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7/30/2019 A Dissertation on Assessment of Non-Point Source Pollution in Tons River of Dehradun District, Uttarakhand
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A
DISSERTATION REPORT
ON
NON-POINT SOURCE POLUTION
IN TONS RIVER OF DEHRADUN DISTRICT,
UTTARAKHAND
Under the supervision of
DR.C.K.JAINSCIENTIST F & HEAD,
ENVIRONMENTHYDROLOGYDIVISION
NATIONALINSTITUTEOFHYDROLOGYROORKEE
By
SHARIQUEANJUM
M.Sc. Environment Management (2011-1
ECOLOGY&ENVIRONMENT DIVISIONFORESTRESEARCHINSTITUTE
DEHRADUN
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the
Degree of
M.Sc. ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT
2011-2013
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Dr. Ramesh K. Aima , IFS
Dean (Academic)Phone : 0135-2752682 (O)
Fax : 0135-2752682
EPABX : 0135-2224452(O)
E-mail : [email protected]
FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE (DEEMED) UNIVERSITY
(INDIAN COUNCIL OF FORESTRY RESEARCH & EDUCATION)
P.O.: I.P.E. KAULAGARH ROAD, DEHRADUN-248195
CERTIFICATEThis is to certify that the dissertation report entitled Assessment of Non -
point source poll ution in Tons River of Dehradun distri ct, Uttarakhand is a
bonafide work carried out by Mr. Sharique Anjum, student of M.Sc.
Environment Management course (2011-2013) of Forest Research Institute
(Deemed) University, Dehradun and submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for M.Sc. Environment Management course degree programme.
The work has been carried out under the supervision of Dr. C.K. Jain,
Scientist F & Head, Environment Hydrology Division, National Institute of
Hydrology, Roorkee.
Date: Dr. Ramesh Kumar Aima, IFS
Place: Dehradun Dean (Academic)
FRI University
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Dated:
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Divisional Attachment work entitled Assessment
of Non-point source pollu tion in Tons River of Dehradun distr ict, Uttarakhand
is a work carried out under my guidance by Sharique Anjum, student of 4th
semester M.Sc Environment Management course (2011-13) of Forest Research
Institute University, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE),
Dehradun submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for M.Sc
Environment Management, 2011-2013.
Place: DEHRADUN Dr. C. K. JAIN
Date:
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Page | 4
FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTEIndian Council of Forestry Research & Education
(An autonomous body of Ministry of Environmental & Forests, Govt. of India)
P.O. NEW FOREST, DEHRADUN- UTTARAKHAND -248006
Dated:
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the dissertation work entitled Assessment of Non-point
source pollu tion in Tons River of Dehradun distr ict, Uttarakhand is a record
of bonafide work carried out by me under the guidance of Dr. C. K. Jain,
Scientist F & Head, Environment Hydrology Division, National Institute of
Hydrology, Roorkee for my partial fulfilment for the award of the M.Sc.
Environment Management. This project has not been submitted for any other
degree/ certificate in any institute/ university.
Place: Dehradun Sharique Anjum
Date: M.Sc. (EM) 4th Sem
2011- 13
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I consider the completion of this research as dedication and support of a group of people rather
than my individual effort. I wish to express gratitude to everyone who assisted me to fulfill this
work.
First and foremost I offer my sincerest gratitude to my guide, Dr. C. K. Jain, who has supported
me throughout my thesis with his patience and knowledge while allowing me the room to work
in my own way. I attribute the level of my Masters degree to his encouragement and effort and
without him this thesis, too, would not have been completed or written. One simply could not
wish for a better or friendlier supervisor.
In addition, I would like to acknowledge Water Quality Lab, National Institute of Hydrology,
Roorkee especially Dr. Mukesh Sharma, & In charge of Water Quality Lab and Mr. Rakesh
Goyal Senior Lab Technician for providing the research facilities that allowed me the
opportunity to learn and expand my knowledge of Flow and Water quality data.
I am also thankful to Forest Research Institute, Dehradun especially Mr. Manoj Kumar, Research
Officer, Climate Change and Forest Influence Division, FRI and Dr. Mridula Negi course co-
coordinator M.Sc. Environment Management for providing me their precious suggestions and
opportunity to carry out my dissertation work in such an esteemed organization.
I also wish to extend my thanks to all my friends who really helped me in every possible way
they could.
I am very grateful to all other members for their helpful suggestions during my entire course
work of the Department of Environmental Hydrology and Director, National Institute of
Hydrology, Roorkee for providing all the facilities needed for this project work.
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I am also thankful to Forest Research Institute, Dehradun especially Dr. Mridula Negi course co-
coordinator M.Sc. Environment Management for providing me an opportunity to carry out my
dissertation work in such an esteemed organization.
Last but certainly not least, I would like to express my gratitude to my parents for their
encouragement. The goal of obtaining a Masters degree is a long term commitment, and their
patience and moral support have seen me through to the end.
And the most important I bow to Lord Almighty and thank him for being with me throughout my
work, and making it possible.
Dated (Sharique Anjum)
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ABSTRACT
Non point source pollution is an important problem related to the water quality and
environmental management of Rivers. There are number of studies aimed at understanding the
process of controlling non-point source pollution (NPS) concentration, fluxes in the river
systems and the quantification of the daily and annual pollutant loads to the rivers and streams
have been accomplished in the past. But in this regard, there are very few work in India. In the
present study, a surface water quality survey with special emphasis on nitrate, phosphate,
potassium and total suspended solids for non point source pollution in River tons of Dehradun
district, Uttarakhand has been done. The main objective of this study is to assess the non point
source pollution of Tons river and the associated streams that flow into the Tons and to analyze
the effect of agricultural and other anthropogenic activities on the surface water quality of Tons
river.
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Title of Figures Page No.
Fig 3.1 Tons River and Sampling Points 24
Fig 3.3 General plan of the sampling points in Tons River 32
Fig 5.1 Chart showing Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-)at
different sampling points 38
Fig 5.2 Chart showing Concentration of Phosphate (PO4-)at
different sampling points 40
Fig 5.3 Chart showing Concentration of Potassium (K)at
different sampling points 41
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LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title of Table Page No.
Fig 3.1 Soil Types of Dehradun 29
Fig 4.1 Conversion formula used for determining
daily pollutant load 35
Fig 5.1 Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-)at different
sampling points 37
Fig 5.2 Concentration of Phosphate (PO4-)at different
sampling points 39
Fig 5.3 Concentration of Potassium (K)at different
sampling points 41
Fig 5.4 Concentration of Total Suspended Solids (TSS)at
different sampling points 42
Fig 5.5 Concentration of Pollutant at all sampling location 43
Fig 5.6 Concentration of Pollutant at all sampling location
and their relevant national & international guidelines 44
Fig 5.7 Table for converting concentration of pollutant into
daily pollutant load 45
Fig 5.8 Daily pollutant load in different streams 46
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BIS - Bureau of Indian Standard
CPCB - Central Pollution Control BoardEPA - Environment Protection Act
FAO - Food and Agricultural Organisation
GIS - Geographical Information SystemIS - Indian Standard
K - Potassium
Mg/L - Milligram per LitreMT - Metric Tonne(s)
NO3 - Nitrate
NPK - Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium
NPS - Non point SourcePO4 - Phosphate
Q - Discharge
SPCB - State Pollution Control BoardTSS - Total Suspended Solids
- Velocity
USEPA - United States Environment Protection Act
WHO - World Health OrganisationWMO - World Meteorological Organisation
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
CERTIFICATE i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION 1
1.1Nutrients 3
1.1.1 Nitrogen 5
1.1.2 Phosphorous 9
1.1.3 Potassium 13
1.2 Total Suspended Solid (TSS) 15
CHAPTER 2- REVIEW OF LITERATURE 16
CHAPTER 3-THE STUDY AREA AND DATA COLLECTION 23
3.1Tons River 23
3.2 Dehradu district 25
3.3 Data Collection 30
CHAPTER 4-METHODOLOGY 34
4.1 Laboratory Analysis 27
4.2 Mathematical Approach 27
4.3 Remote Sensing and GeographicalInformation System (GIS) Applications 28
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CHAPTER 5-RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 37
CHAPTER 6-SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 47
REFERENCES 49
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Water is important to individuals, society and natural ecosystems as life cannot exist without a
dependable supply of suitable quality water. The water in rivers plays an important role in
meeting the essential requirements for the development of a country and serves as a source of
water supply for domestic and industrial purposes, for agriculture, fisheries and hydro-power
development. With growth and development, the demand for water has increased tremendously
and its uses have become much more varied.
The term water quality was coined with reference to the quality of water required for human use
(i.e. drinking, agricultural and industrial purposes). This term entirely human prospective does
not hold true for all aquatic organisms or ecosystems (Dallas and Day, 1993). The quality of
water can be negatively influenced by natural phenomena, but the main reason for impaired
water quality is contamination caused by human activities. Urban and industrial development,
use of chemical and fertilizers in farming, mining activities, combustion of fossil fuels, stream-
channel alteration, animal feeding operations, and other human activities has changed the quality
of natural waters.
It has been found that the global freshwater consumption raised by six times at above twice the
rate of population growth from the literature during 1900 and 1995 (WMO, 1997). In Africa and
West Asia water quality problems are most sensitive but in many other areas, including China,
India and Indonesia water deficient is a major limitation to industrial and socio-economic growth
(Roger, 1998).
River systems can be considered as arteries of the land supplying life giving water to an
abundance of organisms whilst at the same time supporting modern civilizations (King et al.,
2003). Indian rivers are polluted due to discharge of organic sewage and industrial effluents. The
water quality monitoring of major rivers indicates that organic pollution and almost all the water
sources from surface are infected to some extent.
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The pollution that enters the receiving surface water diffusely at intermittent intervals refers to
the non-point source pollution. Nonpoint source of pollution are the hydrologic rainfall-runoff
transformation processes which is basically attached with water quality components (Notovny,
V. and Chesters, G., 1981) and mainly derived from activities on land, from urban runoff, waste
disposal, construction, irrigation modification in hydrology, agriculture, and individual sewage
disposal (Robinson and Ragan, 1993). Mainly in aquatic environments both nitrates and ortho-
phosphate is present in small amount to maintain the growth and metabolism of plants and
animals. Intolerable levels of nitrates and phosphates have been depleting the dissolved oxygen
levels by causing algae blooms. High amounts of phosphates and nitrates due to eutrophication,
is a main source of lake ecosystems destruction around the world.
The primary agricultural NPS pollutants are nutrients, sediment, animal wastes, salts, and
pesticides. Agricultural activities also have the potential to directly impact the habitat of aquatic
species through physical disturbances caused by livestock or equipment. Although agricultural
NPS pollution is a serious problem nationally, a great deal has been accomplished over the past
several decades in terms of sediment and nutrient reduction from privately-owned agricultural
lands. Much has been learned in the recent past about more effective ways to prevent and reduce
NPS pollution from agricultural activities.
A major threat to aquatic ecosystems which can be lead to severe pollution problem is nutrient
enrichment. Nutrients are important building blocks for healthy aquatic ecosystems and are
generally non toxic even in high concentrations; however this can change with alterations in
environmental parameters such as ph and temperature. Increased nutrient levels (especially
nitrogen and phosphorus) can result in over stimulated growth of aquatic weeds and algae and
can ultimately lead to oxygen depletion resulting in a eutrophic system. The occurrence of
nutrients in aquatic ecosystems is closely linked to activities in the catchment, such as natural
weathering, agricultural runoff and disposal of untreated or partially treated wastes (Medikizela
and Dye 2001; Kumari, 1984).
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Nutrients are essential elements for the primary productivity of any aquatic ecosystem (Williams,
et al., 2003) and include nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon among others. The nutrient dynamics
are influenced by different factors such as the weather, geology and soil type, drainage pattern
and weathering processes. Nutrients occur in various sources and forms. Within the aquatic
ecosystems, phosphorus and nitrogen roles can vary (Howarth, 1988; McCarthy, 1981. Nitrogen
occurs in numerous forms such as dissolved molecular nitrogen, a large number of organic
compounds such as amino acids, amines, proteins, nitrates, nitrite and ammonium (Wetzel,
1983). Sources of nitrogen include precipitation falling directly from onto the lake surface,
nitrogen fixation in the water and sediments, input from the surface and ground water recharge.
In marine ecosystems nitrogen is the liming nutrient for phytoplankton growth (Smith, 1984)
while phosphorus frequently is a limiting nutrient in fresh water systems (Howarth, 1988).
To manage the quality of natural water bodies that are subjected to pollutant inputs, one must be
able to predict the degradation in quality that results from such inputs.
1.1 Nutrients
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are the two major nutrients from agricultural land that degrade
water quality. Nutrients are applied to agricultural land in several different forms and come from
various sources. The agricultural sources of non point source pollution are discussed below.
Commercial fertilizer in a dry or fluid form, containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium
(K), secondary nutrients, and micronutrients;
Manure from animal production facilities including bedding and other wastes added to
the manure, containing NPK secondary nutrients, micronutrients, salts, some metals, and
organics;
Municipal and industrial treatment plant sludge, containing NPK secondary nutrients,
micronutrients, salts, metals, and organic solids;
Municipal and industrial treatment plant effluent, containing NPK secondary nutrients,
micronutrients, salts, metals, and organics;
Legumes and crop residues containing NPK secondary nutrients, and micronutrients;
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Irrigation water;
Wildlife; and
Atmospheric deposition of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur.
In addition, decomposition of organic matter and crop residue may be a source of mobile forms
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other essential crop nutrients.
Surface water runoff from agricultural lands may transport the following pollutants:
Particulate-bound nutrients, chemicals, and metals, such as phosphorus, organic nitrogen,
and metals applied with some organic wastes;
Soluble nutrients and chemicals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, metals, and many other
major and minor nutrients;
Particulate organic solids, oxygen-demanding material, and bacteria, viruses, and other
microorganisms applied with some organic waste; and
Salts.
Ground water infiltration from agricultural lands to which nutrients have been applied may
transport the following pollutants:
Soluble nutrients and chemicals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, metals;
Other major and minor nutrients;
All plants require nutrients for growth. Nitrogen and phosphorus generally are present in aquatic
environments at background or natural levels below 0.3 and 0.01 mg/L, respectively. When these
nutrients are introduced into a stream, lake, or estuary at higher rates, aquatic plant productivity
may increase dramatically. This process, referred to as cultural eutrophication, may adversely
affect the suitability of the water for other uses.
Excessive aquatic plant productivity results in the addition to the system of more organic
material, which eventually dies and decays. Bacteria decomposing this organic matter produce
unpleasant odors and deplete the oxygen supply avail-able to other aquatic organisms. Depleted
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oxygen levels, especially in colder bottom waters where dead organic matter tends to
accumulate, can reduce the quality of fish habitat and encourage the propagation of fish that are
adapted to less oxygen or to warmer surface waters. Anaerobic conditions can also cause the
release of additional nutrients from bottom sediments.
1.1.1 Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a necessary primary macronutrient for plants that stimulates plant growth and is
usually added as a fertilizer but can also be found in wastewater as nitrate, ammonia, organic
nitrogen or nitrite (FAO 2006). The most important factor for plants is the total amount of
nitrogen (N) regardless of whether it is in the form of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), ammonium
nitrogen (NH4-N) or organic-nitrogen (Org-N) but by reporting in the form of total nitrogen
comparisons can be made (Ayres and Westcot 1994).
All forms of transported nitrogen are potential contributors to water quality problems. Dissolved
ammonia at concentrations above 0.2 mg/l may be toxic to fish. Nitrates in drinking water are
potentially dangerous, especially to newborn infants. Nitrate is converted to nitrite in the
digestive tract, which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (methanoglobinemia),
resulting in brain damage or even death. The U.S. Environmental Protectiom Agency has set a
limit of 10 mg/l nitrate-nitrogen in water used for human consumption (USEPA, 1989a).
Nitrate can get into water directly as the result of runoff of fertilizers containing nitrate. Some
nitrate enters water from the atmosphere, which carries nitrogen-containing compounds derived
from automobiles and other sources. Nitrate can also be formed in water bodies through the
oxidation of other forms of nitrogen, including nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen
compounds such as amino acids. Ammonia and organic nitrogen can enter water through sewage
effluent and runoff from land where manure has been applied or stored.
As per government of India records as on 31-1-2007 the Indian Fertilizer Industry has made aproduction at 120.61 MT of nitrogen (N) and 56.59 MT of phosphate (P) nutrient.
Sources of Nitrogen: Although nitrogen is abundant naturally in the environment, it is also
introduced through sewage and fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers or animal manure is commonly
applied to crops to add nutrients. It may be difficult or expensive to retain on site all nitrogen
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brought on to farms for feed or fertilizer and generated by animal manure. Unless specialized
structures have been built on the farms, heavy rains can generate runoff containing these
materials into nearby streams and lakes. Wastewater-treatment facilities that do not specifically
remove nitrogen can also lead to excess levels of nitrogen in surface or groundwater.
Nitrogen ends up in the environment mainly through agricultural processes, and thereby also
ends up in water. The main sources of nitrogen compounds in water are fertilizers that mainly
contain nitrate, but also ammonia, ammonium, urea and amines. The most widely applied
nitrogen fertilizers are probably NaNO3 (sodium nitrate) and NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate). After
fertilization, crops take up a relatively small part of added nitrogen compounds, namely 25-30%.
The residue ends up in groundwater and surface water through soils, because nitrates are water
soluble. Organic fertilizers mainly contain nitrogen as proteins, urea or amines, which havedifferent mechanisms of absorption. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and
potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge. They may also grow legumes
and leave crop residues to enhance production. When these sources exceed plant needs, or are
applied just before it rains, nutrients can wash into aquatic ecosystems (USEPA, 2005).
Nitrogen transport poses a concern when present in excess of plant needs and when water is
available to transport it into water bodies. Nitrate and nitrite both are mobile and available, but
nitrate is present in soil and water in far larger quantities. Nitrite is the intermediate step in
nitrification, and it exists under most soil conditions for only a short amount of time in low
concentrations (NM 3). Leaching of nitrate and nitrite and potential movement into ground water
is most likely with high precipitation, volatilized ammonia gas may be deposited directly on
surface waters or transported first to terrestrial areas and then to water bodies (NM 3).
Ammonia is toxic to fish and aquatic vegetation when it exists in excessive amounts. It may also
react with acidic gases in the atmosphere, forming ammonium salts that impact soil and water
when deposited.
Forms of Nitrogen:Nitrogen is required by all organisms for the basic processes of life to make
proteins, to grow, and to reproduce. Nitrogen is very common and found in many forms in the
environment. Inorganic forms include nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2), ammonia (NH3), and nitrogen
gas (N2). Organic nitrogen is found in the cells of all living things and is a component of
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proteins, peptides, and amino acids. Nitrogen is most abundant in Earths environment as N2 gas,
which makes up about 78 percent of the air we breathe.
Nitrate (NO3) is highly soluble (dissolves easily) in water and is stable over a wide range of
environmental conditions. It is easily transported in streams and groundwater. Nitrates feed
plankton (microscopic plants and animals that live in water), aquatic plants, and algae, which are
then eaten by fish.
Nitrite (NO2) is relatively short-lived in water because it is quickly converted to nitrate by
bacteria.
Ammonia, another inorganic form of nitrogen, is the least stable form of nitrogen in water.
Ammonia is easily transformed to nitrate in waters that contain oxygen and can be transformed
to nitrogen gas in waters that are low in oxygen. Ammonia is found in water in two forms - the
ammonium ion (NH4+), and dissolved, unionized (no electrical charge) ammonia gas (NH3).
Total ammonia is the sum of ammonium and unionized ammonia. The dominant form depends
on the pH and temperature of the water.
The reaction between the two forms is shown by this equation:
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
Effect of Nitrogen: Nitrogen-containing compounds act as nutrients in streams and rivers.
Nitrate reactions [NO3-
] in fresh water can cause oxygen depletion. Thus, aquatic organisms
depending on the supply of oxygen in the stream will die. The major routes of entry of nitrogen
into bodies of water are municipal and industrial wastewater, septic tanks, feed lot discharges,
animal wastes (including birds and fish) and discharges from car exhausts. Bacteria in water
quickly convert nitrites [NO2-
] to nitrates [NO3-
].
Eutrophication is the slow, natural nutrient enrichment of streams and lakes and is responsible
for the "aging" of ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. Excessive amounts of nutrients, especially
nitrogen and phosphorus, speed up the eutrophication process. As algae grow and then
decompose they deplete the dissolved oxygen in the water. This condition usually results in fish
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kills, offensive odors, unsightliness, and reduced attractiveness of the water for recreation and
other public uses. These poor conditions have been observed in eastern North Carolina in the
Neuse, Chowan, and Pamlico river systems. However, this condition occurs only when excessive
nutrients are present; a certain amount of nitrogen and phosphorus is essential for any life to
exist in water.
Excessive nitrate (NO3) in drinking water can cause human and animal health problems,
particularly for small babies. The United States Public Health Service has established a specific
standard of 10 milligrams of nitrate nitrogen per liter as the maximum concentration safe for
human consumption. Problems in adults that drink water with excessive nitrate are essentially
nonexistent and are rare in infants. The principal sources of nitrate and nitrite (NO2) for adults
are vegetables and cured meats, which supply more than 95 percent of the total nitrate in typicaldiets. Less than 1 percent is from drinking water if it comes from a low-nitrate source, as is
usually the case.
Nitrate toxicity does occur in livestock, and the nitrate concentrations that produce toxicity are
much higher than those for humans. Nitrate poisoning in livestock depends more on nitrate in
feed than in water. Nitrate-contaminated water is usually a problem only when it adds to high
nitrate concentrations already present in some feeds.
Nitrites can produce a serious condition in fish called "brown blood disease." Nitrites also react
directly with hemoglobin in human blood and other warm-blooded animals to produce
methemoglobin. Methemoglobin destroys the ability of red blood cells to transport oxygen. This
condition is especially serious in babies under three months of age. It causes a condition known
as methemoglobinemia or "blue baby" disease. Water with nitrite levels exceeding 1.0 mg/l
should not be used for feeding babies. Nitrite/nitrogen levels below 90 mg/l and nitrate levels
below 0.5 mg/l seem to have no effect on warm water fish.
1.1.2 Phosphorus
Phosphorus exists naturally in rocks. An important source of phosphorus is phosphate rock,
which contains the mineral apatite. Rocks release phosphorus as they erode under normal
weather conditions. Phosphorus enters freshwater systems in four main ways: (i) atmospheric
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inputs, including rain and dust; (ii) point (discrete) sources, including sewage treatment plants
and industrial effluents; (iii) non-point (diffuse) sources, including stormwater, agricultural, and
land clearing runoff; and (iv) non-point sources from within the water system, including washout
from riverbanks and re-suspension from sediments (internal loading). The rate at which
phosphorus loads enter freshwater systems varies with land use, geology, morphology of the
drainage basin, soil productivity, human activities, and pollution (CWQG, 2005).
Phosphorus is an essential element for plant growth and agricultural productivity. Fertilizer
commonly supplies the crop phosphorus requirement or replenishes P removed from a harvested
crop biomass. High value crops demand intensive management in order to remain competitive.
In these cases, farmers tend to hedge their bets by fertilizing in excess of the crop requirement
determined by a calibrated soil test. Over the long term, this practice will increase soil P
accumulation, the risk of off-site movement, and leaching in sandy-textured soils.
Animal agriculture also contributes to increased buildup of phosphorus in soils. Intensive
confined livestock production areas or cattle feeding accumulate large amounts of both solid and
liquid manure, which through land application are used as nutrient sources for crop production.
A typical dairy lagoon waste has a 1.2:1 ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus. If manure is applied
based on the nitrogen needs of the crop, phosphorus will also be applied in the same proportions
irrespective of the soil test based crop phosphorus requirement. Manure transport is often not
economical with extended distances, so the surrounding land area generally receives much of the
manure, and with the manure comes additional, often unneeded phosphorus. In due course,
phosphorus buildup in the soil will result. High levels of phosphorus may saturate the capacity of
the soil to hold P, increasing the risk for off-site movement and negatively impacting the quality
of the receiving water bodies.
Sources of Phosphorus:Non-point source of potassium include natural decomposition of rocks
and minerals, storm water runoff, agricultural runoff, erosion and sedimentation, atmospheric
deposition, and direct input by animals/wildlife; nutrient losses from manure and waste products
spread over large agricultural fields, sediment from eroded soils, nutrient leaching or runoff from
residential or agricultural areas, etc. Sediment particles may carry adsorbed phosphorus
molecules along during runoff. Industrial agriculture, with its reliance on phosphate-rich
fertilizers, is the primary source of excess phosphorus responsible for degrading rivers and lakes
(Carpenter, 2008). Industrial wastes and domestic sewage are the major urban sources of nutrient
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overload, responsible for 50% of the total amount of phosphorus unloaded into lakes from
human settlements ( Smith, Tilman and Nikola, 1999). Subsequently this phosphorus may
eventually detach and become soluble in water. Because most water bodies are phosphorus
impoverished, even a minute amount of soluble phosphorus can result in algal blooms and
become an environmental concern. Point sources are easily located and controlled, whereas non-
point sources of pollution are often very difficult to control in spite of complex management
practices. Therefore, prevention approaches are more effective solutions to the problem than
post-occurrence management.
Nonpoint sources of phosphorus include soil erosion and water runoff from cropland, lawns and
gardens, home waste treatment systems, livestock pastures, rangeland, and even forests. Urban
areas may produce significant nonpoint source phosphorus runoff due to over-application of
fertilizer to lawns and gardens. Homeowners who apply fertilizer without following soil test
recommendation eventually build up very high soil test phosphorus levels that can become
significant sources of phosphorus in runoff. And most importantly, fertilizer, pet waste, and lawn
clippings left on driveways, sidewalks, or streets are a direct source of pollution through storm
drains in urban areas (Smolen).
Forms of Phosphorus: Phosphorus is the key element of concern because the natural occurrence
of P in surface water bodies is minimal. Therefore, even a minute amount of phosphorus entering
a water body can trigger a significant algal boom (although Nitrogen (N) and Carbon (C) are
required for algal growth), lowering light penetration and dissolved oxygen levels; it also causes
aesthetic degradation of surface water bodies. In some extreme cases, algal blooms can be
harmful to human health.
Phosphorus has a complicated story. Pure, "elemental" phosphorus (P) is rare. In nature,
phosphorus usually exists as part of a phosphate molecule (PO4). Orthophosphate is in a form
that is immediately available to aquatic biota. Phosphorus is seldom found in high concentrations
in non-polluted water due to the fact that it is utilized by plants and sequestered by cells (Dallas
and Day, 1983). Phosphorus in aquatic systems occurs as organic phosphate and inorganic
phosphate. Organic phosphate consists of a phosphate molecule associated with a carbon-based
molecule, as in plant or animal tissue. Phosphate that is not associated with organic material is
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inorganic. Inorganic phosphorus is the form required by plants. Animals can use either organic or
inorganic phosphate. Both organic and inorganic phosphorus can either be dissolved in the water
or suspended (attached to particles in the water column).
Effect of Phosphorus: On a global basis, researchers have demonstrated a strong correlation
between total phosphorus inputs and algal biomass in lakes (Anderson Gilbert and Burkholder,
2002). Since 1950, phosphorus inputs to the environment have been in - creasing as the use of
phosphate-containing fertilizer, manure, and laundry detergent has become more common
(Litike, 1999). Consequently, humans release 75% more phosphorus to the soil than would be
naturally deposited by weathering of rock (Bennet, Carpenter, Caraco, 2001). Even increases in
minute amounts of the nutrient can stimulate tremendous growth and productivity (Addy and
Green, 2006). According to an estimate, 400 grams of phosphates could potentially induce an
algal bloom to the extent of 350 tons (Sharma, 2009)
Phosphate will stimulate the growth of plankton and aquatic plants which provide food for larger
organisms, including: zooplankton, fish, humans, and other mammals. Plankton represents the
base of the food chain. Initially, this increased productivity will cause an increase in the fish
population and overall biological diversity of the system. But as the phosphate loading continues
and there is a build-up of phosphate in the lake or surface water ecosystem, the aging process of
lake or surface water ecosystem will be accelerated. Theoverproduction of lake or water
bodycan lead to an imbalance in the nutrient and material cycling process. Eutrophication (from
the Greek - meaning "well nourished") is enhanced production of primary producers resulting in
reduced stability of the ecosystem. Excessive nutrient inputs, usually nitrogen and phosphate,
have been shown to be the main cause of eutrophication over the past 30 years. This aging
process can result in large fluctuations in the lake water quality and trophic status and in some
cases periodic blooms of cyanobacteria.
In situations where eutrophication occurs, the natural cycles become overwhelmed by an excess
of one or more of the following: nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, or organic waste. The
excessive inputs, usually a result of human activity and development, appear to cause an
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imbalance in the "production versus consumption" of living material (biomass) in an ecosystem.
The system then reacts by producing more phytoplankton/vegetation than can be consumed by
ecosystem. This overproduction can lead to a variety of problems ranging from anoxic waters
(through decomposition) to toxic algal blooms and decrease in diversity, food supply and habitat
destruction. Eutrophication as a water quality issue has had a high profile since the late 1980s,
following the widespread occurrence of blue-green algal blooms in some fresh waters. Some
blue-green algae can at times produce toxins, which are harmful to humans, pets and farm
animals.
Underaerobic conditions, the natural cycles may be more or less in balance until an excess of
nitrate (nitrogen) and/or phosphate enters the system. At this time the water plants and algae
begin to grow more rapidly than normal. As this happens there is also an excess die off of theplants and algae as sunlight is blocked at lower levels. Bacteria try to decompose the organic
waste, consuming the oxygen, and releasing more phosphate which is known as "recycling or
internal cycling". Some of the phosphate may be precipitated as iron phosphate and stored in the
sediment where it can then be released if anoxic conditions develop.
In anaerobic conditions, as conditions worsen as more phosphates and nitrates may be added to
the water, all of the oxygen may be used up by bacteria in trying to decompose all of the waste.
Different bacteria continue to carry on decomposition reactions; however the products are
drastically different. The carbon is converted to methane gas instead of carbon dioxide; sulfur is
converted to hydrogen sulfide gas. Some of the sulfide may be precipitated as iron sulfide. Under
anaerobic conditions the iron phosphate precipitates in the sediments may be released from the
sediments making the phosphate bioavailable. This is a key component of the growth and decay
cycle. The pond, stream, or lake may gradually fill with decaying and partially decomposed
plant materials to make a swamp, which is the natural aging process. The problem is that this
process has been significantly accelerated.
1.1.3 Potassium
Potassium (K) is an essential nutrient for plant growth. Because large amounts are absorbed from
the root zone in the production of most agronomic crops, it is classified as a macronutrient.
Minnesota soils can supply some K for crop production, but when the supply from the soil is not
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adequate, K must be supplied in a fertilizer program. This publication provides information
important to the basic understanding of K nutrition of plants, its reaction in soils, its function in
plants, and its role in efficient crop production.
Potassium occurs in various minerals, from which it may be dissolved through weathering
processes. Examples are feldspars (orthoclase and microcline), which are however not very
significant for potassium compounds production, and chlorine minerals carnalite and sylvite,
which are most favourable for production purposes. Some clay minerals contain potassium. It
ends up in seawater through natural processes, where it mainly settles in sediments.
Elementary potassium is extracted from potassium chloride, but does not serve many purposes
because of its extensive reactive power. It is applied in alloys and in organic synthesis.
A number of potassium compounds, mainly potassium nitrate, are popular synthetic
fertilizers.95% of commercially applied potassium is added to synthetic fertilizers. Potassium
salts and mixtures of magnesium and calcium compounds are also applied regularly.
Regeneration releases wastewater that is hazardous when discharged on surface water, and that is
difficult to purify.
Forms of Potassium: The main forms of potassium that effect human health are potassium
bromated, potassium fluoride and potassium cyanide.
Sources of Potassium: Potassium is also present in various minerals and, after a weathering
process, it can go to the oceans through the rivers. However, potassium content in rocks and soils
is lower than that of sodium and, therefore, a lower potassium ion content in the river water is
expected. Besides, sodium salts are more soluble in water than potassium salts and, frequently,
potassium settled in sediments. Most of the potassium ion content in rivers comes from
fertilizers, particularly from the potassium nitrate present in them. Farmers apply nutrients such
as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge
(USEPA, 2005).
Effects of Potassium: Potassium is not an integral part of any major plant component but it does
play a key role in a vast array of physiological processes vital to plant growth, from protein
synthesis to maintenance of plant water balance. Potassium is a macro-nutrient that is present in
high concentrations in soils but is not bio-available since it is bound to other compounds.
Generally, wastewater contains low potassium concentrations insufficient to cover the plants
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theoretical demand, and use of wastewater in agriculture does not normally cause negative
environmental impacts (Mikklesen and Camberato, 1995).Potassium is an dietary requirement
for nearly any organism but a number of bacteria, because it plays an important role in nerve
functions.
Potassium plays a central role in plant growth, and it often limits it. Potassium from dead plant
and animal material is often bound to clay minerals in soils, before it dissolves in water.
Consequently, it is readily taken up by plants again. Ploughing may disturb this natural process.
Consequently, potassium fertilizer are often added to agricultural soils. Plants contain about 2%
potassium (dry mass) on average, but values may vary from 0.1-6.8%. Mosquito larvae contain
between 0.5 and 0.6% potassium, and beetles contain between 0.6 and 0.9% potassium (dry
mass). Potassium salts may kill plant cells because of high osmotic activity.
Potassium is weakly hazardous in water, but it does spread pretty rapidly, because of its
relatively high mobility and low transformation potential. Potassium toxicity is usually caused by
other components in a compound, for example cyanide in potassium cyanide.
TheLD50value for rats is 5 mg/kg. For potassium bromate this is 321 mg/kg, and for potassium
fluoride this is 245 mg/kg. Examples of LD50 values for water organisms include 132 mg/L for
fish and 1.16 mg/l for daphnia.
One of three naturally occurring potassium isotopes is40
K, which is radioactive. It is suspected
this compound causes plant an animal gene modifications. However, it does not have a radio
toxicity class, because of its natural origin. There is a total of twelve instable potassium isotopes.
1.2 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Total suspended solids (TSS) include all particles suspended in water which will not pass
through a filter. Suspended solids are present in sanitary wastewater and many types of industrial
Waste water. TSS is not a measure of all pollutants carried by water runoff. Coarse materials
such as street sand and trash, and dissolved chemicals like chloride are not included in the
definition of TSS. Only fine particles of sediment, and the pollutants that attach to them, are
measured by TSS.
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Sources: There are also nonpoint sources of suspended solids, such as soil erosion from
agricultural and construction sites.
Effects: As levels of TSS increase, a water body begins to lose its ability to support a diversity
of aquatic life. Suspended solids absorb heat from sunlight, which increases water temperature
and subsequently decreases levels of dissolved oxygen (warmer water holds less oxygen than
cooler water). Some cold water species, such as trout and stoneflies, are especially sensitive to
changes in dissolved oxygen. Photosynthesis also decreases, since less light penetrates the water.
As less oxygen is produced by plants and algae, there is a further drop in dissolved oxygen
levels. TSS can also destroy fish habitat because suspended solids settle to the bottom and can
eventually blanket the river bed. Suspended solids can smother the eggs of fish and aquatic
insects, and can suffocate newly-hatched insect larvae. Suspended solids can also harm fish
directly by clogging gills, reducing growth rates, and lowering resistance to disease. Changes to
the aquatic environment may result in a diminished food sources, and increased difficulties in
finding food. Natural movements and migrations of aquatic populations may be disrupted.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Indias major, minor and several hundred small rivers receive a large amount of sewage,
industrial and agricultural wastes. Most of the rivers in India have been degraded to sewage
flowing drains and harmful chemicals present in it during past two decades. There are serious
water quality problems in the towns and the villages due to flow of un-hygienic water through
these areas. The organic and inorganic chemical fertilizers applied in agriculture fields and the
effluents from industries have the greatest detrimental effect on the stream. Models are required
to predict the outcome of various processes operating within a system and the change in
concentration of substances within fluid systems. The analysis of enrichment of nutrients (i.e.
nitrate, phosphate and potassium) in a reach of a river has occupied a large portion of the
literature on water quality modeling. These nutrients are basically responsible for eutrophication
of water bodies which make it unsuitable for use for many purposes. It allows growth of
microorganism which further adds to degradation of these water bodies. Excess nitrogen cancause overstimulation of growth of aquatic plants and algae. Excessive growth of these
organisms, in turn, can clog water intakes, use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose, and
block light to deeper waters. Lake and reservoireutrophication can occur, which produces
unsightly scum of algae on the water surface, can occasionally result in fish kills, and can even
"kill" a lake by depriving it of oxygen. The respiration efficiency of fish and aquatic
invertebrates can occur, leading to a decrease in animal and plant diversity, and affects our use of
the water for fishing, swimming, and boating. Too much nitrogen, as nitrate, in drinking water
can be harmful to young infants or young livestock. Excessive nitrate can result in restriction of
oxygen transport in the bloodstream. Infants under the age of 4 months lack the enzyme
necessary to correct this condition ("blue baby syndrome"). In parts of Eastern Europe where
groundwater is contaminated with 50-100 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of nitrate, pregnant women
and children under 1 year of age are supplied with bottled water.
Many eminent researchers had worked previously on non-point source pollution in rivers and
streams with emphasis on agriculture runoff which helped me a lot for my dissertation work.
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The effect of algal growth and bacterial action on oxygen deficit was studied by OConnor and
Di O Connor (1970).
The biochemical oxygen demand exertion rate exhibits a higher value at higher concentration of
microorganisms. (Agarwal and Bhargava, 1977).
It has been reported Orthophosphate is in a form that is immediately available to aquatic biota.
Phosphorus is seldom found in high concentrations in non-polluted water due to the fact that it is
utilized by plants and sequestered by cells (Dallas and Day, 1983).
Study of the temporal trend of Niagara River with respect to pH, alkalinity, total phosphorous
and nitrates using statistical approach (EI-Shaarawi et al.,1983).
A hydro-chemical study of natural waters with reference to the waste effluent disposal in the
upper part of Hindon basin in Saharanpur area (Patel, 1985).
The changes in the concentrations of BOD and DO due to non-point sources within the river was
studied. (The Thomman and Muller model, 1987).
A large proportion of the annual phosphorus loads may be exported during short periods of high
flows, particularly after a long period of low flows, during which there is high retention of
phosphorus (e.g. Dorioz et al., 1989).
All forms of transported nitrogen are potential contributors to water quality problems. Dissolved
ammonia at concentrations above 0.2 mg/l may be toxic to fish. Nitrates in drinking water are
potentially dangerous, especially to newborn infants. Nitrate is converted to nitrite in the
digestive tract, which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (methanoglobinemia),
resulting in brain damage or even death (USEPA, 1989)
The chemical characteristics of surface water of the Hindon river system and the ground water
with the objective to assess the synoptic quality of the water for various specified uses. (Seth,
1991).
Experiment shows that since 1950, phosphorus inputs to the environment have been in - creasing
as the use of phosphate-containing fertilizer, manure, and laundry detergent has become more
common (Litike, 1999).
A one-dimensional water quality model addressing nutrient transport and kinetic interactions of
phytoplankton, nitrogen, phosphorus, carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand and dissolved
oxygen into the water column in river system by adopting a finite segment approach were
developed (Karim and Budruzzaman, 1999).
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It has been recorded that consequently, humans release 75% more phosphorus to the soil than
would be naturally deposited by weathering of rock (Bennet, Carpenter, Caraco, 2001).
Dissolved oxygen mass balance was computed for different reaches of river Kali to obtain the
reaeration coefficient (K) a refined predictive reaeration equation for the river Kali was
developed (Jha et al.,2001).
The concentrations of metal ions determined in major effluent drains joining the Yamuna River
are assessed. It is apparent from the results that the concentrations of metal ions vary
significantly in different drains depending on the nature and flow of waste effluents. In general
the concentration of metal ions were found higher in post-monsoon season (Imran and Jain,
2001).
A modeling showing relationship between land use and surface water quality. From the model
results, it was apparent that runoff from agricultural as well as impervious urban land use had
much more nitrogen and phosphorus. (Tong and Chen, 2002).
It has been reported that on a global basis, researchers have demonstrated a strong correlation
between total phosphorus inputs and algal biomass in lakes (Anderson Gilbert and Burkholder,
2002).
Long term annual mass balance studies of phosphorus have highlighted the great variability of
phosphorus retention at catchment scale (Meyer and Likens, 1979; Baker and Richards, 2002).
The repeated use of water and irrigation-induced erosion are related to phosphorus enrichment in
the irrigation water. As some of this water runs off into streams and rivers, it can enrich river
water phosphorus levels. The total phosphorus in the Malheur River is very high during spring
runoff in February and March, after which time the phosphorus level drops in April, only to rise
again with the onset of the irrigation season in May and June (Shock and Pratt, 2003).
There is a wide variety of factors that influence how nutrients derived from particular types of
sources, such as ag land runoff, impact the fertility of water bodies receiving this runoff. An area
of particular concern to agricultural interests is the availability of phosphorus in ag land runoff to
support algal growth in the waters receiving this runoff (Lee et al, 2004).
A reaeration coefficient (k2) predictive equation based on Froude number criteria and least
square algorithms by evaluating different commonly used predictive equations for the reaeration
rate coefficient using 231 data sets obtained from the literature and 576 data sets measured at
different reaches of the river Kali in western Uttar Pradesh was developed. (Jha et al., 2004).
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It has been reported that sensitivity of crops also varies with the growth stage; high nitrogen
levels may be beneficial during early growth stages but may cause yield losses during the later
flowering and fruiting stages, consequently high nitrogen water, including domestic wastewater,
can be used as a fertilizer early in the season but should ideally be reduced or blended with other
sources of water later in the growth cycle (Ayres and Westcot 2004).
It has been reported that excessive phosphorus in a freshwater system increases plant and algal
growth. This can lead to: changes in number and type of plants and animals; increases in animal
growth and size; increases in turbidity; more organic matter falling to the bottom of the system in
the form of dead plants and animals; and losses of oxygen in the water. When there is no oxygen
at the bottom of a freshwater system, phosphorus that previously had been locked in the sediment
can be released back into the water. This is called internal loading and exacerbates the problem
of excessively high productivity(CWQG, 2005).
The re-aeration coefficient (k2) using data sets measured at different reaches of the Kali River in
India by using the artificial neural network (ANN) method was estimated (Jain and Jha, 2005).
In Udhampur district (Jammu and Kashmir) water samples were collected from wells, springs
and rivers in parts of the during pre and post monsoon seasons were analyzed to evaluate
drinking water quality on the basis of BIS and irrigation water quality on the basis of salinity,
residual sodium carbonate and concentration of toxic elements. (Singh et al., 2005).
A modified approach based on the conservation of mass and reaction kinetics has been derived to
estimate the inflow of non-point source pollutants from a river reach. Two water quality
variables, namely, nitrate (NO3) and ortho-phosphate (o-PO4), which are main contributors as
non-point source pollution, were monitored at four locations of River Kali, western Uttar
Pradesh, India, and used for calibration and validation of the model (Jha et al., 2005).
It has been reported that even increases in minute amounts of the nutrient can stimulate
tremendous growth and productivity (Addy and Green, 2006).Hydrochemistry of surface water (pH, specific conductance, total dissolved solids, sulfate,
chloride, nitrate, bicarbonate, hardness, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium) in the
Mahanadi river estuarine system, India was used to assess the quality of water for agricultural
purposes. Chemical data were used for mathematical calculations (SAR, Na%, RSC, potential
salinity, permeability index, Kellys index, magnesium hazard, osmotic pressure and salt index)
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for better understanding the suitability river water quality for agricultural purposes(Sundaray et
al., 2008 ).
According to an estimate, 400 grams of phosphates could potentially induce an algal bloom to
the extent of 350 tons (Sharma, 2009)
It has been reported TSS is not a measure of all pollutants carried by water runoff. Coarse
materials such as street sand and trash, and dissolved chemicals like chloride are not included in
the definition of TSS. Only fine particles of sediment, and the pollutants that attach to them, are
measured by TSS (David, 2009).
An estimation of the water quality of Mahanadi and its distributary rivers and streams,
Atharabanki River and Taldanda Canal adjoining Paradip was studied in three different seasons
namely summer, premonsoon and winter by (Samantray, 2009).
An estimation of Point and Non Point Sources PollutionA Case Study of Timah Tasoh Lake in
Perlis, Malaysia was carried out and it reveals the level of BOD, COD, DO, E-coli and turbidity
were identified as polluted water quality were classified into classes which range of IIA to V
according to classification of river water standard, NWQS for Malaysia and DOE Water Quality
Index Classification. The level of pH and NH3-N was classified into Class I which is acceptable
concentration. Both point and non point sources pollution of Tasoh River and Pelarit River, both
have potential to increase the pollution rate in the lake areas and also Korok River
(Kamarudzaman et al., 2011).
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Chapter 3
STUDY AREA AND DATA COLLECTION
Present study was carried out in the Tons River and three major streams that flow in it namely
Nun, Nalota and Birhant River which lie in the Dehradun district of Uttarakhand. The study area
lies between 3020 to 3024N and 7758 to 785E. The Himalayan Mountain ranges have
very youthful and rugged topography with deep river gorges, steep valley slopes, wide flood
plains, asymmetric river basin with sinuous rivers and streams.
3.1 The Tons River
The Tons river is which lies between 7739E to 7813E and 3026N to 312N the largest
tributary of the Yamuna and flows through Garhwal region in Uttarakhand, touching
Himachal Pradesh. Its source lies in the 20,720 ft (6,315 meters) high Bandarpunch
mountain, and is one of the most major perennial Indian Himalayan rivers. The three major
streams has been identified for the assessment of non point source pollution in tons river in
which anthropogenic, agricultural activities effluents, sewage, etc. are degrading the surface and
ground water quality.
The Tons river proper comes into being at a place named Devasu Thoch where two rivers
Harkidun Gad from Jaundar Bamak glacier and Ruinsara Gad from Bandarpunch glacier meet. It
travels for a distance of about 190 km before it confluences with river Yamuna at Haripur. It
course is sinuous, which flows roughly in North East-South West, North South and North West-
South East directions respectively from its source in the North to the outlet in the south (Munda
and Kotiyal, 2005).
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Fig 3.1: Tons River and Sampling Points
3.2 Dehradun district
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Location of the Dehradun District: Dehradun, is the capital city of the Uttarakhand state, lies
between latitudes 29 55' and 30 30' and longitudes 77 35' and 78 24' Fig. 1.1. It comprises
townships of Vikasnagar, industrial area of Selaqui and townships of Rishikesh. The district head
quarter lies in an intermontane Doon valley surrounded by the lesser Himalayan ranges in the
north and Siwalik hills in the south, the river Ganga in the east, and the river Yamuna in the
west. The water divide of Ganga and Yamuna passes through the city. The study area has humid
subtropical to tropical climate with heavy precipitation during July to September, moderate to
high sunshine, humidity and evaporation. The average annual precipitation is about 205 cm in
Dehradun district and about 150cm in Haridwar district (Bartariya and Bahukhandi, 2012).
The climate of the district, in general, is temperate. In the hilly regions, the summer is pleasant
but in the Doon Valley, the heat is often intense. The temperature drops below freezing point not
only at high altitudes but also even at places like Dehradun during the winters, when the higher
peaks are under snow. The summer starts by March and lasts up mid of June when the monsoon
sets in. Generally May and June are hottest month with mean temperature ranging from 35-38C.
Winter starts from November and continue up to February. The average temperature during
winter remains between 17-20C.
Monsoon starts by the mid of June and lasts up to September. The district receives an average
annual rainfall of 2073.3 mm. Most of the rainfall is received during the period from June to
September, July and August being the wettest months. The region around Raipur gets the
maximum rainfall, while the southern part receives the least rainfall in the district. About 87% of
the annual rainfall is received during the period June to September.
Physiography of Dehradun District: In the Shivalik range of outer Himalaya, there are number
of longitudinal valleys called Duns. The Doon valley is a synclinal depression between the
Lesser Himalayan Mountains in the north and Sub Himalayan Siwalik hills in the south. Aligned
parallel to the general trend of Himalaya, it is veritable intermontane valley, bottom of which is
filled up with thick detritus shed from overlooking hill slopes. Broadly the Doon valley can be
divided into three different slopes: Northeastern slope of Siwalik, Doon Valley proper and
southwestern slope of outer Himalaya range. The northeastern slopes of Siwaliks are quite steep
in higher reaches and have fewer gradients lower down. These are cut by a large number of
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short, shallow and boulder stream which carry discharge into As an, Susa and Song rivers. The
southern slopes are very steep and are covered with poor vegetation (Bartariya and Bahukhandi,
2012).
Geology of Dehradun district: Geological structure of Doon valley is characterized by two
major faults, crustal and fractures along with rock slabs of mountain mass have been uplifted and
moved southward. The Doon valley and Siwalik range is principally composed of the rocks
classified into the Lower, the Middle and the Upper Siwaliks. The southern limb of the Doon
valley and Siwalik range are made up of the Middle and Upper Siwalik. The Middle Siwalik area
composed of 1500 -1800 m thick fluviatile sediments. They consist of sandstone mudstone
couplets in the lower part and a multistory sandstone complex in the upper part with few pebbly
horizons to the top. This sequence of the Middle Siwalik passes transitionally upwards into
thickly bedded conglomerate of the Upper Siwalik. The conglomerates are composed
predominant of pebbles and boulders of sandstone, limestone and quartzite derived from the
lower Himalaya similar to that of Mussoorie range. The lower Siwalik is exposed on limited
outcrops on the northern limb of the Doon valley. It is made of purple clay and sandstone. The
rock of Siwalik Group overlain by the Doon gravel, sand and boulders with clay bands, filled up
the large part of the Doon valley. The thickness of Doon gravel is variable from 52 to > 500
meters in the central of the valley (Bartariya and Bahukhandi, 2012).
Drainage Pattern of Dehradun: An intermontane, Doon valley is characterized by the As an
and Song river. A single valley, apparently, consists of two shallow valleys, the western and the
eastern Doon valley respectively. The two rivers are separated by a low water divide, running
from Mohand Pass to Landour at Mussoorie. The river tons are the main tributary of As an in
western part of the valley discharging their water to Yamuna. Rispana, Bindal, Suswa, Jakhan
are in the eastern part of the Doon valley and discharge their water to the Song and then to
Ganga. The perennial rivers, Ganga and Yamuna, emanating from glaciers are forming the
eastern and western limit of Doon Valley. Other source of water include spring present in Lesser
Himalaya and Siwalik range and dug wells (though mostly abandoned at present), hand pump
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and tube well drawing water from shallow and deep aquifers respectively (Bartariya and
Bahukhandi, 2012).
Hydrogeology of Dehradun: Initially by Saxena (1974); Kainthola et al. (1988), and Roy, A.K.
(1991) has provided the initial hydrogeological framework of the Doon Valley. Latter, Bartarya
(1995) has given detailed hydrogeology of the Doon valley. Geohydrological, the structurally
controlled intermontane Doon Valley is divisible into three zones (Bartarya, 1995):
1. The Lesser Himalayan zone;
2. The Synclinal Central zone; and
3. The Siwalik zone.
The steeply sloping Lesser Himalayan Zoneconsisting of rocks of the Lesser Himalayan
formations (phyllites and quartzite, shales, sandstone, greywackes, slates, dolomite and
limestone of Jaunsar, Blaini-Krol-Tal sequence) has secondary porosity and permeability, and is
characterized by springs and seepages. The Syncli nal Central Zonea synclinal depression
between Lesser Himalaya and Siwalik is occupied by Doon Gravel. The Doon gravels have
primary porosity and permeability and forms the main aquifer in the area. The groundwater is
present in multilayered aquifers under unconfined and semi confined conditions. The subsurface
geohydrology indicates that the horizons comprising boulders and gravels set in a coarse sandy
matrix are the main water-bearing horizons. The discharge from the tube wells varies from 600
to 3000 l/min through a tapped horizon of 30 to 50 m with a depression of 2 to 7 m.
The Siwal ik zoneconsists of rocks of Middle (friable, medium grained, grey-coloured massive
sandstone and mudstone) and Upper Siwalik (alternate polymictic conglomerate and subordinate
grey micaceous sandstone). Groundwater is present under semi-confined and confined conditions
and the water table is relatively deep. Although, the conglomerate unit of the Upper Siwalik is
highly porous and permeable, water quickly leaves the area as surface runoff.
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Geomorphology and Geomorphic Divisions: Dehradun district may be divided into four
geomorphological units namely alluvium, piedmont fan deposits, structural and denudational
hills and residual hills.
Alluvium: This unit is represented by unconsolidated and loose admixture of sand, gravel,
pebbles, silt and clay of varied grades deposited in the form of terraces along Asan, Song, Tons,
Yamuna, Ganges etc. and in the intermontane valley as well. These are represented by
unconsolidated material like sand, gravel, silt and clay. The terraces are formed by river cuttings
followed by deposition of eroded and transported material in step like features along the river.
Piedmont Fan Deposits: The area comprising of Dun gravels formed of numerous coalesced
fans constitute this unit. The older Dun gravels belong to the upper realm of principal Doon fans
whereas the younger and youngest duns belong to lower realm of principal Doon fans and dip
controlled pedimont fans respectively.
Denudational and Structural Hills: The denudational and structural hills comprise Siwalik and
Lesser Himalayan Ranges. The Siwaliks are exposed as a narrow band all along the southern
boundary of Doon Valley and also in isolated patches. These hills have undergone severe
denudation, weathering and erosion, making steep to moderate slopes.
Residual Hills: The residual hills are mostly formed by erosion and are the remnants of post
Upper Siwalik deposits. These are called Older Doon Gravels or Langha Boulder Beds. Boulder
beds, shales and red clay represent this unit. The residual hills are present in Doiwala and Vikas
Nagar blocks.
Soil Types: The nature and soil type play an important role in agriculture and have direct elation
with groundwater recharge. Physiography, climate, drainage and geology of the area are the
factors responsible for the nature and type of soil and soil cover. The soil type also depends upon
the slope and rate of erosion. The soil types of district Dehradun are given in Table 3.1:
Table 3.1: Soil Types of Dehradun
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Physiography Characteristics Taxonomic Classification
Mountains Moderately deep, well-
drained, thermic coarse loamysoils on steep slopes, strong,
stoniness, associated withshallow excessively drained,loamy skeletal soil.
Loamy skeletal, Dystric
Eutrochrepts, Fine loamylithic and typic Hapludolls-
Loamy skeletal typicUdrothants
Soils on Upper piedmont
plains
Deep, well-drained, coarse
loamy cover, fragmental soils
on heavy gentle slope withloamy surface and slight
erosion.
Associated with excessively
drained soils with loamy
surface and slight to moderateerosion
Deep, well- drained, fine tocoarse loamy surface and
slight to moderate erosion
Udifluventic
Ustochrepts
Typic Ustipsamments
Udic Ustorchre
Soil on Lower piedmont plains Deep, well- drained, coarse
loamy cover over fragmentalsoils on nearly level plains
with loamy surface.
Associated with deep, well
drained, fine loamy soil withloamy surface.
Deep, well drained, fine silty
soil on very gentle slopes withloamy surface and slight
erosion
Deep, well drained, fine to
coarse loamy surface andslight to moderate erosion,
silty soil with loamy surface
Udifluventic
Ustochrepts
Udic Ustochrepts
Udic Haplustolls
Udic Ustochrepts
3.2 Data CollectionTo collect water quality samples for measurements, nine sampling points at different locations in a
stretch of 9 km of river Tons have been selected. A line diagram of Tons river basin along with
sampling points is shown in Figure 3.2 To add, water samples collected from 9 points located along
Tons, Nun, Birhant and Nalota River were included in the study used for the analysis. Also, for
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calculating stream discharge and daily maximum loads of pollutants like (NO3, PO4, K and TSS),
data regarding width of the streams, depth and velocity of water in streams have been collected from
5 sampling points viz. Tons upstream Nalota (TUNL), Nalota (NAL), Birhant (BIR), Nun (NUN)
and Tons downstream Nun (TUNI).
The monitoring and analysis of water quality data and hydraulic parameters in field were conducted
during February and March, 2013. Some of the important variables monitored and analyzed in the
field are categorized as:
Nutrients: Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) and Potassium (K).
Hydraulic Parameters: Width of River, Depth of Flow, Flow Velocity and Cross-
sectional areas.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
All the samples were collected at about 15 cm. depth from three location across the river and
stored in pre-cleaned polythene bottles.
The depth of flow across any section of the River Tons was measured by the measuring rod and
velocity was measured using by floating of standard floats.
For nutrients Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) and Potassium (K) and for Total suspended Solids
(TSS), water samples were collected from different river reaches were preserved by adding
appropriate reagent. The samples were brought to the laboratory, in sampling kits maintained at 4C,
for detailed chemical analysis.
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Important water quality variables reactive in nature and hydraulic variables were also monitored
at all the sampling points simultaneously. The descriptions of all the sampling points are
discussed below:
Tons river upstream river Nalota is the 1st
sampling location (TUNL).
Nalota river before flowing down to the Tons River is the 2nd
sampling location (NAL).
Tons river downstream river Nalota is the 3rd sampling location (TUNL).
Tons river upstream river Birhant is the 4th sampling location (TUBI).
Birhant river before flowing down to the Tons River is the 5th sampling location (BIR).
Tons river downstream river Birhant is the 6th
sampling location (TDBI).
Tons river upstream river Nun is the 7th sampling location (TUNI).
Birhant river before flowing down to the Tons River is the 8th sampling location (NUN).
Tons river downstream river Birhant is the 9th
sampling location (TDNI).
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Chapter 4
METHODOLOGY
Tons river in Uttarakhand, India is one of the most important tributaries of Yamuna River.
Within its 190 kms length various human based community live and it has a significant socio-
economic value for nearby areas. It receives many point and on-point source of pollution due to
various anthropogenic activites occurring on its sides such as, tourists, effluents, agriculture, etc.
The methodology adopted for the present study is described below:
4.1 Laboratory Analysis
Water samples were collected from nine sampling points starting from Tons before Nalota River
to Tons after Nun river in the Month of February and March 2013 to estimate Nitrate, Phosphate,
Potassium and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). All the samples were collected at about 10-15 cm
depth to avoid floating material from these points.
The cross sectional area, water depth and velocity parameters were monitored at five sampling
sites to compute variation in river discharges over a specific time period.. The flow data were
obtained in the same period in which water samples were collected for analysis of NO 3, PO4, K
and TSS concentrations.
Sample of nitrate determination were preserved by acidifying with ultra pure concentrated
sulphuric acid to pH
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Therefore,
The velocity of the flow ( ) = Time taken by float (sec)
20 mts
Discharge (Q) = Area (A) Velocity ( )
Daily load: To convert from concentration and flow to daily load in metric tons, multiply the
product of concentration and flow by the appropriate constant. This is shown in table 4.1:
Table 4.1 Conversion formula used for determining daily pollutant load
Concentration Units Flow Units Constant
mg/L m3/sec 0.0864
g/L ft3/sec 2.447
mg/L ft3/sec 0.002447
g/L m3/sec 86.4g/L m3/sec 0.000864
(Richards, 1997)
For example, if the flow is 375 m3/sec and the concentration is 1.32 mg/L, the daily load is
L = 375 * 1.32 * 0.0864 = 427.68 metric tons
4.3 Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) ApplicationsFor mapping the study area of River Tons, Dehradun topo sheet (base map) No. 53F15 and 53J4
of Dehradun were procured fro survey of India. These maps were later digitized with the help of
ERDAS IMAGINE, ARC GIS, Global Mapper and Google Earth softwares for the extraction of
basin boundary, drainage pattern, point maps of spot height and built up area. The maps were
stored as point map, segmented map and polygon map.
Chapter 5
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a necessary primary macronutrient for plants that stimulates plant growth and is
usually added as a fertilizer but can also be found in wastewater as nitrate, ammonia, organic
nitrogen or nitrite (FAO 2006). The most important factor for plants is the total amount of
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nitrogen (N) regardless of whether it is in the form of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), ammonium
nitrogen (NH4-N) or organic-nitrogen (Org-N) but by reporting in the form of total nitrogen
comparisons can be made (Ayres and Westcot 1994). If excess nitrogen is applied to the crop it
can result in: over-stimulation and excessive growth which attracts pests; delayed maturity; or a
reduction in the quality of the crop. The concentration of nitrogen required varies according to
the crop with more sensitive crops being affected by nitrogen concentrations above 5 mg l-1,
whilst most other crops are relatively unaffected until nitrogen exceeds 30 mg l-1. The sensitivity
of crops also varies with the growth stage; high nitrogen levels may be beneficial during early
growth stages but may cause yield losses during the later flowering and fruiting stages,
consequently high nitrogen water, including domestic wastewater, can be used as a fertilizer
early in the season but should ideally be reduced or blended with other sources of water later in
the growth cycle (Ayres and Westcot 19944).
Table 5.1: Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-) at different sampling points
S.
No.
Sampling Points Nitrate (NO3-)
Mg/L
WHO
Water
Standards
IS
2296
Water Standards
IS
10500
Water Standards
1 TUNL 5.28 30 mg/L
Nitrate in
permitted
drinking water
20 & 50 mg/L
Nitrate is
permitted in
Surface Water
45 mg/L water is
permitted in
drinking water.2 NAL 4.84
3 TDNL 2.64
4 TUBI 11
5 BIR 3.52
6 TDBI 1.76
7 TUNI 3.08
8 NUN 3.08
9 TDNI 3.52
Nitrogen is known to be a sensitive component in rice culture because excessive nitrogen
application can cause lodging of rice plants (Yoon et al. 2001). In general, the nitrogen levels in
the project area were fairly low and were all below 20-30 mg/l.. The total nitrate concentration of
the surface water was below the WHO (1998) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. The
concentration of Nitrate across different sampling point is shown in Table 5.1.
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Fig 5.1: Chart showing Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-)at different sampling points
Nitrate concentration of Tons river in various sampling point fluctuated from 1.76-11mg/l
(Fig.5.1). Almost all the sites have shown significantly high (p
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Municipal wastewater with 6-20 mg l-1 phosphorous increases the productivity of the crops and
when the concentration exceeds 20 mg l-1 the availability of copper, iron and zinc is reduced in
alkaline soils (WHO 2006). Wastewater normally contains low amounts of phosphorous, so its
use for irrigation is beneficial and does not negatively impact the environment. This is the case
even when wastewater effluents with high concentration of phosphorous are applied over long
periods of time although, because phosphorous builds up at the soil surface, it can affect surface
waters through soil erosion and runoff (WHO 2006). The concentration of Potassium across
different sampling point is shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Concentration ofPhosphate (PO4)at different sampling points
S. No. Sampling Points Phosphate (PO4) Mg/L WHO
Water Standards
1 TUNL 0.1 Up to 5 mg/LPhosphate is
permitted in drinking
water
2 NAL 0.14
3 TDNL 0.18
4 TUBI 0.26
5 BIR 0.04
6 TDBI 0.27
7 TUNI 0.09
8 NUN 0.24
9 TDNI 0.31
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Fig 5.2: Chart showing Concentration of Phosphate (PO4
-) at different sampling points
Phosphate concentration of Tons river in various sampling point fluctuated from 0.04-0.27 mg/l
(Fig 5.2). These findings are in accordance with Indian standard and WHO standards. High
concentration of these parameters had derived from anthropogenic sources like untreated
domestic sewage, agricultural watershed & storm water containing phosphorous and nitrogenous
compounds and sometimes increased nitrate content may also be caused by acid rain and exhaust
gases (Kido et al., 2009).
Potassium
Potassium is not an integral part of any major plant component but it does play a key role in a
vast array of physiological processes vital to plant growth, from protein synthesis to maintenance
of plant water balance. Potassium is a macro-nutrient that is present in high concentrations in
soils but is not bio-available since it is bound to other compounds. Generally, wastewater
contains low potassium concentrations insufficient to cover the plants theoretical demand, and
use of wastewater in agriculture does not normally cause negative environmental impacts
(Mikklesen and Camberato, 1995). The concentration of Potassium across different samplingpoint is shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: Concentration ofPotassium (K)at different sampling points
0.1
0.14
0.18
0.26
0.04
0.27
0.09
0.24
0.31
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI
Phosphate (PO4-) Mg/L
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