F) etc. It isusually expressed as an instantaneousrate: the natural logarithm (with signchanged) of the ratio of number ofanimals surviving to the end of theyear and the number at the start of theyear (Ricker 1975).

moulting – the process by whichCrustacea such as shrimps, crabs andlobsters, cast their hard shellperiodically to increase in size. Thenew shell is soft at first to allowexpansion but hardens rapidly.

MPA – marine protected area: anyarea of intertidal or subtidal terrain,together with its overlying water andassociated flora, fauna , historical andcultural features, which has beenreserved by law or other effective

means to protect part or all of theenclosed environment (Kelleher 1999).

MSVPA – multi-species virtualpopulation analysis: a mathematicalprocedure by which to constructpopulation life-tables of inter-relatedpopulations, including predator-preyrelationships. It aims to provide a morerealistic basis for assessing the currentstatus of stocks than do single speciesassessments carried out by VPA orSVPA.

MSY – maximum sustainable yield:the largest average catch that can betaken continuously from a stock underexisting environmental conditions(Fig. 8). (For species with fluctuatingrecruitment, the maximum might beobtained by taking fewer fish in someyears than in others). Also known asmaximum equilibrium catch (Ricker1975).

Multi-Annual GuidanceProgramme – see MAGP.

multifilament – the most commonform of line, twine or rope; manystrands of natural or man-madematerial are twisted together more orless tightly. (See also monofilament.)

multi-monofilament – a system inwhich a small number ofmonofilament strands are twistedloosely together before making upnetting for static gear , eg tangle nets .

multi-purpose fishing vessels –vessels that are equipped or can bereadily adapted to work more than onetype of fishing gear as the seasons oropportunities change, eg trawler-purseseiner, crabber-liner.


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NAO – see North AtlanticOscillation.

native species – self-sustainingpopulations that can be rare orcommonplace but have not beenintroduced by man’s intervention,either deliberately or accidentally. (Seealso non-native species.)

Natura 2000 – The EU-widenetwork of protected sites establishedunder the Birds Directive (SPA) andthe Habitats Directive (SAC) .

natural mortality rate – see M.

NEAFC – North East Atlantic FisheriesCommission, notionally theinternational fisheries commission withresponsibility for fishery conservationand fishery management in the north-east Atlantic. In practice, its role islimited to the high seas fisheries(including deep water fisheries)beyond coastal states’ (and EU) 200mile fishery limits . The EC representsmember states on the Commission(Fig. 2).

nekton – animals that can swimagainst the current rather than drift likethe plankton.

neritic zone – the area of seaencompassing non-oceanic waters, ormore generally, the waters coveringthe continental shelf (Fig.1).

neuston – plants and animals thatlive in the surface few centimetres ofthe sea. Some of the animals arenektonic but most are planktonic(Fig.1).

Newhaven dredge – a scallopdredge in which the tooth bar acrossthe lower edge of the dredge mouth isspring-loaded to minimise snagging onthe seabed. (See also French dredge ).

non-discriminatory – a basicprinciple of the CFP is that any man-agement measures must notdiscriminate against, or be in favour of,one group of fishermen rather thananother. This applies equally to EU andnational legislation. For example, aban on scallop dredging in a specifiedarea must apply to all scallop dredgersfrom all ports, fleets and nations.

non-native species – any organismthat has been introduced deliberatelyor accidentally by human activity andhas established a self-sustainingpopulation in an area beyond itsnormal geographic range. (See alsoalien species and introduced species .Eno et al. 1997)

non-pressure stocks – are stocksfor which the quota allocated to theUK in 1984 (when broad-scale, UKlicensing was introduced) wereconsidered large enough to allowunrestricted fishing (MAFF 1999), ie:

Species ICES Division

Plaice IIa, IV, VIIa, h, j k;

Sole VI, VIIh, j, k;

Cod VIIa;

Whiting VII;

Megrim Vb, VI;

Sprat VIId, e;

N


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Pollack Vb, VI, VII;

Nephrops Vb, VI, VII.

(See also miscellaneous species andpressure stocks .)

non-sector fishery – that part of thenational fishing fleet whoseparticipants are not members of aproducer organisation (PO) . Most ofthe national quota for each species isdistributed among the PO but a smallproportion is retained for the non-sector fleet and is managed by thegovernment fishery departments.

non-target species – any speciesthat form part of the by-catch but arenot (one of) the principal species thatthe fishery is exploiting. For example,turbot are a valuable by-catch inbeam-trawl catches but there is not adirected turbot fishery by beamtrawlers.

North Atlantic Oscillation –annual variations in the pressure ratiobetween the low pressure that tends tobe centred on Iceland and theprevailing high pressure system overthe Azores. The ratio appears to followa long-term cycle of higher and lowervalues, causing both the averageannual air temperature andprecipitation in northern Europe tovary significantly. It may also influencesea temperatures, currents, and hence,fish stocks , but details are less wellunderstood than those of the el Niñophenomenon and anchovy stocks inthe southern Pacific.

North East Atlantic Fisheries

Commission – see NEAFC.

Norway pout box – an area of thenorth-eastern North Sea within whichindustrial fishing (for Norway pout) isprohibited to protect juvenile haddock(Fig. 6)).

No Take Zone – see NTZ.

NTZ – no take zone, a marineprotected area (MPA) from which theremoval of any resources, living ordead (eg marine aggregate) isprohibited.

number at age – the estimatednumber of fish caught each year byindividual age groups. These data arethe basis upon which analytical stockassessments such as virtual populationanalyses (VPA) are made. (See alsolength-cohort analysis ).

nursery – an area readily identified asone of particular importance, year-on-year, for juvenile fish . For example,many estuaries form bass nurseryareas, sandy bays on the east coast ofEngland frequently provide plaicenursery areas, while The Wash andThames Estuary are important solenurseries.

nutrient enrichment – the additionof nutrients, mostly nitrogen andphosphorus, to the marineenvironment as a result of man’sactivities, eg sewage discharge, agri-chemical and slurry run-off fromestuary and riverside farm land. Thiscan lead to enhanced algal growthincluding harmful algal blooms (HAB) .


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Objective x funding – classes ofthe EU Structural Funds . Thus, supportis available for:

Objective 1 Promotes the development and structural adjustment of regions whose development is less well advancedthan elsewhere in the EU (ie the local gross domestic product (GDP) is less than 75% of the EU average), eg parts of Wales, the Highlands and Islands of Scotland,parts of NE England (until 2006);

Objective 2 Supports the economic and social redevelopment of areas previously dependent on what is now a declining or redundant industry (including fisheries);

Objective 3 Combats long-term unemployment and helps the young find work.

offal – the intestines and other parts ofthe fish that are discarded when fishare gutted. It is widely thought that thetotal quantity of offal discarded hasstimulated the increase in abundanceof many scavenging birds in the lastquarter of the 20 th century, eg fulmarsin the North Sea.

offshore marine protected areas– marine protected areas (MPA) thatmight be established beyond theTerritorial Sea (12 nautical miles) tomeet the provisions of the HabitatsDirective or OSPAR Annex V.

open access fishery – a national orinternational fishery for which there

are no restrictions or licensingrequirements to participate althoughthey may still be subject to TAC andquota management.

Order in Council – an order issuedby the Privy Council that gives theforce of law to administrativeregulations, usually drawn up by UKgovernment departments, without theneed for parliament to amend theprimary legislation from which thepower of enforcement stems. The orderis often issued in the form of aStatutory Instrument.

OSPAR – a combination (1992) oftwo earlier conventions (Oslo andParis) to create the Convention for theProtection of the Marine Environmentof the Northeast Atlantic. Annexes tothe convention address specific issues:

Annex I prevention and elimination of pollution from land-based sources;

Annex II prevention and elimination of pollution by dumping or incineration;

Annex III prevention and elimination of pollution from offshore sources;

Annex IV assessment of the quality of the marine environment;

Annex V protection and conservation of ecosystems and biological diversity.

otolith – a free-floating bonystructure in the middle ear of a fishthat forms part of its balance sensorysystem. It grows annually by

O


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pair fishing/trawling – a methodwhere two boats tow a trawl betweenthem to hold it open laterally; ie thereare no trawl doors. In the UK fleet it iswidely used by boats engaged infishing for pelagic species.

Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning –see PSP.

Particularly Sensitive Sea Area –see PSSA

parlour pot – a rectangular crab andlobster trap with two chambers ofnetting stretched over 3-4 hoops. Theinitial entrance may be either a rigidplastic or loose, net funnel. A second(loose net) funnel leads the animal intothe ‘parlour’ from which there is noescape (but see escape gap).

peeler crab – a crab that has gonesoft preparatory to, or immediatelyfollowing, the loss of its hard shellwhen moulting.

pelagic – relating to mid water, egherring, sprats and mackerel are allpelagic species that are vulnerable tocapture in mid water by pelagic

trawls . Pelagic birds are species thatdo not return to land, other than tobreed, but roost each night on the seasurface, eg fulmars and petrels (Fig.1).

pelagic trawl – an otter or pairtrawl that is towed in mid water and isneither designed nor suitable fortowing across the seabed. (See alsodemersal trawl .)

Phaeocystis – a colonialphytoplankton organism (Phaeocystispouchetti) that is naturally abundant incoastal waters during the spring. Whenthe bloom dies, Phaeocystis can createfloes of creamy-brown foam that insome circumstances can reachnuisance proportions, eg as aconsequence of nutrient enrichment.

phytobenthos – microscopic plantsthat live in the surface layers of theseabed, particularly in shallow waterand intertidal areas. (See alsophytoplankton and benthos.)

phytoplankton – microscopic plantsfloating in the water column that driftto-and-fro with the tides. (See alsoplankton and zooplankton.)

P

alternating winter-summer additions ofopaque and translucent layers ofmaterial. In many fish, these appear asannual rings under a microscope andenable the fish to be aged.

otter trawl – a demersal trawl that isheld open laterally by otter boards or‘doors’ (Fig. 5).

over-fishing – any fishery where thetotal fishing effort is greater than isrequired to meet or match a specificmanagement objective, eg maximumsustainable yield (MSY) . (See alsogrowth overfishing and recruitmentoverfishing.)

ovoviviparous – see live bearers.


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Pinnipedia – marine mammals thatcome ashore to give birth, eg seals andwalruses.

Plaice Box – introduced in 1989 toprotect juvenile plaice. It extendsalong the coasts of the Netherlands,Germany and Denmark and covers themain plaice nursery area for thesouthern and central North Sea (Fig 6).Fishing with beam trawls by vesselsmore powerful than 220 kW (300 hp)is prohibited within this area.

plankton – the animals and plantsthat float in mid water and drift to-and-fro with the tides. (See also nekton.)

PO – producer organisation:associations of individuals, companiesand other bodies within the fishingindustry intended to optimise supplyand increase efficiency of marketing –both fundamental objectives of theCFP. Some POs also manage thequotas awarded, under licence, tom e m b e r s ’ boats. (For further informationsee References – EC Current.)

pots – a general term to describetraps used to catch crabs, lobsters,larger species of prawns, eg Nephrops,and some molluscs, eg whelks andoctopus. (See also creel, inkwell potand parlour pot .)

potter – a fishing vessel engaged infishing for Crustacea by using potsrather than nets.

prawn – a colloquial name forCrustacea larger than shrimps butsmaller than lobsters The fishingindustry use ‘prawns’ as a name forNephrops (ie scampi, Dublin Bayprawn, Norway lobster, langoustine).

precautionary approach – adecision to take avoiding action basedon the possibility of significantenvironmental damage, even beforethere is conclusive evidence thatdamage will occur (DOE 1992). Thisapproach requires fishery managers topay due regard to the uncertainties ofstock assessment and management.They must implement the appropriateprecautionary action if limit referencepoints are reached.

precautionary principle – theprinciple of safeguarding the marineecosystem by reducing emissions ofhazardous substances at source andminimising physical disturbance ofmarine habitats caused by humanactivities using appropriatetechnologies and measures.

This applies to all human activities forwhich there exists a scientific basis forbelieving that damage to livingresources is likely to result. Measuresadopted should be based onpessimistic assumptions regardinguncertainties in the measurement andprediction of effects on the marineenvironment (Gray & Bewers 1996).

‘…by virtue of which preventivemeasures are to be taken when thereare reasonable grounds for concernthat substances or energy introduced,directly of indirectly, into the marineenvironment may bring about hazardsto human heath, harm living resourcesand marine ecosystems, damageamenities or interferes with legitimateuses of the sea, even when there is noconclusive evidence of a causalrelationship between inputs and theeffects’ (OSPAR).


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precautionary TAC – a totalallowable catch that is set for aparticular stock or species but forwhich a full analytical stockassessment (eg virtual populationanalysis, VPA) is not possible or hasnot been made. It may be set on thebasis of the average catch over theprevious 5 years, for example, as asafeguard against over-exploitation.

pressure stocks – are those forwhich the quotas allocated to the UKin 1984 (when broad-scale UKlicensing was introduced) wereconsidered insufficient to allowunrestricted fishing by the UK fleet.Only vessels <10 m or those holding aClass A licence can fish pressurestocks, ie:

Species ICES Areas & Divisions

Herring All

Mackerel All

Saithe All

Haddock All

Hake All

Anglerfish All except IVa, b, c

Cod All except VIIa

Whiting IIa, IVa, b, c, Vb, VI

Plaice Vb, VI, VIIa, d, e, f, g

Sole IIa, IV, VIIa, d, e, f, g

Megrim VII.

(See also miscellaneous species andnon-pressure stocks .)

priority habitats – are naturalhabitats in danger of disappearance forwhich the EU has particularresponsibility for their conservation inview of the proportion of their naturalrange that falls within member states’

territory (Habitats Directive).

priority species – are endangeredspecies for which the EU has particularresponsibility for their conservation inview of the proportion of their naturalrange that falls within member states’territory (Habitats Directive).

Producer Organisation – see PO.

productivity – the total biomassgenerated by a population, stock orspecies each year as a result of growthand reproduction – less the quantitylost through mortality .

property rights – legal ownership ofa particular property or resource.Generally speaking, Magna Carta(1215) excluded ownership orexclusive rights to any fish in tidalwaters. However, ownership rights tonamed shellfish species in a definedarea can be allocated throughRegulating and Several Orderfisheries.

PSP – paralytic shellfish poisoning,this can result from eating bivalvemolluscan shellfish that haveaccumulated toxins from theAlexandrium spp. dinoflagellates in thephytoplankton . When toxins aredetected above 80 mg/100 g ofshellfish flesh the shellfish may not beharvested commercially or offered forsale. The toxins are heat stable andcan result in mild symptoms ofnumbness in tongue or lips or in veryextreme cases lead to death throughrespiratory paralysis.

PSSA – Particularly Sensitive SeaArea: an area recognised by theInternational Maritime Organisation


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qualified majority voting – theEuropean Union (EU) Council ofMinisters has a range of voting systemsto meet specific circumstances. If noalternative is stipulated in the Treaties,a simple majority is sufficient. Formatters of constitutional importance, adecision must be unanimous inCouncil and then ratified by eachmember state’s government. Mostfrequently, however, decisions arereached by ‘qualified majority’. Votingis weighted such that Germany,France, Italy and UK each have 10votes; Spain 8, Belgium, Greece,Netherlands and Portugal 5 each;Austria and Sweden each have 4;Denmark, Finland and Ireland 3 eachand Luxembourg 2.

Sixty-two of the total of 87 votes carrya motion with a qualified majority.

quota – a fixed proportion of the TACallocated to each fishing nation. (Seealso relative stability .) This nationalquota allocation is further sub-dividedinto quotas for specific areas, seasons,fisheries or organisations, eg producerorganisations (PO) .

quota hopping – a colloquialdescription for vessels registered in onecountry of the European Union (EU) ,and fishing against that country’squota, but ultimately owned by acompany in another member state, andoften landing most of its catch in theowner’s country. (See also flag ship.)

Ramsar Convention – theinternational Convention on Wetlandsof International Importance especiallyas Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, Iran1971). Coastal waters of particular

importance can be designated asRamsar sites but they do not normallyexceed 6 m in depth. During the1990s the convention was amended tobroaden its application to embrace,

Q

R

(IMO) as an area of ecological,sociological or scientific significancethat may be vulnerable to damage bymaritime traffic.

purse seine – a deep curtain ofnetting that is shot in a circle to forman enclosing cylinder around shoals ofpelagic fish. A ‘pursing wire’ attachedto the end and lower edges is drawn in

to close the bottom of the cylinder. Atthe same time, the net is progressivelyhauled aboard to concentrate the fishalongside the boat in the final bight ofnetting – the ‘purse’. The fish arepumped from the purse into the hold(CSW or RSW tanks if the fish isintended for human consumption).


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among others, the needs of fish withan associated move towards closerinvolvement with fishery management .

rarity – a rare habitat is one that isrestricted to a limited number oflocations or to small, few and scatteredlocations in UK waters. A rare speciesis one that is sessile or has limitedmobility and occurs in a limitednumber of locations in UK waters(Laffoley et al, 2000).

rays – flat, bottom–dwellingelasmobranch fish, eg thornback ray,cuckoo ray, blond ray, and skates.

razor fish – bivalve molluscs withlong (ca 10-25 cm), narrow shellsreminiscent of a cut-throat razor blade,eg Solen spp., Ensis spp.

recreational fisheries – any fisherythat is undertaken for pleasure ratherthan income; most frequently it isrepresented by beach and boatangling. Recreational sea fishing is notlicensed but it is subject to minimumlanding size (MLS) regulations and itsactivities can be curtailed by quotarestrictions.

recruit – a young fish joining theexploited or spawning stock for thefirst time.

recruitment – the number of youngfish joining the stock each year.Juvenile fish recruit to the exploitedstock once they have grown to alength greater than the minimumlanding size (MLS) and/or they moveonto the fishing grounds. They recruitto the spawning stock once they reachsexual maturity.

recruitment overfishing – thesituation that results from fishing thespawning stock biomass (SSB) down toa level where it cannot producesufficient juveniles each year (recruits)to replace the total annual lossesthrough fishing (F) and natural causes(M).

Red Data Book – a worldwide listof ‘vulnerable’, ‘threatened’ and‘endangered’ species maintained bythe World Conservation Union (IUCNCurrent).

redfish – the colloquial name for anumber of red species. In the north-east Atlantic it usually refers to thebathypelagic species Sebastes marinus.

refrigerated seawater tanks – seeRSW.

regionalisation – a concept thatimplies management targeted moreprecisely to meet local needs andconditions rather than assuming asingle, general approach is equallyapplicable throughout EU waters. Acorollary of this approach also assumesgreater devolved powers for fisheries tobe managed at a local level withgreater participation by fishermen andother groups with an interest insustainable fisheries and theirmanagement.

registered fishing vessel – anyEuropean vessel that fishescommercially must be registered withits national fishery department anddisplay port registration letters andnumbers, eg LO 62.

Regulating Order – a variation inthe public right to fish for molluscs


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otherwise guaranteed by Magna Carta(1215). The Order is usually granted toa public body, eg Sea FisheriesCommittee (SFC) , to manage a wild-stock mollusc fishery. The speciescovered by each order are named.Licences are then issued to individualsgranting them the right to fish thenamed species within the area coveredby the order. The order does not affectthe public right to fish within theregulated area for species not namedin the order.

Regulation (EU)- legislation that hasimmediate, equal and binding effectthroughout all member states. Themethod of implementing the legislationis not left to each member state todecide, as with D i r e c t i v e s , but isspecified in the Regulation. Any statethat does not implement a Regulationcan be reported to the Court of Justice ,most probably by the Commission (EC) ,and fined (Fig. 7). (See also Directive ).

Regulations (SAC) – seeConservation Regulations.

Regulation 33 – the paragraph inthe UK Conservation Regulations thatrequires nature conservation bodies toadvise relevant authorities as to theconservation objectives for a Europeanmarine site and notify them of anyoperations that may cause adeterioration to the habitat(s) ordisturbance of species for which thesite has been selected.

Regulation 34 – the paragraph inthe UK Conservation Regulations thatrequires the relevant authority toestablish a (single) managementscheme for the protection of each

European marine site.

relative stability – the principlewithin the current formulation of theCFP (Council Regulation 3760/92)which guarantees that each EUmember states’ quota for each speciesis a constant proportion of the TAC.This principle blocks countries such asSpain, Portugal, Sweden and Finlandfrom fishing in the North Sea, forexample, as they do not have a trackrecord of catches from the area tojustify allocating them a quota fromthe TAC.

relevant authority – any publicbody that has a function or duty inrelation to a marine area butparticularly a site designated under theprovisions of the Habitats Directive .(See also Conservation Regulations .)

representivity – an area thatcontains examples of habitat orbiotope types, habitat complexes,species, ecological processes, or othernatural characteristics that are typicaland representative (Laffoley et al2000).

retention curve – the relationshipbetween the size of a fish and theprobability that it will be captured andretained by a fishing gear (hook, net,trap etc). (See also selection curve .)

responsible fisheries – fisheriescombining respect for ecosystems andbiodiversity with the needs ofconsumers and the interests of thefishery sector (EC 1999).

Rio Convention – UN Conventionon Biodiversity (UNCED 1992).


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rock-hopper trawl – a demersalotter trawl (Fig. 5) with rubber discs or‘wheels’ fitted to the groundrope . Asecond wire ‘groundrope’ passesthrough the discs off centre; thisprevents the discs from rotating freely.If the groundrope snags a seabedobstruction the discs try to turn and thesecond wire gets wound around thegroundrope and acts as anaccumulator spring. Eventually, thetension becomes too much and as it isreleased the trawl ‘hops’ free of theobstruction.

rounders – demersal fish such ascod, haddock and flatfish that arelanded before gutting in contrast to thenormal practice of gutting them at sea.

round-fish – demersal species of fishother than flatfish, eg cod, haddock,whiting, hake.

RoxAnn® – an echo-soundersystem that distinguishes how hard andhow rough the seabed is relative to astandardised calibration site. Theinformation can be stored anddisplayed in plan format on a ‘monitor’to show areas of, eg, rock, gravel, sandand mud.

RSW – refrigerated seawater tanks:the fish holds on pelagic fishing vesselsare flooded and the waters cooled to atemperature significantly less thanambient (see CSW).

r-selected species – a species witha high reproductive rate, ie shortgeneration time, and is able to takeadvantage of sudden changes inenvironmental conditions. Thesespecies are usually small with arelatively high fecundity, eg manyinvertebrates but also small fish suchas sprats and sand eels. (See also K-selected species .)

SAC – special area of conservation: asite designation specified in theHabitats Directive . Each site isdesignated for one or more of thehabitats and species listed in theDirective . The Directive requires amanagement plan to be prepared andimplemented for each SAC to ensurethe favourable conservation status ofthe habitats or species for which it wasdesignated. In combination withspecial protection areas (SPA), thesesites contribute to the Natura 2000network.

safe biological limits – in essence,this equates with a stock being abovethe ‘minimum biologically acceptablelevel’ (MBAL). The concept isfundamental to the ICES precautionaryapproach to fishery management andthe application of limit referencepoints. (See Serchuk & Grainger 1992).

sampling – the systematic collectionof environmental or biological data tomeasure specific features, egtemperature or salinity regime, averagesize or abundance.

S


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sanctuary area – a colloquial namefor any area that can offer any species,including commercial fish, somemeasure of protection. Some arestatutory, eg the 500 m radiusexclusion zone around an oil rig, or amarine nature reserve (MNR). Othersmay occur through nature or chance,eg inaccessible rocky areas or wrecks,either of which can prove a hazard tofishing. (See also closed area andNTZ.)

SAP – species action plans form partof the UK Biodiversity Action Plan(UKBAP) to protect UK priority speciesand habitats . Marine priority speciesfor which plans have been published(UKBG 1999) include:

baleen whales, harbour (common) porpoise, small dolphins, toothed whales, marine turtles, basking shark, common skate (Raja batis), ‘selected commercial fish species’, ‘selected deep-water fishes’, nativeoyster, 12 non-commercial invertebrate species and two seaweeds.

satellite surveillance – a system formonitoring the whereabouts ofindividual fishing vessels in real time.The basic system was introduced inJanuary 2000 by DG Fisheries forvessels over 24 m in length. Thesystem has the potential capability tomonitor whether or not a vessel isengaged in fishing, is steaming, or laid-to.

SCI – see Site of CommunityImportance.

Scientific, Technical andEconomic Committee onFisheries – see STECF.

Sea Fisheries Committee – seeSFC.

Sea Fishery Inspectors – thebranches of the Government’s fisherydepartments with responsibility forenforcing fishery legislation around theUK coast. In England and Wales theinspectors (British Sea Fishery Officers– BSFO) are employed by MAFF; inScotland and Northern Ireland they arepart of the devolved governments’civilservice. In England and Wales, SeaFisheries Committees’ (SFC) fisheryofficers also have enforcement powerswithin their individual committee’sdistrict but they do not have the fullpowers of a BSFO. (See also fisherylimits and fishery protection vessels .)

seed – a colloquial term used in themolluscan shellfish cultivationindustry; juvenile animals ‘planted out’for on-growing.

seine net – an encircling net thatmay be either a curtain of netting, egpurse seine and beach seine, or similarin basic design to an otter trawl , egdemersal seine .

selection curve – the relationshipdescribing the rise and subsequent fallin the proportion of fish encounteringa net that are retained by a given mesh(or fish-hook) size as the fish increasein size. (See also mesh selection andretention curve .)

selectivity – a measure of a gear ’sability to target and capture a species


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of fish while allowing juveniles andnon-target species to escape.

Sensitive Marine Area – see SMA.

sensitivity – a very sensitive habitator species is one that is adverselyaffected very easily by factors arisingfrom human activities and is expectedto recover over a very long timeperiod, or not at all.

separable virtual populationanalysis – see SVPA.

set net – any net that is attached tothe seabed while it is fishing, eg J-, T-nets, tangle and trammel nets .

Several Order – an order removingthe public right to fish for namedshellfish normally guaranteed byMagna Carta (1215). The Order assignsexclusive rights to an individual ororganisation to improve and managean area of seabed and ownership ofnamed species of shellfish living on it.The chosen method of management isusually through cultivation(mariculture ) but it includes stockenhancement. The order does notaffect the public right to fish within thearea for species not named in theorder.

SFC – Sea Fisheries Committees thatoperate in 12 ‘districts’ around thecoasts of England and Wales:

Cumbria, North West and North Wales, South Wales, Isles of Scilly,Cornwall, Devon, Southern, Sussex, Kent and Essex, Eastern, North Eastern, Northumberland.

Each committee has responsibilities forrepresenting the local fishing industry,

conservation of local fish stocks andfishery management within its district– out to 6 nautical miles frombaselines, including responsibility tomanage fisheries with due regard tothe environment and wildlife. It hasthe powers to make byelaws, subjectto ratification by MAFF, and is both arelevant and competent authority withrespect to the management of specialareas for conservation (SAC). (See alsoConservation Regulations .) Half themembership of each committee isappointed by the coastal localauthorities and the other half by MAFF.MAFF appointees are drawn from thelocal fishing industry, in the broadestsense, and include a representative ofthe Environment Agency and someonewith expertise relevant to natureconservation and environmentalprotection. The Environment Agencyexercises the authority of a seafisheries committee in the Severn,Welsh Dee and Taw-Torridge Estuaries.

SFI – see Sea Fishery Inspectors .

shellfish – molluscs and Crustacea ;fish with a hard outer case or shell.

shellfish poisoning – see ASP, DSP,PSP.

Shetland Box – an area off theOrkney and Shetland Isles (Fig. 6)within which priority to fish is given tovessels whose home port is in theislands. All island vessels less than 26m and some over 26 m can fish in thearea plus 128 ‘Shetland Box’ licensedvessels from Belgium, France,Germany and UK fishing for demersalspecies. These restrictions are inrecognition of the islanders’


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dependence on fishing for a living.(See also derogation and HaguePreference .)

side-scan sonar – a form of echo-sounder that views the seabedobliquely and has greater power todiscriminate detail than aconventional, vertical echo-sounder.

side-trawler – a traditional design oftrawler from which the trawl isdeployed over the side rather thanfrom the stern, as has been more usualsince the 1960s. (See also stern-trawler .)

Site of Community Importance– is a site which, in the biogeographicregion to which it belongs, contributessignificantly to the maintenance orrestoration at a favourableconservation status of a habitat orspecies scheduled in the EU Habitats(and Species) Directive .

Site of Special Scientific Interest– see SSSI.

skate – eg common skate (Raja batis)a rare (UKBAP) species, a member ofthe ray family (Rajidae). (See alsorays.)

slipping – releasing fish from any net,but particularly a purse seine, withoutfirst bringing them aboard.

SMA – sensitive marine area: a non-statutory nature conservationdesignation for England. It identifiesareas of nature conservation interestfor which widespread consultation isdesirable before any developmenttakes place. (See also MCA.)

soak time – a measure of effortapplicable to static/passive fishing gearsuch as drift nets, set nets and pots. Itis the period of time between the gearbeing set in its fishing position andbeing hauled to remove fish.

sorting grid – a rigid grid insertedinto a shrimp trawl to allow shrimps tofall back into the cod-end but divertsmany fish to an escape panel in thetop of the trawl.

SPA – special protection area: adesignation specified in the BirdsDirective to safeguard birds,particularly migratory species, andtheir habitats . In combination withspecial areas of conservation (SAC),these sites contribute to the Natura2000 network.

spat – juvenile bivalve molluscs. (Seealso seed.)

Spawning Stock Biomass – seeSSB.

Special Area of Conservation –see SAC.

Special Protection Area – seeSPA.

Species Action Plan – see SAP.

square mesh – traditionalmanufacturing methods producenetting that falls most naturally into adiamond shape. Under tension there isa tendency for the meshes in diamond-mesh trawls to close and reduce theeffectiveness of mesh selection.Modern net-making machinery canproduce square-mesh netting which isless prone to closure under tension.


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There are an increasing number ofmanagement measures that requiresquare-mesh panels to be built into thetop of demersal trawls to facilitate theescape of juvenile and undersize fish.

SSB – spawning stock biomass: thetotal weight of all sexually mature fishin a population or stock. It is thesexually mature part of an exploitedpopulation upon which the futuresurvival of the stock, and its fishery,depends.

SSSI – site of special scientific interest:an area of land notified under theWildlife and Countryside Act (1981) asbeing of special nature conservation orgeological or physiographic interest.The designation SSSI appliesthroughout Great Britain. Theequivalent designation in NorthernIreland is Area of Special ScientificInterest (ASSI). Sites are notified by theappropriate nature conservationagency.

stake net – a colloquial term for awide variety of intertidal nets,including salmon traps, that are held inshape and position by stakes driveninto the seabed.

standing stock – the total number orbiomass of a population at a giventime.

static gear – any form of fishing gearthat operates without being towed ormoved through the water, egCrustacea pots, long-lines, set nets ,traps .

Statutory Instrument – adocument bringing into force, usuallyas a result of an Order in Council , a

variation to existing legislation withoutthe need for Parliament to amend theprimary legislation.

STECF – the Scientific, Technical andEconomic Committee on Fisheries ofthe EC, DG Fisheries (Fig. 2). UnlikeICES working groups and ACFM(Fig. 3) which only consider stockassessments and management from ascientific perspective, the STEFC isexpected to consider the socio-economic implications of modifying orvarying scientific, including ICES’,advice.

stern-trawler – a trawler that shootsand hauls its net from the stern ratherthan over the side as was more usualup to the 1960-70s.

stock – see fish stock .

stock and recruitment – thenotional relationship between the sizeof the (parent) spawning stock and thenumber of recruits joining that stock inlater years. The probability is that adepleted stock will produce fewerrecruits than an abundant stock of thesame species but the nature of therelationship between these twoextremes is not well understood.

stock assessment – theinvestigation, analysis and numericaldescription of the recent history andcurrent state of a fish stock and thefishery that exploits it, ie distribution,abundance, size or age structure,fishing effort, catch rates etc.

stock biomass – the total weight ofall fish of all ages in a givenpopulation or stock.


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stock enhancement – any measurethat will improve the abundance of thestock but more generally applied tohatchery rearing and release to thewild of fish, particularly salmon,Crustacea and molluscs.

straddling stocks – any stock of fishthat migrates regularly acrossinternational jurisdictional boundariesbut particularly highly migratoryspecies such as tunas. Theirmanagement is covered by theprovisions of the UN Convention onStraddling and Highly Migratory FishStocks (1995).

Structural Funds – the EU multi-annual budget for reducing social andeconomic inequality across theCommunity. (See also Objective xfunding.)

sublittoral – depths greater than theintertidal zone (Fig. 1).

subsidiarity – devolution by the EUof responsibility to national or localgovernment for meeting and enforcingEU policies, monitoring nationalcatches and closing fisheries once thenational quota is taken.

suction dredge – see hydraulicdredge and air-lift .

surplus production – the quantityof fish resulting from growth plusrecruitment each year that exceeds thequantity of fish lost through naturalmortality (M). It is the quantity of fishavailable to support a sustainablefishery.

surveillance (fishery) – theoperational activities of Sea Fish

Inspectors and fishery protectionvessels to ensure that national and EUfishery regulations are observed andimplemented. (See also satellitesurveillance.)

surveillance (scientific) – the conductof field surveys with post hoc detectionof trends followed by explanation ofthose trends. Also (nature conservation),monitoring and/or sampling withsufficient rigour and regularity to detectany change in the attribute or speciesf or which a site has been designated.(See also monitoring and sampling.)

sustainability – meeting the needs ofthe present without compromising theability of future generations to meettheir own needs (WCED 1987 – theBrundtland Report).

sustainable development –development that meets the needs ofthe present without compromising theability of future generations to meettheir own needs (WCED 1987 – TheBrundtland Report).

Development that takes account ofsocial and ecological factors, as wellas economic ones; of the living andnon-living resource base; and of thelong-term as well as short-termadvantages and disadvantages ofalternative actions (IUCN 1980).

Development integrating into all therelevant sectoral policies, at nationaland international level, theimplications of economic growth onthe environment, and seeking to satisfythe needs of the present and futuregenerations equitably, in particular byallotting a value to environmentalresources in order to identify and


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evaluate the economic activities on theenvironment (EC 1999).

sustainable fisheries – fisherieswith an annual catch, includingdiscards, that does not exceed thesurplus production of the stock (ieannual growth plus recruitment lessthe annual natural mortality – M).Fisheries can be sustainable at levels ofstock significantly below the stock thatwould support MSY or MEY but only ifmanagers pay full regard to limitreference points . (See alsoenvironmentally sustainable fisheries .)

sustainable catch – see sustainablefisheries.

sustainable yield – see sustainablefisheries .

SVPA – separable virtual populationanalysis: a procedure for constructingfish population life-tables as a basis forassessing the current status of a stockand forecasting the probableconsequences of adopting variousfishery management options. Thismodel differs from VPA by ‘separating’the effects of time (trends) from currentactivity in estimating fishing mortalityrates (F).

T-net – a type of intertidal / coastalstake-net salmon trap that is workedon the east coasts of Scotland and NEEngland. The trap is set across theouter end of a ‘leader’ wall of netting –thereby forming a ‘T’ shape. (See alsoJ-net ).

TAC – total allowable catch, thequantity of fish that can be taken fromeach stock each year. The figure isagreed by the Fisheries Council ofMinisters each December for thefollowing year. EU member states areallocated a fixed proportion of the TACas their national quota. (See alsorelative stability and track record. )

tangle net – a bottom-set net that isattached to a headline much shorterthan the length of netting so that thenet hangs in loose folds. Some fish aretrapped by the operculum – gill cover– (see gill nets) while others, includingCrustacea , become enmeshed in the

loose netting. (See also trammel nets .)

target species – the primary speciesof fish that a fishing vessel aims tocatch during a given fishing operation.In pelagic fisheries this can be a singlespecies, eg herring or mackerel, but itis usually a group of species indemersal fisheries, eg cod and whitingor plaice and sole.

technical interactions – the inter-action of one technical managementmeasure with another. For example,the optimum minimum mesh size(MMS) in a cod fishery is too large foroptimum mesh selection of whitingwhich are a more slender and smallerspecies. Thus, too many large,marketable whiting could escape.Naturally, the converse is also true.Similarly, Dover sole, which is anextremely supple fish, can escapethrough much smaller meshes than cana plaice of the same length. These

T


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technical interactions highlight afundamental shortcoming in single-species TAC-quota management andmixed-fishery mesh regulations.

technical conservationmeasures – fishery managementmeasures aimed primarily at theequipment used in fishing rather thanthe time and place they fish or whatthey catch, eg minimum mesh sizes(MMS), engine power, width ofindividual (eg scallop) dredges and thenumber towed by one boat. (See alsobiological conservation measures .)

technical / technology creep –the continual increase in efficiency offishing power. This applies to allaspects of fishing operations fromstronger twine in trawl construction,through improved designs forpropellers, to ever more precise andaccurate navigation aids. Throughoutthe last quarter of the 20th century this‘creep’ was estimated to average about2-3% per year.

teleost – a fish with a bony skeleton,eg herring, cod, plaice. (See alsoelasmobranch.)

Territorial Sea – the area of seaover which the coastal state exercisesjurisdiction (as permitted by the UNConvention on the Law of the Sea),normally 12 nautical miles frombaselines (Fig.1).

third country – countries that arenot members of the European Union(EU), eg Norway, Poland, Mauritaniaetc.

tickler chain – a heavy chain acrossthe mouth of a trawl in front of the

ground-rope . They penetrate softseabeds and disturb – ‘tickle’ – flatfishburied there and cause them to rise upand enter the trawl. Otter trawls canbe rigged with 2-3 tickler chains but aheavy beam trawl may have as manyas twelve. (See also chain matrix .)

tooth bar – the lower front edge tothe mouth of a scallop dredge orsimilar. (See also French andNewhaven dredge .)

total mortality – see Z.

track record – a record of catchestaken or participating in a particularfishery going back a specified numberof years. Often a prerequisite to beingallocated a quota at national, regionalor individual boat level.

tractor dredge – a modifiedagricultural potato digger towedbehind a tractor to gather cockles fromthe intertidal area at low water.

Tragedy of the Commons – thetitle of a seminal essay by Hardin(1968) which argued that any naturalresource (fishery) that was open to all-comers was doomed to over-exploitation and collapse. (See alsoGraham’s Great Law .)

trammel nets – set nets made fromthree layers of netting, a central sheet(the lint) with small meshessandwiched between two outer sheets(armouring) of large mesh netting. Afish swims through the first outerlayer’s meshes and pushes the innersmall mesh layer through a mesh ofthe second large mesh layer to form apocket with the small mesh net. Itbecomes trapped – trammelled – in


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this pocket. (See also gill nets andtangle nets. )

transhipping – the process ofpassing fish from the catching vessel toa factory ship or carrier vessel off-shore without ever putting the catchashore. The catch still counts againstthe catching vessel’s (national) quota.Also known as klondiking.

traps – any form of static gear thatcatches fish by enclosing them andpreventing their escape but withoutholding them fast as with gill nets orlong-lines.

trawl – a large, funnel-shaped net(Fig. 5) that is towed through the waterby single or paired boats. The mouthof the net is held open by a beam(beam trawl ) or floats along theheadline, weights along thegroundrope and is pulled open

laterally either by the doors attachedto the towing wires (warps) or twoboats pulling one warp each. (See alsodemersal trawl and pelagic trawl .)

trawler – a fishing boat that tows atrawl .

trolling – a method of hook-and-linefishing where the lines are trailed outbehind a boat that is underway. It isused to catch surface swimmingpelagic species such as mackerel andtuna.

turf community – the populationsof animals (and plants) that often growclosely together and encrust rocks andother habitats.

twin rig – an arrangement of what isessentially two otter trawls joined inthe centre by a shared bridle or at thewing ends, to fish side by side whentowed by a single boat.

UKBAP – the UK Biodiversity ActionPlan, the Government’s programmeaimed at meeting some of itsobligations under the UN Conventionon Biodiversity (1992) A wide range ofhabitat action plans (HAP) and speciesaction plans (SAP) are beingimplemented to help safeguard andimprove the conservation status ofpriority habitats and priority species .

UK Waters – include all tidal waterswithin 200 miles of baselines overwhich the UK exercises certain rightsand jurisdictions. The extent ofpotential action by the UK in these

waters is subject to the rights of otherstates under the UN Convention on theLaw of the Sea (UKBG 1999). The UKGovernment does not claim anexclusive economic zone (EEZ) (Fig. 1).

Ulim – see limit reference points.

UNCLOS – the UN Convention onthe Law of the Sea that provides for theregulation and management of allliving resources and the establishmentof exclusive economic zones (EEZ).

under-reporting – failure to meetthe legal requirement under the CFP toreport fully and accurately all the fish

U


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vagrant species – species that havestrayed, by migration or drift withcurrents, beyond their natural rangebut have not established self-sustainingpopulations. Most vagrant speciesfound in UK waters are from warmerwaters to the south and west of theBritish Isles.

VCU – vessel capacity units:

[length (m) x breadth (m)] + 0.45 engine power (kW)

a formula (MAFF, 1999) standardisingdifferent classes of fishing vessels as anaid to meeting targets of the Multi-Annual Guidance Programme (MAGP).

vivier – a term used to describe boatsand lorries that carry live fish, butCrustacea in particular. (See also keepbox.)

VMNR – voluntary (ie non-statutory)marine nature reserve. (See also MNR.)

V-notch – a notch put in the tail fan(telson) of egg-bearing lobsters. Insome areas there are voluntaryagreements to return notched animalsto the sea but some Sea FisheriesCommittees (SFC) have byelawsmaking it an offence to land suchanimals. The notch is lost at moulting.

VPA – virtual population analysis: amathematical procedure with which toconstruct fish population life-tables asa basis for assessing the current statusof a stock and forecasting the probableconsequences of adopting variousfishery management options.

warps – the heavy wires with whichboats tow trawls (Fig. 5).

white fish – any of the demersalspecies, eg cod, haddock, plaice, butnot the pelagic, oil-rich species.

Working Group (ICES) – ad hoccommittees convened by one or moreof the ICES standing committees(Fig. 3) to assess the status of particular

stocks (eg North Atlantic Salmon WG),fisheries (eg Arctic Fisheries WG), orspecific aspect of fishery science ortechnology (eg acoustics, ecology,genetics etc). Participation is open toany accredited scientist from any ICESmember state. Participants areexpected to assess the available dataimpartially and give priorityconsideration to stock conservationand sustainability .

V

W

that have been caught and landed.(See also misreporting and black-fish.)

undersize fish – any fish that is lessthan the legal minimum landing size

(MLS). It is an offence for anyone toretain or offer for sale undersize fish.

Upa – see limit reference points.


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year class – all the fish in apopulation that were spawned in thesame year, eg the ‘1998 year-class’.

yield per recruit – the mean long-term yield in weight from everyindividual fish that is recruited to theexploited stock.

Z – formally, the instantaneous rate oftotal mortality (the natural logarithm ofthe change in abundance due tofishing per unit of time); but moresimply, the proportion of thepopulation dying each year throughnatural causes (M) and as a result offishing (F), ie Z = F + M.

zooplankton – all the animals,mostly microscopic, that swim in midwater but drift to-and-fro with thecurrents. (See also phytoplankton .)

Y

Z


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References and Further Reading

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Anon., 1985. Dictionary of Biology. Oxford University Press.

Anon., 1998. The Chambers Dictionary. Chambers Harrap Publishers, Edinburgh.

Anon., 1997. European Marine Sites Handbook: guidance on the management ofmarine Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and marine Special Protection Areas(SPAs) in the UK. JNCC, Peterborough.

Anon., 1999. Dictionary of Law. CD-ROM, Oxford University Press.

Allaby, M. (ed), 1998. Dictionary of Ecology 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press.

Borchardt, K.-D., 1993. The ABC of Community Law. European Commission,Brussels.

Brander, K.M. & Bennett, D.B., 1986. Interactions between Norway lobster(Nephrops norvegicus) and cod (Gadus morhua) and their fisheries in the Irish Sea.In: Jamieson, G.S. & Bourne, N. (eds.) North Pacific workshop on stock assessmentand management of invertebrates. Canadian Special Publication in Fisheries andAquatic Sciences 92.

Butcher, D., 1980. The Trawlermen. Tops’l Books, Reading England.

CBD 1992. The United Nations Convention on Biodiversity. United NationsConference of Environment & Development, Rio de Janeiro.

Cole-King, A. 1995. Marine protected areas in Britain: a conceptual problem?Ocean & Coastal Management Vol 27, No 1-2, 109-127.

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Earll, R. 1993. The Precautionary Principle: making it work in practice. Workshop


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EC, (Current). The Mission of DG Fisheries and the Common Fisheries Policy.www.europa.eu.int/comm/dg14/missn_en.htm.

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Hardin, G. 1968. the Tragedy of the commons. Science, 162.

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Leftwich, A.W., 1963. A Student’s Dictionary of Zoology. Constable, London.

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Documents

A Glossary of Marine Nature Conservation and Fisheries